University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA GENDER DIFFERENCES IN ACCESS TO, AND USE OF, FARMLANDS: A CASE STUDY OF ABOKOBI IN THE GA EAST MUNICIPALITY By Joanna Abena Appiah (10506962) This Dissertation is submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of M.A. Development Studies Degree. JULY 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Joanna Abena Appiah, hereby declare that except for references to other people’s work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is the result of my own research carried out at the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER), University of Ghana under the supervision of Dr. Fred Mawenyo Dzanku. I further affirm that this dissertation has neither in whole nor in part been previously presented elsewhere for the award of another degree. ………………………….................... DATE…………………………………. APPIAH JOANNA ABENA (STUDENT) …………………………………….. DATE ………………………………… DR. FRED MAWUNYO DZANKU (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To the glory of God, a task is duly accomplished. I dedicate this work to my parents Dr. and Mrs Ernest Nimfah Appiah. Thank you for believing in me even when I had no hope in myself and for always being there for me. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost I am very grateful to God for taking me through what has been a very challenging academic exercise. Glory to His Holy Name. I wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Fred Mawenyno Dzanku for his enormous support and professional guidance for the completion of this work. Under his counseling, I have gained intellectual growth and owe a debt of gratitude to him. Thank you Dr. Fred Dzanku. I am very grateful to the chief of Abokobi, the officials of the Agricultural Department of the Ga- East Municipal Assembly especially Madam Praise and the farmers in Abokobi, for their patience, time and assistance during the collection of data for this study. A heartfelt appreciation also to ISSER, for giving me such a great opportunity to upgrade my knowledge and learn a lot, my course coordinator Dr. Simon Bawakyillenuo and also Mr Michael Kodom for all the encouragement and support. Finally, to all members of 2015 MA Development studies class, thank you for making this academic journey worthwhile. God richly bless u all. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Agriculture is the main pillar of Ghana’s development and the majority of food producers are women. However, women and men do not always have equal access to farmlands. Disparities in access and control over agricultural productive resources contribute to a high incidence of poverty especially for women. This study therefore used Abokobi in the Ga-East Municipality as a case to examine the gender difference in access to and use of farmland. The objectives of the study were to examine the gender differences, if any, in farm production characteristics; investigate the constraints women face in accessing farmlands; and to examine the gender differences in the economic wellbeing at the household level. The study employed a snow ball technique to select 150 farmers from Abokobi. Descriptive statistical tools, proportion test, t-test and a logit model were used to present the findings of the study. Contrary to what one might expect, the study found no statistically significant difference in farm production characteristics between men and women. With regards to their economic wellbeing, though men appeared to have higher per capita income and expenditure than females, the differences were not statistically significant. However, men had higher asset index than women. Based on the study, it appears efforts aimed at advocating for women’s right may be yielding some benefits. However, given that women are less empowered economically in terms of asset accumulation, more work needs to be done to remove the economic constraint and thereby further boost equity between men and women. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ................................................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................ v List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction and Background of Study ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 Statement of Problem ...................................................................................................................... 3 1.2 Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 4 1.2.1 Research Objectives .................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Justification of the Study ................................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Organization of the Dissertation ...................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................................... 7 2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 7 2.1 Overview of the African agriculture industry .................................................................................. 7 2.1 Women’s role in agricultural production ......................................................................................... 8 2.2 Constraints to access of farmlands .................................................................................................. 9 2.2.1 Lack of Access to Farmlands ..................................................................................................... 12 2.2.2 Lack of/Weak Access to Extension Services .............................................................................. 13 2.2.3 Access to Credit Facilities .......................................................................................................... 14 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.4Lack of Supportive Policies ........................................................................................................... 15 2.3 Security of land and land tenure.................................................................................................... 15 2.3.1 Security of Land Tenure and Poverty ........................................................................................ 16 2.3.2 Land Tenure Security and Agricultural Productivity ................................................................. 17 2.4 Gender and types of farm labour .................................................................................................. 18 2.5 Gender differences and farm production ...................................................................................... 19 2.6 Gender differences in economic wellbeing at the household level .............................................. 21 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 23 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................................... 23 3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 23 3.1 Conceptual framework ......................................................................................................................... 23 3.2.1 Study Design....................................................................................................................................... 24 3.2.2 Study population ................................................................................................................................ 25 3.2.3 Sample size and Sampling Method .................................................................................................... 25 3.2.4 Data collection procedure.................................................................................................................. 26 3.2.5 Data Management and Analysis .................................................................................................... 27 3.2.6 Hypothesis testing ......................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.7 Two sample t-test ..................................................................................................................... 28 3.2.8 Logistic regression ..................................................................................................................... 29 3.2.9 Proportion Test ......................................................................................................................... 30 Hypothesis to determine gender differences in participation in crop production, output and yield as well as farm practices were established using proportion test analysis. The “prtest” command in Stata was used. .............................................................................................................................................. 30 3.3 Profile of study area .............................................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 35 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .......................................................................................... 35 ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 35 4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents ............................................................................. 35 4.2 Gender differences in farm production characteristics ................................................................. 37 4.2.1 Gender differences in Farm size distribution ............................................................................ 37 4.2.2 Gender differences in crop production..................................................................................... 38 4.2.3 Gender differences in output and yield .................................................................................... 40 4.2.4 Gender differences in farm activities ........................................................................................ 42 4.2.5 Gender differences in farm input use ....................................................................................... 43 4.3 Constraints women face in accessing farmlands ........................................................................... 44 4.3.1 Land acquisition in Abokobi ...................................................................................................... 44 4.3.2 Gender differences in farming arrangement ............................................................................ 45 4.3.3 Determinants of the probability of farming on own land ......................................................... 46 4.3.4 Difficulty in acquiring farmland ................................................................................................. 48 4.4 Gender differences in economic wellbeing in the household level ............................................... 49 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................................. 51 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................................... 51 5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 51 5.1 Summary of key findings ................................................................................................................ 51 5.1.1 Gender differences in farm production characteristics in Abokobi .......................................... 52 5.1.2 Constraints women face in accessing farmlands ...................................................................... 53 5.1.3 Gender differences in economic wellbeing .............................................................................. 54 5.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 54 5.3 Recommendations .................................................................................................................... 55 iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................ 56 APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................................... 62 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................................. 62 List of Tables Table 4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents ..................................................... 36 Table 4.2 Farm size distribution ................................................................................................... 38 Table 4.3 Participation in crop production, by sex of respondent ................................................ 39 Table 4.4 Output and Yield ........................................................................................................... 41 Table 4.5 Farming activities ......................................................................................................... 42 Table 4.6 Farm input practices...................................................................................................... 43 Table 4.7 Gender differences in farming arrangement ................................................................. 