Thesis Title
STUDIES INTO THE NUTRITIVE VALUE AND USE OF ENERGY 
AND PROTEIN FEEDSTUFFS FOR POULTRY IN GHANA.
A Thesis Presented to 
The Board of Graduate Studies 
of The University of Ghana, Legon.
By
i
GERSHON YAOGA DOE BANINI
In Partial Fulfilment of the 
Requirements for the Degree of 
Masters of Philosophy.
June 1991
Animal Science Department 
Faculty of Agriculture 
Legon.
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£1325135
:r . gii
" “ T  "5 ^
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I do hereby, declare that except for other peoples work which 
have been qouted and acknowledged, this work is my own original 
research, and this thesis has not been presented for another degree 
elsewhere, either in part, or as a whole.
DECLARATION
-
SUPERVISORS
GERSHON D.Y. BANINI
1 . DR. G.E.S. WILLIAMS 
RESEARCH OFFICER-IN-CHARGE 
ANIMAL RESEARCH STATION 
OF GHANA
FLEISCHER 
ANIMAL SCI. DEPT. 
UNIV. OF GHANA, LEGON
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT 
PROF. R.G.K. ASSOKU 
DEPT,. OF ANIMAL SCIENC 
UNI
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge with appreciation the concern, help, 
guidance and encouragement I received from my supervisors Drs G.E.S 
Williams and J.E. Fleischer during the course of my stay and study 
in the Department of Animal Science. The time they spent in 
reading the manuscript very much helped and led to the completion 
of this work.
I am also grateful to Prof. R.G.K. Assoku, fiead of Department 
and other members of the teaching staff who helped in diverse ways 
and encouraged me so much when the going was bad and tough.
I appreciate the assistance I received from the non-teaching 
staff and of special mention are Messers Abubakari Yakubu and 
Manfred Tsetse who spo.nt hours with me in the laboratory.
With unreserved gratitude I wish to remember all workers of 
Agric Research Station, Legon and in particular Mrs Linda Anyomi, 
Messers Otu, Mensah, Ksiah, Acheampong and Awusanya whose immense 
contribution enabled me to complete the feeding trial in good time.
To my fellow graduate students, Mrs Bernice Tamak.loe, E. Otu, 
M. Tackie, A. Tei-Muno, S. Akah and D. Buadi, I owe a debt of 
gratitude, because their very presence encouraged me to forge ahead 
despite the odds. Also not forgetting Mr. George Mensah for his 
patience in having this thesis typed.
Finally my deepest appreciation goes to my family. Mama 
Beatrice, Kweku and Fafali for their patience and tolerance when I 
had to be away on campus.
And to God be the Glory for the numerous break-throughs I have
had.
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DEDICATION
This Thesis is dedicated to the memory of my late father C.F. 
Banini, my mother Made/n Afivor Banin.L and my family Beatrice, Kweku 
and Fafali
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- iv -
ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to evaluate energy and protein feedstuffs 
for poultry.
Proximate composition was estimated and metabolizable energy also 
investigated in experiments I and II respectively. Sorghum and Soybean 
oil meal were also evaluated as main energy and protein sources replacing 
maize and fish meal respectively for broilers in experiment III. 
Experiment III was conducted as a 3x3 factorial in a randomized complete 
block design with three replicates (blocks). There were three levels of 
sorghum (ie sorghum (100%); sorghum-maize (46 - 54%); no sorghum (0%)) 
and three levels of soybean oil meal (ie soybean meal (1 0 0%); soybean 
meal-fish meal (50% - 50%); fish meal no soybean (0%)). Most of the 
values obtained in experiments I and II conformed to values obtained in 
literature, with few variations. On basis of energy sources, in 
experiment III no significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed with 
reference to daily weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion 
efficiency. One kg of the maize diet was more expensive than 1 kg of the 
sorghum diet. It also cost 23.84 cedis more for birds on the maize diet 
to gain 1 kg live weight than birds on the sorghum diet. Birds on the 
fish meal diets gained significantly (p > 0.05) lower weights than birds 
on other protein diets. But with regard to feed intake and feed 
conversion no significant differences were observed among protein 
treatments. Fish meal diets were more expensive than soybean oil meal 
diet, and it cost 27.54 cedis more for birds on fish meal diet to gain 1 
kg live weight than birds on soybean oil meal diets.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .................................................  1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...........................................  i;L
DEDICATION...............................................  i;Li
A B S T R A C T .................................................  iv
LIST OF T A B L E S ...........................................
LIST OF APPENDICES.......................................  i*
CHAPTER 1 ...................................................  1
INTRODUCTION ...........................................  1
CHAPTER 2 ...................................................  4
LITERATURE REVIEW .....................................  4
2.1 EVALUATION OF FEED INGREDIENTS ................... 4
2.2 METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME) OF FEED INGREDIENTS . . .  5
i, BIOLOGICAL DETERMINATION OF ME. OF FEED 
INGREDIENTS .................................  5
ii, FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ME. DETERMINATION . . .  8
2.3 ENERGY AND PROTEIN SOURCES ....................  11
i, SORGHUM AS A SOURCE OF E N E R G Y .........  11
ii, SORGHUM GRAIN FEEDING TRIAL FOR POULTRY . . 12
iii, SOYBEAN OIL MEAL AS A SOURCE OF PROTEIN . . 15
iv, SOYBEAN OIL MEAL FEEDING TRIALS FOR POULTRY 17
CHAPTER 3 ...............................................  20
EXPERIMENT O N E .....................................  2 0
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DETRMINATION OF PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME POULTRY FEED
INGREDIENTS.............................................
