Hindawi
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Volume 2017, Article ID 3043061, 12 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/3043061
Research Article
Documentation of Herbal Medicines Used for
the Treatment and Management of Human Diseases by
Some Communities in Southern Ghana
Augustine A. Boadu and Alex Asase
Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Alex Asase; alexasase@gmail.com
Received 19 January 2017; Revised 31 March 2017; Accepted 3 May 2017; Published 8 June 2017
Academic Editor: Andrea Pieroni
Copyright © 2017 Augustine A. Boadu and Alex Asase. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
Traditional medicine is an important component of the health care system of most developing countries. However, indigenous
knowledge about herbal medicines of many Ghanaian cultures has not yet been investigated. The aim of the present study was to
document herbal medicines used by traditional healers to treat and manage human diseases and ailments by some communities
living in Ghana. The study was conducted in eight communities in southern Ghana. Data were collected from 45 healers using
ethnobotanical questionnaire and voucher specimens were collected. A total of 52 species of plants belonging to 28 plant families
were reportedly used for treatment andmanagement of 42 diseases and ailments. Medicinal plants were commonly harvested from
the wild and degraded lowland areas in the morning from loamy soil. Herbal medicines were prepared in the form of decoctions
(67%) and infusions (33%). Oral administration of the herbals was most (77%) common route of administration whereas the
least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal (2%). The results of the study show that herbal medicines are used for treatment and
management of both common and specialized human diseases and that factors of place and time are considered important during
harvesting of plants for treatments.
1. Introduction medicines in Ghana, and broadly within Africa, has been
passed down through generations largely as oral tradition
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) about [6] and as such it is important that this knowledge be
80%of developing countries depend on traditionalmedicines documented. The WHO has a keen interest in documenting
for their primary health care needs [1]. In Ghana, traditional the use of medicinal plants by indigenous people from
medicine, particularly herbal medicines, is an important different parts of the world [7].
component of the health care system of the people [2]. Documentation of indigenous knowledge about utiliza-
The utilization of herbal medicines and associated medicinal tion of medicinal plants is important for a plethora of
plants in Ghana has been documented by many authors [e.g., reasons. Firstly, it ensures that indigenous culture heritage
[3–5]] although there are still many indigenous cultures and is preserved from being lost for the use of both present and
communities inGhana that possess a great store of traditional future generations [8]. Studies have indicated that indigenous
knowledge about herbal medicines for treatment of various knowledge about herbal medicines is continuously being lost
human ailments, which are yet to be documented. The use through factors such as acculturation and biodiversity losses.
of herbal medicine in Ghana is widespread but highly For example, a comparative study of contemporary plant uses
diverse due to floristic and cultural diversity, and traditional in Ghana shows that themateria medica of the Fanti, Ga, and
medicine has huge impacts on the local economy and Ashanti has changed considerably over time [6]. Secondly,
biodiversity conservation. The rich history of use of herbal through further research such as phytochemical, biochem-
medicines and innovative utilization of plants as sources of ical, pharmacological, and clinical studies information on
2 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
indigenous herbal medicines can lead to discovery of new medicines. The selection of the communities was also based
bioactive agents for treatment of ailments. Despite the recent on the perceived willingness of healers in the communities to
interest in molecular modelling, combinatorial chemistry, cooperate with the objectives of our study.
and other synthetic chemistry techniques by pharmaceutical The Akuapim-North Municipality covers a land area of
companies and funding organizations, natural products, and ca. 450 km2 and is located on longitude 6∘1󸀠N and latitude
particularly medicinal plants, remain an important source 0∘50󸀠W and at altitude 408m above sea level. The major veg-
of new drugs, new drug leads, and new chemical entities etation type is semidecidous forest and the area is mountain-
(NCEs) [9, 10]. Thirdly, biodiversity conservation can be ous consisting of the Togo-Atakora hills. There are two rain-
enhanced when information about plants that are harvested ing seasons—a major rainfall between May and August and
and utilized in the management of ailments within particular theminor rainfall inOctober. Average annual rainfall is about
areas are available [3]. For biodiversity conservation, it is 1250–1270mm and mean daily temperatures range between
also important to know what quantities of plant materials are 25 and 30∘C (http://www.statsghana.gov.gh). The natives are
harvested, not only for home consumption but also for trade. the Akuapim people although other ethnic groups are com-
Commercial trade often stimulates extensive wild-collection, mon in the area. Christianity is the predominant religion in
which often has negative effects on medicinal plant pop- the area.