45 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8 Determinant of the probability of farming on own land ............................................... 47 Table 4.9 Difficulty in acquiring farmland ................................................................................... 48 Table 4.10 Gender differences in economic wellbeing in the Household level ........................... 50 List of Figures Figure 3.1 Conceptual framework showing the factors affecting access to and use of Land. ...... 24 Figure 3.2 Map of the study area (Ga-East) .................................................................................. 34 Figure 4.2 Land acquisition…………………………………………………...…………………44 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh List of Abbreviations FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GEMA Ga East Municipal Assembly ISSER Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture WILDAF Women in Law and Development in Africa vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction and Background of Study Knowing about the needs and rights of women in agricultural production as well as giving the needed attention can bridge the gap of inequality between men and women in agricultural production (Agu, 2013). In the context of African development, access to land and other resources are key to basic livelihood and therefore a question of fundamental human rights. The dominance of agriculture in most African economies suggest the importance of land as a basic resource of development and a significant determinant of income earning power. Women constitute 95 per cent of those involved in agro processing and 85 per cent of those in food distribution (Women and smallholder agriculture report, 2010 & 2013). Women are the principal agricultural workers and food producers, thus, they are primarily responsible for ensuring food availability in the family. However, their central position in economic production, attaining food security goals and meeting family nutritional needs contrasts with the systematic discrimination they face in accessing and using the basic needed assets (Quaye, 2008). This is often reinforced by custom, convention, culture and law. Therefore, to ensure an active participation in realizing the role of women in economic growth potential, their needs (access to and control over land) in the agricultural sector must seriously be considered and met. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Agu (2013), no discussion of sustainable economic development is complete without the input of women, who in many places are the backbone of economic development, and in every place are the persons who must cope on a daily basis with the consequences of systems to establish women’s rightful places in the economic lives of their countries. He further reiterated that the shift towards democratization and the emphasis on sustainable economic development in recent years have provided opportunities for women to press claims they had not made before (Agu, 2013). Also, the Women and Smallholder Agriculture Report (2010 & 2013), clearly confirms the role of women in agriculture from the historical perspective using pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial experiences as land marks. The report explains that gender disparities in the agricultural sector were heightened by the introduction of a cash crop economy during colonial rule. During this period, the stage was set for men to play the central role in the production of cash crops for export whilst women on the other hand were relegated to the production of food crops. Due to the specific role of the latter in food production, many of them are now repositories of knowledge on cultivation, processing, and preservation of nutritious and locally adapted crop varieties. The above mentioned report again estimated that if women farmers had the same access to productive resources as their men counterparts, they could increase outputs on their farms by 20 to 30 percent, which could increase total agricultural output in Ghana by 4 percent, which in turn could reduce hunger by 17 percent. This in the long run, would improve family nutrition, food security, maternal and child health, promote environmental management and go a long way to minimize poverty levels. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, recent official population census carried out by the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) has established that increased population trends have resulted in an increased female representation of 50.5% in 2000 to 51.7% in 2013. Experts believe that economies will grow faster and will become less poor if gender-based inequality is substantially reduced or eliminated (Hopkins, 2014). 1.1 Statement of Problem Agu (2013) purport women are the most important actors in the food chain which begins from farm production, market and intra household distribution of food. They play a lead role in post- harvest activities such as shelling of grains, storage, processing and marketing. They are also becoming increasingly visible in farm tasks which traditionally have been designated as the preserves of males, thus breaking ground in typical male dominated areas such as land clearance and growth of cash crops. However, despite the central role of women in the agricultural sector of the country, they are comparatively known to have much more challenges than their male counterparts with regards to acquisition of land, access to agricultural extension services and credit, all of which combine to restrain their ability to increase their productivity and incomes (Agu, 2013). These challenges, thus become an important inroad into this research relating to gender. These include constraints women face in acquiring farmland, accessing extension services, their economic wellbeing at the household level, among others. It is at the backdrop of the above that this study seeks to assess gender differences in access and use of farm lands with focus on Abokobi, a farming community in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Research Questions Within the context of the background information and problem statement of the study, this research seeks to answer the following research questions to address the objectives;  Is farmland ownership gendered?  Are there any difficulties in acquiring farmland between men and women?  Are there gender differences in crop choice, production practice and yield output?  Are there any gender differences in the economic well-being at the household level? 1.2.1 Research Objectives The main aim of the study is to assess gender differences in access and use of farmland using Abokobi in the Ga East Municipality as a case. The specific objectives are:  To investigate the constraints women face, if any, in accessing farmlands in Abokobi.  To examine the gender differences, if any, in farm production characteristics.  To examine the gender differences in economic well-being at the household level. 1.3 Justification of the Study According to the Ga East Municipal profile (2014), Abokobi is a typical community where faming activities are the main source of income. It is a region marked for the production of a wide variety of food and cash crops. A clear division of labour exists between men, women and children on the 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farms. Women have become more involved in farming activities after independence due to changes in the division of labour. There is greater involvement of women in food crop and cash crop farming and also farming related trading activities than before. However, the profile mentions that this did not necessarily result in a betterment of their socio-economic position or an increased control over their farming activities since on the contrary, it has rather increased their workload and responsibilities (GEMA 2014). Differences are observed with regards to women and men’s access to and control over land in Ghana. These gender inequalities are largely ascribed to men’s dominance in decision-making processes, their dominance in leadership positions within the communities and households, the advantages accorded to them by local tradition, custom and the patrilineal inheritance system, men’s greater opportunities to acquire land, their relatively better financial position and the greater status ascribed to men by society (Benneh et al 1999). The study seeks to improve the understanding of gender-specific farm production constraints that exist in Abokobi. It is anticipated that such information could contribute to: (i) an enhanced decision making power of women in their efforts to obtain more secure access to land within the framework of existing legal, customary rights, regulations and practices, (ii) improved agricultural productivity, of especially women farmers and (iii) improved food security and economic well- being at the household level due to an increased security of land tenure. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study will also bring to light, the various contributions of women in the agricultural production, their needs and challenges so as to be given the needed assistance to function effectively (Gender and Agricultural Development Strategy, 2001). Finally, this study could also trigger new ideas for further studies for researchers or students. This means the findings of the research may serve as a source of literature to help advance the cause of knowledge. 1.4 Organization of the Dissertation The rest of the dissertation is organized as follows: Chapter two contains a review of relevant literature. Chapter three presents the researcher’s chosen methods and procedures adopted in collecting, analyzing and presentation of the data as well as profile of the study area. Chapter four Presents the findings of the study. The final chapter outlines the summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter provides an extensive literature review on gender differences in access to and control over land. It discusses women’s role in agricultural production, gender division of labour, security of land tenure system and poverty, security of land tenure systems and agricultural production, land reforms, land legislation in Ghana, changes in customary laws as a result of socio-economic change, importance of kinship with regard to property distribution. 2.1 Overview of the African agriculture industry Agriculture has been reported to play a very important role in both rural and national development especially in Africa. The economy of most African countries is dependent on Agriculture – the production and export of agro-products including cash crops, hence the importance of the industry. Recent studies have shown that more and more people, especially youths, are running away from agriculture, and this has become a problem which has led to a drop in the quantity of agro-products exported from African countries, thereby impacting their economies in negative ways (Agu, 2013; Arizpe, 2014; Hopkins, 2014). Furthermore, recent studies have shown that there is a gender disparity in production levels, indicating that farms managed by males are more productive, than those managed by females, and this is fast becoming a problem because in most African countries, women are taking over the Agricultural sector (Doss, 2014; Manfre & Rubin, 2013). A study conducted by Agu (2013) on women’s perspective on the application of ICT in Agricultural Sector 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in Nigeria argues that more women are now making a living from farming than in previous years, and that today, women are twice as likely to be involved in agricultural activities as men. In the past, the agriculture industry was dominated by men. Now that women are beginning to dominate the industry, there are some challenges that these women are facing, which their male counterparts either face on a lighter scale, or not at all (Agu, 2013; Peterman, Behrman, & Quisumbing, 2014). According to Agu (2013), these challenges include (i) lack of access to farmland; (ii) lack/weak access to extension services; (iii) access to credit facilities; and (iv) lack of supportive policies. 