3.1 INTRODUCTION.................................... 20
3.2 MATERIALS AND M E T H O D ...........................  20
i, Feed Ingredients:......................... 20
ii, Sources of Feed Ingredients..............  21
iii, Laboratory Analysis ......................  21
3.3 RESULTS.......................................... 21
i. Energy concentrates ......................  21
ii. Cereal Brans..............................  22
iii. Protein Concentrates ......................  24
3.4 DISCUSSION........................................ 25
CHAPTER 4 .................................................  29
EXPERIMENT T W O ............................    29
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINATION OF METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME) OF
SOME FEED INGREDIENTS........................... 29
4.1 INTRODUCTION...................................... 3 0
4.2 MATERIALS AND M E T H O D ...........................  3 0
i D i e t s ....................................  30
ii. Birds and Management:....................  3 0
iii. Experimental design ........................  31
iv. Faeces: Collection and Treatment:   32
v. Gross Energy Analysis (GE).................  32
vi. Calculation of M E ..................  . . 32
4.3 R E S U L T S ........................................  33
i. Feed Intake of Test Diets:................  33
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ii. ME of Test Diets and Test Ingredients . . .  33
4.4 DISCUSSION....................................... 35
CHAPTER 5 ...................................................... 38
EXPERIMENT THREE ..................................  3 8
BROILER PERFORMANCE ON DIETS WITH SORGHUM AND
SOYBEAN OIL MEAL AS ENERGY AND PROTEIN SOURCES . . 3 8
5.1 INTRODUCTION........................................ 38
5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................  39
i, Location of the Experiment................  39
ii, D i e t s ..................................... 39
iii, Birds and Management........................  40
iv, Experimental Design .....................  40
v, Data A n a l y s i s ............................  42
5.3 R E S U L T S ........................................ 42
i, Weight G a i n ..............................  42
ii, Feed Consumption..........................  44
iii, Feed Conversion Efficiency................  44
iv, Cost Anal y s i s ............................  45
v, Mortality................................  45
5.4 DISCUSSION......................................  45
CHAPTER 6 .................................................  49
GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ................... 49
RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................  52
REFERENCES...........................................  53
APPENDICES...........................................  64
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LIST OF TABLES
Proximate Composition of Feed Ingredients (DMB) 
Composition of Tests Diets for the Roosters.
Mean Feed Intake, ME of Test Diets and Test 
Ingredients.
The Composition of Treatment Diets in Experiment 3. 
Daily weight Gain, Feed Intake Feed Conversion 
Efficiency costs per kg weght gain and cost per kg 
of feed as influenced by Energy and Protein Sources.
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CHAPTER 1 
INTRODUCTION
Protein foods are important commodities for proper nourishment 
of the population of any country. Thus, the provision of 
affordable animal products is one of the surest ways of obviating 
protein malnutrition which is observable in Ghana.
To succeed in doing this means that there should be increased 
animal production, particularly of poultry and pigs at a lower 
cost. For these species are also known to be prolific and fast 
growing.
However, the production of poultry and pigs in most developing 
countries like Ghana is constrained by a number of factors, among 
which include the inherently low productivity of the local animals, 
reduced availability of the major feedstuffs such as maize and fish 
meal at certain periods of the year and high cost of the feed 
ingredients as a result of competition between man and animals for 
the major feed ingredients.
Another constraint contributing to the low productivity and 
inefficient production of poultry is the use of inaccurate and 
unreliable proximate and bioavailable energy data for diet 
formulation. An accurate measurement of energy and nutrient 
requirements demands adequate knowledge of these values of 
feedstuffs (Sibbald, 1982).
It is therefore not appropriate to rely heavily on derived 
nutrient composition data from other areas particularly when most 
ingredients of plant origin show considerable nutritive
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variability.
Furthermore the problem of over-dependence on maize and fish 
meal as the main energy and protein sources can be overcome if good 
substitutes for them are found. Possible alternatives to maize and 
fish meal are sorghum and soybean oil meal respectively.
Sorghum is the second highest cereal produced in Ghana (FAO, 
1988). It has the potential to be produced on commercial basis, 
and because its proximate composition is similar to that of maize, 
it is extensively used as a livestock feed in the United States of 
America and other large sorghum producing areas (Kramer, 19 59) .
Soybean oil meal being a by-product and vegetable protein 
source is relatively cheaper than fish meal. More so, it possesses 
a better balanced amino acid profile and is particularly high in 
lysine to supplement cereal diets compared to other vegetable 
protein sources (Scott et al, 1976).
With regard to the problem of use of unreliable data for 
feed formulation, there is the need to investigate the nutritional 
composition of the locally available feed ingredients. Though some 
results of proximate components of most of the local feed 
ingredients have been documented (Buamah, 1969; Owusu-Domfeh et al, 
1970; Watson, 1971, Food Research Institute, 1975) investigation of 
ingredients used in poultry feeds in Ghana is limited. There is 
therefore, the need for a study of local feed ingredients as 
sources of energy and protein in poultry diets.
The objectives of this study were:
(a) to investigate proximate composition of some poultry feed
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ingredients,
(b) to determine the metabolizable energy of poultry feed 
ingredients investigated in 'a'.
(c) to evaluate two of the ingredients investigated in 'a' and 
'b'. ie. sorghum and soyabean oil meal as main sources of 
energy and protein for poultry in Ghana.
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CHAPTER 2 
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 EVALUATION OF FEED INGREDIENTS
Nutritive assessment of feed ingredients is made possible by 
either chemical analysis for nutrients ie carbohydrate, protein, 
fat, vitamins and minerals or feeding trial which gives an 
indication of the availability of these nutrients and hence the 
performance of the animals.