ulation sizes and recovery after harvesting. On the other
hand, the trade and marketing of herbal medicine creates LowerManya-KroboMunicipality is located between lat-itudes 6∘05󸀠N and 6∘30󸀠N and longitudes 0∘ 󸀠 ∘ 󸀠employment for thousands of people, for example, in Ghana 8 W and 0 20 W,
[11]. For these reasons, the harvest should be documented and with an altitude of 457.5m above sea level. The vegetation
sustainable so this can continue to be a profitable resource for is semidecidous forest with patches of savanna woodland
future generations [12]. and dispersed secondary forests.Themunicipality lies within
The aim of this study was to investigate herbal medicines the semiequatorial climate belt with mean annual rainfall
commonly used for the treatment andmanagement of human between 9000 and 11500mm. Temperatures are usually high∘
diseases and ailments by some communities living in south- ranging between 26 and 35 C. Topography is relatively flat
ern Ghana. To the best of our knowledge no specific previous with isolated hills (http://www.statsghana.gov.gh).The native
ethnobotanical report on use of herbal medicines as yet exists people of the area are Krobo but there are people from other
for the studied communities. Here, we investigated aspects ethnic groups such as Ewes, Akans, and Hausas.Themajority
of the diversity and harvesting of medicinal plants as well as of people are Christians with fewMuslims and Traditionalists
the modes of preparation and routes of administration of the (http://www.statsghana.gov.gh).
herbal medicines. It is hoped that this baseline data will, in
addition to preservation of indigenous knowledge, generate 2.2. Selection of Healers and Data Collection. The present
interest for studies regarding the harvesting patterns, bioac- study was conducted following the guidelines of the Code
tivity, and safety of the medicinal plants being used. Specifi- of Ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology [13].
cally, our study addressed the following questions: (1) What A total of 80 healers from the study area were initially
are the most important species and families of plants being approached through peer recommendations. The purpose
used? (2) Which plant parts are most frequently used? of the study including research objectives, methods of data
(3) Which diseases are commonly treated with the herbal collection, and intention to publish data were thoroughly
medicines? (4) What is the percentage of plants that are explained to each individual healer that was approached. Sub-
used for treatment and management of a single disease sequently, detailed interviews for purposes of data collection
versus multiple diseases? (5) Which factors of place and were carried out with only healers that agreed to participate
time are considered important during harvesting of plants in the study and have signed an individual written prior
for treatments? (6) What are the most common methods informed consent. Data were collected from 45 traditional
of preparation and routes of administration of the herbal healers (Table 1) through interviews using semistructured
medicines? We hypothesize that healers are consulted for questionnaire with predetermined open-ended and direct
herbal medicines for the treatment and management of only questions [14].The interviews were based on the plants being
specialized human diseases/ailments.We further hypothesize used, diseases and ailments treated,modes of preparation and
that factors of place and time are considered important administration of the herbal remedies, and factors of time and
during harvesting of individual plants for treatments and place that they consider as importantwhen harvestingmedic-
management of human diseases by traditional healers. inal plants. Healers were interviewed individually, and the
