University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh METHODIST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY MOTIVATION FOR OCCUPATIONAL PREFERENCE AMONG STUDENTS OF REGIONAL MARITIME UNIVERSITY ACCRA GHANA FLORENCE AHIMA QUARTEY 10544152 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING DEGREE 2016 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, FLORENCE AHIMA QUARTEY declare that this Thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all being identified and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhere SIGNATURE: ............................................................................. DATE: ......................................................................................... SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of this work was supervised by me in accordance with the guidelines for the supervision of Thesis laid down by the Methodist University College, Ghana. NAME OF SUPERVISOR: .............................................................. SIGNATURE: ................................................................................... DATE: .............................................................................................. NAME OF SUPERVISOR: .............................................................. SIGNATURE: ................................................................................... DATE: .............................................................................................. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The research was aimed at determining the factors that motive the occupational preference of Regional Maritime University Students. The purpose of doing this was to use the information generated to proffer counselling information for counsellors, parents and other stake holders. Stratified sampling technique was used to select 305 undergraduate students as sample for the study using a Cross-sectional Survey Design. A standardized test; ‘Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale’ by Bakare was used to elicit information from the respondents. Data was analyzed using Independent samples t-test and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and the results revealed that in general extrinsic values relatively influence Regional Maritime University students’ occupational preferences more than intrinsic values. Both Ghanaian and international students were influenced equally by extrinsic and intrinsic values. There was also no significant sex difference in the influence of extrinsic factors. The findings also indicated that there was no significant difference in the influence of extrinsic factors on the occupational preferences of students from the different programmes but there was a significant difference in the intrinsic factors that influence the occupational preferences of students from the different programmes. The fact that came out from the findings was that, extrinsic values were relatively more important to students’ occupational preferences more than intrinsic values. It was recommended that counsellors should ensure that students view their prospective occupations realistically in terms of determining the compatibility between the individual’s values and the attributes of the preferred occupation. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my dearest husband Rev. Nathaniel Quartey and my children: Nathaniel Andrew, Solace-Rose, Yehonathan Raphael and Dilys Sharona for allowing me to go back to school. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am most grateful to the Almighty God for His healing power, faithfulness, loving care, protection and mercy which made it possible for me to complete this work. I also wish to acknowledge with gratitude, the encouragement, corrections and guidance given to me by Rev Dr Daniel Bruce and Dr. Robert Mensah my supervisors for this work to be completed. I wish to express my appreciation to the management of Regional Maritime University, and the members of the various departments for their assistance in allowing me to administer my questionnaires to their students especially Mr. Burphy Dancan the Coordinator of students’ Affairs for his patience and immense support during my education and research. Special thanks also go to my sister Biawu Tatiana for her patience, immense support and encouragement. Finally Special thanks go to my Husband Rev. Nathaniel Quartey and children: Nathaniel Andrew, Solace-Rose, Yehonathan Raphael and Dilys Sharona and my father Mr Freeman Osam Ahinson for motivating me. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT CONTENT PAGE Title Page i Declaration ii Abstract iii Dedication iv Acknowledgement v Table of Content vi List of Tables xi List of Figures xii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.1.1 The Purpose of Working 4 1.1.2. Occupational Attributes 5 1.1.3 Motivation 8 1.1.4 Occupational Preference 8 1.1.5 Motivation for Occupational preference 9 1.2 Statement of the Problem 11 1.3 Purpose of the Study 13 1.4 Objectives of the Study 14 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Significance of the Study 15 1.6 Organization of the Work 14 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Theoretical Framework 16 2.3 Review of Related Studies 28 2.3.1 Factors That Motivate Occupational Preference 28 2.3.2 Factors That Influence Career Development 61 2.3.2.1 Personal Characteristics 61 2.3. 2.2 Personal Work Values 63 2.3.2.3 Gender Difference 66 2.3.2.4 Economic Development 67 2.3.2.5 Family Influence 68 2.4 Summary 70 2.5 Statements of Hypotheses 70 2.6 Operational Definitions 71 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 72 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Research Design 72 3.3 Target Population 73 3.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Techniques 74 3.5 Instrument 75 3.5.1 Scoring of the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale 77 3.5.2 Reliability and Validity of the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) 78 3.6 Procedure for Data Collection 78 3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation 79 CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Presentation of Results 80 4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Respondents 80 4.1.2 Age Distribution of Respondents 81 4.1.3 Programme Pursued by Students 82 4.1.4 Distribution Respondents’ Level of Study 83 4.1.5 Distribution of Respondents by Country of Origin 84 4.2 Motivation for Occupational Preference by Respondent Groups 85 4.2.1 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Gender 85 4.2.2 Percentage Distribution of Importance of Motivational Values by Gender 87 4.2.3 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Nationality 91 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.4 Percentage Distribution of Importance of Motivational Values by Nationality 93 4.2.5 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by programmes of study 97 4.2.6 Percentage Distribution of Importance of Extrinsic Motivational Values by Nationality 100 4.2.7 Percentage Distribution of Importance of Intrinsic Motivational Values by Nationality 103 4.3 Testing of Hypotheses 106 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Introduction 113 5.2 Factors that Influence the Occupational Preferences of Males and Female Students 115 5.3 Factors That Motivate Ghanaian and International Students’ Occupational Preferences 115 5.4 Factors that influence students from different programmes 117 5.5 Relative Importance of Factors in Motivating Students’ Occupational Preferences 120 5.6 Summary of Findings 123 5.7 Conclusion 124 5.8 Recommendations 125 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.9 Suggestions for Further Studies 126 References 127 Appendix ‘A’- Consent Note Appendix ‘B’- Customized session ‘A’ version of the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) Appendix ‘C’- Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table Page 4.1: Sex Distribution of Respondents 80 4.2 Age Distribution of Respondents 81 4.3: Distribution of respondents by programme of Study 82 4.4: Distribution of Respondents By Level Of Study 83 4.5: Distribution of Respondents by Country of Origin 84 4.6: Independent Samples t-test Showing the Influence of Values on Males and Females 106 4.7: Analysis of Variance showing influence of values on Ghanaian and International Students 107 4.8: Analysis of Variance showing influence of Values on Students from Different Programmes 108 4.9: Ranking of Importance Index of various Influences 110 4.10: Distribution of Average Importance Index of Values 112 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Gender 85 4.2: Percentage Distribution of Importance of Motivational Values by Gender 87 4.3: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Nationality 91 4.4: Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Motivational Values By Nationality 93 4.5: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by programmes 97 4.6: Percentage Distribution of Level of Importance of Extrinsic 100 Values on Students’ Occupational Preference By Programmes 4.7: Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Intrinsic Values on students’ occupational preference by Programmes 103 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Almost all the facts and data available on the origin of the human race confirm that, the concept of work is as old as the existence of man. This is because work has always been the very core of human survival (Makinde & Alao, 1987). ‘Work’, ‘job’, ‘vocation’, ‘occupation’ or ‘career’ as many individuals will call their source of livelihood, is an indispensable part of human life. To be able to work or be employed means much more than just earning some money. Individuals attach specific importance to most aspects of work and these values tend to influence how they choose specific career paths and the way they feel about the work they engage in (Wong& Yuen, 2012). Roe and Ester (1999) pointed out that research on work, compared to other areas of life such as family, leisure, community, and religion has attracted more attention and this is because work plays a key role in people’s social life. Work plays a key role not only because it is the primary source of income to some people, but also because it is the foundation for social participation and inclusion as well as social status, consumption, health, family life, and so on. Work also satisfies people’s psychological needs and gives a sense of pride and worth. Work is part of life and the basis for education, whether formal or informal. Due to the importance that individuals attach to most aspects of work, people’s preferences for occupations are influenced by certain psychological and social needs. Work satisfies some 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh personal and family needs including economic, social, psychological and emotional needs (Nord, Brief, Atieh & Doherty, 1990). Pryor (1979) cited in Prediger and Staples (1996) indicated that the aspects of work that individuals prefer might be a disclosure of their underlying needs. For these reasons, before a person’s occupational preference will be understood, the motivation behind that preference need to be explored. In exploring the motives behind occupational preferences it must be noted however that the terms occupational development, career development and vocational development are used interchangeably in the literature (Thompson, 2012). In most literature, occupation and career are also used interchangeably (Joslin, 1984 cited in Pyne, 2002). There is, therefore, a relationship between career, occupation and vocation and the distinction sometimes unclear in the literature. Kochar (2002) cited in Shuaibu (2010) considered career preference as the occupation with the highest positive valence among alternative form of work value. Motivational factors for occupational decision-making include societal prestige, financial rewards, personal reputation, social status, and parental expectations for their children (Denga, 2001). The process of choosing a career involves estimating one’s values, as well as skills and abilities required for success in the given occupation, and identifying the work values that will be satisfied by the various occupational alternatives available (Brown, 2002). Kankam and Onivehu (2000) asserted that, occupational preference of adolescents are influenced by intrinsic, extrinsic and interpersonal factors as well as intellectual ability, aptitudes, the school, family, personality, self-esteem, as well as values, and interests. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Students’ career aspirations can be influenced by parents, teachers, peers, school environment, socioeconomic status, socialization and students themselves. Parents can have a strong impact on shaping their children’s orientation toward achievement. Similarly, the relationship and esteem from peers and significant others are basic human’s needs, especially for teenagers who look for love and acceptance (Lerdpornkulrat, Koul & Sujivorakul 2010). In the school environment teachers play important role in students’ career decision making. Research has found that students, especially science majors are influenced by high school teachers and guidance counselors in making high school and college plans (Hill, Pettus & Hedin 1990). It is, therefore, worth noting that people make occupational choices based on some specific personal factors. Therefore, people who enter different occupations have different outlook on work as an aspect of life as evidenced by the fact that students who are enrolled in different programmes express stable vocational value differences (Osipow, 1983). Research has also found that, both professionals and students are significantly different across occupations in the level to which various motivational factors influence their choice or preference of occupations (Nenty, 2002). Some individuals, value work because of the opportunities it provides for them to express their personality directly. In such a case, work becomes an end in itself and not a means to an end. To others work may be a means to have benefits such as leisure and luxury or an opportunity to travel other than an intrinsic interest in the tasks or the skills associated with the work itself or just because significant people in their lives approve or value those occupations. Several studies conceptualized work values as the criteria that individuals use for judging and selecting occupations, or what was important and desirable to them in vocational activities. Work values were viewed as personal belief systems that focused on what were important for fulfilling individuals’ personal needs (Wong & Yuen, 2012). It is worth noting that people 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh who enter different occupations have different outlook on work as an aspect of life; as evidenced by the fact that students who enrolled in different programmes expressed stable vocational value differences (Osipow, 1983). There is a lot of literature covering work goals or work aspects. These literatures cover topics such as work values, work needs, work outcomes, job satisfaction, and reward preferences. Some of the identified elements or facets that were important to individuals as indicated by these studies were expressive, instrumental, ameliorative, and comfort goals. It appeared that the importance or preference individuals assigned to a particular work goal was dependent on how central, prominent and important a particular goal was to the individual in relation to his or her other work goals (Harpaz, 1990). 1.1.1 The Purpose of Working The role work plays in the life of individuals cannot be overestimated, due to the sheer amount of time that individuals spend working (MOW, 1987 cited in Harpaz, 1990). Why do people work? This question can be answered by different people differently. Most people will probably answer that they work because they need to get paid or that every human being has or need to work. However, one study found that over half of the people who accepted early retirement packages from their employers wanted to return to work after three months in retirement. They had found that a life of total leisure was not enjoyable after all, and that work, even with its negatives, also had a lot of positives (Zelinski, 1993 cited in Thomason, 1999). This is an indication that a human being will work regardless of whether he is compelled to do so or not; either for money or for leisure. In every country, occupation is part 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of human living and it is not possible to separate man’s welfare from his work. Work provides people with meaning and a purpose in life (Nordet al., 1990). When we look at the number of years people engage in various occupations in their lifetime, the importance of a person’s career life and the importance as to whether it is satisfying to him or not cannot be taken for granted. 1.1.2 Occupational Attributes Occupations may differ substantially with regards to their attributes. For example, some occupations involve much public contact; others involve little. Some require outdoor work and/or physical activity; others do not. These attributes differentiate one occupation from the other. The value placed on an occupational attribute is usually termed a job value or a work value. The values people attach to aspects of work, end up influencing their preferences for occupations, how they feel about the occupation they finally settle for and how satisfied they will be in that occupation. An Occupation based on its attributes, may provide the individual the opportunity to be original and creative, use his skills and abilities, work with his or her hands, exercise leadership, work with people, serve others or help the less privileged. Bakare (1977) termed these intrinsic values ‘Self Expression Values’ and ‘People-Oriented Values’. On the other hand the occupation may satisfy extrinsic values like attractive working conditions, good salaries, improved social status and prestige or job security. Bakare (1977) termed these values ‘Extrinsic-Reward Oriented Values’. An individual’s need for acceptance and approval from parents, teachers, role models and other significant people in their lives cannot 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also be overlooked in the occupational choice process. The aspirations of parents, the expectations of teachers and the occupational stereotypes carried by the mass media all influence occupational preferences of individuals. Bakare termed the influence of teachers, friends, parents and the books, radio and television as ‘External Influence’ and categorized these under extrinsic values. These intrinsic and extrinsic values are the needs that individuals try to satisfy by engaging in occupations hence their preference for specific occupations. Therefore, students’ preferences for occupations depend on what personal values they expect the occupation to satisfy. The occupational attributes people value will largely depend on the perceptions they have developed about various occupations. These occupational perceptions may have been developed through socialization agents like family, the school, peers and the media make a lot of impact on people’s perception of various occupations and develop their occupational values (Prediger & Staples, 1996). Extrinsic interests reflect the importance (personal value) associated with working in a given occupation (e.g., travel, outdoor work, autonomy,) or work outcomes (e.g., prestige, earnings, job security). Thus, extrinsic interests are subsumed by what are commonly called job or work values. Intrinsic (vocational) interests also reflect specifics regarding only one job value: ‘Having work tasks that I like.’ Thus, vocational interests are also subsumed by job values also referred to as occupational attribute preferences (Prediger & Staples, 1996). It has been emphatically stated by Judge and Bretz (1991) that theoretically, it appears that values should have an influence on job choice decisions and suggested that one way to test whether values are actually important, is to empirically investigate their importance by 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh examining their significance and relative effects in the context of variables (such as pay level and promotional opportunity) that have been shown to influence job choices. It has been emphatically stated by Judge and Bretz (1991) that theoretically, it appears that values should have an influence on job choice decisions and suggested that one way to test whether values are actually important, is to empirically investigate their importance by examining their significance and relative effects in the context of variables (such as pay level and promotional opportunity) that have been shown to influence job choices. In a study conducted in Nigeria by Bakare (1970) cited in Kinanee (2009) in which he compared the value orientations of professional nurses and professional engineers using his ‘Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale’ (MOPS), he discovered that, intrinsic factors (people-oriented values followed by self-expression values) ranked higher than the extrinsic variables in the vocational choice of nurses, whereas extrinsic factors (external influence and extrinsic reward-oriented values) ranked higher than the intrinsic factors in the vocational choice of engineers). This is an indication that people who work in different occupations have different work attribute preferences. Every occupation has its basic and unique requirements (Sababa & Benson, 2010) and people are satisfied with their jobs when their expectations are met by their chosen occupations. Therefore, when people go into occupations for specific reasons and their hopes and expectations are met by these occupations they are motivated to work hard to keep the job. If on the other hand they choose occupations for the wrong reasons they are likely to fail. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.3 Motivation To be motivated means to be moved to do something or act. Motivation is not a unitary phenomenon hence individuals do not only have different quantities or levels of motivation but also different kinds of motivations. Which means that people are different not only in the level of motivation (how much motivation they have), but also in the orientation of that motivation (what type of motivation they have). Orientations of motivations are the underlying attitudes and goals that make people act. They explain the why of actions (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Motivations are derived from motives. Motives are concerns, desires, emotions, and/or needs that energize people to act. It is an incentive or reward value of the goal and determines the choices of behaviours. These are internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be continually interested and committed to a job, role, subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal. Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as the intensity of desire or need and expectations of the individual and of his or her peers. These factors are the reasons one has for behaving in a certain way or making certain specific decisions (Business dictionary online, 2016). 1.1.4 Occupational Preference Dawis (1991) cited in Prediger and Staples (1996) indicated that the word ‘preference’ was a basic term for defining interests and values. Some occupations allow a lot of public contact; others involve little public contact. Some require outdoor work and/or physical activity while others do not (Prediger & Staples, 1996). Some individuals prefer an environment that is outgoing and warm, while others prefer a more formal and independent workplace (Bakker, Fitzsimmons & Macnab, 2005). It is, therefore, important to note that the factors that 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motivate people’s occupational preferences are based on how compatible the attributes of various occupations are with their personal values (Prediger & Staples, 1996). 1.1.5 Motivation for Occupational Preference Motivation for occupational preference is based on individual work values (Macnab, et al.2005). Values are different from attitudes in that attitudes can be positive or negative, whereas values are always positive in favour of something. This concept of values has frequently been used in the domain of work in connection with vocational choice and refers to a person’s preference or liking for particular types of occupational activities (Roe & Ester 1999). Values are motivational constructs that guide the selection or evaluation of people’s actions; desirable abstract goals that people strive to attain (Schwartz, 2006). Schwartz (1992) cited in Roe and Ester (1999) gave an elaborated definition of values as “desirable states, objects, goals, or behaviours, transcending specific situations and applied as normative standards to judge and to choose among alternative modes of behavior.” Values give direction to some of the most important decisions of life including the choice of academic discipline for making a career (Schwartz, 2006 cited in Berring, Kumari & Ahuja, 2015). Work values just like basic values are beliefs pertaining to desirable outcomes such as high pay or behaviour such as working with people (Ros, Schwartz & Surkiss, 1999). Work values refer to only goals in the work setting. Due to this they are more specific than basic individual values. They refer to what a person wants out of work in general, and not the outcomes of particular jobs. Work value researchers believe that a number of broad orientations towards 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh work are the basis for the ideas people have of what is important to them when making occupational choices (Ros, Schwartz & Surkiss, 1999). Super indicated that what individuals learn is a function of the interest, values, attitudes and behaviour patterns that are valued and rewarded by the individuals themselves, their peers and adult models (Sharma, 2007 cited in Kinanee, 2009). When an individual is faced with a choice, he or she seeks out organizational environments that offer the opportunity for his or her values to be expressed and will avoid organizational settings that are likely to stifle or suppress his or her internalized values. Occupational choices could be viewed then as preferences for settings that allow or encourage expression of particular values or value systems (Judge & Bretz, 1992). This is possible because individuals attach varying degrees of importance to different values and because work values have hierarchical features that can be ordered by their relative importance, they form an ordered system of value priorities that set individuals and groups apart (Schwartz, 2006) making preferences and choices possible. For these reasons, a higher importance of one particular work value dimension implies a lower importance of another (Hauff & Kirchner, 2015). However, some researchers have argued that it is possible for values to be equal in intensity and thus equally high or equally low (Hauff & Kirchner, 2015) and therefore, instead of a hierarchy, particular relationships may exist between different work values, forming a specific value pattern, value system or value types (Roe and Ester, 1999). Most occupations involve some level of interaction with people however, an individual’s personal values strongly impact both the type and quality of interaction that they will prefer to have with others whilst working (Macnab, et al.2005). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are various categorizations of work values and among the various types there is a relative consensus on two central dimensions of work values (Hauff & Kirchner, 2015). These are extrinsic values (respectively security, material or instrumental values) which refer to aspects such as job security or income and Intrinsic values (respectively self-actualization or cognitive work values) which relate to aspects such as the pursuit of autonomy or having an interesting job. Beside these two basic dimensions, there have been suggestions for additional dimensions of work values: Social or relational values which refers to relations with co-workers, supervisors etc.; altruistic values which involve the desire to help others or to have a job that is useful to society and prestige values which are related to status, influence and power (Elizur et al., 1991; Gahan&Abeysekera, 2009; Lyons, Higgins and Duxbury, 2010; Ros, Schwartz and Surkiss, 1999 cited in Hauff& Kirchner, 2015). However, it can be observed that even these dimensions can equally be categorized into extrinsic values (status, influence and power) and in intrinsic values (desire to help others or to have a job that is useful to society and relations with co-workers, supervisors). Due to the fact that different work goals can be ranked based on their relative importance to each individual; they become the guiding principles by which individuals evaluate work outcomes and settings and for choosing a specific occupation among different alternatives. 1.2 Statement of the Problem People value different occupational attributes differently, and gain job satisfaction based on the relationship between the attributes people value most and those provided by their chosen occupations therefore, work values are goals that one seeks from working (Prediger & 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Staples, 1996). Nwoye (1990) cited in Sababa and Benson (2010) reported in his personal values theory that people normally choose occupations or vocations that match with their personal values. However, in situations where their personal values are inconsistent with their occupational choices, the individuals involved are likely to be demoralized and have low productivity (Sababa & Benson, 2010). Studies have shown that people flourish in their work environment when there is a good fit between their personality type and the characteristics of the environment. Lack of congruence between personality and environment leads to dissatisfaction, unstable career paths, and lowered performance (Holland, 1996). In other words, individuals have the tendency to prefer occupations that are consistent with their needs and values; and if they are unable to do so, there is the likelihood that they will lack the full commitment for studies and /or subsequent lack of job satisfaction. For this reason, many students are sometimes faced with uncertainties as to which occupation to choose or whether they have selected the right occupation. These uncertainties result from the fact that they are unsure whether their chosen occupation will eventually be able to satisfy their occupational goals or not. Another reason is the uncertainty of their ability to pursue the education required for the occupation. For example, a study by Sababa and Benson (2010) at Adamawa State University at Mubi Adamawa state in Nigeria with public administration students found that, only 1.68% of the respondents indicated they were motivated by interest in the courses leading to the profession. This may be an indication that sometimes choices are made because of ignorance, inexperience, peer pressure, advice from friends, parental ambitions for them, unnecessary competition with friends and mates and the encouragement by teachers or as a result of the prestige attached to these occupations. Sometimes when students realize the incompatibility of programmes to either their abilities and or expected goals, they try to change their programmes sometimes without the knowledge of their parents, may be an indication of the lack of self-determination in their career choice-making. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When students are unable to cope with their academic work; they may drop out or struggle through their programmes without completing or they may develop negative tendencies such as absenteeism and apathy, and to prevent the shame of being withdrawn, they may engage in all sorts of academic fraud like examination malpractices (Sababa & Benson, 2010). In this era of stiff competition in university admissions, students are sometimes compelled to offer programmes whether they meet their desired occupational goals and needs or not. Just like all other universities, the Regional Maritime University admits students based on their academic performance without the consideration of what specific factors influenced their preferences. An empirical investigation into the sort of goals required by individuals from work is likely to throw more light on the fundamental question of why people work (Harpaz, 1990) and therefore why they choose specific work career or occupation. Although much research has been done in the area of factors that influence occupational choice and preference, as observed in identified literature, little attention has been paid to how extrinsic and intrinsic values influence career choice of Maritime students’ occupational preferences and more importantly, little was identified to have been done to find how these intrinsic and intrinsic values influence career preference amongst students of Regional Maritime University Accra Ghana. This study, therefore, seeks to find out the factors that motivated Regional Maritime University students in their occupational preferences and the extent to which these factors influenced them. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to find out factors that influence the occupational preferences of students of the Regional Maritime University Accra Ghana. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to find out, • If there are differences in factors that motivate the occupational preferences of males and female students. • If there are differences in factors that motivate the occupational preferences of Ghanaian and international students. • If there are differences in factors that influence occupational preferences of students from the different programmers. • The relative importance of the motivational factors in the occupational preference of the students. 1.5 Significance of the Study It will inform students and authorities of Regional Maritime University to understand factors that influence occupational preferences (programme selection) and put in necessary measures to help students choose programmes that will satisfy their needs. 1.6 Organization of the Work The whole study was organized in five chapters. The first chapter included the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the objectives of the study, the purpose of the study, the significance of the study and the way the study was organized. Chapter two reviewed related literature and the theoretical framework. Chapter three focused on the methodology 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh used for the study, research procedure, method of collecting data and analysis. Chapter four dealt with results and summary of results and the fifth chapter covered the discussion, summary of the major findings, conclusions, recommendations and suggestions for future studies. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the theoretical framework and continues with a thorough review of literature related to the present study. Statement of hypotheses and operational definitions of terms are also presented here. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework of this study is rooted in John Holland’s Theory of Vocational Personalities and Work Environments (Holland, 1959, 1966b, 1973, 1985, 1997c cited in Nauta, 2010) also referred to as John Holland’s Career Typology Theory of Vocational Behaviour (Osipow, 1983) and Self- Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Brown (2002) asserted that Holland’s typological theory of persons and environments is considered the most influential when it comes to career counseling. John Holland’s Career Typology Theory of Vocational Behaviour (Osipow, 1983) holds that most people; including college students can be classified into the following six ideal vocational personality types: Realistic (R), Investigative (I), Artistic (A), Social (S), Enterprising (E) and Conventional (C) (RIASEC). Each type is characterized by a constellation of interests, preferred activities, beliefs, abilities, values, and characteristics (Nauta, 2010). The distinctive attributes of each of these six personality types constitute the psychological component of the theory. Holland’s theory also proposes six similar work or educational environments (the sociological component), and offers a hexagonal model that can be used to assess the level of fit or congruence between individuals and their 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environments, which is the congruence component (Smart, Feldman & Ethington, 2006). The environments of college and university campuses, fields and programmes of study, work positions, and occupations can thus be classified using the RIASEC system (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996 cited in Reardon & Bullock 2004). Initially, Holland studied incumbents in particular environments to classify occupations and colleges, but he later moved to study the characteristics of the environment independent of the persons in it. College catalogues and descriptions of academic disciplines were among the public records he used to study these institutional environments (Reardon & Bullock, 2004). Holland and his colleagues developed various resources that can be used to identify occupations and academic majors associated with each personality type. The Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (DHOC) can be used to identify the occupations associated with each personality type (Gottfredson & Holland, 1996 cited in Smart, Feldman & Ethington, 2006). The DHOC classified all occupations included in the entire Dictionary of Occupational Titles into the six personality types included in Holland’s theory (U. S. Department of Labor, 1977 cited in Smart, Feldman & Ethington, 2006). The College Majors Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1989 cited in Smart, Feldman & Ethington, 2006) and The Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, & Holland, 1997) classified over 900 college majors according to their resemblance to the distinctive interests, skills, and abilities of the six personality types that may be used to identify academic majors associated with each personality type. Instruments such as Position Classification Inventory, a direct theory-based measure of occupational environments and the Environmental Identity Scale were developed for the measuring of environments. These instruments made it possible to study college faculty and their effects on college students (Reardon & Bullock, 2004). Studies have shown that people flourish in their work environments when there is a good fit between their personality type and the characteristics of the environments. Lack of 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh congruence between personality and environment leads to dissatisfaction, unstable career paths, and lowered performance (Holland, 1996 cited in Smart, Feldman & Ethington, 2006). While Holland’s theory was first and foremost intended to assist individuals to select careers in which they had the greatest likelihood of success, the premises of the theory were equally applicable in educational settings (Smart, 2003). For example, Holland (1997) cited in Smart (2003) reported that the hypotheses about educational behavior derived from the personality types resembled those for vocational behavior. According to Reardon and Bullock (2004), Holland’s early work with the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) and the American College Testing Program enabled him to look at colleges and academic disciplines as environments. It is worth noting that the RIASEC theory had its roots in higher education and later focused on occupations. Holland’s theory states that the choice of a vocation or a university major is an expression of an individual’s personality therefore students search for and select academic environments that match their distinctive patterns of abilities, interests and personality profiles (Feldman, Ethington & Smart, 2001). In other words, people search for environments that allow them to fully express their interests, skills, attitudes and values. That is an environment in which individuals expect to get the opportunity to engage in activities that interest them as well as develop their full potentials. When people consider occupations with respect to what they would prefer to do, they search for occupations in which they know they can perform without any hindrance in terms of ability and inherent qualities. A variety of qualitative and quantitative methods may be used to assess a person’s personality type. Among the qualitative methods that can be used is the observation of a person’s expression of preferences for occupations, actually engaging in that occupation or enrolling in an educational or training programme that will eventually enable the person to enter the occupation that is characteristic of a specific personality type. For example, a person may 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh either express interest to become a marine engineer, may currently be employed as a marine engineer, may be planning to major in marine engineering, or currently be enrolled as a marine engineering major. Any one or combinations of these four kinds of information results in the person being classified as a Realistic personality type because marine engineering is one of the occupations and academic majors that can be defined as Realistic type. Thus, using the qualitative methods, an individual’s personality type can be defined by his or her preference for or selection of a particular occupation or academic major that has been shown to be representative of the respective personality types (Holland, 1997 cited in Smart et al. 2006). The selection of an academic major is an extension of an individual’s personality. It is an expressive act that reflects an individual’s motivation, knowledge, personality, and ability. He further explained that occupations represent a way of life, an environment, and not just a set of isolated work functions or skills (Holland, 1997 cited in Longley, 2007). Due to this, work environments become populated with individuals who have similar or related occupational personality types creating an environment conducive for their own personality types to work in (Smart et al. 2006). People, therefore, find environments reinforcing and satisfying when the environmental patterns resemble their own personality patterns. This situation makes for stability of behaviour because individuals in the said environment receive a lot of selective reinforcement of their behaviour. Not only do people seek work environment that resemble their personality types but they also choose academic environments that satisfy their needs and that which allow them to follow through with their occupational preferences. The theory holds that ‘self-selection students’ choose academic environments that are compatible with their personality types and those academic environments reinforce and reward their different talents. People, therefore, flourish in environments congruent with their personality type (Weidman, 2005). 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is, therefore, likely that students in an industry-specific institution like Regional Maritime University were attracted to that environment due to the similarities in their personalities. Each of these six personality types are related to meeting a need and individuals can thus be categorized into one or more of these types. In other words the personality type of an individual determines the type of need he or she will expect or require a preferred occupation to satisfy. Career preference, therefore, is a need fulfilling process which involves individuals searching for work environments that are congruent with their personality type and in so doing fulfill their needs which underlie their work values. The six personality types; Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional can best be described using both descriptors and examples of occupations which would match each type. These descriptors explain why individuals find themselves being pulled towards certain occupations and educational or training programmes. Realistic people prefer activities that are explicit and precise. Activities are ordered and allow the systematic manipulation of objects, tools, machines, and animals. They, however, avoid educational and interpersonal activities. These behavioral tendencies of Realistic people lead to the acquisition of manual, mechanical, agricultural, electrical, and technical competencies in order to be able to practice in such fields. They are not motivated, however, to acquire competencies in the social and educational fields. Realistic people perceive themselves as practical and conservative, having mechanical, technical, and athletic abilities, and as lacking ability in social skills. They value material rewards such as money, power, and status for tangible accomplishments. This means they are more motivated by extrinsic reward-oriented work values. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Investigative people prefer activities that involve the observational, symbolic, systematic, and creative investigation of physical, biological, and cultural phenomena in order to understand and control such phenomena. They avoid persuasive, social, and repetitive activities. These behavioral tendencies of Investigative people make them acquire scientific and mathematical competencies. They do not desire to develop persuasive and leadership abilities. These people perceive themselves as cautious, critical, complex, curious, independent, precise, rational, and scholarly, and value the development or acquisition of knowledge. Meaning they are more likely to be motivated by intrinsic work values. Artistic people on the other hand prefer ambiguous, free, and unsystematized activities that involve the manipulation of physical, verbal, or human materials to create art forms or products. They avoid routine activities and activities that will demand conformity to established rules. These behavioral tendencies of Artistic people lead, in turn, to the acquisition of artistic competencies such as language, art, music, drama, writing skills and to a deficit in clerical and business system competencies. Artistic people perceive themselves as expressive, original, intuitive, nonconforming, introspective, independent, emotional, and sensitive, and value the creative expression of ideas, emotions, or sentiments. These are also likely to be influenced by intrinsic values of self-expression. When it comes to Social people, they prefer activities that involve the manipulation of others. They like to inform, train, develop, cure, or enlighten others, and they avoid explicit, ordered, systematic activities involving materials, tools, or machines. These behavioral tendencies of Social people make them acquire human relations competencies such as interpersonal and educational skills and not manual and technical abilities. Social people perceive themselves as cooperative, empathetic, generous, helpful, idealistic, responsible, tactful, understanding, 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and warm, and value fostering the welfare of others and social service. These are also more likely to be motivated by people-oriented work values. Enterprising people prefer activities that involve the manipulation of others to attain organizational goals or economic gain, and avoid scientific, intellectual, and abstruse or complex activities. These behavioral tendencies of enterprising people make them acquire leadership, interpersonal, speaking, and persuasive competencies and to a deficit in scientific ability. Enterprising people perceive themselves as aggressive, ambitious, domineering, energetic, extroverted, optimistic, popular, self-confident, sociable, and talkative. These people also value material accomplishment and social status. They are, therefore, more likely to be motivated by extrinsic reward-oriented work values. Conventional people also prefer activities that involve the explicit, ordered, systematic manipulation of data such as keeping records, filing and reproducing materials, and organizing written and numerical data according to a prescribed plan. They avoid ambiguous and unstructured undertakings. These behavioral tendencies of Conventional people lead in turn to the acquisition of clerical, computational, and business system competencies and to a deficit in artistic competencies. Conventional people perceive themselves as careful, conforming, orderly, and as having clerical and numerical ability. They value material and financial accomplishment and power in social, business, and political arenas. Just like the enterprising type they are also likely to be motivated by extrinsic reward-oriented values. However, since most people, in reality are combinations of types like Realistic-Investigative, or Artistic-Social. It is possible for an individual to be influenced by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors but with different level of importance. Individuals may also 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh want to consider occupations in more than one category and this explains why people may have first, second and third choices of occupations (Smart et al. 2006). Sometimes the six personality types (Holland Codes) combine in unusual ways in people. For example the Investigative (I) and Enterprising (E) types are opposite in behavioral tendencies. It is, therefore, not normally expected that an individual will have the two as his or her two personality types. Investigative people generally avoid leading, selling or persuading people. Enterprising people are just the opposite; they like these activities. There are two other ‘inconsistent’ two-letter codes; Realistic-Social (RS or SR) and conventional-Artistic (CA or AC). Such people may need the guidance of career counselors to help them make appropriate career decisions. There are many occupations and college majors that attract persons with inconsistent personality patterns where they will be at an advantage. For example, Social-Realistic and Realistic-Social, can choose to become teachers of agriculture, forestry officers, work in career and technical education, and technology, become recreational therapists, bus drivers, physical therapists, career in athletic training, sports medicine and occupational therapists. The advantage is that, a person with SR or RS code might be attracted to becoming a technical education teacher or marine engineering teacher and excel in it. Likewise, people who have Enterprising-Investigative or Investigative- Enterprising personalities can become sales engineers, urban and regional planners, managers in engineering, mathematics, and natural sciences, sociologists, scientific reporters and editors of technical or scientific publications. The advantage is that people in investigative fields, like science and engineering, people who have an Investigative-Enterprising personality can more easily move into a managerial or leadership positions or start their own 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh businesses, than Investigative people who do not have a strong Enterprising personality (Jones, 2015). Holland’s Theory of occupational choice is related to this study because it explains the framework behind student’s preferences for not only occupations but also educational majors and how these satisfy their work values due to their personality types. It explains why individuals are attracted to the occupations and academic environments that are compatible with their own personality types. By inference, individuals display their personality by the environment they choose to study and work in which in turn is an expression of their work values. The theory states that people may have specific personality types or they may have combination of types, which means that the factors that influence occupational preferences are complicated and not straightforward. People are likely to be influenced by various factors but with relative importance depending on their dominant personality type. These factors are the personal longing or needs that the individual desires to fulfill by engaging in occupational activities and they can be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic values. The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) explains these extrinsic and intrinsic values extensively. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT) of Motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000), the factors that motivate individuals’ occupational preferences can be grouped into two categories; intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The theory explains that Intrinsic motivation implies doing something because it is inherently interesting or enjoyable, a self- motivated kind of response. This love for specific activities probably due to the individual’s special aptitude and abilities make people perceive jobs as a means of expressing themselves. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For instance, some individuals may prefer to be in certain occupations just because it will give them opportunity to work with other people, serve others, help the less fortunate or allow them to extensively use their hands or express their creativity. When people select occupations because they enjoy the work itself we can classify such individuals as having been intrinsically motivated. Some individuals are fond of certain subjects and this fondness for school subjects which bear upon the profession can also be intrinsic motivations which make people go into certain careers. On the other hand, extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because of some external push or pressure such as when an individual’s occupational preference is as a result of the influence of parents, teachers, friends, or the influence of books, radio, television and role models or due to the fear of some form of punishment from significant others or society. When an occupation is selected because of the external rewards of good salary, improved social status and prestige, good working conditions such as opportunity to travel, safe and secure future the person is said to be extrinsically motivated. These rewards and punishments on which preferences are based may be immediate, anticipatory, real or imagined but will still influence occupational preference of the person concerned. The self-determination theory holds that motivations are learnt behaviours that develop as people interact with their environment. There are environmental factors that develop, improve, weaken or thwart intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. The learning experiences an individual encounter in the society and the feedback she or he receives from significant others about his or her behaviour, will form the basis of the individual’s work values and hence his occupational motivation; whether extrinsic or intrinsic. Positive feedback from significant others improves intrinsic motivation and negative feedback diminish it. By inference, the positive feedback students receive from parents, teachers and other important individuals in their lives can influence the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development of intrinsic work values which in turn will influence their occupational preferences. These reinforcement processes are similar to the associative and instrumental learning processes in the Social Learning Theory of Career Decision-Making, an indication of the development of intrinsic life goals through social interactions (Ryan & Deci, 2000). When students buy into the aspirations of parents, friends and/or role models, they come to accept their values and identify with what they believe in because they realize that the values equally serve their purpose and life goals. This will explain why the occupational values of teachers, parents and role models can be integrated into the value system of students in such a way that they may believe that they are intrinsically motivated. It is, therefore, not strange for a student to accept that he was inspired by a role model to choose a career and at the same time claim that it is something he or she had wanted to do since childhood because of the interest he or she had in it. Hence, an individual can be motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic values. Certain occupations are a practical reflection of people’s value-system. The value system one holds, places a kind of limit on the flexibility of and type of occupational choices that an individual can make. For example, someone who places a lot of value on material acquisition will not choose the teaching profession. Each profession thus has scales of values attributed to it (Makinde & Alao, 1987). Due to the fact that extrinsic behaviours are not inherently interesting, the main reason that will make people engage in such behaviours is to see that these behaviours are valued by significant others to whom they feel (or would like to feel) connected to. This may be a family member, a peer or peer group, teacher and other role models. Considerable empirical work within the Self Determination Theory has focused on the long-term goals that people use to guide their activities. Empirically, these goals fall into two general categories that have been labeled intrinsic aspirations and extrinsic aspirations. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Intrinsic aspirations include such life goals as affiliation and personal development, whereas extrinsic aspirations include such goals as wealth, fame, and attractiveness. What this means is that individuals with extrinsic life goals will be motivated by extrinsic factors to select occupations that help them to achieve these and individuals with intrinsic life goals will value intrinsic factors as determinants of their occupational preferences. While genetic, learning experiences and environmental factors are shaping the individual’s motivation for occupational preferences, there will be other factors that concurrently impact on the person to value either intrinsic or extrinsic motivational factors or both, and the self-concept developed. The Self-Determination Theory provides a theoretical framework that classifies the motivational factors on which people base their preferences on into extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. All the factors that motivate individuals to prefer one occupation instead of the other such as the need to use hands, help others or to gain power status can be put into two main categories based on whether it is a means to an end or an end in itself. The Self-Determination Theory is used to support this study because the theory focuses on, and explains intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. It also focuses on how individual life goals can be categorized into intrinsic and extrinsic life aspirations of the individual, which are conditioned by social and environmental factors to become determinants of occupational preference and choice. The tenets of the Self-Determination Theory support the categorization of the motivational factors used for this study. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Review of Related Studies The review of the related studies covered factors that motivate occupational preference by gender, educational programmes and nationality and factors that influence career development. 