Chemical analysis of feed ingredients is normally carried out 
according to the Association of Official Analytical Chemist 
(A.O.A.C, 1975), methods of analysis. With analysis of ingredients 
for monogastrics, emphasis is put on their contents of dry matter 
(DM) , crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether extract (EE) , 
ash, calcium and phosphorous. By this method the potential 
usefulness of a feed ingredient is measured and this enables one to 
classify it as protein, or carbohydrate feedstuff.
Though the chemical analysis scheme gives an index of 
nutritional value of a feedstuff, it is not precise and is 
associated with inaccuracies in the measurement of the various 
fractions (Crampton and Harris, 1969; Macdonald et al, 1987). 
Therefore, estimates of the ability of an animal to digest, absorb 
and metabolise the nutrients of the feed are still required.
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2.2 METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME) OF FEED INGREDIENTS
j. BIOLOGICAL DETERMINATION OF ME. OF FEED INGREDIENTS
Usable energy of a feed for farm animals is conveniently 
expressed as digestible energy (DE), metabolizable energy (ME) or 
net energy (NE) . But for poultry, energy content of a diet is more 
appropriately expressed in terms of ME than either DE or NE,
because ME has the following advantages over DE and NE,
a. ME determination is associated with low variations and 
hence high precision of estimation could be achieved.
b. No surgical operation is carried out on the birds which
requires expertise as is done in DE, determination.
c. ME determination is faster than NE
d. Less expensive equipment is required than in NE
determination (Hill and Anderson, 1958; Sibbald et al. 
1960; Foster, 1968; Miller, 1974).
Various biological procedures including both direct and 
indirect methods have been used in determining the ME of a 
feedstuff.
The indirect methods provide a way to estimate energy when 
laboratory facilities such as a bomb calorimeter is unavailable. 
In a review Sibbald (1982) enumerated the various indirect assays 
by grouping them under the following headings:
- Biological (Yoshida and Morimoto, 1966,1970)
- Physical (Lockhart et al, 1961; Sibbald and Slinger, 1963a)
- Chemical (Carpenter and Clegg, 1956; Bolton, 1962; Titus,
1958) .
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However, these methods have found little use in predicting an 
acceptable ME values of an ingredient.
The direct methods which are the conventional methods, 
involve two main procedures, viz total collection or the use of an 
indicator. These methods relate quantitatively the excreta output 
to the feed consumed (Vohra 1972).
The total collection procedure involves taking records of 
total feed intake and quantitative collection of excreta. However, 
several researchers such as Manoukas et al (1964), Shannon and 
Brown (1969) have reported of difficulties in the drying of faeces 
without any loss of nitrogen and energy. Compounding this problem 
is the fact that spilled feed, feathers and scales tend to 
contaminate the excreta giving a wrong estimate of gross energy of 
the faeces.
To overcome the energy losses during drying of faeces, Fenner 
and Archibald (1959) recommended the use of primer in determining 
the energy of fresh faeces. The two most commonly used primers are 
cellulose and polythylene. As regards the type of primer to use, 
Fleischer et al (1981) found polyethylene film (Pef) to be better 
than cellulose.
To reduce nitrogen losses it is recommended that few drops of 
concentrated sulphuric acid be added to the faeces to acidify it 
before drying (Fleischer et al, 1981). Terpstra and Janssen (1975) 
also recommended the use of mature birds in the determination to 
reduce the down feather and scale contamination of faeces.
With the indicator method, a physiologically inert indicator
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material is fed together with the diet. Then the concentration of 
the indicator is measured in both the feed and faeces. This helps 
to avoid problems of fluctuating moisture levels in the feed and 
faeces. It also eliminates the need for measurement of feed intake 
and total collection of faeces thus reducing the amount of faeces 
which has to be stored and prepared for analysis. Though Sibbald 
et al (1960) considered it to be more precise because they found 
the standard errors associated with the method to be lower, 
Halloran (1972) found the procedure to be associated with 
considerable intra-and-inter-laboratory variations.
In order to lessen the load of work, Farrel, (1978) adopted a 
modified total collection method by training adult cockerels to 
consume voluntarily their daily feed requirements within one hour, 
to determine ME of several feed ingredients. Feed intakes were 
measured and faeces voided during the subsequent 24 hours is 
collected for analysis. This method makes the analytical load to 
be minimal and the test material required small. This method is 
also faster and less expensive and the precision achieved is as 
high as with other conventional methods. Farrel (1978) for 
instanceobtained a standard deviation ranging from 0 . 00-0.06kcal/g 
only.
Even though many birds could not be trained to eat their feed 
requirements in one hour, and those that are trained immediately 
reduce their intakes when novel feeds are offered (Schang and 
Hamilton, 1982), nevertheless this technique has been used in the 
present ME determination because of the associated advantages of
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this method which far outweigh the problems.
jj. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ME. DETERMINATION
Several reports indicate that ME values vary with the type of 
assay birds used. For example, Slinger et al (1964) found 
differences between chicken and turkey, whilst Sugden (1974) 
observed differences between chickens and ducks and observed these 
differences were not more than 11%. Several other authors also 
have reported of very small (about 1 - 2% of the mean) differences 
in ME values between chickens of different breeds and strains 
(Sibbald and Slinger, 1963b; Foster, 1968; and Proudman et al, 
1972) . Evidence that ambient temperature affects ME values is 
neither consistent nor conclusive (Peterson et al, 1969; Olson, 
1970, 1971; Davis et al, 1972) . However, it is known that sex does 
not have an influence on determination of ME (Mueller et al, 1956; 
Sibbald and Slinger, 1963d; and Begin, 1967).