interviews were mostly conducted in their homes and places
2. Materials and Methods where they collected plants for treatments.
2.1. Study Area. The present study was conducted in 8 com- 2.3. Specimen Collection and Plant Identification. Plant spec-
munities located within Akuapim-North Municipality and imens were collected with the healers interviewed in places
Lower Manya-Krobo Municipality in southern Ghana (Fig- where they normally collected plant materials for use,
ure 1). Selection of the studied communities was based pressed, and processed following standard ethnobotanical
on preliminary surveys by the first author, which showed practices [15]. Plant identification was achieved by matching
that traditional healers in the communities possess rich but local names with those in standard literature [16] follow-
undocumented traditional knowledge about use of herbal ing the work of [17] as well as by comparison of the
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 3
STUDY AREA
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀W ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀0 24 0 0 18 0 W ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀0 12 0 W 0 6 0 W 0 0 0 0 6 0 E 0 12 0 E
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀
6 18 0 N 6 18 0 N
N
Sappor
Yonurase Gyakiti
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 Oborpa ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀
6 12 0 N 6 12 0 N
Bueyonye Paterwonya
Oborpa jct Yogaga
Ayermaso Kpong
Agomanya Piengua yokwenor
Odumase
Asamang Kodjonya
Amanfrom akwapim Menekpo
Okrakwadwo Atua
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 Lakpa Akuseakuse ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀
6 6 0 N 6 6 0 N
Kotogye
Asifaw Sanfoano
Asenema
Achichiso Nkyenoa Boeriakura Akuni no1
Okorase Ama-hi Nyensi
Agyemang Akpekope Apirede
Akuni
Konko Kurutiase BepowasiAdukrom
Nifa Asesieso
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀
6 0 0 N Tinkon Obom Awukugua Abonse ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀Dawu 6 0 0 N
Otwetire Bewiase Abiriw
Adenya Akropong
New mangoase SaforoAdowso
Yensi Kwamoso
Sokode Mamfe Lartey
Amanokurom
Mampon
Kubi
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀N ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀5 54 0 Tutu 5 54 0 N(Meters) Obosomase
11,000 5,500 0 11,000
∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀 ∘ 㰀 㰀㰀
0 24 0 W 0 18 0 W 0 12 0 W 0 6 0 W 0 0 0 0 6 0 E 0 12 0 E
Study Communities Lower Manya-Krobo District
Rivers Akuapem North Municipality
Roads Towns
Figure 1: Map of study area showing communities where study was conducted.
voucher specimens collectedwith those in theGhanaHerbar- used, namely, Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn and Pteridium
ium at Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, esculentum (Forst.) Nakai, were ferns whereas the rest of the
University of Ghana. Classification and names of plants plants were vascular plants. There is very little information
were authenticated using The Plant List (2013) database on the use of ferns in the Ghanaian traditional pharmacopeia
(http://www.theplantlist.org). [see, e.g., [3, 4]]. Speciesmost commonly reported being used
were Aloe vera L. and Paullinia pinnata L. with a percentage
3. Results and Discussion frequency of citation 7% each out of a total of 92 citations.About 54% of the species reported being used were cited only
3.1. Composition of Herbal Medicines. In total, 52 species once by the healers during the period of the current study.
of plants belonging to 28 plant families were documented Leaves formed 57% of the herbal medicines documented.
(Table 2). Of the 28 families of plants, members of the Other plant parts used were fruits, barks, and whole plants
Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, and Sapindaceae were (Figure 2(c)). Leaves are commonly used in herbal medicines
the most commonly used ones (12% in each case) in the because they represent the site ofmost photosynthetic activity
herbal medicines (Figure 2(a)). The use of members of in plants and they also contain very high concentrations
the above families in herbal medicines is widely known in of secondary metabolites. The benefit of a high proportion
Ghana [3]. It is widely known that members of the families of leaves being used is also that the threat posed to the
contain secondary metabolites such as tannins, phenolics, populations of the plant community is minimal compared
and alkaloids that are responsible for their bioactivity. to harvesting of roots and barks. The use of a combination
Trees formed the majority (37%) of the plants being used of various plants parts formed 18% of the herbal medicines
(Figure 2(b)). Two of the species of plants reported being and this use is well documented in the literature. Since the
4 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 1: Biodata on traditional healers interviewed. been unsuccessful even though the extracts are active. In the
Number of Percentage of latter case, characterization of the active extract could enableCategories Variables healers healers structure-related activity studies leading to possible synthesis
of a more potent drug to be developed.