2.1 Women’s role in agricultural production In the context of African development, access to land and other resources are key to basic livelihood and therefore a question of fundamental human rights. The domination of agriculture in most African economies suggests the importance of land as a basic tool of development and a significant determinant of income earning power (Duncan, 2004). A World Bank study pointed out that women are at the core of the economies of Sub-Saharan Africa, comprising about 60% of the informal sector and providing about 70% of total agricultural labour (Blackden and Bhanu, 2013). The study continue to say that women are the principal agricultural workers and food producers and are primarily responsible for assuring food availability in the family. However, their central position in economic production, attaining food 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh security goals and meeting family nutritional needs contrasts with the systematic discrimination they face (often reinforced by custom, convention, culture and law) in access to and control over basic assets. Experts believe that economies will grow faster and countries will become less poor if gender-based inequality is substantially reduced or eliminated. Kotey and Tsikata (1998) have argued that discussions revolving around agricultural productivity are best explained through a land rights analysis using a social relation’s approach. The “gender perspective” approach used by the World Bank to analyze growth and poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa recognizes that women stand at the crossroads between production and reproduction, between economic activities and the care of human beings, and therefore between economic growth and human development. Such an approach takes account of existing discriminatory, unequal and inequitable (power) relationships and practices, and lays the basis for more sustainable development based on legal and social justice. It also provides room for a broader view of social groups. 2.2 Constraints to access of farmlands In the past, access to farmlands, especially in Ghana did not involve a lot of hassle and difficulty. However that is not the case in recent times. Many farmlands have now been sold out for other private and commercial uses, therefore making it difficult to get access to lands for the purpose of farming or agriculture. According to Chirisa (2010), this conversion of farmlands for a different purpose or use is one of the major constraints to the access of farmlands especially in African countries. Many studies have established that, the indigenous peri-urban dwellers whose 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh livelihoods depend on natural resources and agriculture, are the victims of increasing outward expansion of the city as they mostly lose their farmlands to non-agricultural uses (Twerefou, 2011). In effect the peripheral villages are adversely influenced by growing demand for natural resources which eventually leads to the displacement or decline in agricultural employment. Twerefou, (2011) stressed that urbanization is the main cause of the change in use of farmlands. As more and more people move from the rural areas to the cities, the city will have to expand to accommodate the inflow, and in so doing, farmlands that are closer to such urban areas are converted to residential areas and hotels and even places where businesses are located (Ogato et al., 2009). Farmers usually face difficulties in acquiring farmlands, and this is because of change in use of farmlands, and urbanization. This difficulty in accessing farmlands is even graver when female farmers are those seeking access to such lands (Twerefou, 2011). In many African cultures, women are secondary to men, and therefore for a woman to gain access to, or to own a property, she has to be married to a man, or at least acquire the property from her father (Eko, 2013). Due to the foregoing, African women gain access to land and the means to work it through marriage. As wives they acquire both right and obligation to cultivate it. They may also be expected to fulfil certain labour obligations, commonly existing in provision of food. In a context where labour is a key limiting factor of production, and where women can and do provide significant share of this especially in terms of household food provisioning, the obligation by men to acknowledge their wives’ contribution and to provide land for food is critical to the farming household enterprise. Women may be as, if not more, vulnerable to greater claims on their labour as they are to loss of land in the context of increased commercialization (Whitehead 1991, as cited by Eko, 2013). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another constraint to access of farmland by female farmers in Ghana is wealth. As more and more women are becoming educated and becoming more aware of their rights, and even pressing for the rights of other women, it has become easier for women to gain access to lands, and even own lands (Quaye, 2008; Twerefou, 2011). Where it is available, women can purchase lands and use them for whatever purpose that pleases them, including farming. However, female farmers especially from rural areas in most countries, including Ghana, lack the necessary funds for purchasing lands (Ayamga et al., 2015; Quaye, 2008). According to Quaye (2010), although it has become much easier for women to access loans from financial institutions, the requirement for an adequate collateral is still a major problem, and therefore it keeps a lot of women from credit/loans from formal sources such as microfinance institutions and banks. Therefore it is difficult for a woman who is not from a wealthy family, or wealthy herself to gain access to farmlands by purchasing such lands. One study that identified and summarized the major constraints with regards to farmland access is that of Aasoglenang et al (2013). According to them, access to farmland in most communities in Ghana remains traditional though there are variations in the traditional tenure system for different communities. Their study suggests that the factors that influence access to farmland may be summarized as: unavailability of land/shortage of land; lack of funds for purchase or rent of land/lack of purchasing power; right of inheritance; presence of conflicts and disputes; the use for the land (e.g. the type of crops the land could be used for); existence of efficient land rental and sales markets; the custom and tenure system of a locality; gender; residence status, among others. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 Lack of Access to Farmlands Women have less access to land and are constrained in land tenure and ownership because of the kind of culture that exists. A report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations stated that “the capacity of a household to make an appropriate land or tenure-related response to any shock depends on three conditions which are land access, security, and sustainability” (FAO, 1995, as cited by White, 2012). In Ghana however, access to farmland is plagued with a lot of challenges especially when it comes to female farmers. Ofori (1971), as cited in Osei-Akoto et al (2007) stated that farmers in Ghana prefer to own their farmlands so that they could manage it in the best possible way. However, many farmers in Ghana do not own the lands on which they farm. A study by Fiawatsror (2004) indicated that access to farmland is a major challenge for most farmers in Africa, Ghana inclusive. Women usually have very little or no access to land, which is very important in determining productivity and labour welfare. As indicated in Owusu et al (2007) and Yankson and Kala (2007), there is an increasing access to land among women in Ghana. Sustainability of this access and whether women have adequate control over the land after obtaining access is often the difficulty. This might only be true for wealthy and elite women since the rural poor illiterate woman still struggles to obtain land within the dictates of socio-cultural factors. In worst situations, rural women are even denied access to lands owned by their husbands after the death of their husbands. This is because a lot of these women do not know the basic rights they have over land and other properties that their deceased spouses may have left behind (Aasoglenang et al, 2013). They are 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unable to seek redress over such unfair treatments meted out to them sometimes not out of ignorance but due to the obnoxious cultural practice that fundamentally frowns upon women who stage claims over what rightly belongs to their deceased spouses and therefore theirs and their children’s by extension. Duncan et al (2004) also reveals that women have not played a traditional role in original land acquisition. The work further indicated that in primordial times, land was commonly obtained through conquest or appropriation under the leadership of a stool or lineage heads and that, women had little or no role to play in this process. On the contrary, a study by Aasoglenang et al (2013) revealed that apart from the two traditional institutions namely inheritance and marriage that offer women greater opportunity to have access to land, market oriented forces and capability issues such as purchasing of land and leasing arrangements tend to limit women in their bid to obtain and use land. This is because the ability of a woman to purchase land may be dependent among other things on her economic status. Also, her ability to access land by way of leasing arrangement may depend on procedures or processes involved in competition, bargaining, and negotiation (Afutu-Kotey et al, 2009). 2.2.2 Lack of/Weak Access to Extension Services In most African Countries, agricultural extension services, which are central to economic development programs, are non-existent, weak or unsatisfactory (Agu, 2013). Unfortunately, even where extension services are available, the content and mode of service delivery are often insensitive to the needs of female farmers (Hilda, 2000, as cited in Agu, 2013). It was observed that new technologies are usually introduced to help men, with the basic assumption that women 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh carry out only menial tasks such as weeding, thinning, and transplanting, and that the traditional tools they use, like hoes, are sufficient to enable them to step up and sustain productivity (Collier & Dercon, 2014; Ogato, Boon, & Subramani, 2009). This also has affected the women in farming, as it becomes difficult for them to access the extension services that they might need to increase their yields, and make their work easier. In Ghana particularly, studies show that women face challenges in accessing agricultural extension services. In a recent study conducted by (Ayamga et al, 2015) majority of women interviewed reported that they were not treated equally with their male counterparts when it comes to accessing extension services, including training on effective use of new technologies for better yields. 2.2.3 Access to Credit Facilities According to Agu (2013), women find it difficult to access to credits because they often have inadequate or no collateral. Furthermore, women are rarely owners of lands due to the land tenure system in place in most African countries. Therefore, women lack even the most common collateral used to access formal credit. Hence it is difficult for women in agriculture to raise funds to buy needed fertilizers, seeds and even to introduce new agricultural technologies (Doss, 2014). In Ghana, the situation is no different. However, there have been improvements in relation to access to credit facilities by farmers generally (Aasoglenang et al., 2013; Doss, 2006). With the increase in the number of Susu clubs and Microfinance institutions in the country, more and more 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farmers, including female farmers are getting easy access to credit facilities, but at higher interest rates compared to other more developed and advanced countries. Again, it is important to stress that even in the light of this new development, many female farmers in Ghana still have problems accessing loans because they have inadequate or no collateral which is a requirement for acquiring a loan in the country (Doss, 2006). 2.2.4Lack of Supportive Policies In Africa, women farmers are often depicted as an exploitable instrument and as such weak and ignorant (Agu, 2013). Traditions, culture and religion have also rendered women as second class citizens of which Ghana is no exception. Their lack of involvement in decision making and policy formulation has impeded development in the agricultural sector resulting in decision makers neglecting most of the key issues affecting women (Agu, 2013; Doss, 2014). As a result of this, women are now organizing themselves into groups and movements to press for their cause at all levels. 