2.3.1 Factors That Motivate Occupational Preference Work values can be analyzed at individual and cross-national level. Among the most important attributes that have been used to analyze work values are gender, age and nationality. With regards to gender, it has often been asserted that male employees were typically more concerned about extrinsic work values such as income, whereas women rated social values such as having pleasant colleagues and the opportunity to meet other people as more important (Hauff & Kirchner, 2015). There are conflicting findings regarding the influence of generation. Cennamo and Gardner (2008) cited in Hauff and Kirchner (2015) found no significant generational differences in intrinsic and extrinsic values. In contrast, Twenge, Campbell, Hoffman and Lance (2010) cited in Hauff and Kirchner (2015) found that younger generations rated extrinsic values higher and intrinsic values lower than older generations. With regards to the relative importance of specific work values in different countries, the large scale economic development and technological innovation has resulted in an overall cultural basic value change all over the world (Inglehart & Baker, 2000 as cited in Berring, Kumari & Ahuja) and that materialistic values have become more important in less developed countries. It has been observed, however, that the importance of these materialistic values decreases with increasing economic development (Inglehart 1997 cited in Hauff and Kirchner 2015). These variations in work values of countries, gender and generation affect 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occupational preferences of individuals and several studies have been conducted on ascertain this. Judge and Bretz (1992) studied the effects of work values on job choice decisions by clearly linking work values to job choice decisions. The study was conducted using students enrolled in four professional degree classes at a university in the Northeastern U.S. and to students enrolled in several graduate classes at a large Midwestern university. Respondents from the Northeast University came from several degree programmes. Sixty-seven students representing a response rate of 77% completed surveys. The response rates between the two university samples were not significantly different and mixed experimental design was used in the study. Respondents were between the ages of 20 and 49 years and their previous job experiences ranged from no prior experience to 17 years of experience. Sixteen percent of respondents were married, seventy-nine percent of them were white, and 64% were women. The influence of work values on job choice was examined using job attributes that had previously been proven to affect job choice decision process. Seven characteristics of job alternatives (pay, promotion opportunities and type of work) and four value factors were used in the study. Work values were assessed by the Comparative Emphasis Scale (CES). The CES has 12 statements which described each of the four values. These 48 statements were divided into pairs such that a statement representing each of the four values was paired with each value four times. For each pair, the individual was asked to check which value he or she felt should be emphasized most in their own behavior. Each of the four comparison replications was then randomized in order and in the value that appeared first in each pair. The results of the study suggested that value congruence predicted job choice. Work values were found to exhibit significant effects on job choice decisions. In addition, individuals were more likely to choose jobs that had value content similar to their own value orientations and that the influence of fit on job choice was dependent on the importance of the factor to the 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh individual involved. The results also indicated that across value groups, all the job values had the greatest effect when the value was consistent with the main value orientation of the individual (this was true for all values except fairness). A probable limitation of the study was that because each individual responded to 128 scenarios, it was possible that respondent fatigue may have affected the results however; the researchers stated that the study was not affected by respondent fatigue. This study indicated that people’s work values play a significant role in their occupational preferences and choices. Two years before the research by Judge and Bretz (1992), Harpaz (1990) had conducted a research to also investigate what people desired from working using a representative sample of the labour force in seven countries. The data was collected between 1981 and 1983 from random samples of the labour force in Belgium, Great Britain, West Germany, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands and the United States. The data analyzed in the study was part of a larger multinational, comparative project on the meaning of working (MOW). The sample size was 8,192 respondents who were randomly selected through various random methods (stepwise random household identification, random choice among those who fell within prescribed categories and random quota sampling). Professional interviewers from national opinion survey agencies and other highly trained interviewers interviewed respondents individually. Comparisons with census data in each country showed a high degree of representativeness in the samples (MOW, 1987 cited in Harpaz, 1990). Five major industries and professions in each country were used. These were, professionals (teachers, engineers, technical and other related workers), administrative and management, clerical and related workers, services (sales workers, wholesale/retail trade, catering and lodging services, and other services) and production (construction, equipment operators, tool-makers, machine tool operators, blacksmiths, spinners, weavers, agriculture, and other production-related workers). The items of the questionnaire used included eleven aspects of work or work goals and respondents 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were asked to evaluate the importance of each. Each work goal was considered separately to determine its relative importance using the mean rank in each country for each of the eleven work goals. The results indicated that ‘Interesting Work’ and ‘Good Pay’ were the two most dominant work goals for the respondents. These were consistent internationally across different organizational levels, between genders and among different age groups. Respondents in four countries ranked “Interesting Work" as the most important aspect of their work lives (Belgium, Britain, Israel and the U.S.). Respondents in the remaining three countries (Japan, the Netherlands and West Germany) ranked it second or third. A similar trend was discovered even when type of work and educational level were controlled for. Next were the work goals of "Good Job Security", "A Good Match between You and Your Job" and "A Lot of Autonomy". For these work goals, there were significant differences between countries. The work goals of “A Lot of Opportunity to Learn New Things” and “A Lot of Variety” followed. The rankings of these goals also varied considerably among the seven countries. The next work goals were "Convenient Work Hours" and "Good Physical Working Conditions". The major difference with these two work goals was that British workers rated the "Convenient Work Hours” significantly more important than did workers in the other countries. "Opportunity for Upgrading or Promotion” consistently ranked tenth or eleventh in all countries except Israel, where it ranked eighth in the order of importance. With the results of the analysis of work goals according to gender, “interesting Work" ranked first, for both sexes. However “Good Pay" was ranked higher by men than by women. "Good Interpersonal Relations" received an overall ranking of second in importance among women but only average importance to male supervisors and managers. "Good Match between Job Requirements and One’s Abilities" was significantly more important for women than for men. Only small differences were demonstrated between the sexes with regard to "Job Security. “A Lot of Autonomy" was significantly more important for men than for women 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and the female population found the facet of "Convenient Work Hours" significantly more important than men. This finding is a statement that, the most important factors that influence individuals from different countries to work, irrespective of age, gender or organization, are both intrinsic (interesting work) and extrinsic (good pay). This is also empirical evidence that there are significant differences in the level at which intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors influence men and women in diverse occupations from different countries. However, the respondents used for this study were from developed countries and although it was likely that some of the respondents may have migrated from developing countries, staying in developed countries may have affected their work values and therefore the results may not have reflected the work values of professionals in developing countries. It also appears that none of the professionals used were directly from the maritime industry hence the need to explore the work values of students aspiring to enter the maritime industry as well. Nenty (2002) was interested in comparing the motivation for occupational preferences of professionals and students. He investigated whether motivational factors influenced occupational choice or preferences of practicing professionals and students who aspire for related occupations differently or not. He also investigated how the influences of these motivational factors on job choice or preference differ across various professions. He administered the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) to 205 professionals and 300 students. The findings of the study showed that external influence, extrinsic reward- oriented values, self-expression values, and people-oriented values tended to influence students preference of occupations significantly more than they influenced professionals’ choice of these occupations. The results also showed that there were significant differences in the level at which these motivational factors influence the occupational preferences of professionals and students across different occupations. In other words professionals from different occupations are influenced differently by these motivational factors. Likewise, 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh students who were pursuing different professional programmes were also influenced differently by these same factors in their occupational preferences. Kalvaitiene, Bartusevičiene and Sencila (2011) also studied the relationship between motives of choosing maritime professions and students’ approaches to learning. The sample used was made up of 233 full-time students with maritime specialties’ studying at Lithuanian Maritime Academy. The sample comprised ninety-five percent of all maritime specialty students from all programmes (145 Marine Navigation students and 88 Marine Engineering students). Factor analysis was used to analyze students’ motivation for choosing seafarer professions and the results indicated that the motives of choosing seafaring professions of the great majority of the young people were ‘Good Salary’, ‘Possibility To Maintain Family Welfare’, ‘Career Possibilities’, ‘Wish to Acquire Education’, ‘Seafarer Work is Responsible’, ‘Seafarers are Valuated as Specialists’ and ‘Seafarer Profession is One of The Most Perspectives For Those Who Live In Seaside Regions’, ‘Seafaring Work Seemed To Be Very Interesting’ and ‘Dream To Become A Captain Or Chief Mechanic’. The findings of this study also confirmed that the factors that predetermined the choice of seafaring as a profession were both external (extrinsic) and internal (intrinsic). The purpose of a paper by Gokaldas (2010) was to identify how undergraduate engineering students differ in their perception about software services companies in India based on variables like gender, locations of the college and branches of engineering. Data was obtained from 560 undergraduate engineering students who had multiple job offers from four major Indian companies through campus recruitment drives. Data was analyzed using the Chi‐square test, cross tabulation and multi‐nominal regressions. The findings of his research indicated that the undergraduate engineering students he researched on were influenced mostly by intrinsic reasons rather than extrinsic or interpersonal reasons. The findings also 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicated that while male students were greatly influenced by intrinsic reasons, female students were more influenced by extrinsic reasons. He also reported that students from different locations and different branches of engineering were equally motivated by varying extrinsic and intrinsic influencing factors for their job preferences. The researcher, however, was of the view that findings of the study could not be generalized as it involved students from only three engineering colleges in south India. He suggested that a survey involving students from different strata across India would have enabled scholars to capture more insight into the perceptions of engineering students. Five years later Bering, Kumara and Ahuja (2015) researched on the impact of personal values on choice of academic disciplines of young adults in the eastern society. Data was collected using stratified random sampling from different institutes of Punjab who were offering these courses. The study focused on the comparative analysis of value orientation of 400 students of two educational fields from different colleges of Punjab, India using the Aspiration Index. Findings indicated that students offering programmes in the arts and humanities were more influenced by intrinsic values and those in business and technical streams were influenced less by intrinsic values and those students offering programmes in the business and technical fields assigned more importance to extrinsic values. According to Bering, Kumara and Ahuja (2015), a lot of research has been done on the value systems of business students, psychology students, education students, real estate professionals and management students and all these studies found that people who aspire for careers in the human services and helping professions such as social work, teaching and nursing, place less value on status, competitiveness, power and prestige, and more value on people and society, while these values are very important for people with Mathematics, Science, Management, Business, Engineering and Technical career aspirations. The researchers, thus, concluded that students studying programmes in the fields of arts and humanities showed more intrinsic 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh value orientation as compared to students studying in the business and technical field. The finding is an indication that people from different academic disciplines have different value orientations. Individuals who choose programmes in the arts and humanities were likely to be more focused towards contributing to community and helping other people whereas the individuals in Business and Technical fields were usually more concerned about how to accumulate wealth and acquire improved social statuses and prestigious social images (Kisser & Eluvia, 2002 as cited in Bering, Kumara & Ahuja, 2015). The findings also indicated further that there was gender differences in the way people were motivated to undertake various occupations. They asserted that women focused on maintaining meaningful and intimate relationships, contributing to community and working for the betterment of society. Women aspire to live a meaningful life and learn new things through personal growth therefore females were basically more motivated by intrinsic values. In contrast, the research findings suggested that males valued extrinsic motivators and primarily showed the need to satisfy materialistic needs such as being financially successful and owning expensive things that become their status symbols. The study also concluded that males loved to become popular, maintain good public image and be admired. These things were of priority to them than to women. However, when even women from the business and technical fields and those in the humanities were compared, it was observed that females of arts/humanities were more oriented towards the intrinsic values, whereas the business/technical females were comparatively less intrinsically oriented. This study, however, had some limitations according the researchers. They were of the opinion that if other possible intervening variables affecting the results such as birth order of the respondents, occupation of their parents and family patterns had been controlled, the results could have been more valuable. Secondly, the study was not conducted across cultures to investigate the gradual change in the value orientations of young adults across cultures. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Beutel and Marini (1995) had examined gender differences in the fundamental value orientations of U.S. adolescents. They developed three measures of value orientation to measure compassion, which reflected concern and responsibility for the well-being of others; materialism, which also reflected emphasis on material benefit and competition; and meaning, which reflected philosophical concern with finding purpose and meaning in life. The findings revealed that there were substantial gender differences on all the three measures. Females expressed concern and responsibility for the well being of others than males were. Females were also less likely than males to accept materialism and competition, thus finding purpose and meaning in life was extremely important to females more than males. This was an indication that extrinsic values were more important to males than to females and intrinsic values were more important to females than males. These differences in the values of male and female regarding intrinsic and extrinsic values were observed throughout the period from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s and did not decrease. They were also the same across social class subgroups and could not be explained by gender differences in religiosity or the perceived availability of social support. In the following year, Marini, Fan, Finley and Beutel (1996) reported on another study that investigated gender differences in the job values of U.S. high school seniors from 1976 to 1991. Unlike the earlier studies of job values, the study found no gender differences in the importance of extrinsic rewards and influence, they found that extrinsic values influenced male and female students equally but found persisting gender differences in the importance of intrinsic, altruistic, and social rewards. The findings indicated that young women attached greater importance to intrinsic, altruistic, and social rewards than did young men. Female also attached less importance to the leisure-related aspects of jobs. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh González, Semjonovs, Bogdaņecs and Ozola (2014) conducted a research in the maritime industry with the purpose of investigating the factors that motivated young people to choose seafaring professions by region and gender. A sequential mixed-method study was conducted, using questionnaire to gather data at the Novikontas Maritime College, in Riga, among participants of the concourse “Enkurs” aged between 16 and 19 years who were interested in the maritime profession. The study showed that the main reasons for the choice of seafaring as an occupation were all extrinsic factors. The students reported being motivated to choose their occupations because of the likelihood of getting stable employments, the opportunity to travel and see new places; followed by the good salary they anticipated getting. The findings also indicated that, the main factors that made young people decide against choosing maritime occupations were the fact that they will have to leave family for a long time and that maritime studies were too expensive to be afforded by many young people and their families. There were statistically significant differences in the factors that influenced the occupational preferences of people from different regions and between male and female students. The respondents from Latvian regions were more attracted by teamwork in the maritime industry than respondents from other regions. For respondents from Rigasaw, the lack of family life was unimportant to them compared to youngsters from other regions. Male respondents were more attracted by the good salary they were likely to get and the prestige attached to the profession than females. However, female respondents were more attracted by travelling opportunities and more concerned about negative influences seafarer work was likely to have on their health than men. These findings confirmed that although both male and female seafarers were attracted to the profession by extrinsic factors some factors influenced males and females differently. However, the researchers indicated that findings of recent 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh studies did not support the opinion of these professional seafarers especially the opinion about family life difficulties, cost of studies and anticipated health problems. Dragomir and Surugiu (2013) reported on a study that investigated the perception of women regarding their main motivation for choosing a maritime career, the most likely problems in their career offshore and their motives for their likelihood of quitting their jobs. They found that over fifty percent of these women reported that the main motivation for choosing occupations in shipping was the high income associated with such occupations. This finding may imply that more women in seafaring and shipping careers are relatively more inclined to selecting their occupations based on extrinsic factors than those in some other industries. Dragomir and Surugiu (2013) observed that offshore wage was more than attractive compared to onshore remuneration in Romania. For example, in May 2013 the Romanian on- st shore wage was 172.83 Euros and the minimum basic wage established for 1 January 2013 by the International Labour Organization (ILO) was the equivalent of 441.11 Euros. Wages for senior seafaring and managerial positions were increased. However, a little more than thirty-eight percent of the respondents indicated that what motivated them to join seafaring was the prospect of career advancement in the marine profession. Respondents ranked the importance of their motivational factors in the following order: the income, on first place, followed by the prospect of career advancement and attraction to the sea or to marine profession. Family encouragement and the intention to continue the family tradition were ranked as the least important factors of influence for choosing a maritime occupation. The problems anticipated by respondents were the discrimination by men and sexual harassment, followed by difficulties in operating mechanical equipments, risk of accident, isolation, fatigue and increased workload. Many of the respondents believed it was difficult to work as a female navigator and most of them stated that they will quit their professions early because 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of family reasons. It seemed the influence of family and family traditions were not as influential as remuneration and job security and advancement when they were considering occupations in the shipping industry. The study was conducted in Romania where offshore remuneration was obviously more attractive than onshore. This may have affected respondents’ motivation for their preferences of maritime occupations. The importance of economic factors as influence for the choice of maritime professions was also identified by Barbare and Berzins (2013). The study was to determine the perceptions of potential students in high schools in Latvia and the students in Latvian Maritime Academy (LMA) regarding the nobility of the seafaring profession. The aim of the study was to create awareness of the state of the maritime industry to educational institutions and companies providing recruitment services to both existing seafarers and potential seafaring professionals who were working in the maritime industry, either combined with a service at sea or as trainee officers. In gathering the data 70 LMA students (30% of the total number of students in LMA 2013 spring semester) and 70 students who are interested in studying at LMA were interviewed to. The results revealed that just like in other European highly industrialized countries, the youth in Latvia were no longer interested in the seafaring profession. Working on board ships was becoming less attractive for students coming out of the schools and colleges. The results indicated that the acquisition of material incentives in today’s consumer society had become the key motivational factor in the search for professions and potential occupational choices. Potential students in their responses overwhelmingly stressed the salary as a key motivating factor for wanting to work in the maritime industry. Slightly fewer respondents identified opportunities to combine work with traveling. Criteria such as romance, job prestige, experience, exciting work, career growth, language learning, stable 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employment, fitness, marine uniforms and discipline were considered to be much less significant to them compared to the possibility to obtain a decent salary for the work done. The results showed that the motives for choosing the profession of the great majority of young people were determined mainly by economic factors (good salary, possibility to maintain family welfare, career possibilities), social factors (wish to acquire education, seafarer’s work is responsible, seafarers are valuated as specialists, seafarer’s profession is one of the most perspective for those who live in seaside region) and psychological factors (seafarer’s work seemed to be very interesting, dream to become a captain or chief mechanic). The study confirmed that both external (extrinsic) and internal (intrinsic) factors predetermine the choice of seafarers’ profession. An overwhelming majority of potential students indicated that the most negative attribute to the work in the maritime sector were long-term absence during a trip, which denies appropriate contact with relatives. A relatively small proportion indicated the hazards of the profession and directly related them to potential health problems. The respondents indicated ‘health problems’ without reinforcing the concept of potential danger involved with a maritime profession. Only a few of the potential students surveyed had recognized good physical shape and fitness as one of the positive attributes of employment in the maritime sector. Feiand Lu (2015) also confirmed that wage was considered as the one of the most important factors when it comes to the maritime industry. The study was on students’ perceptions of seafaring career in China based on artificial neural network and genetic programming. The aims of the study were to examine the motives of students studying nautical courses; identify the key factors that motivated them to choose seafaring career, and to predict students’ career choice behavior. The research findings indicated that students who had a clear sense of their future career when they were enrolling in the nautical studies tend to choose seafaring careers 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and remain active for a longer period of time. The study also found that high wage was the most important factor that affected students’ decisions to choose seafaring as a career. However, prolonged separation from family, job opportunities ashore, and concern for children’s growth and education were among the top three factors that students indicated as factors that will make them not to choose a seafaring career or to quit it early. A study by Caesar, Cahoonand Fei (2015) also drew attention to the key factors that motivate people to become seafarers in traditional maritime nations from an Australian perspective. Probability sampling method was used to generate the needed sample. Their findings of a web-based survey that were received from 198 ship officers in Australia through key gatekeepers within the Australian shipping industry, confirmed that “interest in the lifestyle at sea” and “the prospect of earning good salary or wage” were the two top ranked factors influencing the respondents’ decisions to become seafarers. Caesar, Cahoonand Fei (2015) also asserted that although non-economic factors continue to be one of the main factors that influenced Australians’ decisions to become seafarers as was common among their counterparts from other developed nations, high monetary rewards has become a characteristic of the Australian shipping industry.The researchers revealed that there were previous findings that suggested that non-economic factors have lost their ability to motivate even people in developed nations to become seafarers. In another study by Aguado, Laguador and Deligero (2015) to determine factors affecting the choice of school and students’ level of interest towards the maritime programme, they utilized a descriptive type of research method using freshmen maritime students as the respondents. Findings revealed that it was the personal choice of the students to enroll in maritime program in Lyceum of the Philippines University-Batangas (LPU-B) with support 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh primarily from their parents. Students strongly believed also that maritime profession will give them opportunities to travel and this was their number one motivation to pursue the maritime programme. The advice from their brothers and sisters as well as teachers, classmates and friends were also considered in making their occupational decisions. Location of the university was an added incentive since the university was one of the Maritime schools in the Southern part of Luzon in the Philippines. Students from neighbouring towns chose to enroll in Lyceum of the Philippines University-Batangas (LPU-B) instead of going to Manila and other schools in the region or abroad. High interest towards the degree program and opportunity to work aboard were also some of the motivational factors among the students. High interest towards the degree program was an indication that not all students who preferred occupations in the shipping industry were influenced only by extrinsic factors. Some of them chose their occupations based on interest in the profession although these intrinsic influences seemed to be linked to the extrinsic factor of opportunity to work aboard, a confirmation that both intrinsic and extrinsic factors motivate both male and female students to prefer occupations in the maritime industry. Consistent with the study by Aguado, Laguador and Deligero (2015), is a research by Guo, Liang and Ye (2006) in which he developed and tested the influence models of seafaring choice using structural equation modeling to investigate the factors influencing seafaring choices and their corresponding influence paths for Taiwan navigation students. Results revealed that the navigation students considered pay, specific natures of seafaring, advice from families and friends, as well as their personal interests in the profession when making their career choices. The findings again showed that occupational preferences in the maritime industry are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors; however it seems extrinsic 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh factors comparatively influences students’ occupational preferences more than intrinsic values. Almost all the studies identified so far on the reasons for selecting maritime occupation centered on officers or those aspiring to become officers, however a thesis on motivation and lifestyle at sea by Håkansson and Persson, (2008) as cited in Zaarand Hammarstedt (2012) was conducted using students studying in Sweden at Kalmar Maritime Academy to become able bodied seamen and motor men. The study also included those who were already on board working as motor men and able-bodied seamen. Most of the students (92%), were considering studying at a maritime academy to become deck or engine officers. The purpose of the study was to find out why students were studying to become motormen and able bodied seamen and why they chose an occupation at sea. The study was aimed at finding out why active seamen initially chose to work at sea and how they perceived life onboard. Two sets of questionnaire were distributed to active seamen and to students pursuing the shipping programme. The questionnaire sent to students at the shipping program were answered by 25 youths, of whom 12 were studying to become able bodied seamen and 13 to become motormen. The questionnaire was distributed to students who had not yet had any