Sex Female 13 28.9
Male 32 71.1 3.3. Harvesting of Plant Materials. Almost all the healers
Religion Christians 37 82.2 (98%) interviewed harvested plant materials from lowland
Traditionalist 8 17.8 areas (Table 3). About half of the healers harvested plant
None 6 13.3 materials from forest-mosaic vegetation type while 7% of the
Formal
Basic 30 66.7 healers considered vegetation type unimportant when har-education vesting plants. About 93% of the healers considered the habi-
Secondary 9 20.0 tat of individual plants as important during harvesting. Of the
40–49 11 24.4 healers who considered habitat as important, 44% harvested
50–59 10 22.2 plants from the wild, and 36% harvested from degraded areas
Age-groups 60–69 10 22.2 and few (13%) of them harvested plants from their home
70–79 9 20.0 gardens. The values of degraded/secondary habitats [20] and
80–89 4 8.9 home gardens [21, 22] as sources of medicinal plants havebeen discussed by authors. Secondary forests are gaining
≥90 1 2.2 more importance for medicinal plant collection as old-
10–19 2 4.4 growth forests are becoming scarce and overexploited [23,
20–29 11 24.4 24]. Our result is similar to that of [25], which indicated that
Years of practice 30–39 11 24.4 healers favoured primary forest and wild habitats in terms
40–49 15 33.3 of medicinal plant collection. According to [26] if a plant
50–59 5 11.1 grows readily in the wild and produces a good yield of activeconstituents or takes several years to mature then collection
≥60 1 2.2 from the wild is most practicable. On the other hand, if
plants that are harvested fromwild vegetation are rare or have
composition of secondary metabolites differs in plant organs endemic status, overharvesting can be a particularly serious
[18], the use of different organs of the same plant in the herbal threat [27]. About 76% of the healers harvested plants from
medicines might be to ensure extraction of the different loamy soils and 18% from sandy soil. None of the healers har-
bioactive agents. vested plants from clayey soils while about 6% of the healerdid not consider soil type when harvesting plants. Healers
did not explain why they avoided clayey soil and we did not
3.2. Common Human Diseases and Ailments. Herbal medici- find any scientific evidence that clayey soil plants do not pro-
nes were reportedly used for treatment and management of duce pharmacologically active secondary metabolites. Soil
42 diseases and ailments. Two ormore herbal medicines were physiochemical properties, particularly nutrient levels, affect
reportedly used for treatment and management of 17 the growth and development of plants. The levels of secondary
diseases and/ailments, and the herbals were most commonly metabolites in plant tissues vary with resource availability
used for treatment and management of stroke, fevers, and [28], and plant nutrient balance in soil is thought to influence
diabetes (Figure 3). The herbal medicines were used for production of secondary compounds at the level of metabolic
treatment and management of both common ailments (e.g., regulation in plants [29]. Topography of an area affects
cuts, foot root) as well as the more specialized diseases such rainfall, soil type, and amount of light reaching a plant and
as stroke, diabetes, cancer, and stomach ulcer. Some of the therefore indirectly also affects plant growth and develop-
diseases such as stroke, malaria, and HIV/AIDS are among ment. In this study, about 91%of the healers harvestmedicinal
the top 10 causes of deaths in Ghana (https://www.cdc.gov/ plants in areas of flat topography while about 9% of the
globalhealth/countries/ghana/). Knowledge of frequently healers harvested plants from areas of gentle slope.
reported diseases and/ailments can be an indication of health The time of harvesting medicinal plants was investigated
care issues in a region and it should be of great importance to with respect to time of day (24 hr. duration) and season (dry
health care organizations and government. versuswet season) of the year. About 57%of healers harvested
About 43% of the species of plants were reportedly used plants in themorning followed by 28.9%who collected plants
in treatment of a single disease whereas the rest of the anytime of the day and then 4.4% that collected plants in the
plants (57%) were involved in treatment of more than one afternoon. None of the healers collected plantmaterials in the
disease/ailment. Medicinal plants are commonly used in the night and about 9% considered time of the day unimportant
management of different ailments because they contain a when harvesting plant materials for herbal preparations.