2.3 Security of land and land tenure Land tenure security refers to the ability of land owners and users to protect their rights to land. This is a simple definition that belies the complexity of the concept of rights. The rights to land could include one of more of the following sub-rights: “entry, extraction, management, exclusion, and sale” (ISSER, 2006a, p. 187). The particular combination of these rights that an individual or 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh group is entitled to may differ depending on the particular modes of access to land; that is, whether land is acquired through inheritance, free access, gifting, renting, sharecropping, borrowing, outright purchase, leasing or pledging. The question of security may also take different forms for different categories of people and land use. (ISSER, 2007). Irrespective of how land is acquired, what is important to induce investment is, according to Deininger (2003), that security of access should be credible. The factors that may influence security of farmland would include: title to land; right to bequeath; right to cultivate the land as long as desired/right to use the land for investment options; income/initial wealth endowment; educational attainment (Deininger, 2003; Smith, 2001 and Place et al., 1994). The factors that influence security of farmland may also include or link to those that influence access to farmland. Security of land tenure has been shown through research to have an effect on poverty and productivity of a farmer. In the next few paragraphs, the effect that security of land tenure has on productivity and poverty are discussed. 2.3.1 Security of Land Tenure and Poverty It is often assumed that security of land tenure will enable the rural poor to improve their livelihoods as well as increase their food supplies, raise rural employment and foster more sustainable agricultural practices (Ayamga et al, 2015). They further argue secured land rights are have significant positive impact on the alleviation of poverty, as it gives the owners greater control over their labour, a rationale to invest in the land and crops, greater access to extension services and more bargaining power . 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In their quest for food security, the poor often have little choice but to use their limited resources extensively. They are often forced to adopt survival strategies with short-time horizons due to factors such as their insecure land tenure rights, their limited access to financial services, their lack of access to information and lack of access to agricultural inputs (Ayamga, 2015). Although secure resource rights cannot guarantee sustainable land management, it can be a powerful incentive. Farmers with long-term access to land have a greater incentive to sustain the land and develop ways of preserving and regenerating it (Quisumbing et al., 1999, as cited by Brückner, 2012). Security of land tenure used to be guaranteed by the utilization of land. However, land use rights have been eroded due to external factors, such as population growth and agricultural commercialization (Ayamga, 2015). Fallow lands previously used by women and poor people to gather firewood, fruit, wild grain and fodder have been converted into farmlands and are no longer accessible to them. Women are often among the first to lose their land rights, as these are generally usufruct rights or borrowed rights (Arizpe, 2014; Hopkins, 2014). 2.3.2 Land Tenure Security and Agricultural Productivity A major theme in land tenure research is the relationship between the security of land tenure and agricultural productivity. Empirical evidence on the two remains scattered. On the one hand, researchers such as Agu (2013) and Ayamga (2015) indicate a direct link between insecure land rights and a lower agricultural productivity. This is ascribed to the farmers’ weak incentives for land maintenance and improvement, their lack of interest to invest in permanent crops, and their 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lack of collateral for credit which can be used to purchase improved inputs and fertilizers (Fong and Bhushan, 1996). On the other hand, research conducted by Migot-Adholla et al (1990) in Ghana, Kenya and Rwanda did not show a clear link between tenure insecurity and a low agricultural output. According to their observations, land titling was not a major factor influencing the agricultural productivity of farming households. Other factors such as the availability of credit, marketing opportunities, input supplies, extension services, health, education and infrastructure appeared to have a greater impact on agricultural productivity. Similarly, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture in Ghana, acknowledges the fact that the agricultural productivity of women farmers is hampered in Ghana by their insecure access to land as well as their limited access to financial services, their limited access to labour, the lack of appropriate technologies, skewed extension services delivery, heavy workload resulting in time constraints and women’s lack of involvement in decision making (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2001). 2.4 Gender and types of farm labour A clear division of type of labour according to sex and age exists in Ghanaian farming communities in terms of tasks performed and their participation in different farming activities. Women are more involved in farming activities such as planting, weeding, watering, harvesting, the transportation 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of farm produce, agro-processing and the marketing of small amounts of farm produce, whereas men are more involved in the initial clearing of the land, the tilling of the soils and the marketing of larger amounts of farm produce especially at farm gate level (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2011). Ghanaian women are obliged, by tradition, to assist their husbands in their farming activities. These activities are often carried out in addition to their own farming activities, which are either performed on their husbands’ plots or on separate plots of land that have been allocated to them. This tradition further increases the workload of women and restricts the amount of time that they are able to spend on their own farming activities. (Twerefou 2011). 2.5 Gender differences and farm production Are there differences in farm production or yield between farms managed or owned by females, compared with those managed or owned by their male counterparts? According to Eko (2013), gender difference in farm production or yield can only be determined in the case where the two farms being compared are much alike in terms of soil fertility, land size, and even the type of crop. Several studies have been carried out to investigate and compare the production levels and efficiency of farm production between farms owned or managed by women, and those owned or managed by men. Majority of these studies which were carried out on African countries, showed that farms managed by men were more productive (with higher yields), than those managed by 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh women (Twerefou 2011). Some of the studies pointed out that the farms managed by women did not yield as much as farms managed by men did, and that the reason was differences in technical efficiency, labour productivity, and differences in skill or knowledge (Ogato, Boon and Subramani, 2009). One of these studies, carried out by Odendo et al (2010) have shown that a few of the women lacked the skill needed to increase yield and effectively manage a farm compared to their male counterparts. Another factor that has been shown to bring about differences in farm production between male and female managed farms is the fact that the males have a relatively easier access to farm machineries (such as tractors, etc.), fertilizers, and agro-loans than the female farmer does. Furthermore, studies from Ghana also indicate that farms managed by males are more productive compared to female managed farms, and this difference is attributed to the fact that male managers have easy access to credit facilities, agrochemicals, and new technologies compared to the female managers (Aasoglenang et al., 2013). Also the fact that most of the male farmers in Ghana own their farmlands while most of the female farmers do not own the lands on which they farm is another reason highlighted by Twerefou (2011). The ownership of farmlands makes access to credit easier as such lands could be used as collateral. Twerefou (2011) also discovered that farmers who owned their farmlands practised shifting cultivation, whereas farmers who do not own their farmlands do not, because of the fear that a land left fallow could be taken up by someone else since land tenure security is weak. For these reasons, male managed farms tend to be more productive than female managed farms. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Gender differences in economic wellbeing at the household level There are many indications that there is a gender disparity at the household level with regards to economic wellbeing, especially when it comes to farmers. Studies such as Brückner (2012); Hounkonnou et al (2012); Quisumbing et al (2014) have shown that asset ownership has a bearing on economic wellbeing of the farmer. Since many studies on gender and agriculture agree that women own less properties/assets compared to their male counterparts, it is safe to conclude that male farmers enjoy a higher level of economic wellbeing compared to female farmers. Manfre (2014) studied the ownership of assets by male and female farmers from 177 households, and categorized assets into animal assets; domestic assets; production assets; and transport assets. Their study showed that most of the lands and other assets within majority of the households were owned by the men, while in some cases, assets were held or owned jointly by both sexes. Only in very few households were the women owning some of the domestic assets. Also the study showed that in cases where assets were jointly owned, the male counterpart held more portions of the assets than the females. Furthermore, Quaye (2010) pointed out in their study that in households were the woman owns or manages a farm, credits are given to the man of the house, simply because the “men are considered as the bread winners, property owners, and decision makers”. Therefore the men control the assets even in cases where the asset belongs to the woman of the house. Therefore there is a need for a second look at customary laws which are prevalent in Africa, and also the ownership rights of women in Africa where Ghana is also inclusive. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In conclusion, a lot of studies have shown that differences exist in men’s and women’s access to and control over land due to variations in demographic, social, economic, cultural, ethnic and historic developments within the communities (Duncan, 2004). Men’s and women’s access to and control over land are affected by factors such as: gender, land ownership, the patrilineal inheritance system, local traditions and customs, decision-making powers, perceptions, marital status, land disputes, demographic developments, resource position of the individual, farming systems and agricultural commercialization (Duncan and Brants, 2000). Other factors such as knowledge of land legislations and education are expected to have a positive impact on men’s and women’s access to and control over land. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This section is divided into three main sub-sections. The first presents the conceptual framework for the study based on the literature review from the preceding chapter. The second sub-section covers the methods and procedures used for data collection and analysis. The final sub-section presents the profile of the study area. 3.1 Conceptual framework The conceptual framework to assess the linkages between the variables that influence the access and use of farmlands was adapted from Duncan and Brants (2000) with modifications and inputs to suit the current study. The study conceptualizes that access to and use of farmland is influenced by certain factors; which range from individual demographic characteristics (such as age, gender, and marital status, education and income status) to broader family and societal factors. These broad factors that influence access to and use of farmlands include the local traditions and norms/customs, farming system, land dispute and perceptions of the people. The interplay of all these factors will in effect affect whether or not a person (male or female) will gain access to a piece of land as well as the quantity he/she is likely to possess. The access and size of land that he/she controls will also have effect on the person’s production and productivity 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which will also impact on the living standards of the household and the community as a whole. This is presented in Figure 3.1: Figure 3.1 Conceptual Framework Showing the Factors affecting access to and use of Land. IInnddiivviiduall D Deemmooggrraaphiic factorss Productivity Local traditions and Norms/Customs Access and use of farmlands A vailability Of land Economic well being Farming systems Availability of funds Source: Author’s own construct based on Duncan and Brants (2000) 3.2.1 Study Design Within the scope of this study, the researcher adopted both quantitative and qualitative research methods to gather data. In the quantitative sense, a survey was conducted to administer semi- 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh structured questionnaire to both male and female farmers. In the qualitative sense, an in-depth interview was conducted with the traditional leaders of Abokobi to gain an in-depth understanding of the prevailing traditional norms and customs on access to and control of, and use of farmlands as well as an informal interview with the farmers for further clarification. The researcher acknowledged that the survey method alone would leave some vital information that could enable a holistic understanding of how people get access to farmlands. But with a blend of the two methodologies, all the vital and necessary information needed to fully comprehend the issues surrounding access to, control and use of farmlands can be covered. 