experience of onboard training which could have had an impact on their reasons for going to sea. Out of the ten active seamen who participated in the survey five were working in the deck department and five were working in the engine department. The research findings showed that approximately one third of the respondents answered that a family member working at sea had influenced them. Others indicated that they chose the profession because they liked the sea and 16% said it seemed like a funny and practical work. Other respondents also stated that life at sea seemed like an attractive option however, the highest ranked answer was the beneficial relieving system (32%). Some said they had heard funny stories about life at sea (20%) and a few of them wanted to see the world (16%). Some 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discouraging factors included long periods at sea and difficulty family members will face as a result (24%), high number of work related accidents onboard was also mentioned by 16% of the respondents as a negative aspect of the occupation. Some were also afraid that they might feel lonely and isolated at sea and that they would not be able to have social life at home. Two fifth of the students studying to become motormen stated that one reason for choosing to work in the engine department instead of the deck department was that it was easier to find an employment ashore for engine officers than it was for deck officers. Half of the respondents stated that the relieving system was the main reason for choosing a career at sea. It is worth noting that none of the respondents mentioned high salaries the industry may offer. This maybe because they were not expecting to receive that much due to the fact they were not aspiring to be officers at the time. However, influences of other external variables such as the influence of role models in the family and opportunity to travel were mentioned. Some also indicated they were interested in going to sea; an indication that the participants were motivated by intrinsic values too but by mainly extrinsic factors. The aim of a thesis by Hallerström, Ljungqvist and Tylegard (2008) as cited in Zaar and Hammarstedt (2012) was to identify the factors which were mainly valued by students at Kalmar Maritime Academy when seeking an employer. The survey was conducted using marine engineer and master mariner students. The purpose of this research was to identify how different employer benefits, such as offering a good salary or a beneficial relieving system, were valued by the students. The thesis was also aimed at investigating if and why some students were considering finding employments outside of Sweden. The results indicated that the salary, the possibility to receiving in-service training, the career path, the leisure time onboard, a well-functioning relieving system, employment security and less working hours were the factors that motivated students’ preferences for maritime occupations. The result also showed that two-third of the students who were interested in or 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh planning to work outside Sweden, wanted to do so because of the salary. All these factors were extrinsic indicating that students of Kalmar Maritime Academy were mainly influenced by extrinsic values. Dragomir and Surugiu (2013) carried out a study in Constanta Maritime University with the purpose of identifying the perception of women regarding seafaring. The study used questionnaire designed to target female students and graduates from two specializations: navigation and economic engineering in transports. Twenty-one females were questioned at navigation and economic engineering. The multiple choice questionnaire included questions regarding location, age and maritime studies of the interviewed persons, family tradition in the maritime profession, parents view on the seafarer profession, reasons for choosing maritime profession, problems likely to meet for a woman in the seafaring career, perception of the difficulty in finding such a job and the motivation to quit the seafarer profession. Respondents were allowed to choose more than one answer for a question. Geographical representativeness of respondents was heterogeneous. Almost half the people who responded to the interview were from Constanta County and half from other counties from Romania. There were no foreign female students. Most of the respondents (95.23%) were young people aged between 20 and 25 years. The results indicated that more than fifty percent of the women questioned indicated that the main reason for choosing jobs in shipping was the income and their second reason was the prospect of career advancement in the marine profession. Family encouragement or the intention to continue the family tradition represented less important factors of influence and were placed last despite the fact that more than fifty two percent of respondents had relatives working in the maritime field, more than nine percent of them had fathers who were working in the maritime industry and 4.76% of the respondents also had mothers who were working in the maritime industry. More than sixty-six percent of the women questioned indicated that their parents encouraged them to 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh choose a seafarer job or a job in the maritime field. Interestingly, the parents of more than fourteen percent of the respondents were indifferent towards approving or disapproving the work at sea. This means that these people had self-determined to enroll in a maritime programme without being guided or controlled by their family members. Respondents indicated that discrimination by men and sexual harassment, followed by difficulties in operating mechanical equipment, accident risks, isolation, fatigue and increased workload were the problems they envisaged in a seafarer woman’s career. Respondents also indicated that it was difficult to work as a female navigator and most of them stated that they will quit the job due to family reasons. Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb and Corrigall (2000) did a meta-analysis on sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences. The study meta-analyzed 242 samples collected from 321,672 men and boys and 316,842 women and girls in the United States between 1970 and 1998. Findings indicated that there was a significant sex difference in how 33 of the 40 job attribute preferences examined were preferred by women and men. The study attributed the differences generally to gender roles and stereotypes. The results also showed that job attributes became relatively more important to women and girls in the 1980s and 1990s as compared to the 1970s and that was a clear indication that women's aspirations to obtain job attributes rose as gender barriers to opportunities declined. Since gender barriers to opportunities had declined further since then, women’s aspirations to obtain job attributes in terms of what jobs and occupations have to offer them are likely to rise further in 2016. However, the study did not indicate the type of job attribute preferences that became relatively more important to women and especially, the study did not indicate whether these job attribute preferences were intrinsic or extrinsic. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tsagala and Kordaki (2007) in a paper based on a research conducted on a sample of 113 male and 135 female secondary school students in Greece outlined the factors that influenced the decisions of male and female students to pursue or not to pursue undergraduate studies in computing. All the respondents were 17 year olds and were about to select their future undergraduate programmes. The research was to find out the factors that influenced the decisions of male and female students to either choose or not choose undergraduate studies in Computing. The researcher found that computer science boys were more influenced by financial gain and prestige of the profession. The findings also suggested that students were influenced by their friends’ interest or lack of interest in computing. The opinions of Friends on computer science-based job characteristics also influence them. They discovered that interest and lack of interest of friends in computing seemed to affect males more than females. According to the research findings, friends also played the role of mentors by expressing their high or low interest in computing and their opinion that there was a strong relationship between computing and job security, unemployment and saturation. Both males and females were positively affected by their friends through discussions about job security as well as about the important role of technology in social, financial and everyday life. The negative influences of friends were expressed through their low interest in computing and through discussions regarding computer science-based job characteristics such as difficult work, unemployment and saturation. The high interest in computing by the friends of the students seemed to affect the decisions of more males than females who chose to study Computing. The researchers, thus, concluded that the influence of friends seemed clearly to affect males more than they affect females in selecting careers in computing. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The findings also indicated that although the Media seemed to have influenced both female and male students through advertisements promotion of computer Technology and information about jobs in the computing industry; more females than males were positively influenced by the Media. Specifically, more females than males were influenced by media advertising to select their programmes. Approximately 50% more females than males who chose studies in computing seemed to have been positively influenced by the media. More males than females anticipated good career prospects and expected a profitable career in terms of financial gain. The female students were more interested in job security than financial gain. Whereas males dwelled on the profitability, a considerable percentage of females expressed an interest in a computer science-based career mainly to attain job security in the public sector. However, both male and female students anticipated that a career in computing would provide them with social prestige, allow them to use their creativity and gain financially as well as have job security and good employment prospects. Half the students who choose to study computing reported that their families positively or negatively influenced them. Parents seemed to have either encouraged or discouraged their children from choosing computing as a major by linking their values to computer science- based jobs. Other factors identified by Tsagala and Kordaki (2007) were that family values on job security, unemployment and saturation; financial gain and needful work seemed to influence students’ occupational decisions. The finding also indicated that a small number of parents discouraged their daughters from choosing computing as a major by labeling it as ‘not suitable for females’. In addition, for example, parents’ provision of computers to their sons seemed to play a significant role on the decisions of male students. The findings was that twice as many males as females received support from parents as they appeared to provide 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their sons with computers and related activities to a greater extent than they do their daughters. The research findings also identified that having family members who use computers effectively, study or had studied computing, seemed to have had a positive effect on females more than males. The school seemed to provide both negative and positive effects on the motives of students for preferring or not preferring a career in computing. The most essential motivational factors were whether their teachers acted as mentors or not and whether their school’s infrastructure was adequate or not. The findings indicated that school seemed to positively affect the decisions of more females than males in choosing studies in computing. These factors showed how various external factors could influence the occupational preferences of male and female students. It can be observed that the various extrinsic variables influenced both male and female differently. Males were more influenced by friends, by financial gains, and by the family whereas women were more influenced by the media and the school. These empirical studies have shown that many people make career choice decisions on the basis of expected incentives. Measures of extrinsic value like money, job security and improved social and prestige revealed significant gender differences among students in several studies. For example, Holland (1986) cited in Mudhovozi, Sodi and Amusa (2014) asserted that boys were motivated more by incentives such as becoming rich and acquiring authority. Since the traditional role of a man in his family is that of “protector” and “provider”, males rated ‘Earn A Lot of Money’, ‘Work with Technology’ and ‘Good Promotion Prospects’ more highly than females. Holland implied that males were more likely to be influenced by extrinsic values more than females. The traditional roles of males and females influence their motivations for occupational preferences. In traditional societies, men appear to have more responsibilities and social demands than women. Therefore, it is 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expected that men will seek for jobs that will bring them financial success, will guarantee them job security and improved social statuses and prestige. Alias and Bakar (2010) also investigated the relationship between factors that contribute to programme choice, career orientation and career intention among engineering students. A cross-sectional survey was carried out using 371 engineering students from civil and mechanical engineering programmes in one university. Interesting findings were obtained regarding the influential factors for programme choice. Both males and female participants cited “job guarantee” as the most influential factor that made them choose to study engineering. “Interest in engineering” was the second most influential factor cited by males while females cited “confidence in ability” as a second factor. Being male was the third most cited reason for choosing engineering for males and interest was the third most cited factor for females. Tolbert and Moen (1998) suggested that extrinsic rewards as work attributes, were highly valued by men and intrinsic rewards were valued more by women. They investigated whether or not men and women held different preferences for particular job attributes and to what extent. The primary focus of the study was to identify the differential effects of gender among different age groups and across time periods. The total number of respondents for the longitudinal study was 5,320. Data was taken from the General Social Survey (GSS) for the years 1973 to 1994. A multivariate analysis was used to analyze the data. The GSS data contained responses to questions covering a wide range of issues, obtained from randomly selected samples of non-institutionalized U.S. citizens older than 18 years. The first age group consisted of people who were between 18 and 35 years. These were people who were at an early stage of their careers. Respondents in the second age group were those who were between 36 and 50 years of age and were likely to be people who were more established in 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their careers and focused on career achievements with a single employer or within a specific occupational group. The third group consisted of those who were older than 50 years and were workers who were moving towards retirement and were perhaps in the process of reassessing career achievements. The first time period was the survey years of 1973 to 1976, the second period were the years of 1980 to 1984, the third period was 1985 to 1989 and the fourth was 1990 to 1994. The status characteristics used for the study included occupation, education, family income, race, and number of children. Respondents' occupations were put into four broad categories comprising professional/ technical, white-collar, skilled blue-collar and semiskilled blue-collar. Education was measured using the number of years of schooling reported by respondents, which ranged from 0 to 20 years. Family income was also defined by 17 ordinally arranged categories and race was categorized into whites and all other racial groups. Number of children included only those living at home who were 0 to 5 years old. Married respondents who reported working on a full-time basis at the time of the survey were particularly focused on. According to the research, gender differences in job values and attitudes had often been attributed to the differences in the division of labour and within married homes. Gender differences therefore, were expected to be most evident in this group. Thirteen surveys conducted during this period included questions that asked respondents to rank five main job characteristics: job security/no danger of being fired, short working hours/lots of free time, high income, chances for advancement, and work that provides a sense of accomplishment. Respondents were asked to make a comparative ranking of the characteristics. The researchers acknowledged that these items did not tap all aspects of jobs that had been identified with regards to gender differences (e.g., preferences for social interaction). However, they captured important extrinsic and intrinsic rewards that had often been associated with gendered preferences, and they were related to more general life values 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on which men and women had been shown to differ. Tolbert and Moen (1998) were concerned because empirical studies had produced conflicting results. They attributed these conflicts to historical changes in men's and women's preferences for particular job attributes, as well as changes in preferences that commonly occur over individuals' life cycle. However, they noted that most of the previous researches had neglected the effects of time on gender differences. Using data from national surveys of workers over a 22-year period, the study focused mainly on the changes by age over time in men's and women's preferences for five job attributes. These were, short hours, high income, meaningful work, chances for promotion, and job security. The results suggested there were gender differences in job attribute preferences and that gender differences in these preferences had been both stable and limited over time. The findings again indicated that although there was some evidence that the gender gap in preferences has actually widened among younger workers in recent years, the traditional roles of male and females influenced their motivations for occupational preferences. In traditional societies, men appeared to have more responsibilities and social demands than women therefore it was expected that men will seek for jobs that will bring them financial success, will guarantee them job security and improved social statuses and prestige. Due to this same social position of men, parents, teachers, friends, role models and all significant others directly or indirectly push men towards achieving extrinsic goals. Some literature contradicts the fact that seafaring jobs pay better than other shore-based jobs. It seems how much a seafaring jobs pay is dependent on location and economic factors of the country. Magramo and Gellada (2009) found that young people in highly industrialized countries were no longer interested in the seafaring profession because they thought it was not relatively well paying as it used to be. The findings indicated alsothat students from 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh developing countries were more attracted to the maritime careers because of the extrinsic rewards they offer but the situation is different in highly industrialized countries. Tifuh (2014) confirmed this in her qualitative study on how to empower women merchant mariners in West Africa. Women seafarers, Marine Education and Training (MET) institutions and shipping companies were the three study areas used for the research. For MET institutions, the Regional Maritime University (RMU) in Ghana and the World Maritime University (WMU) in Sweden were selected. The target population of the study was personnel from shipping companies, RMU, WMU and women seafarers, particularly from West Africa. The study was to find out the reasons why women choose seafaring careers, the factors acting as barriers for women to pursue seafaring careers, policies or measures to encourage women to go to sea in West Africa and training practices of the Regional Maritime University with respect to the training of West African women for seafaring careers, training practices of the World Maritime University with regards to female student’s enrollment, particularly West African female students and views and practices of shipping companies in the recruiting of women for seafaring. A total of 16 interviews (10 with women seafarers, 4 with MET institutions and 2 with shipping companies) were conducted and analyzed out of a targeted number of 30. It was identified that, whilst women from developing countries including India and the Philippines were motivated to go to sea for the opportunity to save more money in “hard currency” due to high inflation and poor job opportunities as well as the financial needs of the family, women from developed countries including Sweden and Germany seemed not to be motivated by financial needs at all. Although they were generally employed in higher ranks on-board ships, some received wages that were lower than what they would expect to earn in shore-based jobs. For these women, the main attraction of the seafaring job was the opportunity to see and visit other places. Additionally, some of the women chose careers at sea because they were motivated 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh when they saw other seafaring women in uniform and wanted to become like them. Other women found seafaring fascinating and their passion about the sea brought them to work as seafarers. The limitation of the study was that women seafarers from all West African countries could not be interviewed because of unavailability of these women and the reason that there were very few women seafarers in West Africa. However, the researcher indicated that the information gathered from the few women seafarers in West African was sufficient for the study to come to meaningful conclusions and recommendations. Moreover, the researcher could not interview any shipping company officials from West Africa. Only two Turkish shipping companies that do not trade in African waters were interviewed. The populations for these studies were, however, different from the population being studied. It was, therefore, important to investigate if there will be gender differences in the extrinsic values that influenced students from the Regional Maritime University. The findings of Dearsley (2013) was somehow a confirmation that seafarers from European countries most of whom were more developed than countries in West Africa, valued intrinsic values more than extrinsic values in their occupational preferences in the maritime industry. Dearsley (2013) presented a report on a research which updated the 2005 Maritime Career Path Mapping. The 2005 Career Mapping Project contained national reports for 10 European Union (EU) Member States. However, the updated 2013 national career path reports (The CM2 Project), was required to develop four new country reports that covered Belgium, France, Norway and Romania, that had not been included in the 2005 Report. The study took nine months. Questionnaire was sent to 218 maritime trainees, 768 active seafarers and 845 ex-seafarers. Apart from these, questionnaire was received from ETF/ECSA members/affiliates, Marine Education and Training (MET) institutions and others. Seafarers from over 60 different countries submitted questionnaires. Seventy percent (70%) were from 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EU Member States. With the exception of Austria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary and Luxembourg, seafarers from all EU Member States completed questionnaires. The Survey monkey data collection and analysis tool was used to provide both a summary analysis of the answers to the principal questions and a detailed record of each individual answer to each question. Although the study targeted European seafarers, a significant number of non-European trainees, active and ex-seafarers completed questionnaires. The views of non-European respondents were of interest to the researchers mainly for comparative purposes, therefore the data was explained by reference mainly to European seafarers. The various reasons given by maritime trainees, active seafarers and ex-seafarers for applying for maritime training were ranked in the following order by respondents. “Interesting and Challenging Job” was followed by “I Like Ships” and then “I Like Travel and Meeting People” and “I Like an Outdoor Job”. These four most important reasons given by respondents for applying for maritime training were all intrinsic. These findings were the same for non-European trainees, active and ex-seafarers. The Non-European respondents also rated intrinsic values higher which may mean that they may have adopted the values of European workers because they reside in Europe. The remaining reasons, which were all extrinsic, were ranked in the following order. “Good Pay and Conditions” ranked fifth with “Good Training and Provision” ranking sixth followed by “Long Leave Periods” and then “Good Availability of Jobs” followed by “Passport for Future Shore Jobs” and “Family Member Recommended”. The last on the list was “Few Other Jobs Opportunities Ashore”. However, few limitations were identified the researchers. They were of the opinion that users of social media sites were not necessarily representative of the target populations as a whole; not everyone, not all age groups and not all nationalities wish to be members of social media 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh groups. In the Career Mapping 2 (CM2) Project, while the age range of respondents was very wide, the responses were biased towards: officers rather than deck officers and deck ratings rather than engineers or other ranks or ratings. Those who were most comfortable with social use of the English language, those in relatively senior ranks and ratings rather than juniors, qualified seafarers rather than trainees (trainees were not anyway a prime target group for CM2, and they were not likely to use LinkedIn Groups for their social media interactions) were likely to take part in the study. Despite these limitations, the researchers indicated that the use of social media to seek the views of seafarers who were scattered around the world on ships or in their home countries proved valuable in completing the report because it was indeed difficult to imagine how such a wide-ranging survey of international target populations could have achieved the level of success it did using traditional methods. Cross national differences in work values have been subject to numerous empirical studies. Fouad and Byars‐Winston (2005) had conducted a meta-analysis that investigated the relationship between culture and vocational choice variables. The study reviewed existed literature that had examined race/ethnicity related to career choice variables and selected relevant articles from 1991 through 2004. A total of 16 studies were included in the analysis. Although the results of the meta-analysis indicated, that race and ethnicity differences do not greatly affect the careers that people aspired to, they however accepted that people from different racial and ethnic groups were different with regards to their perceptions of career- related opportunities and barriers. These significant differences were consistent with the sociopolitical context within which many visible racial/ethnic minorities worked and lived. Racial and ethnic minority students may have the skills and abilities to successfully compete and make decisions regarding the world of work but may not believe that they will be allowed or be accepted in certain occupations (Gloria &Hird, 1999 cited in Fouad&Byars‐Winston,2005). It is important to point out that occupational preferences are 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh largely dependent on students’ real or perceived opportunities available in that occupation. These opportunities may be whether or not there are available opportunities for employment and the barriers may be whether or not there are access to education, training and entrance in terms of availability and cost. These perceptions can still be major determining factors of occupational preferences of individuals. Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most comprehensive studies on how values in the workplace were influenced by culture to develop a research-based theory of cultural values. The six dimensions of national culture developed were based on extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams (The Hofstede Centre online 2016). He defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind distinguishing the members of one group or category of people from others” (Hofstede 2011). A report by Hofstede (1983) on his ‘National Culture in four Dimensions’ using 116,000 questionnaire of work-related value patterns of industrial employees in 50 countries and 3 regions at 2 points in time formulated a research-based theory of cultural differences among nations. One of the six cultural dimensions developed as a result of the theoretical study, was ‘Masculinity’. According to the model, a country that scores high (Masculine) on this dimension is said to be driven by competition, achievement and success. In Masculine societies, challenge, earnings, recognition, and advancement are important. They are money and things orientated; performance and growth are important, people live to work not work to live. Achievement and independence are ideal, there is sympathy for the successful achiever and people try to be the best (Hofstede1983). Men are supposed to be assertive, ambitious, and tough (Hofstede, Hofstede and Minkov, 1991) and people see material rewards as success (The Hofstede Centre online 2016). However a low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in that society are caring for others and quality of life. Feminine societies value relationships. Both men and women are 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh encouraged to be modest. In Feminine countries, the focus is on “Work to live not live to work.” Society is people orientated and people value equality, solidarity and quality in their working lives. Incentives such as free time and flexibility are favoured. Focus is on well- being and status is not shown. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. Service and interdependence are ideal, there is sympathy for the less fortunate and people do not thrive to be better than others (Hofstede 1983). For example Ghana’s low score on this dimension (40) made the country to be considered a relatively Feminine society whilst Nigeria on the other hand scored 60 on this dimension making it a relatively Masculine society, therefore the dominant values in the Ghanaian society according to Hofstede (2011) will be intrinsic such as caring for others and quality of life rather than extrinsic factors. By inference, Ghana is a relatively more intrinsic- value oriented nation. The fundamental issue he raised was; what motivates people? Is it wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what one does (Feminine)? (Hofstede, 2011). Chan, Lee, Li & Raymond (2012) using Hofstede’s Five Dimensions also analyzed the relationship between students’ choice of major and career path with their culture using data collected from the following people; Caucasian (31), Chinese (48), South Asian (4), Black (1), Filipino (3), South East Asian (7), Arab (1), Korean (1) and other (12) from universities and colleges across Ontario in Canada. Majority of the respondents were between 18 and 24 years. One of the aims of the research was to identify the influence culture has on career decision making as well as determine the level of satisfaction and commitment of students from various cultural backgrounds. To ascertain the choice of majors and occupational paths and whether or not the results vary based on their culture. The study indicated that there seemed to be no real statistical difference between the cultures and their views on the various dimensions. The impact of cultural values was not therefore major as they initially thought it would be. The results indicated that it appeared that culture did not impact different variables 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh when it came to career choice, satisfaction or commitment. The researchers, however, attributed their findings that culture had no effect on vocational choice variables to the fact that many of the people who participated in the survey had lived in Canada for a long time and some had become Canadian citizens. Due to this fact the researchers believed that they may have been brought up with similar values and beliefs. Participants were born and raised or had been living in Canada for a long time and had received similar education and had thus developed similar values. The researchers also indicated that it would have been interesting if the other cultures had had larger number of respondents represented on the survey like the Caucasian and Chinese groups to see whether the results could have been affected. However, some cultures were either underrepresented or not represented at all. The researchers, therefore, indicated that the limitation of the research was that the sample pool was too small for the data to have a real meaning statistically. Even with the difference found in results, they could not be considered statistically significant. However, the finding was inconsistent with the findings of Kaasa (2011). Kaasa (2011) cited in Hauff and Kirchner (2015) analyzed differences in work values using 45 European countries with the exception of Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino and the Vatican City. The data about work values were taken from the European Values Study (EVS, 2010 cited in Hauff & Kirchner 2015). The EVS is a multi-country survey that is repeated every nine years. About 1,500 respondents were interviewed in every country. In some countries this number was smaller or larger. The number of respondents ranged from 808 to 2,326. The country-level indicators used were obtained by aggregating individual- level data using the EVS-provided weights in order to ensure that the data would be representative of the demographic structure of each country. The Intrinsic and Extrinsic work values used for the study were ‘use initiative’, ‘achieving something’ ‘responsible job’, ‘meeting people’, ‘useful for society’, ‘interesting job’, ‘good pay’, ‘good hours’ , ‘generous 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh holidays’ and ‘job security’. The questions asked whether a particular work value was or not important to the respondent. In order to interpret the results, the following background variables were also used. The state of wealth was described by disposable income and GDP (2008); both were measured per capita in PPS (Purchase Power Standard). Social capital was described by trust (the share of people who answered “people can be trusted” against “can’t be too careful”) and belonging to organizations (the average number of organizations mentioned). Lastly, Hofstede’s (2001) scores of cultural dimensions were used to describe cultural differences. The results indicated that extrinsic work values are more important in countries with lower levels of socio-economic development. The findings support the fact that the level of socio-economic development and cultural influence interact to influence the relative importance of different work values in a country. The results of the study also rendered a strong support to the assumption that the relative importance of work values depended on the level of gratification of particular values. The study indicated that extrinsic (instrumental) values were more important to people in countries with lower level of socio-economic development. Secondly, the findings showed that affective values covering love and belonging were more important in countries with a lower level of trust and belonging to organizations. The results thus confirmed that if particular needs are gratified, they become significantly less important. The findings also indicated that cultural differences had a significant role in explaining the differences in the relative importance of work values. However, the researcher stated that there were more explanations to explore in the area “interest” as a value. He pointed out that the formation of work values was a very complicated process and for a better understanding of this process, factors such as historical, cultural, political, environmental were yet to be analyzed. The data used for describing cultural dimensions were mostly from the 1970s and 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh therefore explains that although culture does not change too fast, it was still possible that some changes had occurred. In addition, he admitted that it was a very complicated task to find background variables to cover all countries included in the analysis. Therefore, background variables used all had more or less missing values and suggested that this limitation could provide valuable additional information for the research of possible determinants of work values. The literature seemed divided on cross-national work values moreover, the findings obtained using people from developed countries cannot be totally applied to people in Sub-Saharan Africa in view of this, the need to investigate empirically these variables in the Ghanaian setting using African students was important. 2.3.2 Factors That Influence Career Development An individual’s career development is largely dependent on several personal and environmental factors. Personal characteristics, personal values, gender, family influence and the economic situation in the country in which the person resides all have some impact on his or her career development. 2.3.2.1 Personal Characteristics According Amabile, Hill, Hennessey and Tighe (1994) some studies had treated intrinsic- extrinsic motivational orientation (or related constructs) as variables that are to some extent, like traits, meaning that characteristics that differentiate individuals were relatively stable across time and across situations. Occupations are also characterized on the basis of the cognitive and emotional skills required to perform certain tasks in that occupation. Some 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occupations require that the person who is working is able to concentrate fully and have the capacity for logical thinking, while others necessitate global, intuitive, or impressionistic cognition. In some occupations, direct expression of emotions is needed while others look at emotional expression as a hindrance. Individuals unconsciously self-select occupations that will reward their cognitive and emotional modes of functioning. Research has shown that people who seek sensation select occupations that will provide them with sensation. Those who are extroverts seek environments that will provide them with opportunities to be assertive and competitive. Authoritarians likewise would choose authoritarian education settings. Individuals, therefore, seem to be attracted to social situations that will foster and encourage the expression of their own characteristic dispositions and interpersonal orientations (Silver & Spilerman, 1990). Okon (2001) cited in Sara (2010) stated that career preference is influenced by a person’s intelligence and that bright students go for science-oriented careers, mediocre students opt for careers within the humanities, while weaker students aspire for arts biased and technical vocation careers. He went further to say that Physique' was a leading factor in career aspiration because it sanctions entry into certain occupations. As he stated, no matter how talented an individual may be, a career in the military and paramilitary occupations may be outside his/her range if he/she failed to attain some predetermined height or weight. It is sometimes plainly obvious that certain individuals are unsuitable for certain occupations therefore personality factors are important to determine if an individual is suitable for a job or not (Kankam & Onivehu, 2000). People sometimes become aware of these facts and develop no interest in some specific occupations at all. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.2. 2 Personal Work Values Personal work values are desirable end states that individuals try to realize by engaging in work (Nordet al. 1990). Several value and academic choice researchers have studied the value systems of business students, psychology students, education, real estate professionals and management students and have concluded that people who aspire to work in the human services and helping professions such as social work, teaching and nursing place less value on status, competitiveness, power and prestige, and more value on people and society whereas those in the area of Mathematics, Science, Management, Business, Engineering and Technical career aspirations value these factors more than people-oriented factors (Bering, Kumari &Ahuja,2015). Personal work values have been identified as critical variables in the career development process. Cultural values also play an important role in the occupational choice-making process. Personal work values are the primary factors in choosing and advancing in an occupation (Brown, 2002). In their Career Values Scale Manual, Macnab, Bakker, and Fitzsimmons (2005) outlined the various values that underpin occupational preferences of individuals. They explained that people who are service oriented, value helping people with their problems. These people place a high value on work settings where they can have the opportunity to measure the thoughts and feelings of other people. These individuals value activities in which they can have direct positive effect on others. Relationships, personal service and, providing direct benefits to others are very important to them and therefore they will choose occupations that will enable them help and serve others. The common examples they stated included care giving and customer service positions. People who are team players value working closely with co-workers and clients. They value encouragement and encourage other people. Teamwork, good co-worker relations and 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collaborative work unit are very important to such individuals. For these people, to be in occupations that rely heavily on teamwork, networking and relationships will definitely be a passion. While some people want to serve and work with people, others value Influence. Individuals who value influence enjoy being directive rather than being collaborative. They like to control and manage the work that they are involved with. They enjoy having a high level of responsibility and will be satisfied in an occupation where they can use a directive leadership style. High level of responsibility, taking control and influencing people and events are very important to them. How an individual value creativity, independence, excitement and personal development is determined by how a person value self-expression. The importance a person places on self- expression values will greatly influence both the types of tasks he or she will prefer to perform and the work environments that he or she will prefer to work and eventually the occupation that he or she will find enjoyable and satisfying. Likewise, people who value creativity prefer working in occupations that promote ingenuity and creativity. They value developing new ideas, exploring unconventional approaches and using their imagination. They will prefer to be in occupations that require creativity and innovation. That is an occupation that will allow them to satisfy their curiosities to identify and evaluate new ideas. Problem solving, being creative and original are the work values that are very important to such people. In the same way, individuals who value independence value self-reliance and the freedom to set their own goals and schedule. They value working without supervision and therefore enjoy tasks that they can work on independently without having to seek advice from co- workers. They prefer the type of occupation that will allow them to do things in their own way most of the time, making independent decisions and being free from the influence of others. The manual also indicates that people who value excitement also value trying new 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh things. They value environments where there is uncertainty and where change is expected. They will prefer occupations that will allow them to try something new and where they can take risks. To these individuals, variety, risk-taking and fast-paced work are important. Other people value career development hence they value personal and professional development. They value learning new skills and expanding their expertise and will enjoy working in an organization where there is a culture of life-long learning, constant challenges and an opportunity to develop new skills. Personal and professional development and growth are therefore very important to them. People who value financial rewards value having enough income to ensure that they can afford life's luxuries. Excellent financial reward is the answer to their happiness and satisfaction. They value working in organizations that value financial incentives and where they will be paid based on their performance. High salary and financial security was very important to them. When it comes to individuals who value prestige, they value the approval, recognition and acclamation by others. They value working in occupations where they can be publicly recognized as superior performers. They value working for an occupation that in itself is well known or is recognized as being amongst the best. Recognition, admiration and status are very important to them. On the other hand, people who value security value a consistent career path and a feeling of job security. They prefer steady and predictable rather than rapid and unpredictable change and enjoy working where they feel that they can plan for the future. Security, stability and predictability are very important to them. Personal work values therefore determine to a large extent the occupational preferences of individuals. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.2.3 Gender Difference Mau (2003) investigated students' persistence regarding career aspirations in science and engineering (SE) professional careers as a function of race and sex. The finding was that men were more likely than women to persist in SE career aspirations. With regards to the gender difference in the occupations linked to science and physical science in particular, many women do not choose to enter such fields because they lack the confidence in their abilities to pursue such occupations. The differences in the self-perceptions of men and women may be as a result of gendered socialization in the practices at home, school and among peers (Eccles 1994). Research has shown that males have a predisposition to follow extrinsic values such as wealth accumulation, earning fame and admiration and are little concerned about social wellbeing and affiliation unlike females. Several studies have confirmed that males and females have different value orientation due to this; they have different job preferences. Males value high-status jobs and those that provide them with prestige, power to control others and material wealth, whereas females prefer the jobs which are people or society oriented and let them care and help others due to these aspirations and expectations of jobs, males prefer realistic category of jobs including technical, ‘hands on’ activities, and in occupations that give high anticipated earnings, whereas females choose social category which involves helping activities. However, economic development and technological innovations have produced cultural change all over the world. Modernization and economic development have been associated with current systematic cultural and value change that result in the traditional view of gender roles. The breadwinner-male and homemaker-female roles are changing because females are also playing the breadwinner roles now. The traditional and cultural values in Africa, however, make the male-homemaker role very difficult and unacceptable to most people including women themselves. With 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Industrialization and urbanization, new opportunities and role spaces have been created for both men and women, which have further brought change in the thinking patterns and preferences of men and women (Bering, Kumari & Ahuja, 2015). 2.3.2.4 Economic Development Okon (2001) cited in Sara (2010) indicated that, occupational choice is dictated by economic development and incentives in a country. He stated that choices are highly curtailed or non- existent in primitive societies while choices are much greater in developed economies. People in developed economies have opportunities to make choices from several alternatives whiles occupational choices and preferences are difficult because alternatives are few in developing economies. He further indicated that economic earnings that people receive from different occupations are also very high determinants of career preference. In other words, occupations that have higher pay attract a lot of individuals. The educational level of individuals also determines their preferences. Availability of educational facilities may restrict the occupations people can enter. Accessibility in terms of location and ability to pay for the education is another factor. The kind of jobs available within a society in which young people resides and the remunerations attach to them can push them into specific occupations with the hope that they will be able to get employment easily. Through the internship opportunities students are able to get, they develop the skills needed or required for these occupations and their interests in these occupations are developed. This also develops their competencies in practicing these occupations thereby motivating them to go into these occupations because they meet the job requirements. Based on the occupation available in the community, workers act as models for young people who may even have some family members engaging in these occupations. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.2.5 Family Influence A family's background and religious beliefs, according to Kochar (2002) cited in Sara (2010), is also another major factor in career selection and that career choice among youths is also affected by socio-economic status of their parents. There are times that parents try to achieve their failed occupational aspirations through their children. There are also times that children inherit occupations from their parents. Kankam and Onivehu (2000) suggested that certain groups of occupations, such as physical science, social science, and medicine are inherited. In some cases how a child is raised may have more influence on his or her occupational decisions more than what he or she inherited from parents. There are times we hear of ‘family of doctors’, ‘family of lawyers’ and ‘family of footballers’. Bleeker and Jacobs (2004) asserts that there is for example a relationship between parents' beliefs and adolescent children's self- perceptions of their abilities. Parents’ gender-stereotyped beliefs about occupations impacted on boys’ and girls' self-perceptions of Mathematics-science ability for instance. The level and nature of education one can attain depend largely on the economic status of one’s parents or guardians. Studies have confirmed the conventional wisdom that parents realize their unattained educational goals through their children. Parents’ aspirations for themselves seem to influence their children’s educational outcomes through the parents’ stated goals for their children’s educational attainment. Parents were more likely to want their children to attend university, and graduate from university if they had unattained university ambitions from their own youth (Sheridan, 2001). In the same vein, parental occupation which sometime determines the type of school a child attends, can also impact on children’s academic performance and eventually their occupational decisions. Parents’ role in establishing career paths for their children is a very significant one. Children receive information about the work environment through their parents. Children also consult parents in times of career decision (Pyne, 2002). 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The type of school one attends and how endowed the school is in preparing the individual for the preferred occupation may hinder or propel the individual from achieving his or her occupational dreams. Students who attend less endowed senior high schools are less likely to perform well. This forces them to divert to less prestigious occupations that require less academic achievements. In a study by Yusif, Yussof and Noor (2011), they found that, the type of school a child attended, and parental occupation had significant effect on the academic performance of Senior High School Students in Ghana. It is a fact that being able to attend a well-endowed school is most of the time dependent on family resources. Research has also shown that mothers’ education also had a significant positive impact on reading and mathematics scores of children in Ghana (Yusif, Yussof & Noor, 2011), and it is confirmed that school subject preference of children was considered a consistent or stable pattern of occupational preferences for males and females across age‐groups of 8, 12 and 16 (Miller & Budd, 1999). Likewise, in Senegal, it was reported that test performance of pupils at the end of second grade was positively affected by the level of maternal schooling (Glick & Sahn, 2010 cited in Yusif, Yussof & Noor, 2011). A study conducted on some Ghanaian women engineers and women engineering students, with some input from some male engineering student counterparts, and male and female engineering lecturers by Baryeh, Obu, Lamptey and Baryeh (2000) indicated that Mathematics and Science ability, and influence from family were some of the motivating factors for their selecting engineering as a profession. When students do well in specific subjects they are more likely to get positive feedback from siblings and parents especially if they believe that the subject can propel them into the occupations they approved of. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Summary There are many motivational factors that influence occupational preference and choice. This was reinforced by the many studies conducted on this topic. The literature also showed that both intrinsic and extrinsic values motivate peoples’ occupational preferences; however the relative influence may depend on the individual’s career goals, aspirations, the environment that the individual finds him or herself and expectations based on his or her work values. Based on the literature assessed, individuals who wanted to work in the maritime industry appeared to be motivated more by External Factors and Extrinsic Reward-Oriented Values with a few dwelling on Self Expression-Values. Variations of influencing factors may be due to gender differences, location and the type of occupation one is aspiring to enter. The purpose of the current study was to determine what factors influenced the occupational preferences of students of Regional Maritime University and what was the relative importance of these factors to them. These questions were the guiding force behind the construction of this research. The analysis of the results in chapter four, attempted to develop an understanding of these motivational factors and rank them based on the survey results. 2.5 Statements of Hypotheses 1. Male students will be significantly influenced by extrinsic values more than female students. 2. Ghanaian students will be significantly influenced by intrinsic values more than International students. 3. There will be a significant difference in the motivational factors that influenced the occupational preferences of students from the different programmes. 4. Extrinsic values will be relatively more important to students than intrinsic values in their occupational preferences. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Operational Definitions  Motivation: Forces acting on or within a person causing an initiation of behaviour (Britannica 2002) or anything or anyone that influences a person to prefer a specific occupation.  Intrinsic Motivation: Forces acting within a person to make him or her prefer specific activities. Internal factors that influence people.  Extrinsic Motivation: Forces acting on a person to make him or her prefer specific activities. External factors that influence people.  External Influence: Influences of parents, friends, teachers and books, TV and radio.  Extrinsic: Reward Oriented Values: The need or importance the individual puts on financial rewards, job security, attractive working conditions and prestige.  Self-Expression Values: The need or importance the individual puts on the opportunity to use abilities skills and aptitudes and the opportunity to be creative.  People Oriented Values: The need or importance the individual puts on interaction with people, leadership, serving and helping others.  Work Value: The goals that one seeks from working.  International students: Students from other countries  Occupation: One’s principal employment, business, vocation, trade or any other means of livelihood. It is a specific job or work activities which one does.  Occupational preference: The type of work that someone reports preferring as against others. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the methodology used in conducting this research. It covers the research design, target population, sample size and sampling technique, instrument and the procedure for carrying out the research. 3.2 Research Design The research design for the study was descriptive and a non-experimental cross-sectional survey design. A non-experimental cross-sectional design was used because there was no need for the manipulation of the environment whiles collecting the data and data was going to be collected from the students during a specific period in a one-time interaction and not over a period of time. The primary focus of the research was to describe a phenomenon. The study did not seek to answer questions about how, when and why the factors influenced the preferences of the students’ occupation but rather to determine what factors influence them and to find out whether they vary according to gender, nationality, programme of study. The objective was to gain a better understanding of various influences on a variable of interest which was occupational preferences of students of the Regional Maritime University hence a descriptive design was appropriate. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Target Population The target population, out of which the sample for the study was drawn, was made up of 1,448 undergraduate students of the Regional Maritime University (RMU) comprising Bachelor and Diploma students. The university has two faculties; the Faculty of Engineering and the Faculty of Maritime Studies. Under the Faculty of Engineering are the Marine Engineering Department, the Electrical Electronic Department and Information Communication Technology Department. The Faculty of Maritime Studies Consists of the Nautical Science Department, Ports and Shipping Department (which include Logistics Management) and Marine Safety Department. The Regional Maritime University offers maritime education and training to prepare students as sea-going officers to work on cruise and merchant ships and fishing vessels; and to work as administrative, managerial, operational and technical positions in shore-based shipping and ports personnel. The university also offers Master of Science and Bachelor of Science in Ports and Shipping Administration as well as a two year and Diploma in Ports and Shipping Management. It also offers Bachelor of Science in Logistics Management, Bachelor of Science and Diploma in Marine Engineering, Bachelor of Science in Marine Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bachelor of Science and Diploma in Nautical Science, Bachelor of Science and Diploma in Computer Engineering and a certificate programme in Marine Engine Mechanic. The Maritime Safety Department is responsible for running mandatory International Maritime Organization ( I.M.O.) mandatory and other short courses. The university also offers the following professional and upgrading programmers: Class 2/1 Marine Engineer Officer(Unlimited/ Limited), Class 3Marine Engineer Officer(Unlimited), 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Class 3Marine Engineer Officer(Limited), Class 2/1 Deck Officer (Unlimited), Class 3 Deck Officer (Unlimited), Class 3 Deck Officer (Limited), Class 2 Deck Officer (Restricted) – Tug mate, and Class 2 Marine Electrical/Electronic Engineering (C2MEE). The Vocational programmes offered are Marine Engine Mechanic, Marine Refrigeration Mechanic Basic Welding and Mental Fabrication Course. The sample was taken from the Bachelor and Diploma students of the six programmes. 