variety of bioactive agents such as alkaloids and terpenoids Plantsmaterials were harvested in themorning because of the
[18, 19]. It is possible to isolate the bioactive agents or importance of healthcare to healers as they collected plants
compounds from extracts made from plants for detailed first thing in the day. About 28% of the healers harvested
pharmacological and clinical investigations to be made. plants anytime of the day, which might suggest that healers
Nevertheless, in some cases isolation of bioactive agents has also collected plants as when they are needed. According to
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 5
Table 2: Species of plants reportedly being used by healers arranged according to their families with information on their habits, ailments treated, plant parts used, methods of preparation,
and route of administration of the plants.
Families Scientific names Local names Frequency of Habit of Methods of Route of(voucher specimen #) (Akuapem/Krobo) citation (%) plant Diseases and/ailments Plant parts preparation administration
Ruellia brevifolia
Acanthaceae (Pohl) C. Ezcurra Mokotso (Krobo) 1.1 Herb Halitosis Leaf Infusion Nasal
(A029)
Diabetes Leaf Decoction Oral
Aloaceae Aloe vera L. (A001) Aloe 6.5 Herb Diabetes Leaf Decoction OralTyphoid fever Leaf Infusion Oral
Baldness Leaf Decoction Topical
Alternanthera
Amaranthaceae pungens Kunth. Nkassenkasee (Akuapem) 1.1 Herb Stomach ulcer Whole plant Infusion Rectal
(A028)
Polyalthia longifolia
Annonaceae (Sonn.) Thwaites Tsogaga (Krobo) 2.2 Tree Fever Leaf Decoction Oral
(K001)
Alstonia boonei De
Apocynaceae Wild. (A026)
Nyamedua (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Sexual disorders Root and bark Infusion Topical
Rauvolfia vomitoria
Wennberg (A025) Unknown 1.1 Tree Osteoarthritis Leaf and bark Infusion Rectal
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis gigantea(L.) W. T. Aiton Unknown 1.1 Shrub Heart burns Leaf Decoction Oral
Chromolaena odorata Acheampong Typhoid fever Leaf Decoction Oral(L.) R. M. King (Akuapem/Krobo) 3.2 Shrub Stop bleeding Leaf Decoction Oral(K003) Typhoid fever Leaf Infusion Oral
Launaea taraxacifolia. Blood pressure Leaf Infusion Oral
(Wild). Amin ex. C. Unknown 3.2 Herb Diuretic Leaf Decoction Oral
Asteraceae Jeffrey (K002) Blood pressure Leaf Infusion Oral
Vernonia amygdalina
Delile (A023) Awunyun (Akuapem) 3.2 Shrub Malaria Whole plant Infusion Oral
Vernonia conferta
Benth. (K010) Owudifukete (Akuapem) 2.2 Shrub Diabetes Root and bark Decoction Oral
Kigelia africana
(Lam.) Benth. (K004) Nfuten (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Piles Bark Infusion Oral
Bignoniaceae Spathodea
campanulata P. Beauv. Akuakua nisuo (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Stroke Leaf Decoction Oral
(K005)
6 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 2: Continued.