ME values of feedstuffs show small but significant increases 
as assay birds mature, with the change being greatest for fibrous 
and low energy materials (Sibbald et al, 1960b; Lockhart et al, 
1963; Zelenka, 1968; 1973a,b). For practical situations the change 
is assumed to be negligible (Bayley et al, 1968a; Farrel, 1978) . 
Adult roosters are advocated for use in ME determinations (Sibbald 
and Price, 1975). This is because as birds mature they approach 
nitrogen equilibrium and therefore there is no need to correct for 
variable nitrogen retention between birds, hence reduction in 
analytical load. Adult birds are also less influenced by imbalance
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in nutrient of the feedstuffs.
Feed intake has been observed to influence ME values (Muztar 
and Slinger, 1980); Guillaume and Summers, 1970). This is because 
at low feed intake, endogenous urinary energy (EuE) and metabolic 
faecal energy (MfE) losses assume higher proportion of excreta 
losses, causing variation in ME values with the varying intake 
levels. It was in recognition of the effect of these endogenous 
energy losses that Farrel (1978) suggested that birds used in ME 
assay should consume at least 70 g of feed/bird/day, if these 
influences are to be minimised. However this was not readily 
achieved with White Leghorn cockerels (Schang and Hamilton 1982). 
On the other hand Guillaume and Summers (1970) also showed that 
birds should take in at least 45 g/day/bird in order to satisfy 
their maintenance requirements.
The errors associated with estimating the ME values of a test 
ingredient are determined by the level of inclusion in the diet. 
The higher the inclusion the smaller the error. Most often it is 
assumed that the ME value is constant for all levels of inclusion, 
and that the ME value of the diet is the sum of the values of its 
proportional parts. But the results of a number of multi-level 
assay to evaluate various materials have proved otherwise and 
varying values reported. (Sibbald et aJ, 1962b; Porter et al, 1962; 
Vohra and Kratzer, 1970; Rose et al, 1972). Nevertheless some 
reports indicate that apparent metabolizable energy (AME) values 
are not influenced by the level of inclusion for feed ingredients 
such as cereals, sunflower meal, rapeseed meal, and fish meal
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(Sibbald et al, 1962a; Stutz and Matterson, 1964; Rao and 
Clandinin, 1970; Rose et al, 1972).
The highest level of inclusion of multi-level assays reported 
has been up to 45%, (Porter et al/ 1961; Vohra and Kratzer,- 1970). 
Much of the variation in ME values reported for individual 
feedstuffs can also be attributed to differences in experimental 
procedures and in the methods of calculating the result (Miller, 
1974). This is because the precision achieved in the quantitative 
estimation of faeces voided corresponding to feed consumed is a 
factor that causes variation in ME values.
ME being a biological measurement is dependent on the 
interaction between the animal, its food and its environment. 
Therefore, factors that affect or enhance the digestion and 
assimilation of nutrients would in the final analysis influence ME 
values. Upon this basis, March et al (1972) found that antibiotics 
effect in the digestive system of the bird enhances ME values of 
feedstuffs.
Other factors which have been proved to influence ME are, 
nutrient imbalance (Sibbald et al, 1961, 1962b; Gardiner et al.
1968; Rojas and Scott, 1969; Nelson and Miles, 1973), and pelleting 
of test diet (Moran et al, 1968; Bayley et al, 1968b; Cave et al, 
1965, 1968).
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2.3 ENERGY AND PROTEIN SOURCES
j. SORGHUM AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
Feed cost constitute the largest single cost in animal 
production and for many years accounted for 7 0-75% of poultry 
production cost (John, 1976). Consequently the objective of the 
animal nutritionist has been to find and recommend the most 
acceptable, properly balanced and least expensive ration available 
to feed animals.
Generally with poultry the diets offered are based on cereals 
with maize as the principal source of energy. But maize is also a 
more utilised staple food by man than sorghum which is the second 
highest cereal produced in this country (FAO,1988). The sole 
dependence on maize as the main energy source has become 
uneconomical due to scarcity and increased price level at certain 
periods of the year (ie February - June).
Though the production of sorghum is about 40% that of maize, 
presently, encouraging expansion of its production side by side 
with maize production could reduce the over reliance on maize to
feed poultry and would be of much help to cut down poultry feed
cost in the long run.
Grain sorghums are excellent feed for all classes of livestock 
(Kunkel, 1959). Thus, in large sorghum producing areas like the 
USA, it is extensively used as livestock feed (Kramer, 1959).
The nutritional significance of sorghum is seen in its high content 
of energy in the form of digestible starch and its low fibre 
content (ie. 72-82% and 1.4 - 2.9% respectively Oyenuga, 1959;
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Buamah, 1969; Watson, 1971; and Ncube, 1981).
Despite the nutritional value of sorghum, the full utilization 
of some of the varieties as a store of energy and protein is
limited by certain factors inherent in the grain. These include 
the following:-
a. the presence of polyphenolic compounds (tannin) located 
in the testa layer of grain. They are known to have an 
astrigent taste which affects palatability and decreases feed 
consumption. Also the phenolic compounds act as enzyme
inactivators and form complexes with proteins reducing their 
digestibility.
b. presence of phytic acid which is the form in which
phosphorus is stored in sorghum (de Boland et al, 1975),
chelates di-and tri-valent cations rendering them unavailable 
for use by the animal (Davies and Nightingale, 1975).
ii, SORGHUM GRAIN FEEDING TRIAL FOR POULTRY
Grain Sorghum is generally preferred for poultry rations by 
poultry producers in the grain sorghum producing areas (Kramer,
1959). Cost, availability of the grain and general good results 
from its use are major reasons for this preference (Rasper, 1967).