3.2.2 Study population The target population in this study was farmers in Abokobi. There are many category of farmers in Ghana namely livestock farmers, poultry farmers, cattle farmers, horticultural famers and food crop farmers among many others who all in one way or the other make use of land. The study was however restricted to only food crop farmers. This category of farmers required a small to medium size of land. Abokobi is a typical food crop farming area and hence, given the time frame within which this research was to be conducted, it was limited to only food crop farmers. 3.2.3 Sample size and Sampling Method The preliminary investigations prior to the design of the research showed that the Agricultural Department of Ga East Municipal Assembly had four hundred names of farmers in Abokobi in their data base. However, this size of population was very difficult to find in the community since there was no organized association of farmers in the area. Thus, it became very difficult if not 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh impossible to mathematically work out the representative sample of the population. The researcher therefore decided to use a sample of 150. In order to achieve this desired sample, method a non- probability sampling method known as snowball sampling was adopted. According to Katz (2006), “snowball sampling is a special non-probability method for developing a research sample where existing study subjects recruit future subjects from among their acquaintances”. He further explained that snowball sampling technique is mostly used in situations where the population is hidden, as in the case of this research. Thus, where it is difficult to construct a sampling frame, snowballing is used, even though it contains many biases. Using snowball sampling method, the researcher moved through the community and asked of any known farmer. Once the first farmer was identified, the links he/she had with the other farmers were exploited. This process was repeated until the entire 150 farmers had been covered. For the qualitative interview, the chief of the community was purposively selected for the interview since he is the traditional leader of the community as well as the chief custodian of the lands in the community. Also an official from Agricultural department of the municipal assembly was purposively selected to interview in the absence of the head himself. 3.2.4 Data collection procedure Due to the time consuming nature of the sampling method used, the researcher employed two additional research assistants to aid in the data collection. They were trained to fully comprehend the questionnaire before going to field. The community was divided into two using the main road passing through the community. The research assistants took north side whilst the researcher took 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh southern side. This was to make sure that the sampled respondents were not selected from only one side of the community which also helped minimize the level of bias in the selection process. In selecting the respondents for the study, the researchers walked through the community asking around for any farmer. When the first farmer was identified, he was interviewed after which he directed us to another farmer living around. The next farmer was located and interviewed, after which he also aided in identifying the next known farmer. This process was repeated till the required sample size was obtained. During the questionnaire administration, the researchers asked the questions in both English or local dialect, depending on the respondents choice. For the in-depth interview, stakeholders were consulted and given a copy of an introduction letter from ISSER, which has been endorsed by the Assembly. During the interview, permission was sought to record the conversation in order to make sure that no important information was lost. 3.2.5 Data Management and Analysis After collecting the data from the field, coding was done and entered in a Stata software for analysis. The researcher basically employed a descriptive statistical method such as tables and frequencies to present the findings from the survey. Cross-tabulation analysis was used to determine and help create a picture of interrelationship between two variables. Proportion test, t- test and logit regression were also employed in some of the analysis. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.6 Hypothesis testing The statistical test based on which inference was drawn from the data collected during the study were two sample t- test, the logit regression and proportion test. 3.2.7 Two sample t-test The first level of the analysis was to establish whether there is any difference in farm size distribution as well as outputs and yields across the two gender groups and to identify if there is any statistically significant difference among them using the two sample t-test. The use of this method is underlined by the fact that the data collected on farm size distribution are continuous variables. The model for this test is as below: ?̅? −?̅? 𝑡 = 1 2 ------- (1) √𝑆21 ⁄𝑁1+𝑆 2 2 ⁄𝑁2 Where: 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are sample sizes. ?̅?1 And ?̅?2 are sample means. 𝑆21 And 𝑆 2 2 are the sample variances. The null and alternative hypotheses are stated as: H0: There is no statistically significant difference in the size of farmland men and women use. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H1: There is a statistically significant difference in the size of farmland men and women use. H0: There is no statistically significant difference in yield for men and women. H1: There is a statistically significant difference in yield for men and women. Where: H0 = Null Hypothesis H1 = Alternative hypothesis The Null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis if the p-value calculated is greater than or equal to the given degree of freedom at 5% level of significance. This implies that if the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, then we fail to accept null hypothesis is accepted. 3.2.8 Logistic regression This model was used to determine whether gender differences exist in the access to farmland. In modelling the gender differences in ownership of farmland, the logit model was used: This is represented in equation (2): 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑦1/1 − 𝑦1) = 𝛼 + 𝛽𝑥𝑖 + 𝑢𝑖 ---------- (2) Where y=1 if respondents own farmland and zero (0) otherwise,  denotes the intercept parameter, xi denotes the explanatory variables,  denotes the coefficients to be estimated, 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which is interpreted as the log odds of respondents ownership of farmlands and 𝑢𝑖 is the error term. From equation (1), the estimated model is specified as; 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑦1/1 − 𝑦1) = 𝛽1 + 𝛽2𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 + 𝛽3𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝛽4ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝛽5𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝛽6𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝛽7𝑓𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 + 𝛽8𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑏𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 + 𝛽9𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 + 𝑢𝑖 Where 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 represents sex of respondent (equals 1 if female, 0 otherwise), ℎℎ𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 represents household size of respondents, 𝑓𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 is farm size of respondents, 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑏𝑦𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛 is a dummy that takes the value of 1 if respondent belongs to the presbyterian denomination, and 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 denotes total number of assets owned. The main hypothesis tested using the logistic model relates to 2 . The null hypothesis is that the probability of farming on own land does not differ between men and women. That is 2 = 0. The alternative hypothesis is that2  0 . 3.2.9 Proportion Test Hypothesis to determine gender differences in participation in crop production, output and yield as well as farm practices were established using proportion test analysis. The “prtest” command in Stata was used. The null and alternative hypotheses are stated as: 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H0: There is no statistically significant gender difference in participation in crop production. H1: There is a statistically significant gender difference in participation in crop production. H0: There is no statistically significant difference in farm input practices across gender. H1: There is a statistically significant difference in farm input practices across gender. Where: H0 = Null Hypothesis H1 = Alternative hypothesis The Null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative hypothesis if the p-value calculated is greater than or equal to the given degree of freedom at 5% level of significance. This implies that if the p-value is less than or equal to 0.05, then we fail to accept null hypothesis is accepted. 3.3 Profile of study area This section presents some of the characteristics of the district as it appears in the Ga-East municipal profile. Understanding the nature and characteristics of the district, especially the economic activities of the area and unemployment in Abokobi will help appreciate the need for much effort in evenly distributing the farmlands to all who needs it to improve the living standards regardless of sex. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ga East Municipal Assembly (GEMA) is one of the 16 districts in the Greater Accra region. It was established in 2004 after the passing of the Legislative Instrument (LI) 2036. It was part of the Ga District Assembly. The district is located at the northern part of Greater Accra Region and covers a total land area of about 85sq km. There are about 52 settlements in the district with Abokobi, as its capital. The community was established by the Basel Missionary which is now known as the Presbyterian Church. Though politically headed by the municipal chief executive, the municipality at the community level is ruled by a traditional leader who is chosen from Presbyterian Church and two zonal councils, Abokobi and Dome Zonal councils. Land in the Municipality is owned by chiefs, clan or family heads who hold them in trust for their subjects. However, land could also be acquired through direct purchase from the Presbyterian Church (GEMA 2014). It could also be acquired through rental, leasehold and share cropping. The GEMA has an estimated population of about 450,200 125,765as at 2013 with 51% males and 49% female and growing at an inter-censual rate of about 4.2% mainly as a result of migration inflows. As basic social amenities are regarded as necessities, the municipality can boast of 17 health facilities with 14 being privately owned. The municipality also has 234 private and 67 public schools. (GEMA 2014) Geographically, the municipality falls within the coastal savannah agro –ecological zone and can generally, be termed as an urban municipality since 82% of the populace reside in the urban and 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh peri-urban areas with only 18% inhabiting the rural areas (GEMA 2014). Farming is the major economic activity for majority of the economically active population with more than 70% deriving their source of livelihood from agriculture. Land in Abokobi is usually fertile for crops such as maize, pepper, cassava, tomato, plantain, potato, okro, cabbage, carrots amongst many others and as such these crops are mainly cultivated. Most of the farmers usually practice mixed cropping on their farms as well as rearing of livestock to increase source of income (DFA-MOFA, Abokobi 2010). Though this region is known to be demarcated for agricultural purposes, due to the increasing developmental activities in the area, many of the farmlands have been converted into construction of buildings and the rate of conversion keeps increasing daily. This means that those whose livelihood depend on agriculture stand a risk of going out of business in the near future if care is not taken to protect them. This will go a long way to cause shortage of farm produce, an increasing risk of poverty due to joblessness and also social vices in the community. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.2 Map of the study area (Ga-East) Source: Ga-East Municipal Assembly, 2014 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 4.0 Introduction This chapter presents the results and analytical interpretation of field data from the study area. The analysis has been done based on the responses gathered from questionnaire administered to respondents on the field. 4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents A total of 150 respondents (farmers) were interviewed from Abokobi in the Ga East Municipality. Table 4.1 presents a description of the demographic characteristics of the respondents. The total proportion of farmers who stated farming as their primary occupation was 95%. Female farmer proportion was a little higher (95%) than the males (94%). Mean age of the respondents was 48 years. There was no statistically significant difference between men and women (p-value = 0.792). Concerning education, 17% of all respondents did not have any form of formal education and there was a statistically significant difference between the proportions of male farmers with no education as compared with the female farmers (p-value = 0.00). There was also a significant gender difference in the proportion of farmers who had above basic education. Proportion of males was higher (24%) than the females (2%) and this difference was statistically significant at 1% (p-value = 0.002). Thus on a whole, a large proportion of the respondents (farmers) had basic education. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regards to religion, the records in the district profile shows that Christianity is the dominant religion and within the district capital, majority of them are Presbyterians. Thus Presbyterian denomination was singled out while the other denominations were put together. From the results, 28% of the respondents were Presbyterians with females being proportionately higher than the males. More than half of the respondents (58%) belonged to other Christian denominations with proportion of male respondents being higher (59%) than the females (56%). None of the gender difference across the various religious groups was statistically significant. The average household size was about 6. There was no statistically significant gender difference in terms of household size. Table 4.1 Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents Overall Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Proportion with farming as main occupation 0.95 0.94 0.95 0.15 0.879 Age (in years) 48.22 48.39 47.78 0.26 0.792 Proportion of respondents with: No education 0.17 0.10 0.34 3.52 0.000 Up to basic education 0.65 0.66 0.63 0.30 0.762 Above basic education 0.18 0.24 0.02 3.04 0.002 Religions denomination proportions: Presbyterian 0.28 0.25 0.37 1.44 0.151 Other Christian 0.58 0.59 0.56 0.29 0.772 Other religions 0.14 0.17 0.07 1.45 0.148 Household size 5.93 6.17 5.32 1.56 0.121 Source: field data, July 2015 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Gender differences in farm production characteristics The first objective was to examine gender differences, if any, in farm production characteristics. The indicators used for measuring farm production characteristics were farm size, farming activities (mixed cropping / mono cropping), input practices (clearing of farm land / sewing / harvesting / storage / marketing of produce) and farm output. The results of each of these analyses are presented in table 4.2. 4.2.1 Gender differences in Farm size distribution The analysis of the farm size shows that the minimum farm size was about one-quarter of an acre while the maximum was 25 acres. Across the gender groups, the minimum acres of females (half an acre) was higher than the male respondents (one-quarter of an acre). However, concerning maximum acreage, male farmers are able to farm relatively large acres of land than the female farmers. The maximum farm size of male farmers (25 acres) was more than twice the size of female farmers (11 acres). The average farmer is able to farm almost 3 acres of land. Contrary to expectation, there was no statistically significant difference between the mean farm size of males and that of females (p-value = 0.245). The median farm size for male farmers was 3 acres, higher than that of females (2 acres) and the difference statistically significant at the 1% level. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2 Farm size distribution by gender Sex of respondent Overall Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Farm size distribution Minimum 0.25 0.25 0.50 n.a n.a Maximum 25.0 25.0 10.5 n.a n.a Mean 2.92 3.07 2.52 1.16 0.245 Median 2.50 3.00 2.00 3.99 0.000 Source: field data, July 2015 4.2.2 Gender differences in crop production Existing literature suggests that women are more involved in food crop production whereas men are more involved in cash crop production (Benneh et al 1995). In this sub-section, participation in crop production is compared between men and women. For pepper, the overall participation was 66%. A higher proportion of female farmers cultivated pepper (71%) than males (64%). However, there was no statistically significant difference (p-value = 0.45). There was also no statistically significant difference in cultivation of tomato (p-value = 0.75) though the proportion of females was slightly higher than males. Proportion of females farming maize (80%) was higher than males (77%) but there was no statistically significant 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh difference (p-value 0.65). Also, the proportion of females farming cassava though higher compared with that of males was not statistically significant at a 5% level (p-value = 0.22). On the other hand, the proportion of males into cash crops production (cabbage, potatoes, yam, and plantain) were higher than females. However, the gender difference in each of the crop was not statistically significant at a 5% level. The crops produced in large quantities, were maize (78%), cassava (78%) and pepper (66%). A large proportion of females produced pepper, tomatoes, maize and cassava as compared with male farmers who cultivated more of cabbage, potatoes, yam and plantain although there was no statistically significant difference. Table 4.3 Participation in crop production, by sex of respondent (proportions) Sex of respondent Overall Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Crops Pepper 0.66 0.64 0.71 0.75 0.45 Tomato 0.47 0.46 0.49 0.32 0.75 Cabbage 0.24 0.26 0.17 1.22 0.22 Maize 0.78 0.77 0.80 0.45 0.65 Potatoes 0.17 0.18 0.14 0.54 0.59 Yam 0.20 0.23 0.12 1.47 0.14 Cassava 0.78 0.76 0.85 1.23 0.22 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plantain 0.44 0.47 0.39 0.85 0.39 Source: field data, July 2015 4.2.3 Gender differences in output and yield The analysis in the previous section shows that the three most important crops produced by respondents were maize, cassava, and pepper. Analysis of the mean output in Table 4.4 shows there was no statically significance difference at a 5% level though on the average, males produced more of all the three crops than females. For the median output, there was also no statistically significant gender difference for maize (p- value =0.645) though female farmers had an output (800 bags) as compared with the male farmers (700 bags). Female farmers had a higher median output for cassava than the males and the difference was statistically significant at 5% (p-value = 0.031). There was no significant gender difference in output for pepper even though the male farmers on the average had higher median output (272) than females (96). For mean yields, there was no significant gender difference across the three crops at a 5% level though mean yield of males was higher than females for all three crops. However, for median yield, there was a statistically significant gender difference for pepper (p-value= 0.033) but not maize and cassava. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Results from Table 4.4 mostly contradicts existing literature which explains that women lacked the skills needed to increase yield and effectively manage a farm compared to their male counterparts (Odendo et al 2010). Table 4.4 Output and yield by gender of respondents Sex of respondent Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Mean output (kg) Maize 1,009 950 0.25 0.800 Cassava 3,094 2,528 0.74 0.463 Pepper 1,772 115 0.88 0.383 Median output (kg) Maize 700 800 0.46 0.645 Cassava 1,820 2,730 2.18 0.031 Pepper 272 96 1.39 0.169 Mean yield (kg/acre) Maize 1,000 938 0.37 0.705 Cassava 3,051 2,032 1.60 0.112 Pepper 1,188 82 0.88 0.382 Median yield (kg/acre) 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Maize 800 800 0.00 1.00 Cassava 2,062 1,820 0.61 0.546 Pepper 232 24 2.19 0.033 Source: field data, July 2015 4.2.4 Gender differences in farm activities There are varied activities that normally go into farm production, beginning from clearing of farmland to marketing of farm produce. This study also sought to examine the proportion of the various gender groups who normally play a major role with regards to each of the activities. The results presented in Table 4.5 shows no statistically significant difference across gender at a 5% level. Table 4.5 Farming activities Sex of Respondent Activities Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Clearing 0.68 0.63 0.63 0.530 Sowing 0.19 0.12 1.02 0.308 Harvesting 0.16 0.07 1.45 0.148 Marketing of Produce 0.02 0.02 0.11 0.915 Source: field data, July 2015 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.5 Gender differences in farm input use Results presented in the Table 4.6 shows that there is no statistically significant gender difference in any input use at 5% level. Also, there is no gender difference at the 5% level which is contrary to existing literature which suggests that where extension services are available, the content and mode of service delivery are often insensitive to the needs of female farmers (Agu, 2013) Table 4.6 Farm input practices by gender of respondents Sex of Respondent Inputs Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Tractor 0.08 0.17 1.56 0.119 Seeds 0.84 0.93 1.33 0.184 Fertilizer 0.70 0.78 1.01 0.312 Weedicide 0.77 0.85 1.12 0.263 Pesticide 0.84 0.95 1.76 0.079 Labourers 0.72 0.82 1.32 0.186 Extension services 0.77 0.76 0.05 0.895 Source: field data, July 2015 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Constraints women face in accessing farmlands 4.3.1 Land acquisition in Abokobi The survey sought to investigate people's access to land and tenure systems. Analysis from the administered questionnaires confirms responses given during an informal in-depth interviews with some respondents and land stakeholders in Abokobi. Renting of land is the most popular means of gaining access to farmland (62%). Other means however are through purchasing, acquisition from the Presbyterian Church, inheritance, lineage, gift and acquisition by spouse. Proportionately, more females acquired farmland through the Presbyterian Church (48.7%) than male respondents (27.4%) as seen in figure 4.2 Figure 4.2 Land acquisition 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Acquired Inheritance Acquisition Lineage Purchase Gift Renting from by spouse church Male 27.4 31.1 6.6 32.1 35.9 12.3 66.0 Female 48.7 30.8 5.1 28.2 41.0 2.6 51.3 Overall 33.1 31.0 6.2 31.0 37.2 9.7 62.1 Means of Acquiring Land Source: field data, July 2015 44 percentage of Respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2 Gender differences in farming arrangement Results presented in table 4.5 shows a high proportion of farmers farming on their own or on rented lands. At