Families Scientific names Local names Frequency of Habit of Methods of Route of(voucher specimen #) (Akuapem/Krobo) citation (%) plant Diseases and/ailments Plant parts preparation administration
Bombax
Bombacaceae buonopozense P. Nyankuduro/Akonkodies Tree Stroke Leaf Decoction Oral
Beauv. (A002) (Akuapem) Diabetes Leaf Infusion Oral/Topical
Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum AkomfemtikoroL. (K007) (Akuapem) 2.2 Herb Convulsion Leaf Infusion Oral
Capparidaceae Euadenia eminens L.(K008) Dinsikuro (Akuapem) 1.1 Herb Low sperm count Root and bark Decoction Oral
Chrysobalanaceae Maranthes robusta(Oliv.) Prance (K009) Afambere (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Rheumatism Leaf and seed Decoction Oral/Topical
Combretaceae Terminalia superbaEngl. & Diels (A021) Ofram (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Convulsion Root and bark Decoction Oral/Topical
Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia Snake bite Whole plant Infusion OralL. (K020) Nyenye (Krobo) 2.2 Climber Diabetes Whole plant Decoction Oral
Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus L.(A020) Winto/Wintino (Krobo) 1.1 Herb Typhoid fever Whole plant Decoction Oral
Pteridium aquilinum
(L.) Kuhn (A012) Unknown 1.1 Herb Fever Leaf Decoction OralDennstaedtiaceae Pteridium esculentum
(Forst.) Nakai (A018) Meyaabea (Akuapem) 1.1 Herb Menstrual disorders Leaf Decoction Oral
Bridelia ferruginea
Benth (K014) Unknown 1.1 Tree Diarrhoea Root Decoction Oral
Discoglypremna
caloneura (Pax) Prain Unknown 2.2. Tree Stroke Leaf and root Decoction Oral
(A017) Female infertility Leaf and root Decoction Oral/Rectal
Drypetes aubrevillei
Leandri (K017) Duameko (Akuapem) 1.1 Shrub Stroke Root Decoction Oral/Topical
Drypetes floribunda
Euphorbiaceae Hutch. (K016) Katirika (Akuapem) 1.1 Shrub Miscarriage Root and bark Decoction Oral
Jatropha curcas L.
(A014) Unknown 1.1 Shrub Hernia Leaf Infusion Oral
Jatropha gossypifolia
L. (A015) Unknown 1.1 Shrub High fever Leaf and fruit Decoction Oral
Macaranga barteri
Müll. Arg. (K015) Opam (Akuapem) 1.1 Shrub Foot rot Bark Decoction Oral
Uapaca guineensis
Müll. Arg. (A016) Agyahere (Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Stroke
Root, bark and
leaf Decoction Topical
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 7
Table 2: Continued.
Families Scientific names Local names Frequency of Habit of(voucher specimen #) (Akuapem/Krobo) citation (%) plant Diseases and/ailments Plant parts
Methods of Route of
preparation administration
Acacia senegalensis
(Houtt.) Roberty Unknown 1.1 Tree High fever Leaf Decoction Oral
(K022)
Albizia ferruginea
(Guill. & Perr.) B. Awiemtosamina(Akuapem) 1.1 Tree Diarrhoea Root Decoction Oral(K021)
Baphia nitida Lodd.
(A005) Odwaen 1.1 Shrub Retarded growth Leaf Infusion TopicalFabaceae
Berlinia sp. (A013) Unknown 2.2 Tree Rheumatism Root and bark Infusion TopicalFever Bark Decoction Oral
Purgative Leaf Decoction Oral
Cassia alata L. (K023) Kobatso (Krobo) 3.3 Shrub Menstrual disorders Leaf Decoction Oral
Fertility problems Leaf Decoction Oral
Copaifera salikounda Otedua (Akuapem) 2.2 Tree High fever Bark Decoction TopicalHeckel (A030) Piles Root and bark Decoction Oral/Rectal
Lamiaceae Ocimum gratissimumSeem. (A011) Nunnum (Akuapem) 2.2 Herb Bloating Leaf Infusion Oral/Topical
Malvaceae Gossypium hirsutum Osteoarthritis Leaf Infusion OralL. (K024) Asawadua (Akuapem) 2.2 Herb Infertility Leaf Infusion Oral
Azadirachta indica A. Fever Leaf Decoction Oral
Juss (A008) Nimtso (Krobo) 5.4 Tree Fever Leaf Decoction OralMeliaceae Malaria Leaf Decoction Oral
Khaya senegalensis A. Mahogany Infertility Bark Decoction Oral
Juss. (K008) (Akuapem/Krobo) 3.3 Tree Male infertility Leaf Decoction Oral
Sphenocentrium
Menispermaceae jollyanum Pierre Kramaoti (Akuapem) 1.1 Herb Diabetes Whole plant Decoction Oral
(K026)
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam.