Tests by Berry (1954) and Adolph and Grau (1956) demonstrated 
that grain sorghum could successfully replace at least a part, if 
not all, of the maize in layer diets.
Ozment et al (1963) reported that sorhgum and maize were equal 
in nutritive value when fed to broilers on an equivalent nutrient
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basis.
Sanford (1963) also obtained non-significant differences in 
growth rate of broilers when maize and sorghum were used as energy 
sources. He however observed differences in acceptability by 
chicks between the cereals used and between the sorghum varieties. 
He recommended a combination of 25 parts sorghum and 3 0 parts of 
maize as giving the best growth rates.
Sykes (1967) reported on several feeding trials initiated with 
the objective of comparing the use of various protein supplements 
in layers rations based entirely on grain sorghum and maize as 
energy sources. The trials were conducted on light hybrid layers 
and the results related to the laying performance from either 
twenty to sixty weeks old (Trial 1) or from twenty to seventy weeks 
old (Trial II) hens. Results of the two trials showed that there 
was no difference in performance between birds on the grain sorghum 
ration and those of the maize. There was no evidence of reduction 
in feed intake by birds on sorghum ration. The author concluded 
from these trials that grain sorghum may be used in rations for 
layers as partial or complete replacement for other cereals on the 
basis of its known nutrient composition. Chavez, de Mathew and 
Reid (1966) reached the same conclusions that on equal nutrient 
basis, sorghum can replace other cereals completely.
Tests conducted to determine feeding value of different 
rations of corn and sorghum in pelleted and non-pelleted forms for 
broilers showed that there were no significant differences in 
growth rate of chicks fed diets containing corn, sorghum or any
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combination thereof, if only diets of the same physical form were 
taken into consideration. Pelleting however, gave additional 
growth response. Feed utilization was very similar for pelleted 
and non-pelleted feeds (Stephenson and Johnson, 1960) .
Serban et al, 1978 studied the behaviour of biochemical values 
in serum of meat chicken when sorghum replaced maize in the diets. 
In this trial eight week old chickens were given diets based on 
rations of which 25%, 50%, 75% or 100% of the maize ration was
replaced by sorghum alone, with lard or with lard and methionine 
supplements. When the birds were killed after 56 days there were 
no significant differences among groups in protein, glucose, total 
lipid, cholesterol chloride, phosphorus, calcium, sodium and 
potassium in the serum. Activity of aspartate aminotransferase and 
alanine aminotransferase in serum were generally similar for the 
groups.
The feeding value of grain sorghum in relation to their tannin 
content has been extensively studied in trials with chicks. In a 
series of experiment Chang and Fuller (1964) showed that tannin did 
lower the feeding value of grain sorghum. The high tannin content 
resulted in growth retardation which was similar in magnitude to 
that caused by feeding equivalent levels of tannic acid as such. 
Chang and Fuller (1964) also showed that a dietary deficiency of 
methionine and choline accentuated the growth depression caused by 
feeding high tannin grain sorghum; and that adding high levels of 
methionine and choline overcame this apparent toxicity.
The high tannin content of some varieties and hybrids of grain
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sorghum has very often been associated with the darker colour of 
seed coats. Grain sorghum varieties with brown seed colour and 
open heads, which are found to be suitable to growing conditions in 
humid areas, are characteristically higher in tannin than the red 
and yellow varieties which predominate in the more arid regions. 
Thayer et al/ (1957) compared several varieties of grain sorghums, 
selected because of their seed colour, with yellow corn and found 
that most varieties tested were equal to corn in growth promoting 
value and efficiency of feed utilization for growing chickens. 
These results showed that seed colour was not a reliable measure 
in determining the relative feeding value of a given variety.
Therefore, local conditions, grains prices and feeding habits 
will determine the value of using grain sorghum in poultry rations. 
But indications are that in most cases grain sorghum can replace 
maize when adequate supplementation of vitamin A is made.
iii, SOYBEAN OIL MEAL AS A SOURCE OF PROTEIN
The protein needs of poultry are the sum of the minimal 
essential amino acids required and the additional digestible 
nitrogen for synthesis of non essential amino acids. Since birds 
cannot synthesise the essential amino acids on their own, the major 
feed ingredients serve as the source of these amino acids. 
Therefore the ability of a protein ingredient to supply essential 
amino acids needs of the bird makes it a quality protein source.
Well processed animal protein has over the years been regarded 
as an excellent protein source for poultry compared to plant
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protein. This is because protein from plant sources are
characterised by deficiencies of some of the most required 
essential amino acids viz, lysine, sulphur aminoacids and
tryptophan, hence limiting their use. But among the plant 
proteins, soyabean oil meal has been found to be unique in that it 
is rich in all the essential amino acids except the sulphur
containing amino acids (Snetsinger and Scott, 1958; Cernyl et al,
1971; Scott et al, 1976). Thus the protein of properly processed 
soyabean oil meal is well utilized by all species of farm animals 
and may even be used as the sole source of protein when combined 
with protein of cereal grain and supplemented with the limiting 
amino acid ie. methionine (Almquist et al, 1942; Bornstein and 
Lipstein, 1975, Craven and Herder, 1976).