3.4 Sampling Size and Sampling Techniques Three hundred and five (305) out of 1448 students were selected to participate in the study. This represented 21% of the target population, which was consistent with recommendations for determining size of a random sample by Krejcie, and Morgan (1970) as cited in Atindanbila (2013). The sampling frame used for this selection was the Regional Maritime University’s 2014/2015 Admission list from the university’s registry. To ensure no bias, members of the sample were selected randomly and in order to reduce sampling errors as well as increasing precision, stratified random sampling was used. The researcher divided the entire population into six strata based on the six programmes offered in the university. The final subjects were then randomly selected from the individual stratum to get the sample. The stratification was based on the programmes because they are career- specific and ensured that the respondents with different career orientations were covered in the study. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Instrument The instrument used was ‘Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale’ (MOPS) developed by Bakare (1969). The instrument was adopted to maintain its validity and reliability with a few additions (programme, level of study and nationality) in the bio data section. The MOPS is a 16-item scale that can be used to measure the motivation for occupational preference of both students and professionals. The MOPS is a self-rating scale consisting of three major sections. The Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) was used by the researcher to collect data because the instrument allowed the researcher to identify the patterns of occupational preferences among student groups, and can be used to gain insight into the work values or motivation for occupational preferences and aspirations among university students. Another research use of the scale is to measure the relative importance of the reasons students give for preferring their occupations. This standardized scale has four sub scales that can be divided into two sub scales to measure intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for occupational preference of respondents. The instrument is divided into three sections A, B and C. Section A and B were designed to collect demographic information of respondents. Section ‘A’ collects personal information of respondents. The researcher tailored this section to include programme of study, level of study and Nationality to suit the needed data. Section ‘B’ allows the respondent to write down his or her preferred occupation. The section A of the scale was modified to include Level, Programme and Nationality of respondents. The third section provides sixteen reasons for the occupational preference that has been stated by the respondent. The respondent indicates his or her first and second most 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh preferred occupations at section B and then comes to section ‘C’ to identify the factors that influenced his or her preferences. The respondent writes ‘yes’ or ‘no’ in front of all the sixteen sub items and then ranks the yeses by their relative influence with 1 being the most influential factor. The scale also provides a Likert Scale in section C where the respondents are able to select the relative importance of the sixteen sub factors. The items in section three are divided into four subscales; the first two subscales External Influence, Extrinsic-Reward Oriented Values, have four extrinsic factors under each subscale and measures extrinsic values whilst the Self-Expression Values, Extrinsic-Reward Oriented Values and People-Oriented Values have four intrinsic factors under each subscale and measures intrinsic values. The sixteen reasons are classified into the following four categories: External Influence- this category deals with sources of influence that are external to the individual. Those who score high in this category have been influenced in their occupational preferences by other people or external sources. It is possible that such people have adopted other people’s standard and reasons for liking the occupation without necessarily having taught much about this occupation or knowing much about it on their own. Extrinsic-Reward Oriented Values- this category consists of reasons that deal with the outward advantages or material benefits which can be derived from the preferred job. Respondents, who emphasize this value, tend to view work in instrumental terms, and emphasize the rewards obtained from work. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Self-Expression Values –the category consists of reasons connected with the opportunity that the preferred job offers for using one’s special skills and aptitudes. Respondents emphasizing these values tend to view work primarily as an end in itself with its own in-built satisfaction and as an opportunity to for expressing one’s talents or creative potentiality. People-Oriented Values- this category consists of reasons dealing with the opportunity that the preferred job offers for coming in contact with people rather than with things. Respondents emphasizing these values tend to view work largely as a means of obtaining the satisfaction to be derived from interpersonal relationships. 3.5.1 Scoring of the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale To rank the importance of the sixteen reasons and the four categories into which these reasons were classified, the likert-type response scale was used where 1= ‘No Importance’, 2= ‘Little Importance’, 3= ‘Average Importance’, 4=‘Considerable Importance’ and 5= ‘Extreme Importance’, the circled numbers were summed up to get the score to calculate the relative importance of reasons in the four subscales. To find out the factors that influenced students’ occupational preferences, student indicated the factors that influenced them by writing 'yes’ and ‘no’ in front of each factor. This information was used to calculate the importance indexes of the various factors. An Importance Index was calculated for each reason and ranked to get the important index of all the factors. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Importance Index for each reason was obtained by the following formula: I.I = (Y- n/N) Where: I.I = the Importance Index for the particular reason y = the number responding ‘yes’ to the reason n = the number responding ‘no’ to the reason N = the total number responding to the reason, that is (y-n) 3.5.2 Reliability and Validity of the Motivation for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) Evidenced of the reliability is provided by a test-retest study of a sample of 28 Nigerian form 4 secondary grammar school pupils. The test-retest reliability was .89. Evidence for the validity of the MOPS was obtained from a study comparing value-orientations (as obtained from the reasons from occupational preference) of professional nurses and professional engineers. The results confirmed the hypothesis and this was taken as the validity of the MOPS (Bakare, 1977). 3.6 Procedure for Data Collection The researcher sought permission by writing a letter to the Director of Administration through the Coordinator of Students’ Affairs for permission to conduct the research. Approval was granted by the management of the university to invite the students to complete the questionnaire in the lecture theatre and the counselling office. For this study, only primary data were obtained from participants. The purpose of the study was explained to respondents and their informed consent sought. After seeing that the subjects were 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh comfortably seated, it was explained to them that the questionnaire could be completed with pencils or pens. A tension-relieving remark was used at the point where the scale was being distributed. Students were asked to read the directions silently whiles the researcher read aloud the directions slowly. The questions were then explained. The directions were repeated several times as they were completing the questionnaire. Subjects were allowed 15 minutes to complete the questionnaires. 3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation The research hypotheses were tested using Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) and Independence Sample T-test and the Importance Index of the motivational factors was obtained by the formula; (y- n/N). The data was presented in tables and Figures. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Presentation of Results Presentation of results for the study has been organized under the following sub headings: sex distribution of respondents, age distribution of respondents, distribution of respondents by level (year) of study, distribution of Respondents by country of origin and distribution of respondents by programmes pursued by them. The research hypotheses were tested using Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) and Independence Sample T-test. The Importance Index of the each motivational factor was calculated using the formula; (y- n/N). The results were presented in Tables and Figures. 4.1.1 Sex Distribution of Respondents Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Gender Gender Frequency Percent Male 275 90.2 Female 30 9.8 Total 305 100.0 Figure 4.1 shows the distribution of respondents by gender. Out of the total sample size of 305, 275 (90.16%) of the respondents were males while 30 (9.84%) of them were females. As shown in Table 3.1, (see appendix ‘A’) female enrolment of the university at the time of the research was 101 representing 6.98% of the total population of 1448 indicating that female students were fairly represented in this research. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.2 Age Distribution of Respondents Table 4.2: Age Distribution of Respondents Age group Frequency Percent 15-19 37 12.1 20-24 183 60.0 25-29 45 14.8 30-34 27 8.9 35-39 6 2.0 40-44 6 2.0 45-49 1 .3 Total 305 100.0 Indicated in Table 4.2 is the distribution of respondents by their ages. The ages of the respondents ranged between 15 and 49 years. Two hundred and sixty-five (265) respondents representing 86.7% of the total sample fell below the age of thirty. One Hundred and Eighty- three (60%) of the respondents were between the ages of 20 and 24. Thirty-seven (37) students representing a little above twelve percent (12.1%) of the respondents fell within 15 and 19 year range. Forty-five students representing 14.8% of respondents were between 25 and 29 and 27 respondents representing 8.7% were between also between 30 and 34 years. Six (6) students representing 2% fell within the 35 and 39 year range, 6 students also representing another 2% were 2% between 40 and 44 years. Only 1 respondent was between 45 and 49 years. This finding is a clear indication that majority of the students were young people. The age range of respondents was important for the analysis of data because the literature showed that age affects the level of importance of work values. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.3 Programme Pursued by Students Table 4.3: Distribution by respondents by programme of study Programme of study Frequency Percent Port and Shipping 93 30.5 Logistics Management 33 10.8 Nautical Science 29 9.5 Electrical Electronic Engineering 6 4 21.0 Maritime Engineering 76 24.9 Computer Engineering 10 3.3 Total 305 100.0 Table 4.3 illustrates the distribution of respondents by programmes pursued. Data collected indicated that 93 respondents, which represented 30.5% of the sample, were offering Port and Shipping Administration/Management while 33 respondents who represented 10.8% of respondents were Logistics Management students. Seventy-six respondents indicating a little below twenty five percent (24.9%) of sample were from marine engineering whereas 29 of the respondents representing 9.5% were also Nautical Science students. Sixty four (64) of the respondents representing 21% were Electrical Electronic Engineering students. Only ten representing 3.3% of respondents were Computer engineering students due to the small number pursuing the programme probably due to the fact that the programme is not a purely maritime programme per se or because the programme is comparatively new. Majority of the respondents were from ports and shipping administration/management, followed by students from marine engineering, and then electrical electronic engineering, followed by respondents from logistics management. Respondents from computer engineering were the least among respondents. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.4 Distribution of Respondents’ Level of Study Table 4.4: Distribution by respondents by level of study Level Frequency Percent 100 97 31.8 200 99 32.5 300 47 15.4 400 21 6.9 Diploma 1 29 9.5 Diploma 2 12 3.9 Total 305 100.0 The distribution of the respondents by level of study is presented in Table 4.4. Majority of respondents who were randomly selected, were from second and first year students. Ninety- seven (97) respondents representing 31.8% respondents were selected from first year students and 99 students representing 32.5% of the respondents were selected from the second year students. Twenty-nine fourth year students representing 6.9% were selected and respondents from third year students were 47 representing 15.4% of the respondents. First year Diploma students were 29 and represented 9.5% of the respondents, whereas 12 of them representing 3.9% of the respondents were from second year Diploma students. The respondents were taken from all levels of the undergraduate student body. This is an indication that students from all levels of study had the opportunity to partake in the study. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.5 Distribution of Respondents by Country of Origin Table 4.5: Distribution by respondents by Country of Origin Nationality Frequency Percent Cameroon 21 6.9 Gambia 1 .3 Ghana 237 77.7 Sierra Leone 2 .7 Nigeria 39 12.8 Others 5 1.6 Total 305 100.0 The findings, as shown in Table 4.5 indicated that the respondents were obviously dominated by Ghanaian students with two hundred and thirty-seven (237) students representing 77.7% of the total sample, whereas international students were made up of 68 students representing 23.3% of the respondents. Out of the 22.3% who constituted international students, 57.4% were Nigerians, 29.6% were Cameroonians, and 2.9% other African nationals. All the respondents were African students. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 Motivation for Occupational Preference of Respondent Groups 4.2.1 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Gender Figure 4.1: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Gender Figure 4.13: Percen8t7a.7g3e Distribution of Motivational Factors By Gender P 90.00 e 80.00 72.73 71.73 r 70.00 84.17 c 60.00 54.00 63.33 e 46.00 50.00 69.17 n 57.5 0 36.67 40.00 t 28.27 30.00 42.50 Male a 27.27 Female g 20.00 12.27 30.83 e 10.00 15.83 0.00 Yes No Yes N o Yes No Yes No External Reward Self-Expression People Oriented Oriented Influencing values Figure 4.1 shows the influence of various motivational factors on occupational preference of male and female students. Forty-six percent (46%) of the male respondents cited external influence as a motivating factor whereas the remaining 54% indicated that they were not influenced by these factors at all. Forty-two point five percent (42.50%) of female respondents also indicated that they were influenced by these external factors but 57.50% of them indicated that they were not influenced by these external factors at all. Males who were influenced by parents, teachers, friends, books television and radio in their occupational preferences (46%)were more than female respondents who did (42.50%). More than three quarters (87.03%) of male respondents and more than three quarters (84.17%) of female respondents signified that they were influenced by Extrinsic Reward- 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Oriented Values whereas only 12.27% males and 15.83% females indicated that Extrinsic Reward-Oriented Values were not considered in their occupational decision making. When it came to self-expression values, 72.73% male respondents and 63.33% of female respondents reported that Self-Expression Values influenced their occupational preferences however, 27.27% male respondents and 36.67% female respondents specified that Self- Expression Values did not influence their occupational preferences at all. When it came to People-Oriented Values, 28.27% of male respondents and 30.83% of female respondents pointed out that People-Oriented Values influenced them, however 71.73% of male respondents and 69.17% female respondents indicated that People-Oriented Values did not influence them at all in their choice of occupations. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2 Percentage Distribution of Importance of Motivational Values by Gender Figure 4.2: Percentage Distribution of Importance of Motivational Values by Gender 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 Level of Importance percentage 40.00 No Importance Little Importance 30.00 Average Importance 20.00 Considerable Importance Extreme Importance 10.00 0.00 External Reward Self- People Influence Oriented Expression Oriented Values Figure 4.2 shows the difference between the level of importance male and female students attached to motivational factors. Fifty-four percent (54%) of the male students and 57.50% of female respondents stated that parents, radio television, books, teachers and friends were not important to them in their occupational decision making at all. Out of the remaining 46% of the male respondents and 42.50% of the female respondents who reported external influence affected their occupational preferences, 9.18% of male students and 1.50% of the female students, indicated that direct 87 Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and indirect influence of parents, teachers, friends, books, radio and television were of little importance to them in their occupational preferences while 13.73% of the males and 13.00% of the females accepted that these factors were averagely important to them. However, 12.45% of the males and 12.00% of the females agreed that these external variables were of considerable importance to them whereas 10.64%of the male students and 16.00% of the female students stated that the external variables were of extreme importance to them in their occupational preferences. On how important extrinsic-reward oriented values of good salary, attractive working conditions, and stable and secure future and improved social status were to students, in their occupational preferences, 12.27% of the male respondents and 15.83% of the female respondents reported that they were not important to them in their occupational preferences at all. Out of the remaining 87.73% of the male respondents and 84.17% of the female respondents who indicated that these extrinsic-reward oriented values were of some importance to them, 6.73% of the males and 4.17% of the females indicated that these values were of little importance, to them 18.64% of the males and 11.50% of the females agreed that they were of average importance to them. However 29.18% of male students and 28.00% of female students accepted that these values were of considerable importance to them with 33.18% of males and 40.50% of females, declaring that extrinsic-reward oriented values were of extreme importance to them in their career preferences. Concerning the importance of self-expression values of fondness for school subjects that bear upon the profession, the use of special ability or aptitude, originality and creativity and the 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh extensive use of hands to students, 27.27% of male respondents and 36.67% of female respondents stated that these were not important to them in their occupational preferences. Out of the remaining 72.73 of male respondents and 63.33% of female respondents who stated that these self-expression values were of important to them, 8.09% of males and 8.17% of females indicated that the importance was little, 19.18% of males and 13.33% of females also reported average importance of these factors, whereas 23.91% of males and 18.33% of females recorded that they were of considerable importance to them in their occupational preferences. These values however were declared by 21.55% of the male students and 23.50% of female students as being extremely important in their career decisions. On people-oriented values of exercise of leadership, working with people, serving people and helping the less fortunate which were the least important values to students, as many as 71.73% of male respondents and 69.17% of the female respondents reported that they were of no importance to them in their career preferences at all. Out of the remaining 28.29% of male respondents and 30.83% of the female respondents, who accepted that it was of some importance to them, 7.09% of the males and 3.33% females indicated little importance, 6.55% of the males and 2.50% of females said it was of average importance to them. However, 7.81% males and 10.83% of the females reported considerable importance and 6.82% males and 14.17% of the females agreed that People-Oriented Values were extremely important to them. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh By the above statistics, the percentage of male respondents who indicated that good salary, attractive working conditions, stable and secure future, improved social status and prestige were somewhat vital in their occupational preferences were more (87.73%) than female students (84.17%). However on the external factors of direct and indirect influence of parents, friends, teachers, radio, television and books, female students (50.83%) were motivated by these more than the male students (46%). A larger percentage of male respondents (72.73%) than female respondents (61.67%) reported that fondness of the subjects that bear upon the profession, their special abilities and aptitudes as well as opportunity to be creative and original and the opportunity to use their hands were important to them in their career preferences. The opportunity to exercise leadership, serve people, help the less fortunate and work with people were the least important factors to both male and female students however, these factors were relatively more important to female respondents (30.83%) than to the male respondents (28.29%) in their career decision making process. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.3 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Nationality Figure 4.3: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by Nationality 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 Nationality Percentage 40.00 Ghanaian 30.00 International 20.00 10.00 0.00 Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No External Reward Self- People Influence Oriented Expression Oriented Values Figure 4.3 shows the distribution of factors that influenced occupational preferences of Ghanaian students and students from other African countries. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, 45.89% of Ghanaian students and 44.85% international students signified that they were motivated by external variables of parents, friends, radio, television, books and teachers. The remaining 54.11% of Ghanaian and 55.15% of the international students stated that these factors did not influence them at all. The influence of extrinsic-reward oriented values was very high among both international and Ghanaian students. As many as 87.03% of Ghanaian students and 88.60% of international students reported that good salary, attractive working conditions, stable and secure future and improved social status and prestige were influential on the preference of their occupations 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh however, 12.97% of Ghanaian and 11.40% of the international students recorded that these factors did not influence them at all. Seventy-two point five seven percent (72.57%) of Ghanaian students and 67.65% of International students reported that self-expression values were influential to them when it came to their career choices however 27.43% of Ghanaian and 32.35% of the international students indicated that it did not motivate them. People oriented values were reported as the least influential factors as only 29.32% of Ghanaian students and 26.47% of the international students reported that they were important to them in their choices. The remaining 70.68% of Ghanaian respondents and 73.336% of the international students reported that these factors did not motivate them at all 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.4 Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Motivational Values by Nationality Figure 4.4: Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Motivational Values by Nationality 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 Percentage 40.00 Level of Importance No Importance 30.00 Little Importance 20.00 Average Importance 10.00 Considerable Importance 0.00 Extreme Importance External Reward Self- People Influence Oriented Expression Oriented Values Figure 4.4 shows the difference between the levels of importance that Ghanaian and other students from other African countries attach to the various motivational factors that influenced their occupational preferences. As illustrated, 54.11% of Ghanaian students and 55.15% international students stated that external variables of parents, radio television, books, teachers and friends were not important to them in their occupational preferences at all. Out of the remaining 45.89% of Ghanaian respondents and 44.85% of International students who reported that these external variables 93 Ghanaian International Ghanaian International Ghanaian International Ghanaian International University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were somewhat important to them, 8.33% of the Ghanaian students and 8.82% of the International students, stated that it was of little importance. Similarly, 15.09% of Ghanaian students and 11.76% of International students accepted that the importance was average, whereas 12.03% Ghanaian and 13.24% International respondents reported that these importance was of a considerable nature. However, 10.44% Ghanaian students and 11.03% International students, agreed to the fact that external influence was extremely important to them. On how important extrinsic-reward oriented values of good salary, attractive working conditions, and stable and secure future and improved social status were to students, 12.97% of Ghanaian respondents and 11.40% International respondents reported that they were not important to them in their occupational preferences at all. Out of the remaining 87.03% of Ghanaian respondents and 88.60% International respondents who indicated that extrinsic- reward-oriented values were of some importance to them, 6.23% Ghanaian and 8.08% International students indicated that these values were of little importance, to them 18.35% of Ghanaian and 15.81% of International respondents agreed that they were of average importance to them. However 30.70% Ghanaian students and 24.26% International students accepted that these values were of considerable importance to them with 31.75% Ghanaian and 40.45% International respondents, declaring that extrinsic reward-oriented values were of extreme important to them in their career choices. On how important self-expression values of fondness for school subjects, special ability or aptitude, originality and creativity and extensive use of hands to students, 27.43% of Ghanaian respondents and 32.35% of International respondents stated that these were not important to them in their occupational preferences at all. Out of the remaining 72.57% of 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghanaian respondents and 67.65% of International respondents who stated that self- expression was important to them. On the other hand, 8.12% Ghanaian and 7.72% International students indicated that the importance was little, 19.51% of Ghanaian and 14.71% of International students also reported average importance, whereas 23.10% Ghanaian and 24.26% International recorded that they were of considerable importance to them. These values however were declared by 21.84% of Ghanaian students and 20.96% of International students as being extremely important to them in their occupational preferences. On people-oriented values of exercising of leadership, working with people, serving people helping the less fortunate which seemed the least important to students, as many as 70.68% of Ghanaian respondents and 73.53% of International respondents indicated they were not important to them at all in their career preferences. Out of the remaining 29.32% of Ghanaian respondents and 26.47% of International respondents who accepted that it was of some importance to them,7.07% Ghanaian students and 6.25 % International indicated little importance, 6.01% of Ghanaian and 6.62% of international students said it was of average importance to them however, 8.65% Ghanaian and 6.25% International reported considerable importance and 7.59% Ghanaian and 7.35% of International agreed that people-oriented values were extremely important to them. By the statistics, a larger percentage (88.60%) of international students were motivated by good salary, attractive working conditions stable and secure future, improved social status and prestige than Ghanaian students (87.03%) in their occupational preferences. However, on external influence of parents, friends, teachers, radio, television and books, these factors were 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh more important to little more Ghanaian respondents (45.89%) than international respondents (44.85%). More Ghanaian respondents (72.57%) than International respondents (67.65%) indicated that fondness of the subjects that bear upon the profession, their special abilities and aptitudes as well as opportunity to be creative and original and the opportunity to use their hands were important to them in their occupational decision making. Opportunity to exercise leadership, serve people, help the less fortunate and work with people were more important to a larger percentage of Ghanaian respondents (29.32%) than to international respondents (26.67%). 