Blood tonic Leaf Decoction Oral
(A007) Moringa 3.3 Tree Pruritus Leaf Decoction OralJaundice Leaf Decoction Oral
Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L.(K028) Aguava (Akuapem/Krobo) 2.2 Shrub Diarrhoea Root Decoction Oral
8 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Table 2: Continued.
Families Scientific names Local names Frequency of Habit of(voucher specimen #) (Akuapem/Krobo) citation (%) plant Diseases and/ailments Plant parts
Methods of Route of
preparation administration
Citrus sinensis Pers. Anka (Akuapem)/Kpeta
(K030) (Krobo) 1.1 Tree Constipation Leaf and fruit Infusion Oral
Rutaceae Zanthoxylum
leprieurii Guill. & Okanto (Akuapem)/Oyaa(Krobo) 2.2 Shrub
Sexual weakness Leaf Decoction Oral
Perr. (K029) Stroke Root Decoction Oral/Topical
Lecaniodiscus
cupanioides Planch. Unknown 1.1 Shrub Stomach ulcer Leaf Decoction Oral
(K031)
Sapindaceae Miscarriage Leaf Decoction Oral
Paullinia pinnata L. Tuatin (Twi) Detsemamu Stomach ulcer Leaf Infusion Oral
(A002) (Krobo) 6.5 Herb Stroke Leaf Decoction OralHIV/AIDS Leaf Decoction Oral
Bone fracture Leaf Infusion Oral/Rectal
Aningeria altissima
(A. Chev.) Aubrév. Asanfena (Twi) 2.2 Shrub Stops bleeding Leaf and bark Decoction Oral
Sapotaceae (K033)
Malacantha alnifolia
Pierre (K032) Unknown 2.2 Shrub Miscarriage Leaf Decoction Oral
Physalis angulata L. Totoa (Krobo) 1.1 Herb Cancer Whole plant Infusion Oral/Topical
Solanaceae (K034)Solanum melongena
L. (A003) Unknown 3.3 Shrub Anaemia Fruit Infusion Oral
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 9
12 35
10 30
25
8
20
6
15
4
10
2 5
0 0
Trees Herbs Shrubs Climbers
Habit of plants
Herbal remedies
Species of plants
Families
Herbal remedies
Species of plants
(a) (b)
Fruit
Bark 4%
6%
Root
6%
Whole plant
9%
Others Leaf
(combinations 57%
of various
plant parts)
18%
(c)
Figure 2: Composition of herbal remedies used in terms of (a) plant families, (b) habit of plants, and (c) percentage of plant parts.
the healers they collected plants any time of the day because materials although the availability of certain plant parts could
they sometimes needed to treat emergency cases. There is be directly related to season of the year.
scientific evidence to support the fact that yield of some plant
chemical constituents differs within a time span of 24 hours 3.4. Methods of Preparation and Administration of Herbal
due to the interconversions of compounds [19]. According Medicines. Theharvested plantmaterials were used in prepa-
to [30], time of the day should be given important consid- ration of 81 herbalmedicinesmainly in the formof decoctions
eration when collecting medicinal plants in order to obtain (67%) and infusions (33%). Although it is documented that a
optimum yield of desired products. For season of the year, variety of methods have been used for preparation of herbal
more than half of the healers (67%) harvested plants during medicines themethods of decoctions and infusions have been
both dry and wet seasons followed by 20.0% who collected the widely reported [e.g., [18]]. However, differences exist
in only the wet season and about 7% collected in only dry in the preparations of decoctions and infusions both within
season. About 7% of the healers did not consider season of healers and from place to place. In the study area, diversity
the year as an important factor during harvesting of plant existed among healers in the amount of menstruum (mainly
Number of herbals/species
Fabaceae
Solanaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Asteraceae
Meliaceae
Aloaceae
Apocynaceae
Moringaceae
Rutaceae
Sapotaceae
Annonaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bombacaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Dennstaedtiaceae
Malvaceae
Acanthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Boraginaceae
Capparadaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Combretaceae
Cyperaceae
Lamiaceae
Menispermaceae
Myrtaceae
Sapindaceae
Number of herbals/species
10 Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine
8 Table 3: Information on considerations on factors of place and
7 time during harvesting of medicinal plants by healers in some
communities in southern Ghana.