Despite the nutritional value of soyabean oil meal as a unique 
protein source, the full utilization of the meal is limited by the 
following nutritional defects:
a. Soyabean oil meal is essentially devoid of Vit B12 unlike 
fish meal. Supplements are therefore necessary when soyabean 
oil meal replaces commonly used animal products (Terrill et 
al: 1954).
b. The meal has low content of minerals. Though it has a 
fair source of phosphorus, much of it is in phytin form, thus 
it is not efficiently utilized by monogastrics (NAS-NCR, 
1977) .
c. The raw soyabean has a trypsin inhibitor present in it 
which can limit the utilization of the oil meal in poultry
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diets if the raw bean is not heat treated properly (Hayward, 
1951).
iv, SOYBEAN OIL MEAL FEEDING TRIALS FOR POULTRY
Many investigations have indicated that inclusion of a minimal 
percentage of fish meal in a chicken ration, which has soyabean oil 
meal as the principal protein supplement is necessary for maximum 
chick growth and egg production.
Some of the early work on supplementing soyabean oil meal for 
chick growth was done by Christiansen et al (194 0) who obtained 
exceptionally good growth of chicks when 3-4% of fish meal was 
combined with soyabean oil meal in the rations.
Heuser and Norris (1944) from their experiments, concluded 
that for optimum growth and feed utilization efficiency of chicks 
up to eight weeks of age, a ration deriving its supplementary 
protein chiefly from soyabean oil meal should contain a minimum of 
2-3% of animal protein concentrates.
Patton et al (1946) failed to produce optimum growth in chicks 
on corn-soyabean oil meal diet supplemented with DL-methionine, 
and concluded that such a diet appeared to be lacking in an unknown 
growth factor which they felt was present in fish meal. Also a 
number of investigators have shown that the inclusion of 3-4% of 
sardine, whitefish meal or menhaden in an adequate ration with 
soyabean oil meal as the principal protein supplement causes 
significant improvement in growth of baby chicks (Whitson et al, 
1945; McGinnins and Carver, 1947 as quoted by Hayward 1951).
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On the other hand, Marvel et al (1945), found that a 
simplified ration of yellow corn, soyabean oil meal, distillers 
dried solubles, alfalfa leaf meal, vitamins and minerals, produced 
growth in chick equal to similar rations containing meat scraps and 
dried skim milk. They concluded that animal protein per se, was 
not needed as a supplement to soyabean oil meal in chick starter 
ration provided it contained essential mineral and vitamins.
Bird (1948) also concluded that a combination of properly 
heated soyabean oil meal and grain supplemented with minerals and 
vitamins was able to supply all the protein and other nutrient 
needs of the chicken.
In another investigation with layers, Whitson et al (194 6) 
concluded that soyabean oil meal could serve as the sole protein 
concentrate in layer rations if its mineral and vitamin 
deficiencies were corrected.
Card (1942) found no significant differences in the 
hatchability of eggs produced by hens fed on a mash containing 25% 
of soyabean oil meal and those produced by hens without the oil 
meal in the mash.
Anderson et al (1968) obtained significantly greater weight 
gains and feed utilization efficiency in brioler chicken with corn- 
soyabean meal diet than with either herring or anchovy meal diets, 
when the fish meals provided 5% of the protein.
Other investigations have also proved that excessive use of 
anchovy fish meal in replacement of soyabean oil meal causes 
depressive effects on growth of chicks. For example, Waldroup et
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al.. (1965) replaced 25, 50, 75 and 100 per cent of the soyabean
oil meal in a practical diet with anchovy fish meals and menhaden 
fish meal. No significant differences were observed in body 
weight or feed utilization when 25 and 50 per cent of the soyabean 
protien was replaced with fish meal. Replacement of 7 5% of the 
soyabean with fish meal significantly depressed body weight of 
broilers at eight weeks of age. All the types of fish meals 
significantly depressed growth when they replaced all the soyabean 
meal protein in the diet.
Janssen (1971) reported that gizzard erosion was found in 
groups of chicks receiving rations with high percentage of Peruvian 
anchovy fish meal, with the effect proportional to the percentage 
of fish meal in the ration. Higher levels of the fish meal also 
depressed body weight.
At present anchovy fish meal, though expensive is more 
available than soybean meal and widely used in all parts of the 
country in the formulation of poultry feeds. For this reason, 
availability and cost would be the determinant factors in the sole 
use of soyabean oil meal as a source of protein.
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CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENT ONE
DETERMINATION OF PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF SOME 
POULTRY FEED INGREDIENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION:
Feed is the largest single cost in animal production, and it 
accounts for 70-75% of poultry production cost (John, 1976) . To 
reduce feed input cost, one has to use more accurate and reliable 
chemical composition values to estimate requirements and to 
formulate rations. This is only possible by having adequate 
knowledge of the chemical composition of feed ingredients that are 
produced and available locally.
Therefore the main objective of this study was to determine 
the proximate composition of some feedstuffs which are locally 
produced and or are available in Ghana.
3.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS 
i, Feed Ingredients:
The feed ingredients used in the study were white maize, 
yellow maize,sorghum, wheat bran,rice bran,maize bran,fish meal 
(anchovy, spp),soyabean oil meal (solvent extraction), groundnut 
cake(mechanical extraction) and copra cake (solvent extraction).
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ii, Sources of Feed Ingredients
White and yellow maize, copra cake, fish meal and imported 
Soyabean oil meal were obtained from the Agricultural Research 
Station, Legon. However the white and yellow maize were obtained 
from Techiman in the Brong Ahafo region. Sorghum was obtained from 
the "Timber market" in Accra but it actually came from Bimbilla in 
the Northern region. The groundnut cake was obtained from Secap 
Vegetable Oil Mill (Labadi-Accra) . The wheatbran was obtained from 
Tema Food Complex Company, the rice bran was obtained from 
Agricultural Research Station, Kpong, and the maize bran from a 
corn milling shop at Nima-Accra.
iii, Laboratory Analysis
Samples of the feed ingredients were first ground in a hammer 
mill, to enable the ground samples pass through 1 mm sieve. The 
samples were stirred to mix well and then stored in labelled 
containers in the deep freezer. The samples were only removed when 
analyses were to be carried out. The ingredients were analysed for 
moisture content, crude protein (CP), crude fibre (CF), ether 
extract, ash, calcium and phosphorus according to the methods of 
A.O.A.C. (1975). Triplicate analyses were done and the average 
recorded.