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.5 Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by programmes Figure 4.5: Percentage Distribution of Motivational Values by programmes Percentage 100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No Programmes Port and Shipping External Reward Self-Expression People Logistics Management Influence Oriented Oriented Values Nautical Science Electrical Electronic Engineering Marine Engineering Computer Engineering Figure 4.5 shows the factors that motivated students from different programmes to select their occupations. Students who reported having been influenced by external factors were, 44.09% of Port and Shipping Administration students, 47.73% of Logistics Management students, 36.21% of Nautical Science students, 51.17% of Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students 43.09% of Marine Engineering students and 65% of Computer Engineering students the rest of the respondents indicated that external influence had no influence on them. Computer engineering students were the most influenced by external factors followed by marine electrical electronic engineering students, then logistics management students with ports and shipping administration students ranking fourth. Marine Engineering students were th th ranked 5 and nautical science ranked 5 when it came to external influence. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On extrinsic-reward oriented values, as many as 86.83% of Port and Shipping Administration students, 91.67% of Logistics Management students, 93.10% of Nautical Science students, 87.11% of Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students, 84.87% of Marine Engineering students and 82.50% of Computer Engineering students indicated that reward oriented values influenced their occupational preferences. The rest of the respondents indicated that reward- oriented values did not influence their occupational preferences. Students from all programmers were greatly influenced by extrinsic-reward oriented values; however it appears that Nautical Science students were influenced more than students from other programmers, followed by Logistics Management students and then Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students with Port and Shipping Administration students ranking 4thand Marine Engineering students ranking fifth. Comparatively Computer Engineering students were the least influenced by extrinsic reward-oriented values. A sizeable number of students comprising 54.57% from Port and Shipping Administration, 59.09% of Logistics Management students, 63.79% of Nautical Science students 92.19% of Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students, 82.57% of Maritime Engineering students and 80% of Computer Engineering students indicated that Self-expression values influenced their occupational preferences. The rest of the respondents reported that these values did not influence their occupational preferences in any way. st It can be observed that with self-expression values, the engineering students ranked 1 nd rd (marine electrical electronics), 2 Marine engineering and 3 (computer engineering). 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh th Nautical science students ranked 4 followed by logistics management students. Ports and shipping administration students were the least influenced by self-expression values. It can also be observed that compared to other values, People-oriented values influenced comparatively fewer students (38.44%) of Port and Shipping Administration students, 25% of Logistics Management students, 27.59% of Nautical Science students, 16.02% of Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students and 24.67% of Maritime Engineering students with the exception of Computer Engineering students who had 60% of its students indicating that they were influenced by people-oriented values. This could be attributed to the small size (10) of respondents from the programme. The remaining respondents signified that People-oriented values did not have any influence on their career preferences. People-oriented values influenced computer engineering students more than they did respondents from other programmes, followed by ports and shipping administration respondents, and then nautical science students with logistics management students ranking th th 4 . Marine engineering students ranked 5 and marine electrical electronics students ranked th 6 on the influence of people-oriented values. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.6 Percentage Distribution of Level of Importance of Extrinsic Values on Students’ Occupational Preference by Programmes Figure 4.6: Percentage Distribution of Level of Importance of Extrinsic Values on Students’ Occupational Preference by Programmes 40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 Percentage 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 Programmes Port and Shipping Logistics Management Nautical Science Electrical Electronic Engineering Maritime Engineering Level Of Importance Computer Engineering The Figure 4.6 shows the level of importance that students from different programmers attach to extrinsic motivational factors in their occupational preferences. As indicated in Figure 4.7, 34.55% of students offering ports and shipping administration indicated that extrinsic values were of no importance to them at all when considering their occupations. Out of the remaining 65.45 who indicated that extrinsic factors were important in their occupational preferences, 6.72% of them reported that it was of little importance, 100 No Importance Little Importance Average Importance Considerable Importance Extreme Importance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14.38% indicated that it was of average importance, 22.31% indicated considerable importance and 22.04% stated that extrinsic values were of extreme importance to them. On how extrinsic values influenced the Logistics management student, 30.30% indicated that it was not important to them in their career decision making at all. The remaining 69.70% who stated that it was of some importance to them. Only 3.41% reported that it was of little importance, 16.29% said the importance was average, 24.62% stated that it was of considerable importance whereas more than a quarter of them (25.38%) stated that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. On how the importance of extrinsic values influenced Nautical Science students’ occupational preferences, 35.34% indicated that it was of no importance to them in any way as far as their occupational preferences were concerned. The remaining 64.66% who stated that it was important to them, 5.17% indicated little importance, 14.66% stated that the importance was average in nature, 18.97% stated that it was of considerable importance to them and more than a quarter (25.86%) of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them in their career preferences. Concerning the influence of extrinsic values on the Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering student’s occupational preferences, 30.86% indicated that it was of no importance to them. Out of the remaining 69.14% who stated that it was of some importance to them, 11.72% indicated little importance, 17.77% said he importance was average, 22.85% stated that it was of considerable importance to them. In their case less than seventeen percent (16.80%) of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On how extrinsic values influenced the Marine Engineering students’ occupational preferences, 36.18% indicated that it was of no importance to them. Out of the remaining 63.82% who stated that it was important to them, only 7.07% indicated little importance, 16.78% said the importance was average, 15.79% stated that it was of considerable importance to them in their career preferences. However, 24.18% of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. On how extrinsic values influenced the Computer Engineering students’ occupational preferences, a quarter (25.00%) of the respondents indicated that it was of no importance to them. Out of the remaining 75% who stated that it was important to them, 11.25% indicated little importance, 18.75% said he importance was average, a quarter (25.%) of the respondents stated that it was of considerable importance to them and 20 % of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. Going by the statistics, good salary, attractive working conditions stable and secure future, improved social status and prestige as well as the influence of parents, friends, teachers, radio, television and books, were comparatively more important to computer engineering students (75%), followed by logistics management students (69.70%) and then marine electrical electronics students (69.14%). Ports and shipping administration students were the next (65.46%), followed by nautical science (64.66%) respondents. Those who were the least influenced comparatively, were the Marine engineering students (63.82%). 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.7 Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Intrinsic Values on students’ occupational preference by Programmes Figure 4.7: Percentage Distribution of level of Importance of Intrinsic Values on students’ occupational preference by Programmes 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 Percentage 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 Programmes Port and Shipping Logistics Management Nautical Science Electrical Electronic Engineering Maritime Engineering Computer Engineering Level Of Importance The Figure 4.7 shows the level of importance that students from different programmes attach to intrinsic motivational factors in their occupational preferences. As shown in Figure 4.7, 53.49% of students from ports and shipping administration said intrinsic values were of no importance to them at all when considering their occupations. Out of the remaining 46.51% who indicated it was of some importance to them, 7.66% of them reported that it was of little importance, 11.83% indicated average importance 14.65% reported considerable importance of the factors and 12.37% of them stated that intrinsic values were of extreme importance to them. 103 No Importance Little Importance Average Importance Considerable Importance Extreme Importance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On how intrinsic values influenced the logistics management students, a little below sixty percent (57.95%) indicated that it was not important to them at all in their occupational preferences. Out of the remaining 42.05% who stated that it was important to them, 5.30% indicated little importance, 9.85% said the importance was average, 13.64% stated that it was of considerable importance and 13.26% reported that intrinsic values were extremely important to them. Concerning how intrinsic values influenced the Nautical Science student’s occupational preferences, more than fifty-four percent (54.32%) indicated that it was of no importance to them at all. Out of the remaining 45.68% who stated that it was important to them, 9.05% indicated little importance, 10.34% said the importance was average, 15.95% stated that it was of considerable importance and 10.34% of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. Concerning the influence of intrinsic values on the Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering students’ occupational preferences, 45.89% indicated that it was of no importance to them. Out of the remaining 54.11% who stated that it was important to them, 8.20% indicated little importance, 14.26% said he importance was average, 15.63% stated that it was of considerable importance to them and16.02% of the respondents reported that intrinsic values were extremely important to them. On how intrinsic values influenced the Marine Engineering student’s occupational preferences, 46.38% indicated that it was of no importance to them. Out of the remaining 53.62% who stated that it was important to them, only 6.74% indicated little importance, 13.16% said the importance was average, 17.27% stated that it was of considerable 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh importance to them. However, 16.45% of the respondents reported that intrinsic values were extremely important to them. On how intrinsic values influenced the Computer Engineering students’ occupational preferences, 30% of the respondents indicated that it was of no importance to them at all. Out of the remaining 70% who stated that it was important to them, 6.25% indicated little importance, 13.75% said he importance was average, 21.25% of the respondents stated that it was of considerable importance to them and 28.75% of the respondents reported that extrinsic values were extremely important to them. The statistics shows that fondness of the subjects that bear upon the profession, the opportunity students expect to have to use their special abilities and aptitudes, to be creative and original, to use their hands extensively, to exercise leadership, serve people, help the less fortunate and work with people, were comparatively more important to computer engineering students (70%) followed by marine electrical electronic engineering students (54.11%) followed by marine engineering students (53.62%) and then Ports and shipping administration students (46.51%) followed by Nautical Science students (45.68%).Logistics Management students (42.05%) were relatively the least influenced by these intrinsic factors. 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Testing of Hypotheses The findings of the testing of hypotheses for the research are presented in this section. Hypothesis one stated, “Male students will be influenced by extrinsic values more than female students” the results on that hypothesis are presented in the Tables 4.11. Table 4.6 Independent t Test Results on the influence of extrinsic values between Male and Female Students. Sex M SD Df T Sig. Male 7.32 1.59 Female 7.50 1.31 Total 7.41 1.45 303 -.609 .543 Table 4.6 shows that the mean for the performance of males (M=7.32, SD=1.59) and females (M=7.50, SD=1.31) were subjected to t independent test to determine whether male students will be influenced by extrinsic values more than female students. Results (t= -.609, Sig.= .543) show that no significant difference exists between the influence of extrinsic values among male and female students. This implies that both male and female students are subject to similar levels of extrinsic values influence. Hypothesis one is thus rejected. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis two states that, ‘Ghanaian students will be more influenced by intrinsic values than International students’. Table 4.7: One-Way Analysis of Variance Test Result on the Influence of Intrinsic Values among Ghanaian and International students. Nationalities M SD df F Sig. Cameroon 8.48 1.69 Gambia 9.00 . Ghana 8.93 1.66 Sierra Leone 8.00 .00 Nigeria 8.56 1.77 Others 7.60 1.14 Total 8.83 1.67 304 1.215 .302 Table 4.7 shows that the One-Way Analysis of Variance Test was used to determine whether Ghanaian students will be more influenced by intrinsic values than International students. Results (F = 1.215, df = 304, Sig. = .302) shows that no significant difference exist between the influenced by intrinsic values among Ghanaian and International students. This shows that both Ghanaian and international students have similar influence of intrinsic values. Hence hypothesis two is rejected. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis three states, ‘There will be a significance difference in the factors that influence students from the different programmes’. Table 4.8: Analysis of Variance showing influence of Values on Students from Different Programmes Sum of Df Mean F Sig. Squares Square External Influence Between Groups 102.090 5 20.418 1.709 .132 Within Groups 3572.323 299 11.948 Total 3674.413 304 Reward Oriented Between Groups 114.899 5 22.980 2.052 .071 Within Groups 3348.753 299 11.200 Total 3463.652 304 Self-expression Between Groups 1068.390 5 213.678 16.686 .000 Within Groups 3828.876 299 12.806 Total 4897.266 304 People Oriented Between Groups 566.616 5 113.323 15.062 .000 Within Groups 2249.646 299 7.524 Total 2816.262 304 Table 4.8 shows that the One-Way Analysis of Variance Test was used to determine whether there will be a significance difference in the factors that influence students from the different programmes. Results (F = 1.709, df = 304, Sig. = .132) shows that no significant difference exist in the influenced of external values among students from the different programmes, similarly, (F = 2.052, df = 304, Sig. = .071) also shows that there is no significant difference 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the influence of reward-oriented values among students from the different programmes, however, (F = 16.686, df = 304, Sig. = .000) shows that there is a significant difference in the influenced of self-expression values among students from the different programmes and (F = 15.062, df = 304, Sig. = .000) also shows that a significant difference exist in the influenced of people-oriented values among students from the different programmes. There is therefore, no significant difference in how the extrinsic factors motivated the occupational preferences of students from the different programmes however, there was a significant difference in the way students from the different programmes were influenced by intrinsic values hence hypothesis three is accepted. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hypothesis four states that, ‘Extrinsic values will be relatively more important to students than intrinsic values in their occupational preferences’. Table 4.9: Ranking of Importance Index of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Values Extrinsic Value Statements Rank Yes (y) No (n) y-n (y-n)/N st Ensures stable and secure future 1 289 16 173 0.8951 nd Provides good salary 2 283 22 261 0.8557 rd Gives an improved social status and 3 267 38 229 0.7508 prestige th Provides Attractive Working Conditions 6 230 75 155 0.5082 th Direct and indirect influence of Radio, TV 8 196 109 87 0.2852 or Books th Direct and indirect influence of parents 11 143 162 -19 -0.0623 th Direct and indirect influence of friends 13 114 191 -77 -0.2525 th Direct and indirect influence of teachers 14 106 199 -93 -0.3049 Intrinsic Value Statements Rank Yes (y) No (n) y-n y-n/N th Permits my special ability or aptitude 4 256 49 207 0.6787 th Fondness for school subject which bear 5 247 58 189 0.6197 upon the profession th Permits me to be original and Creative 7 194 111 83 0.2721 th Gives me a chance to exercise leadership 9 189 116 73 0.2393 th Permits me to use my hands Extensively 10 177 128 49 0.1607 th Gives me the opportunity to work with 12 116 189 -73 -0.2393 people th Gives me the opportunity to serve 15 22 283 -261 -0.8557 th Permit me to help those less Fortunate than 15 22 283 -261 -0.8557 I 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9, shows that importance index of the various extrinsic and intrinsic factors were calculated and ranked to determine if extrinsic values were relatively more important than intrinsic values in influencing students’ occupational preferences. Results showed that the first three most influential factors that motivated students’ occupational preferences were all extrinsic (‘Ensures stable and secure future’, ‘Provides good salary’ and improved social status and prestige’) under Reward-Oriented Values with an importance index of 0.7475, a difference of 0.315 higher than Self-Expression values which recorded an importance index of 0.4328 for being the second highest influence. Students ranked the intrinsic motivational factors that influenced their occupational preferences in the following order: ‘permit my special abilities’, ‘Fondness for school subject which bear upon the profession’, ‘Permits me to be original and Creative’, ‘Gives me a chance to exercise leadership’, ‘Permits me to use my hands extensively’, ‘Gives me the opportunity to work with people’. ‘Gives me the opportunity to serve’ and ‘Permit me to help those less Fortunate than I’ were ranked the same and were the least motivating factors. The extrinsic motivational factors that influenced students’ occupational preferences were also ranked in the following order: ‘Ensures stable and secure future, ‘Provides good salary’, ‘Gives an improved social status and prestige, ‘Direct and indirect influence of Radio, TV or Books’, ‘Direct and indirect influence of parents’, ‘Direct and indirect influence of friends’ and ‘Direct and indirect influence of teachers’. The least motivating factor was ‘Direct and indirect influence of teachers’. The relative importance of intrinsic and extrinsic values was determined with the average importance index of the Values and presented in Table 4.16. 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.10: Distribution of Average Importance Index of Values Values Rank YES (y) No (n) Y-n (y-n)/N Extrinsic 1 203 102 101 0.3303 Intrinsic 2 153 152 1 0.0016 In Table 4.10, the relative influence of intrinsic and extrinsic values on students is shown. It can be observed that extrinsic values with an important index of 0.3303 were again relatively more influential on students’ occupational preferences than intrinsic values with an important index of 0.0016. This was as a result of the high ranking of Reward-Oriented Values. Therefore the hypothesis that ‘Extrinsic values will be relatively more important than intrinsic values to students when it comes to occupational preferences is accepted. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.1 Introduction This chapter deals with discussion of results, summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It also suggests areas of further research on the study carried out to find out factors that motivate Regional Maritime University students’ preference of occupation. 5.2 Factors that Influence the Occupational Preferences of Males and Female Students The testing of the first hypothesis that male students will be influenced by extrinsic values more than female students helped to answer the second objective of finding out differences in the influence of extrinsic values on occupational preferences of male and female students. The hypothesis that males will be more influenced by extrinsic values than females was however rejected, meaning that extrinsic factors influenced males and females students similarly. Looking at how extrinsic values influenced male and female students, Figure 4.1 shows that good salary, attractive working conditions, stable and secure future, improved social status and prestige were more important to male students (87.03%) than to female students (84.17%) and direct and indirect influence of parents, teachers, friends, books, radio and television influenced male students (46%) more than female students (42.50%). This shows that more males indicated that both groups of extrinsic factors motivated them more than females. The difference was, however, not significant. 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This finding is consistent with a study by Marini, Fan, Finley and Beutel (1996) that indicated that, there were no differences in the importance male and female placed on extrinsic rewards and influences. They, however, found out that there were persistent gender differences in the importance male and female place on intrinsic, altruistic, and social rewards in their occupational preferences. They reported that young women attach greater importance to intrinsic, altruistic, and social rewards than young men. These imply that although males and females are influenced by extrinsic factors equally, there is evidence that intrinsic motivations influence females more than males. Holland (1986) cited in Mudhovozi, Sodi and Amusa (2014) in a study with Scottish pupils implied that males were more likely to be influenced by extrinsic values more than females. He suggested that, boys were motivated more by utilitarian incentives (to become rich, acquire authority) since the traditional role of a man in his family is that of “protector” and “provider”. Males rated ‘earn a lot of money’, ‘work with technology’ and ‘good promotion prospects’ more highly than females. The findings were also inconsistent with Tolbert and Moen (1998) who investigated whether or not men and women held differing preferences for particular job attributes and to what extent. They indicated that work attributes that involve extrinsic rewards, were highly valued by men while intrinsic rewards were valued more by women. The findings again was inconsistent with the findings of a study by Beutel and Marini (1995) in which they found that men were more attracted by extrinsic values than women and women were also attracted by intrinsic values more than men. 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The current research findings can be attributed to the changing trend in the family structure in Africa, where there are now a lot of single parent families and the role of women as non- bread winners is changing. Unlike previous years, women now partake in all responsibilities previously seen as the ‘duties of men’. A number of studies have suggested that at least some of the contradictory findings from researches on the relationship between gender and work attitudes may be a reflection of recent shifts in women's attitudes toward work, which have accompanied large-scale changes in societal gender roles (Erez, Borochov, & Mannheim, 1989 and Morgan & Carney, 1985 cited in Tolbert, 1998). Women merchant mariners in West Africa indicated that one of the main reasons why they chose careers at sea was for the attractive salary because, as a principle, there is no pay gaps between women and men at sea (Tifuh, 2014). Therefore women aspiring for careers in the maritime industries for example, may be aware of the opportunities to make money and have a secure future just like their male counterparts and these were ranked highly by respondents. Holland’s theory of career development also stipulates that people with similar personalities are attracted towards similar occupational environments and are likely to have similar work values and this assertion was made irrespective of gender differences. 5.3 Factors That Motivate Ghanaian and International Students’ Occupational Preferences The second objective of assessing the relative influence of intrinsic values on the occupational preferences of Ghanaian and International students was answered by testing the hypothesis that ‘Ghanaian students will be more influenced by intrinsic values than International students’. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The results of the study again revealed that the level of influence of intrinsic values on both Ghanaian students and students from other African countries was the similar. In other words, Ghanaian students were not more influenced by intrinsic values than international students. The hypothesis that Ghanaian students will be more influenced by intrinsic values than international students was thus rejected. As illustrated in Figure 4.3, more Ghanaian students (72.57%) than International students (67.65%) indicated that self-expression values involving fondness of the subjects that bear upon the profession, their special abilities and aptitudes as well as opportunity to be creative and original and the opportunity to use their hands which are all intrinsic values were important to them and again on the motivation of people-oriented values of opportunity to exercise leadership, serve people, help the less fortunate and work with people which were also intrinsic values, Ghanaian students (29.32%) were more motivated by the factors more than international students (26.47%). However, the differences in the percentages were not significant as expected. This finding is consistent with a study by Chan, Lee, Li & Raymond (2012) in which they found that, there seemed to be no real statistical difference between the cultures they studied and their views on Hofstede’s various dimensions of cultural work values. However, Fouad and Byars‐Winston (2005) found that people from different racial and ethnic groups are different with regards to their perceptions of career-related opportunities and barriers to their career aspirations. The researcher was of the opinion that these factors influence occupational preferences greatly. Moreover, the findings did not confirm that Ghanaians were likely to be relatively more intrinsic value-oriented nation and that what motivates the Ghanaian society is liking what they do (feminine) rather than wanting to be the best (masculine) (Hofstede 2011). 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The rejection of the hypothesis can be attributed to the fact that most African countries have similar cultural values and therefore the difference in work values of the different societies were not that significant. Also the movement of people across the sub-region may mean that people mingle with others from different cultures and learn from each other’s culture. The self-determination theory holds that motivations are learnt behaviours that develop as people interact with their environment. There are environmental factors that develop, improve, weaken or thwart intrinsic or extrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, the learning experiences an individual encounter in the society such as the kind of feedback the individual receives for behaviours performed determines the type of factors that will form the basis of the individual’s motivation; whether extrinsic or intrinsic. The findings confirms the assertion by Moreover Magramo and Gellad (2009) that unlike highly industrialized countries, students from developing countries were more attracted to the maritime careers because of the extrinsic rewards they offer. Likewise, Inglehart (1997) cited in Hauff and Kirchner (2015) also asserted that materialistic values were more important in less developed countries and all the international respondents used in this study were from developing countries. 5.4 Factors that influence students from different programmes. The third objective of finding the differences in factors that motivated the occupational preferences of students from different programmes was answered by testing the hypothesis that ‘there will be a significant difference in the factors that influence the occupational preference of students from the different programmes. 