6
5 Place/time Factors/variables
Number of Percentage of
healers healers
4 Lowland 44 97.8
Elevation
3 Highland 1 2.2
Unimportant 0 0
2 Wild 20 44.4
1
Habitat Home garden 6 13.3
0 Degraded area 16 35.6
Unimportant 3 6.7
Wet season 9 20.0
Seasonality Dry season 3 6.7
Both 30 66.7
Unimportant 3 6.7
Diseases and/ailments treated Loam soil 34 75.6
Figure 3: Human diseases commonly treated and/managed with Soil type Sandy soil 8 17.7
herbal medicines. Clay soil 0 0
Unimportant 3 6.7
water), length of time of boiling, and how long the decoctions Morning 26 57.8
were kept. Infusions were made by adding water/local gin Evening/night 0 0
(akpeteshie) to the pulverized plant materials although the Time of day Afternoon 2 4.4
amount of solvent added and duration of use of infusions Anytime 13 28.9
differed. Generally, there were no standards in the methods Unimportant 4 8.9
of preparation of the herbal medicines by even the same Steep slope 0 0
healer and this lack of standardization is amajor disadvantage
of traditional medicine [26, 31]. It also means that herbal Topography Gentle slope 4 8.8
medicines made by the same healer could vary in potency, Flat land 41 91.1
which has implications in their use for treatment of patients. Unimportant 0 0
The routes of administration of the remedies reported Forest 17 37.8
in this study were oral, rectal, topical, and nasal (Table 1). Savanna 2 4.4
However, the most common route of administration was oral Vegetationtype Forest-savanna
(77%) followed by a combination of oral and topical routes mosaic 23 51.1
(10%) whereas the least used routes were nasal (1%) and rectal Unimportant 3 6.6
(2%).The fact that oral route of administration of the herbals
was most common was not a surprise as this has been previ-
ously reported [18, 32]. However, a recent study in [33] found primary data to the wealth of data stored on the indigenous
frequent use of herbal enemas (rectal) in Western African knowledge on medicinal plants from Ghana. The findings
traditional medicine. The route of administration of herbal from the study suggest that healers are consulted for herbal
medicines could be related to bioactive agents in the extracts medicines for the treatment and management of both com-
of the plants [32]. For example, herbal medicines whose mon and specialized diseases and ailments. The extent to
bioactive agents are alkaloids are easily assimilated when which the people living in the area consult the healers is
administered orally while terpenoids especially essential oils unknown but it is important to understanding this in order
are best administered through dermal and/nasal routes. Both to determine the proper role of herbal medicine in the health
decoctions and infusions were mostly administered orally, care system of the people. It is also essential to scientifically
45% and 17%, respectively. Only infusions were administered evaluate the specific uses of the medicinal plants reported
via the rectal and nasal routes. in the current study using plant materials from the area
through pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical studies
4. Conclusions in order to ensure the safety of the people consuming the
medicines and for possible drug development. The results of
In this paper, we have documented the current state of the study have also confirmed that factors of time and place
knowledge and use of herbal medicines for treatment and are given considerations during harvesting of plant materials
management of human diseases among some communities by healers. Further studies on the methods and quantities of
living in southern Ghana. This documentation contributes plant materials that are harvested for treatment will improve
Number of herbal medicines
Stroke
Fevers
Diabetes
Typhoid fever
Stomach ulcer
Miscarriages
High fever
Diarrhoea
Anaemia
Stops bleeding
Rheumatism
Piles
Osteoarthritis
Menstrual disorders
Malaria
Convulsion
High blood pressure
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 11
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