3.3 RESULTS 
i, Energy concentrates
White maize, yellow maize and sorghum were similar in their
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proximate composition (Table 1).
All the three feed ingredients had high nitrogen free extract 
(NFE) (80-81.6%), low crude protein (9.9 - 11.3%) and low crude 
fibre (2.01 - 2.73 %) .
Though sorghum was very similar in composition to maize, it
contained slightly more protein but less oil than maize.
The ash content of sorghum (1.92%) was lower than the range of 2.2 
- 3.5 % reported in the literature (Crampton and Harris, 1969; 
Buamah, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1977; Fetugah et al, 1979 and Ncube, 1981). 
The 0.21 % level of phosphorus obtained was similar to values 
obtained by Buamah, (1969); Watson, (1971) and Ncube, (1981) 
carried out in Ghana but lower than the 0.31-0.35% reported by 
Crampton and Harris, (1969); Owusu-Domfeh et al; (1970), NAS-NRC, 
1977; Fetugah et al, (1979).
ii. Cereal Brans
The moisture content of maize bran was 15.79%. This is higher 
than values ever recorded in Ghana.
The protein value of 13.8% for the maize bran was similar to
that reported by Buamah (1969) but higher than that reported by
Crampton and Harris (1969). Maize bran also had a high nitrogen 
free extract, and coupled with its relatively low fibre content, 
makes it a good energy source for poultry.
The wheat bran is higher in protein, ether extract, ash and 
calcium values but lower in crude fibre, nitrogen free extract and 
phosphorous than values reported in literature especially those
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TABLE 1
PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF POULTRY FEED INGREDIENTS (DRY MATTER BASIS) g/lOOg
FEED INGREDIENTS
DRY
MATTER
CRUDE
PROTEIN
ETHER 
. EXTRACT
CRUDE
FIBRE
ASH NITROGEN
FREE
EXTRACT
CALCIUM PHOSPHORUS
1 . WHITE MAIZE 87.9 9.9 4 .40 2.70 1.40 81. 60 0.023 0.33
2 . YELLOW MAIZE 87.5 1 0 . 1 4.24 2 .30 1.80 81. 56 0 . 0 2 0 0.30
3 . SORGHUM 89.3 11.3 3 .85 2 . 0 1 1.92 80.92 0.034 0 . 2 1
4 . MAIZE BRAN 84.2 13.8 1 1 . 2 0 5.30 4.42 65.29 0 . 1 2 0 0.44
5. WHEAT BRAN 87.7 19.7 4 . 52 10. 19 5.33 60. 20 0. 170 1. 17
6 . RICE BRAN 90.1 14.1 19. 00 6.70 10.45 49.75 0 . 110 1. 19
7. FISH MEAL -85.6 74.9 5.75 0. 64 16.29 2.42 3. 180 2.428 . SOYBEAN OIL MEAL 88.4 46.8 0.72 11.45 7.90 33.13 0.340 0.75o GROUNDNUT MEAL 89.0 53.7 3.96 2.90 4.75 29.69 0.218 0.43
i.O, 
. _
COPRA MEAL ?4 .1 2 2 . 1 11i. 4 0 1 0 . 00 7.00 47.50 0.217 0.65
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reported by (Crampton and Harris, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1977).
Rice bran has very high ether extract value (19.02%) compared 
to 3.3% reported by Buamah, (1969) in Ghana and 13% reported by 
NAS-NRC, (1977). The fibre content of rice bran (6.7%) was quite 
low compared to value of 12% and 11.4% reported by Lynn (1969) and 
NAS-NRC (1977) respectively. The value obtained in the present 
study was similar to the value of the unadulterated rice bran 
obtained by Buamah (1969) in this country. The value of 1.1% for 
phosphorus in rice bran obtained is lower than the 1.5% reported in 
the literature (Buamah, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1977).
iii. Protein Concentrates
Among the ingredients in this group, fish meal (Anchovy s jd) 
was clearly the best protein and mineral concentrate. Its high 
protein (74.9%) and mineral contents (16.29%) and the low fibre and 
nitrogen free extract values were similar to values recorded by 
Crampton and Harris, (1969); Owusu-Domfeh et al, (1970); NAS-NRC 
(1977). The protein value was however higher than those reported 
by Fetugah et al, (1977) and Ncube, (1981).
Among the vegetable protein sources analysed copra cake by its 
composition, was the least nutritious. It had the least protein 
content (22.1%) and a high fat content (13.4%).
Soybean oil meal used in the present study had a higher level 
of fibre content (11.5%) than values (5.6 - 7.3%) reported in the 
literature reports (Crampton and Harris, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977; 
and Fetugah et al, 1979). The other proximate component values
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obtained for soybean meal were however in agreement with those 
reported by Crampton and Harris, (1969), NAS-NRC, (1969, 1977),
Fetugah et al.. (1979) and Ncube, (1981).
Groundnut cake was also characterised by higher crude protein 
(53.7), lower ether extract (8.96%) and lower fibre content than 
values reported by Buamah, (1969) and Owusu-Domfeh et al, (1970). 