level 5%, there was no statistically significant gender difference in farmland ownership though proportion of males who farm on their own lands (45%) was higher than females. For rented land, the proportion of females (41%) was higher than males (37%) but again, the difference was not significant (p-value=0.592). For those who use other farming arrangement methods such as shared cropping, there was no statistically significant difference between the gender respondents (p-value=0.618). This contradicts some literature; example, that women have less access to their own land (Twerefou 2011). Table 4.7 Gender differences in farming arrangement (proportions) Sex of respondent Overall Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Types of ownership Own land 0.64 0.45 0.37 0.92 0.356 Rented 0.57 0.37 0.41 0.54 0.592 Other 0.29 0.18 0.22 0.50 0.618 Source: field data, July 2015 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.3 Determinants of the probability of farming on own land The results of the logit analysis is presented in Table 4.6.The estimate of primary interest is the gender coefficient (i.e. female). The negative sign shows that females are less likely than males to farm on their own lands. However, this is not statistically significant. The only variables that significantly correlate with the likelihood of farming on own land are attaining up to basic level education (compared with no education) and being affiliated to the Presbyterian church. Compared with farmers who have never attended school, having up to basic level education, decreases the average probability of farming on own land by about 25% ceteris paribus. The statistical significance of the church dummy is not surprising. This could be because the Presbyterian church are the custodians of lands making it much easier to have access to land once known as part of the denomination. This was statistically significant at 1% (p-value = 0.000). Indeed, the estimated probability of farming on own land is 0.78 if one is a Presbyterian, but 0.55 if one is not. Thus, the estimated probability of farming on own land is 22% points higher than non-Presbyterians. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8 Determinant of the probability of farming on Own Land VARIABLES Coefficient SE AME Sex dummy (=1 if female) -0.481 0.463 -0.102 Age 0.019 0.017 0.004 Household size -0.033 0.060 -0.007 Level of education (reference is no education) Up to basic level -1.260** 0.614 -0.254 Higher than basic level -0.585 0.784 -0.122 Main employment is farming 0.256 0.442 0.054 Total farm size 0.020 0.075 0.004 Church affiliation dummy (=1 if Presbyterian) 1.148*** 0.427 0.230 Total number of assets owned 0.003 0.091 0.001 Intercept 0.322 1.155 Observations 150 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pseudo R2 0.090 Wald chi-squared statistic 17.17 p-value 0.046 Log-likelihood value -90.65 Source: field data, July 2015 Note: *** represents statistical significance at 1% level ** represents statistical significance at 5% level AME denotes Average Marginal Effect 4.3.4 Difficulty in acquiring farmland Literature suggests that it was usually very difficult for women to have access to farmlands; they are constrained in land tenure and ownership because of the kind of culture that exists (White, 2012). However, this was not the exact case in Abokobi. From an informal in-depth interview with respondents, majority of them indicated that customs did not actually prevent women or make it difficult for them to acquire farmland. The main factors that prevents women from gaining access to land, were lack of funds to purchase or rent land, shortage of land as well as disputes regarding right of inheritance. Cumulatively, from table 4.6, 91.8% of respondents revealed it was easy for men to acquire land for farming whilst 8.2% indicated it was difficult for men. Similarly, cumulatively, while about 89.7% of the respondents indicated it was easy for women to acquire farmland 10.3% said it was difficult. Table 4.9 Difficulty in acquiring farmland 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Men Women Level of ease or difficulty N % N % Very easy 72 49.3 60 41.1 Easy 62 42.5 71 48.6 Difficult 11 7.5 14 9.6 Very difficult 1 0.7 1 0.7 Total 147 100 147 100 Source: field data, July 2015 4.4 Gender differences in economic wellbeing in the household level Table 4.7 shows that on the average, farmers per capita income was GH¢624. The mean per capita income of males farmers (GH¢626) was higher than female farmers (GH¢618). The difference was not statistically significant (p-value = 0.948). Gender difference in median income was also not statistically significant (p-value = 0.744). In terms of per capita expenditure, the results again show no significant gender difference. However, there was a significant gender difference in asset acquisition. With a mean physical asset index of 1.60, the asset index of male farmers was significantly higher than female farmers. This difference was statistically significant at 5%. Similarly, with a median asset index of 1.04, males had a higher median index of 1.39. This difference was statistically significant at 5%. The average total number of assets was also statistically significant at 5%. This meant male farmers were better off than the female farmers and were able to acquire more wealth than the female farmers. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.10 Gender differences in economic wellbeing in the household level Sex of respondent Overall Male Female |t-statistic| p-value Per capita income (GHȻ) Mean 624 626 618 0.06 0.948 Median 442 433 458 0.33 0.744 Per capita expenditure (GHȻ) Mean 1,544 1,509 1,635 0.72 0.475 Median 1,385 1,390 1,290 0.71 0.481 Total number of physical assets Mean 3.81 4.08 3.10 3.70 0.008 Median 4.00 4.00 3.00 2.31 0.022 Physical asset index 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mean 1.60 1.82 1.02 2.75 0.007 Median 1.04 1.39 0.59 2.66 0.009 Source: Field data, 2015 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.0 Introduction This study sought to examine the gender differential in access and use of farmland in the Ga-East Municipality, with specific emphasis on Abokobi, which is the district capital. The study adopted a quantitative research methodology where a survey was conducted to administer structured questionnaire to 150 farmers (both men and women). The farmers were selected using a snowballing sampling method since there was no sampling frame. Descriptive statistical tools such as cross-tabs and frequencies were used in the presentation of the data. Statistical analysis such as two sample t-test, proportion test and a logit model was also used to examine the factors that influence the likelihood of farming on own land. This section presents the summary of the key findings under the various objectives that the study sought to achieve. 5.1 Summary of key findings The study sought to achieve the following objectives: (1) Examine the gender differences if any in farm production characteristics in Abokobi; (2) to investigate the constraints women face in 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accessing farmlands; (3) to examine the gender differences of their economic wellbeing at the household level. 5.1.1 Gender differences in farm production characteristics in Abokobi Under this objective, the study examined the gender difference in the farm size, crop choice, inputs, practices and output. Though there were many crops grown by farmers in the area, the commonest among them were maize, cassava and pepper. On the size of the farm, the results show no statistically significant difference in average farm size. There was however a significant gender difference in the median farm size farmers, of which that of males (3.0 acres) was higher than females (2.0 acres). In terms of participation in crop production, the results show no gender differences, contrary to what the literature review suggests. Concerning farm practices, the study examined the gender difference between the four main farm practices namely clearing, sowing, harvesting, and marketing of produce. The results provided no evidence of gender differences. On inputs, the study examined whether there was gendered differences in the use of the following farm inputs: tractor, seeds, fertilizer, weedicide, pesticide, labourers, and extension services. The analysis showed no significant gender difference with regards to these farms inputs. This was also contrary to what the literature review suggests. On output, there was no significant gender difference in the mean output of males and females with regards to three common crops even though the mean output of male farmers a higher than the females across all the crops (maize, cassava and pepper). The assessment of the median output showed that there was a significant gender difference in the median output for cassava but not for maize and pepper. The median 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh output of female farmers was significantly higher than the males for cassava. In terms of yield, the results showed that there was no significant gender difference in the average yield across all the three crops, even though the average yield of male farmers appeared higher than the female farmers. For the median yield, there was a significant gender difference in the median yield from pepper production but not for maize and cassava. The median yield of male farmers from pepper production was higher than the females. 5.1.2 Constraints women face in accessing farmlands Certain cultural practices in society sometimes constraints women from freely getting access to land. The results show that land can be acquired in Abokobi through renting, purchase, from the church, through inheritance, lineage, or by spouse. The three common ways women could acquire lands were through lineage, renting, and acquired from church but this does not differ from the way men also acquire lands. Women in Abokobi have a challenge in accessing land not because of traditions or customs but mainly because of lack of funds and shortage of lands. The results further showed that majority of farmers cultivate crops on their own land. The proportion of men who cultivate on their own land was not statistically significantly higher than women. The logit analysis of the determinants of the probability of farming on own lands showed that farmers who had up basic level education were less likely to farm on their own land compared with farmers with no formal education. Also, farmers belonging to the Presbyterian denomination were more likely to farm on their own lands as compared to other religions and denominations. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh All the other variables used in the logit regression analysis did not statistically significantly predict the probability of farming on own land. 5.1.3 Gender differences in economic wellbeing Three variables were used as proxies for examining the economic wellbeing of farmers. These were per capita income, per capita expenditure, and physical asset index. The results showed that although there were no statistically significant gender differences in average income and expenditure, asset accumulation was significantly higher among males than females. 5.2 Conclusion One of the main issues that continue to confront sustainable development is women marginalization. Until the government and all stakeholders make a conscious effort to give equal opportunities to both men and women, without any form of marginalization or discrimination, Ghana will continue to lag behind in terms of development. Although some of the related literature suggests that women are disadvantaged with respect to access to land and farm production, overall, results of this study found no significant gender differences in access and use of farmlands in Abokobi (Ga-East Municipal Assembly). It appears that efforts aimed at advocacy for women’s right may be yielding some benefits. However, given that women are less empowered economically in term of asset accumulation, more work needs to be done to remove the economic constraint and thereby further boost equity between men and women. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Recommendations Over the years, various local and international stakeholders who are much concerned about women’s wellbeing have intensified education on giving men and women equal opportunities. Some improvements have been seen over the years as shown by this study. Yet, more work still needs to be done. Talks and public education on gender equality and giving men and women equal opportunities should be intensified to help totally eradicate this menace of gender marginalization. Given the fact that women can have access to land by purchase and renting, financial institutions should try and offer credit opportunities to women. Though the challenge of collateral might impede the process, financial institutions can resort to using guarantors as a way of offering women credit opportunities. The government can also support women with credit opportunities. Women should also be encouraged to form informal ‘susu’ groups or credit unions where they can save some money and also be able to borrow from when the need arises. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Aasoglenang, A., Kanlisi, S., & Naab, F. (2013). Land access and poverty reduction among women in Chansa in the north western region of Ghana. Retrieved from http://isdsnet.com/ijds-v2n2-85.pdf Agu, M. (2013). Application of ICT in agricultural sector: Women’s perspective. International Journal of Soft Computing. Retrieved from http://ijsce.org/attachments/File/v2i6/F1093112612.pdf Arizpe, L. (2014). Mexican agricultural development policy and its impact on rural women. Migration, Women and Social Development. Ayamga, M., Yeboah, R., & Dzanku, F. (2015). Determinants of farmland tenure security in Ghana. Ghana Journal of Science. Retrieved from http://gjstd.org/index.php/GJSTD/article/view/43 Benneh G., Kasanga K. & Amoyaw D. (1995). Women’s Access to Agricultural Land in the Household: A Case Study of Three Selected Districts in Ghana. Family and Development Programme, University of Ghana, Legon. Benneh G., Kasanga K. & Amoyaw D. (1997). Land Tenure and Women’s Access to Agricultural Land: A case study of three selected districts in Ghana. In: The Land, Volume 1, number 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Blackden M. & Bhanu C. (2000). Gender Growth and Poverty Reduction in Sub-Saharan Africa SPA Report, World Bank Report. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Brückner, M. (2012). Economic growth, size of the agricultural sector, and urbanization in Africa. Journal of Urban Economics. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094119011000532 Collier, P., & Dercon, S. (2014). African Agriculture in 50Years: Smallholders in a Rapidly Changing World? World Development. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X13002131 Doss, C. (2014). If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce? Gender in Agriculture. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_4 Duncan, B.E. & Brants, C. (2004). Access to and Control over Land from a Gender Perspective: A Study Conducted in the Volta Region of Ghana. Retrieved from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/ae501e/ae501e00.pdf Duncan B.A. (1997) Women in Agriculture in Ghana. Frederick Ebert Foundation and the Federation of International Lawyers. Fiawatsror, B. (1993). Gender Issues in Resource-Poor Farm Households in Ghana. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=ymb_1gCllToC&oi=fnd&pg=P A25&dq=female+ownership+of+farmlands+ghana&ots=RAT1xXmMH5&sig= DKr_UEoAbkQ9YtENJawpAvolpw0 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fong M.S. and Bhushan A. (1996). Gender Issues by Sub-Sector. Extraction from: Toolkit on Gender in Agriculture; World Bank. Gender and Agricultural Development Strategy (2001). Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ghana; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Department for International Development (DFID). Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2013a). 2010 Population and Housing Census: National Analytical Report. Accra: GSS. Ghana Living Standards Survey (2000). Report of Fourth Round (GLSS 4); Ghana Statistical Service. Gyasi, E.A (2005). Pressures of Agricultural Production, Land Tenure Changes and Policy implications. In thematic papers on ‘Environment-Land Tenure Nexus’ ISSER, Legon. Hopkins, A. (2014). An economic history of West Africa. 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Land Tenure Issues and Agricultural Productivity in Ghana. Paper prepared for the seminar on land Tenure and Agricultural Productivity in Ghana held in 1990. Odendo, M., Obare, G., & Salasya, B. (2010). Farmers’ perceptions and knowledge of soil fertility degradation in two contrasting sites in western Kenya. Land Degradation & …. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ldr.996/full Ogato, G., Boon, E., & Subramani, J. (2009). Improving access to productive resources and agricultural services through gender empowerment: A case study of three rural communities in Ambo District,. Journal of Human Ecology. Retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-27-0-000-09-Web/JHE-27- 2-000-09-Abst-PDF/JHE-27-02-085-09-1954-Ogato-G-S/JHE-27-02-085-09- 1954-Ogato-G-S-Tt.pdf 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Peterman, A., Behrman, J., & Quisumbing, A. (2014). A review of empirical evidence on gender differences in nonland agricultural inputs, technology, and services in developing countries. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-8616-4_7 Quaye, W. (2008). Food security situation in northern Ghana, coping strategies and related constraints. Retrieved from http://intranet.foodresearchgh.org:8080/library/handle/0/226 Quisumbing, A., Rubin, D., & Manfre, C. (2014). Closing the Gender Asset Gap: Learning from value chain development in Africa and Asia. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2405716 Twerefou, D. (2011). Land tenure security, investments and the environment in Ghana. Retrieved from http://www.academicjournals.org/article/article1381576164_Twerefou et al.pdf White, B. (2012). Agriculture and the generation problem: rural youth, employment and the future of farming. IDS Bulletin. Retrieved from http://www.homeworkmarket.com/sites/default/files/q1/24/01/82604877.pdf Women in small holder Agriculture in Ghana (2014): Brief Pilicy number 4: October edition. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yaro, J. (2002). "The Poor Peasant: One label, different lives. The Dynamics of rural livelihood strategies in the Gia-Kajelo community, Northern Ghana." Norwegian Journal of Geography 56(1): 10-20. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX Questionnaire Gender Differentials in Access and Use of Farmland in the Abokobi (Ga-East Municipality) This study is being conducted in partial fulfilment for the award of a Masters’ Degree in Development Studies by the University of Ghana, Legon. I would be grateful if you could participate in the study by helping complete this questionnaire. You will be assisting the researcher in purely academic work. Your confidentiality is however highly assured. Section A: General Information Variables label Responses Skip Rules and Information 1 Name of household head 2 Gender of Household head 1. Male 2. Female 3 Number of household members 4 Name of respondent 5 Contact Number 6 Relationship of respondent to the 1. Household head household head 2. Spouse 3. Parent 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Brother/Sister 5. Uncle/Auntie 6. Niece/Nephew 7. Non-relative 8. Other relation 7 Gender of respondent 1. Male 2. Female 8 Age 9 What is your marital status? 1. Married 2. Single 3. Widow/Widower 4. Divorced 5. Other (Specify) 10 Religious Denomination 1. Presbyterian 2. Catholic 3. Methodist 4. Anglican 5. Charismatic 6. Islam 7. Traditionalist 8. Other (Specify) 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 Educational Level completed 1. No School 2. Preschool 3. Primary/Basic 4. JHS/Middle School 5. SHS/ GCE O’ Level 6. Tertiary 7. Other Specify 12 What is your main Occupation 1. Farmer (self- employed in planting, breeding, aquaculture) 2. Self-employment in nonfarm activities 3. Wage worker for other households, individuals 4. Wage worker in the public sector (Public/Civil Servant) 5. Wage worker in companies/factories 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6. Wage worker in other organizations Section B: Land Access and Tenure 13 How is land acquired in this community? 1. Acquired from the church 2. Inheritance 3. Acquisition by Spouse 4. Lineage 5. Purchase 6. Gift 7. Renting 8. Share cropping 9. Other (Specify) 14 Do you find the various models of land 1. Yes acquisition satisfactory? 2. No 15 Has there been changes in the way land is 1. Yes over the past acquired in this community? 10 years 2. Yes over the past 5 years 3. No 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 What do you think accounts for this 1. Statutory laws change? 2. Land conflicts 3. Other (Specify) 17 Has use of land changed in this 1. Yes over the past community? 10 years 2. Yes over the past 5 years 3. No 18 What do you think accounts for this 1. Increased change? subsistence agriculture 2. Expansion in commercial land use 3. Residential land uses 4. Recreation and industrialization 5. Other (Specify) 19 Which of these do you think is the most important reason for change? 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Does household own land in this 1. Yes If No, skip to Section community? 2. No C 21 What is the size of land that your household owns? (in acres) 22 How was this land acquired? 1. Acquired from the church 2. Inheritance 3. Acquisition by Spouse 4. Lineage 5. Purchase 6. Gift 7. Renting 8. Share cropping Other (Specify) 23 Does customs prevent women from 1. Yes If No, skip to Q25 acquiring land in this community? 2. No 24 If yes, how can a woman acquire land for farming if she wants to? 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Apart from custom, what other factors 1. Unavailability of prevent women from acquiring lands? land/shortage of land; 2. Lack of funds for purchase or rent of land/lack of purchasing power; 3. Right of inheritance; presence of conflicts and disputes; 4. The use for the land (e.g. the type of crops the land could be used for); 5. Existence of efficient land rental and sales markets; 6. Other (specify) 26 How easy or difficult is it for a man to 1. Very Easy acquire land for farming if he has the 2. Easy capital? 3. Difficult 4. Very Difficult 27 How easy or difficult is it for a woman to 1. Very Easy acquire land for farming if he has the 2. Easy capital? 3. Difficult 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Very Difficult 28 Indicate the access to farmlands by the 1. Married women following category of women using the [1] [2] [3] following scales: 2. Widows 1 –full access; 2 –partial or conditional [1] [2] [3] access; 3 –No access 3. Daughters [1] [2] [3] 4. Stepdaughters/ Adopted daughters [1] [2] [3] 5. Women outsiders/ foreigners/strangers [1] [2] [3] Section C: Natural Capital 39 Do you farm? 1. Yes 2. No 31 Under what arrangement do you use this 1. Own Land farmland? 2. Shared cropping 3. Rent 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Gift 5. Licensed by specific term 6. Other (Specify) 34 What is the total size of land that your household farms? (in acres) Section D: Agricultural Activities 35 What size of land did you cultivate last season? (In acres) 36 Did your Household cultivate the 1. Yes 2. No Farm size following crops last season? Pepper Tomatoes Cabbage Carrots Watermelon Maize Rice Sweet Potato 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yam Cocoyam Cassava Plantain 37 What method of farming do you practice? 1. Mixed Cropping 2. Mono Cropping 38 Indicate whether the following activities 1.Clearing of land are carried out by men only (M) or M/F/B women only (W) or both (B) 2.Sowing M/F/B 3.Harvesting M/F/B 4.Storage M/F/B 5. Marketing of produce M/F/B 39 Are you able to afford the following 1. Tractors inputs on your farm? [1] Yes [2] No 2. Quality seeds [1] Yes [2] No 3. Fertilizers 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh [1] Yes [2] No 4. Weedicides [1] Yes [2] No 5. Pesticides [1] Yes [2] No 40 Are you able to engage the services of 1. Yes labourers to help you in farm work? 2. No 41 If yes, how many labourers are you able to engage during a farming season? 42 How much does a labourer charge per day? (GH¢) 43 Annually, on the average, how much income do you make from farming? (GH¢) 79. Section H: Contribution of women and men to household expenditures For each of the following household expenditures indicate whether it is performed by woman only, man only or both. No. Activities Man Woman Both N/A only only a. Paying of children’s fees [1] [2] [3] [4] 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b. Buying of children’s educational needs (e.g. books, school uniforms and other needed [1] [2] [3] [4] educational materials) c. Paying of children’s hospital bills [1] [2] [3] [4] d. Taking care of children’s other needs (dresses, [1] [2] [3] [4] shoes, buying fun items etc.) e. Paying of utility bills [1] [2] [3] [4] f. Provision of housekeeping money [1] [2] [3] [4] g. Provision of food [1] [2] [3] [4] h. Purchasing household assets [1] [2] [3] [4] i. Building of house [1] [2] [3] [4] 73