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The testing of the hypothesis revealed that although, there was no significant difference in the way the extrinsic factors influenced the occupational preferences of students from the different programmes; the intrinsic factors recorded a high level of significant difference among students from the different programmes. The students from the different programmes were influenced differently by the intrinsic factors; students from some programmes were more influenced than students from other programmes. The outcome of the study confirmed that, students offering Marine Electrical Electronic Engineering, Marine Engineering and Computer Engineering were more influenced by intrinsic values more than students from Port and Shipping Administration, Logistics Management and Nautical Science. They were less influenced by the intrinsic values. Therefore the hypothesis that ‘there will be a significant difference in the factors that influenced the occupational preference of students from the different programmes is accepted because despite the fact that extrinsic values influenced the students from the different programmes in a similar way, there was a significant difference in the way intrinsic values influenced them. The finding could be attributed to the fact that engineering training involves extensive use of hands and a lot of creativity, which were some of the intrinsic factors measured. The finding that students from all programmes valued extrinsic factors equally was consistent with the research finding of Kisser and Eluvia, 2002 as cited in Bering, Kumara and Ahuja, 2015 in which they found that individuals who choose programmes in Business and Technical fields have more concern for extrinsic values. The programmes offered at Regional Maritime University are all from the technical and marine business fields. The findings was that individuals who choose programmes in the Arts and Humanities are more focused towards contributing to community and helping other people whereas the individuals in the Business and Technical fields have more concern for wealth accumulation and their social image. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The finding of this research was also consistent with the findings of a study by Bering, Kumara and Ahuja (2015) in which they identified that people from different academic disciplines have differences in their value orientations. Although the programmes offered at the regional maritime university are all in the maritime industry, they are technically from different academic disciplines hence the difference in the influence of intrinsic factors. It was expected that since all of the respondents were offering different maritime programmes, their occupational preferences would be influenced by intrinsic and extrinsic factors equally. However, although extrinsic values influenced them equally, intrinsic values did not influence them equally. This is probably due to the fact that students from different programmes find some values more important than others. This is confirmed by a research finding of Breen and Lindsay (2002). They found that some types of motivations lead to success in some disciplines but failure in other disciplines. Inconsistent with these results is a research by Gokaldas (2010) in which he found that even students from different branches of engineering were motivated by varying extrinsic and intrinsic influencing factors for their job preferences. However, the findings of this research also showed that even some students from different branches of engineering were influenced equally by intrinsic values. 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 Relative Importance of Factors in Motivating Students’ Occupational Preferences The fourth objective of finding the relative importance of the motivational factors in the occupational preference of the students was determined using the Importance Index of the various factors. The rank order of the Importance Index produced by the analysis showed that among the 16 motivational factors of the Motivational for Occupational Preference Scale (MOPS) that influenced students’ occupational preferences, ‘Ensures stable and secure future’ was ranked st as the 1 factor by students followed by ‘Provides good salary’ as the second motivating factor. ‘Gives an improved social status and prestige’ was ranked the third influencing factor. th ‘Permits my special ability or aptitude’ was ranked 4 with ‘Fondness for school subject th which bear upon the profession’ ranking as the 5 factor that motivated students’ th occupational preferences. ‘Provides Attractive Working Conditions’ was ranked as the 6 th motivational factor followed by ‘Permits Me to be Original and Creative’ ranking 7 by th students. ‘Direct and indirect influence of Radio, TV or Books’ was ranked as the 8 factor th and ‘Gives Me a Chance to Exercise Leadership’ was ranked as the 9 factor. ‘Permits me to th use my hands extensively’ was ranked 10 with Direct and indirect influence of parents th th ranking as 11 factor followed by ‘Gives me the opportunity to work with people’ as the 12 influencing factor and then ‘Direct and indirect influence of friends’ ranked by students as the th th 13 motivating factor. ‘Direct and indirect influence of teachers’ ranked the 14 motivating factor among the 16 factors. ‘Gives me the opportunity to serve’ and ‘Permit me to help th those less Fortunate than I’ were the least influencing factors with both ranking as the 15 factor. It appears that the relatively huge salaries paid by shipping companies have overshadowed other motivational factors in the industry. There have been studies that suggested that non- 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh economic factors have lost their ability to motivate even people in developed nations to become seafarers (Caesar, Cahoon & Fei 2015). Among the external variables, ‘Direct and indirect influence of Radio, TV or Books’ ranked first, followed by ‘Direct and indirect influence of parents’ and then ‘Direct influence of friends’ with the ‘Direct influence of teachers being the least influencing factors among the external influence. With the Extrinsic Reward-Oriented Values, ‘Ensures stable and secure future’ was the most st ranked 1 followed by ‘provides good salary’ and then ‘Gives an improved social status and prestige’ with ‘Provides Attractive Working Conditions’ ranking as the least influencing factor. Nevertheless ‘Provides Attractive Working Conditions’, being the least influencing th factor in this category, ranked 6 in the ranking of the 16 factors on the questionnaire. This is an indication of the strength of Reward-Oriented Values as motivational factors for occupational preference among regional Maritime University Students. Among the Self-Expression Values, ‘Permits my special ability or aptitude’ ranked first and th was the 4 among the sixteen factors. ‘Fondness for school subject which bear upon the nd th profession’ ranked 2 in this category but ranked 5 among the sixteen factors with ‘Permits rd me to be original and Creative’ ranking 3 with ‘Permits me to use my hands Extensively, as the least motivating factor in this category. People-Oriented Values were ranked in the following manner. ‘Gives me a chance to exercise st th leadership’ ranked 1 in this category but ranked 9 among the sixteen factors. ‘Gives me the 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh opportunity to work with people’ was seen as the second most influential factor in this th category but ranked 12 among the sixteen factors. Gives me the opportunity to serve’ and ‘Permit me to help those less Fortunate than I’ were th both ranked 15 and the last among the sixteen factors. This was an indication of how weak People-Oriented Values were in influencing student’s occupational preferences apart from the need for leadership that appeared to be quite strong comparatively. Table 4.9 shows the rankings of the grouped motivational factors that influenced students’ rd occupational preferences. External Influence with an important index of -0.0885 was the 3 most influential factors among all the four factors; however, Reward-Oriented Values with an important index of 0.7475 was the highest most influential among all the factors. The intrinsic values of Self-Expression with an important index of 0.4328 was the second most influential of the factors however People Oriented Values were least influential factors than Self-expression Values with an important index of -0.4295. The findings is consistent with the findings of a study by Bering, Kumara Abuja (2015) in which they found that students in the business and technical streams score higher on extrinsic value orientation whilst those in arts and humanities streams scored higher on intrinsic value orientation. It was found that those in business and technical fields give more importance to extrinsic values. The results indicate that students of Regional Maritime University are more extrinsic value oriented than intrinsic value oriented. 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 Summary of Findings The study investigated those factors that influenced students’ preference of occupation in the Regional Maritime University Accra, Ghana. Three hundred and five questionnaire were administered to the undergraduate students of the university. The main findings are summarized below: 1. The result of the main hypothesis postulated for the study revealed that Extrinsic factors were more important than Intrinsic factors in influencing students’ occupational preferences. 2. The independent-sample T-test performed on male and female students showed that there were no statistically significant sex differences in the factors that influence their occupational preferences. Male and female were both influenced by extrinsic and intrinsic factors equally. 3. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) performed on Ghanaian and International students showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the factors that influence the occupational preferences of Ghanaian and International students’ occupational preferences. 4. According to the one-way ANOVA performed, there were no significant difference among the factors that influenced students from different programmes with regards to Extrinsic Values but there was a significant difference in the factors that influenced students from the different programmes when it came to Intrinsic Values. 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. A look at the ranking of the importance index of all the motivational factors shows that students were relatively more influenced by Extrinsic Values than Intrinsic Values. The factors that motivated students to choose their occupations were both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature; however, extrinsic factors of good salary, prestige and social status and secure future were comparatively the three most influential factors that impacted on students’ occupational preferences. Among the three least influential factors; ‘Permit me to help those less Fortunate than I’ and ‘Gives me the opportunity to serve’ were intrinsic whilst ‘Direct and indirect influence of teachers’ was an extrinsic factor. 5.7 Conclusion According to the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), intrinsic aspirations include such life goals as affiliation, generativity, and personal development, whereas extrinsic aspirations include such goals as wealth, fame, and attractiveness. Numerous studies have revealed that an emphasis on intrinsic goals, relative to extrinsic goals, is associated with greater health, well-being, and performance. It is likely that students will struggle with the courses because they lack interest in the programme itself except for the rewards it provides. Students are also likely to get disappointed if the rewards they expected does not materialize in case of inability to get employment in the maritime industry or are unable to get work in companies that will pay such high salaries. Self-expression values which placed second in the ranking of influential factors, shows that students are both influenced by extrinsic and some intrinsic factors like the use of skills, 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh abilities and love for leadership. These internal values can be well shaped through guidance and counselling to improve performance and wellbeing. The fact that there were no statistically significant gender or nationality differences in the influence of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Values with regard to occupational preferences suggest that, counsellors will not be compelled to develop different counseling programmes for male and female students or for students from different countries attending the Regional Maritime University. 5.8 Recommendations The responses gathered in the research indicated that the occupational preferences of undergraduate students of the Regional Maritime University, were influenced mostly by Extrinsic factors. Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn, the following recommendations were made: Career counseling should focus on the compatibility of career goals with choice of undergraduate majors. Counsellors should try to assess students’ likelihood of obtaining satisfaction from their prospective occupation. The reason for preferring an occupation is an indication of what the student hopes to derive from that occupation. Counsellors should make it a point to scrutinize the student’s motivational factors for their preferences as a means of potential for satisfaction and success in the occupation they aspire to. It will also be necessary to assess if the occupation has the means of fulfilling the hopes of the students. If it is discovered that an occupation has been chosen or is preferred for reasons which the occupation cannot meet, the counsellor can provide counseling to modify the 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh student’s expectations or to help the student gain insight in order to change the prospective occupation and to also see if the student is viewing his or her prospective occupation realistically. The focus should be on determining the compatibility between the individual’s values and the attributes of the preferred occupation. Parents should be educated on the impact of parental influence on their children’s career preferences and the consequences of such influences. 5.9 Suggestions for Further Studies It will be important to replicate this research in another maritime institution since the literature on this subject is scanty as far as this researcher was concerned. A follow up survey to find the relationship between motivational factors of Regional Maritime University Students and their academic performance will enrich the literature. 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Aguado, C. L., Laguador, J. M., &Deligero, J. C. L. (2015). Factors affecting the choice of school and students’ level of interest towards the maritime program. Asian Social Science, 11(21), p231. Retrieved from http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P3- 3821830221/factors-affecting-the-choice-of-school-and-students Alias, M., & Bakar, M. N. F. B. A. (2010). Factors Contributing to Programme Choice and Subsequent Career Selection among Engineering Students. People, 7, 9. Retrieved from http://tree.utm.my/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Factors-Contributing-to-Programme- Choice-and-Subsequent-Career-Selection-among-Engineering-Students.pdf Amabile, T. M., Hill, K. G., Hennessey, B. A., &Tighe, E. M. (1994). The Work Preference Inventory: assessing intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations. Journal of personality and social psychology, 66(5), 950. Retrieved from http://people.uncw.edu/caropresoe/ Atindanbila, S. (2013).Research methods and SPSS for researchers. BB Printing Press, Accra Bakare, C. G. M. (1977). Motivation for occupational preference scale manual. Ibadan: Psycho-educational Research Productions. Bakker, S. Fitzsimmons, G. & Macnab, D (2005). Career values scale manual and user’s guide. Retrieved from.https://www.psychometrics.com/wp-content/ uploads /2014/ 12/cvs_m.pdf Baryeh, E. A., Obu, R. Y., Lamptey, D. L., &Baryeh, N. Y. (2000). Ghanaian women and the engineering profession. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education, 28(4), 334-346. Assessed from http://ijj.sagepub.com/content/28/4/334 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bering, L., Kumara, S., &Ahuja, S. (2015).Personal values, gender differences and academic preferences: An experimental investigation. International Journal of Applied Psychology, 5(5), 133-140. Retrieved from http://article.sapub.org /10.5923.j.ijap. 20150505.04.htmlBleeker, Beutel, A. M., & Marini, M. M. (1995). Gender and values. American sociological review, 436-448. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272562434_ Gender_and_Values Bleeker, M. M., & Jacobs, J. E. (2004). Achievement in math and science: Do mothers' beliefs matter 12 years later?.Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(1), 97 retrieved from .http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/edu/96/1/97/ Breen, R., & Lindsay, R. (2002). Different disciplines require different motivations for student success. Research in Higher Education, 43(6), 693-725. Retrieved from http://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1020940615784 Brown, D. (2002). The role of work and cultural values in occupational choice, satisfaction, and success: A theoretical statement. Journal of counseling& development, 80(1), 48- 56. DOI: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2002.tb00165.x Business dictionary online.2016.Motivation (2016). Retrieved from March 15 2016 http://www.businessdictionary .com/definition /motivation. html#ixzz3tVWphW2F Caesar, L. D., Cahoon, S., &Fei, J. (2015).Exploring the range of retention issues for seafarers in global shipping: Opportunities for further research. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 14(1), 141-157. 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chan, H., Lee, S. Li, R. & Raymond, D. (2012) Cultural effects on choice of occupation and university/college major. Retrieved from http://seanlyons.ca/wp- content/uploads/2012/01/Chan-et-al-2014.pdf Denga, D. (1990). Educational and vocational guidance in Nigeria secondary schools.Rapid Educational Publishers Limited. Dragomir, C., &Surugiu, F. (2013).Seafarer women-perception of the seafaring career. In WSEAS/NAUN 2nd International Conference on Economics, Political and Law Science (EPLS'13). Retrieved from http://www. researchgate.net Dearsley, D. (2013). Maritime Career Path Mapping 2013 Update.A report for the European Transport Workers’ Federation (ETF) and the European Community Shipowners Associations (ECSA) online. Retrieved from http://www.ecsa.eu/projects/career- mapping-project on11th April 2016 Eccles, J. S. (1994). Understanding women's educational and occupational choices. Psychology of women quarterly, 18(4), 585-609. Retrieved fromfile:///G:/eccles94d.pdf Fei, J., & Lu, J. (2015). Analysis of students’ perceptions of seafaring career in China based on artificial neural network and genetic programming. Maritime Policy & Management, 42(2), 111-126.DOI:10.1080/03088839.2013.873545 Feldman, K. A., Ethington, C. A., & Smart, J. C. (2001). A further investigation of major field and person-environment fit: Sociological versus psychological interpretations of Holland's theory. Journal of Higher Education, 670-698. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2672899?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FernandezGonzalez, M. J., Semjonovs, D., Bogdanecs, A., &Ozola, S. (2014). Youngsters’motivations and difficulties for choosing seafarer career.The case of latvia. European Integration Studies, (8), 131-140.Retrieved from http://www.vascodagama.eu/medias /fichiers/Doc%20additionnels/summary%20of%20research%20for%20Vasco%20de %20Gama_Latvia.pdf. Fouad, N. A., &Byars‐Winston, A. M. (2005). Cultural context of career choice: Meta‐analysis of race/ethnicity differences. The Career Development Quarterly, 53(3), 223-233. DOI: 10.1002/j.2161-0045.2005.tb00992.x Gokuladas, V. K. (2010). Factors that influence first-career choice of undergraduate engineers in software services companies: A south Indian experience. Career development international, 15(2), 144-165.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 13620431011040941 Guo, J. L., Liang, G. S., & Ye, K. D. (2006).An influence model in seafaring choice for Taiwan navigation students. Maritime Policy & Management, 33(4), 403- 421.DOI:10.1080/03088830600895725 Harpaz, I. (1990). The importance of work goals: An international perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 21(1) 75-93.Palgrave Hauff, S., & Kirchner, S. (2015). Identifying work value patterns: cross-national comparison and historical dynamics. International Journal of Manpower, 36(2), 151-168. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJM-05-2013-0101. 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hill, O. W., Pettus, W. C., & Hedin, B. A. (1990). Three studies of factors affecting the attitudes of blacks and females toward the pursuit of science and science‐related careers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 27(4), 289-314. Hofstede, G. (1983). National cultures in four dimensions: A research-based theory of cultural differences among nations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 13(1/2), 46-74.Retrieved fromhttps://psychedout.wikispaces.com /file/view/Hofstede.crosscultural+research.pdf Hofstede, G. (2011). Dimensionalizing Cultures: The Hofstede model in context, Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 2. Retrieved from http://scholarworks.gvsu. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=orpc Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., &Minkov, M. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Vol. 2). London: McGraw-Hill. Retrieved fromhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.446.3598&rep=rep1&t ype=pdf Holland, J. L. (1996). Exploring careers with a typology: What we have learned and some new directions. American Psychologist, 51(4), 397.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003- 066X.51.4.397 Jones L. K. (2015). The Holland inconsistent personality pattern and its advantages in work and , college. Retrieved on March 16 2016from https://www.careerkey.org/choose-a- career/unusual-Holland-Code-combinations.html#.Vnd7xVLm7Z0 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Judge, T. A., &Bretz, R. D. (1992). Effects of work values on job choice decisions. Journal of applied psychology, 77(3), 261.Retrievedfromhttp://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell. edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1354&context=cahrswp Kaasa, A. (2011), "Work Values in European Countries: Empirical Evidence and Explanations", Review of International Comparative Management, Vol. 12, No. 5,pp.852–62. Retrieved from http://www.rmci.ase.ro/no12vol5/01.pdf Kalvaitiene, G., Bartusevičiene, I., &Sencila, V. (2011). Improving MET Quality: Relationship Between Motives of Choosing Maritime Professions and Students’ Approaches to Learning. TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 5(4), 535-540. Kankam, G. & Onivehu, A. (2000). Principles and practice of guidance and counselling. Accra: K"N” A.B Ltd Kinanee, J. B. (2009). Factors in the career decision-making of nurses in Rivers State of Nigeria: Implications for counselling. International Journal of Psychology and Counselling, 1(8), 134-138. Konrad, A. M., Ritchie Jr, J. E., Lieb, P., &Corrigall, E. (2000). Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences: a meta-analysis.Psychological bulletin, 126(4),593.Doi=10.1037/0033-2909.126.4.593. Lerdpornkulrat, T., Koul, R., &Sujivorakul, C. (2010). Career aspiration and the influence of parenting styles: A review of the literature. In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on Education and Educational Technology, Iwate, Japan (pp. 71-76). Longley, M. (2007). How faculty differ: Examining college faculty member's expectations, teaching styles, and behavior using Holland's theory of careers. ProQuest. 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Macmillan Journals Stable. Retrieved from https://brainmass.com/file /1347962/Journal+2.pdf retrieved fromhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/155006 Magramo, M., &Gellada, L. (2009). A noble profession called seafaring: The making of an officer. TransNav: International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 3(4), 475-480. Retrieved from https://www.infona.pl/resource/bwmeta1.element.baztech-ea8756c4-e3db-4a65-ace0- 52281c9b6ec1 Makinde, O. &Alao, K. (1987) Profile of career education.Ibadan: SignalEducationalServicesLimited. Ibadan Nigeria. Marini, M. M., Fan, P. L., Finley, E., &Beutel, A. M. (1996). Gender and job values. Sociology of Education, 49-65. DOI: 10.2307/2112723 Mau, W. C. (2003). Factors that influence persistence in science and engineering career aspirations. The Career Development Quarterly, 51(3), 234-243. Miller, L., & Budd, J. (1999). The development of occupational sex‐role stereotypes, occupational preferences and academic subject preferences in children at ages 8, 12 and 16. Educational Psychology, 19(1), 17-35. Doi/abs/10.1080/0144341990190102#. MOW International Research Team. (1987). The meaning of working. Academic Pr. Mudhovozi, P., Sodi, T., Amusa, L. (2014) Career aspirations of psychology students at a rural based university in South Africa.Stud Tribes Tribals, 12(1): 85-94 retrieved from http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nauta, M. M. (2010). The development, evolution, and status of Holland’s theory of vocational personalities: Reflections and future directions for counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 11.DOI: 10.1037/a0018213 Nenty, H. J. (2002). A comparative analysis of motivations for occupational choice or preference between professionals and students. IFE Psychologia: An International Journal, 10(2), p-75.http://www.ajol.info/index.php/ifep/article/view/23453 Nord, W. R., Brief, A. P., Atieh, J. M., & Doherty, E. M. (1990).Studying meanings of work: The case of work values. Journal of Career Assessment 20(3) 322-337. DOI: 10.1177/1069072711436160 rd Osipow, S. H. (1983) Theories of career development. (3 ed.) Prentice Hall Inc. Eglewood, Cliffs, N.J. Prediger, D. J., & Staples, J. G. (1996).Linking Occupational Attribute Preferences to Occupations. ACT Research Report Series 96-3.retrieved from http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson / reprints/1981CCtheory.pdf Prediger, D. J., & Staples, J. G. (1996). Linking occupational attribute preferences to occupations. ACT Research Report Series 96-3.Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id= ED397268# Pyne, D. P. (2002). An investigation of junior high and senior high school students perception of the terms" career" and" occupation" . Doctoral dissertation, Lethbridge, Alta.: University of Lethbridge, Faculty of Education. Reardon, R., & Bullock, E. (2004). Holland's Theory and Implications for Academic Advising and Career Counseling: Technical Report 38.Retrieved from www.career.fsu.edu 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Roe, R. A. & Ester, P. (1999). Values and work empirical findings and theoretical perspective Applied Psychology: An International Review, 48 (1), 1-21. Ros, M., Schwartz, S. H., &Surkiss, S. (1999). Basic individual values, work values, and the meaning of work. Applied Psychology, 48(1), 49-71.Retieved fromhttps://alingavreliuc.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/schwartz2.pdf Rosen, D., Holmberg, K., & Holland, J. L. (1989). The college majors finder. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. Rosen, D., Holmberg, K., & Holland, J. L. (1997). The educational opportunities finder.Odessa, FL:PsychologicalAssessmentResources, Inc. Ryan, R. M. &Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1020 Sababa, L. K., &Benson, L (2010). The influence of personal values on career choice amongst public administration students of Adamawa State University.The Nigerian Academic Forum.19 (1). Retrieved from http://www.globalacademicgroup.com/journals/the%20nigerian%20academic%20foru m/THE%20INFLUENCE%20OF%20PERSONAL%20VALUES.pdf. Sara, S. (2010). Effects of learning styles on career preferences of senior secondary school students in Jigawa State, Nigeria. Edo Journal of Counselling, 3(1), 132-143Retrieved from file:///C:/Users/User/Downloads/52692-81714-1-PB%20(1).pdf Schwartz, S. H. (2006). Basic Human Values: Theory, Methods and Applications. Working paper. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Retrieved from www. seangallaghersite.com.pdf. 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Silver, C. B., & Spilerman, S. (1990). Psychoanalytic perspectives on occupational choice and attainment. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 9, 181-214.Retrieved from file:///C:/Users /User/Downloads/Silver-Spilerman.pdf. Smart, J. C., Feldman, K. A., &Ethington, C. A. (2006). Holland’s theory and patterns of college student success. In Commissioned report for the national symposium on postsecondary student success: Spearheading a dialog on student success. Assessed fromhttp://nces.ed. gov/npec/pdf/smart_team_report.pdf. Smart, J. C. (2003). An alternative application of Holland’s theory and its implications for career counseling in college settings.Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Career Development Association, Denver. The Hofstedecentre online (2016) National culture. Retrieved March16, 2016 from http://geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html Thomason, T. (1999). Basics of career development. Flagstaff, Arizona: Northern Arizona University Thompson, R. (2012). Professional school counseling: Best practices for working in the schools. Routledge. Retrieved fromhttp://tandfbis.s3.amazonaws.com/rt- media/pp/common/sample-chapters/9780415998499.pdf Tifuh, A. N. (2014). Women merchant mariners: empowering West African women. Retrieved from http://commons.wmu.se/cgi/viewcontent.cgi? article= 1481&context =all dissertations Tolbert, P. S., & Moen, P. (1998). Men's and women's definitions of “good” jobs similarities and differences by age and across time. Work and occupations, 25(2), 168- 194.http://wox.sagepub.com/content/25/2/168.short 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tsagala, E., &Kordaki, M. (2007). Critical factors influencing secondary school pupil’s decisions to study computing in tertiary education: Gender differences. Education and Information Technologies, 12(4), 281-295.http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/ s10639-006-9026-0 U. S. Department of Labor. (1977). Dictionary of occupational titles (4th ed.). Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://www.oalj.dol.gov/libdot.htm Weidman, J. C. (2005). Academic Disciplines: Holland's Theory and the Study of College Students and Faculty (review). The Journal of Higher Education. Retrieved fromhttps://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/journals/journal_of_hig her_education/v076/76.2weidman.html Wong, S. W. & Yuen, M. (2012). Work Values of University Students in Chinese Mainland, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. International Journal for the Advancement of Counseling.34 (4): 269–285.Doi:10.1007/s10447-012-9155-7. Yusif, H. M., Yussof, I., & Noor, A. H. S. M. (2011). Determinants of Students Academic Performance in Senior High Schools: A Binary Logit Approach. Journal of Science and Technology (Ghana), 31(3), 107-117.http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/just.v31i3.12 Zaar, S., &Hammarstedt, K. (2012). Promotion campaigns in the maritime sector and the attitude of young people towards a career at sea. Retrieved fromhttp://publications.lib.chalmers.se/records/fulltext/158968.pdf 137