It also had lower values for phosphorus (0.43%) and higher values 
for calcium (0.22%) than those reported by NAS-NRC, (1969, 1977), 
Buamah (1969) and Owusu-Domfeh et al, (1970).
DISCUSSION
Cereal grains are by far the most important energy sources for 
livestock feeding. This is due to their high nitrogen free extract 
and low fibre content. Among the cereal grains , maize is the most 
commonly used for poultry. Its energy and proximate composition is 
commonly used as a standard with which other energy sources are 
compared.
In this study, the nutrient composition of sorghum compared 
favourably with that of maize and can therefore serve as an 
alternate energy source to maize. However, some varieties of 
sorghum contain tannins which affect their nutritional value and 
also negatively correlate with their metabolizable energy content 
(Equiarte, 1976).
The low phosphorus content of sorghum obtained was similar to 
values reported in Ghana (Buamah, 1969; Watson, 1971 and Neube, 
1981) and this could be attributed to the low phosphorus level in 
soils in Ghana (Acquaye, 1963 and Ahenkorah, 1967) .
Though the nutrient composition of yellow and white varieties
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of maize are similar, the high carotene content in the former makes 
it preferable for use in the preparation of layer's feed, if it is 
more avialable, as it will enhance the yellowness of egg yolk.
The moisture content of maize bran was quite high, and might 
pose a problem if it is to be used on a large scale; if it is not 
properly dried, it cannot store well. This is because feeds 
containing more than 14% of moisture easily grow mouldy, and this 
affects their nutritive value (Crampton and Harris, 1969). The 
high nitrogen free extract coupled with relatively low fibre 
content of maize bran makes it a good source of energy for poultry.
Wheat bran had a high content of protien and minerals, making 
it a good feed ingredient for livestock. However, the fibre 
content of 1 0 .0% obtained was high enough to limit its use in 
monogastric nutrition. Buamah (1969) pointed out that wheat bran 
has been used up to 5% in chick starter ration and 15% in chicken 
layer and breeder rations without decrease in feed efficiency.
Rice bran mostly obtainable on the Ghanaian market has been 
observed to be very high in crude fibre content. In an analysis 
Boamah (1969) reported the following values for this type of rice 
bran: crude protien (5.8%); crude fibre (26.7%); ether extract
(5.8%). But the composition of true rice bran reported in 
literature (Lynn, 1968; Crampton and Harris, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1977) 
were as follows: crude protein (14-14.8%); ether extract (14-16%) 
and crude fibre (12-12.5%). The levels of nutrient composition 
obtained in this study were comparable to values reported elsewhere 
in literature outside this country. The only exception was crude
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fibre content of 6 .7 % which was low about half of the value cited 
in the literature for true rice bran.
The low crude fibre value obtained for rice bran in this study 
might be attributed to excessive polishing of the grain. The study 
has also proved that true and unadulterated rice bran is obtainable 
on the Ghanaian market for use in poultry and livestock feeding.
With regards to the protein concentrates, the main outstanding 
feature of fish meal (Anchovy spp) in this study was its high 
moisture content, which was higher than those reported in 
literature (Crampton and Harris, 1969; Buamah, 1969; Owusu-Domfeh 
et al, 1970; NAS-NRC, 1977; Ncube, 1981). The high miosture level 
might be due to inadequate processing before storage. This can 
therefore limit the storage period.
The high fat content of copra cake obtained in this study has 
confirmed the reports of Buamah (1969). This could be predispose 
copra cake to oxidative rancidity. It may therefore be necessary 
to add some anti-oxidant to feeds containing copra cake at high 
levels, to prevent the risk of destruction of vitamins due to the 
oxidative rancidity.
The soybean oil meal in this study was an imported feed 
ingredient and the very high fibre content obtained is not a common 
feature of the ingredient (NAS-NRC, 1977). It was therefore 
difficult to ascertain reasons for the high fibre level.
The high protein, relatively low fat and fibre content of 
groundnut cake make it a valuable protien supplement for all 
livestock and poultry. This ingredient can therefore be used at
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high levels in poultry rations without serious ill-effects except 
for the risk of afflatoxin toxicity in contaminated products.
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CHAPTER 4 
EXPERIMENT TWO
BIOLOGICAL DETERMINATION OF METABOLIZABLE ENERGY (ME) OF SOME
POULTRY FEED INGREDIENTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION :
Of all the nutrient components that constitute the feed of 
poultry, energy component alone forms about 70% of the feed. This 
amounts to over 4 0% of the total cost of production of poultry. 
More so energy has been the basis for estimating the requirements 
of the other nutrients for proper feed formulation (Crampton, 
1964). This is so because many animals eat to satisfy their energy 
requirements.
Thus reduction of the bioavailable energy input cost, through 
the use of more accurate bioavailable energy value to estimate 
requirements and to formulate rations, offers the greatest 
potential for decreasing production cost. In addition improved 
diet formulation will increase the efficiency with which other 
nutrients are utilised thereby leading to further cost reductions.
In Ghana, data on bioavailable energy of the local feed 
ingredients for poultry is limited. This has led to overreliance 
on National Academy of Science and National Research Council data 
or those quoted from outside the country for feed formulation. 
Obviously, this procedure is not the best and could lead to 
discrepancies in nutrient composition of the feed formulated for 
poultry in the country (Adarkwah-Ntiamoah, 1985).
Therefore to enable one to have control over productivity of
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poultry it is necessary to continue to investigate the bioavailable 
energy of poultry feed stuffs, because it is by so doing that 
detailed and accurate knowledge of the necessary data would be 
available for use.
Hence, the objective of this study was to determine the ME values 
of the poultry feedstuffs listed in experiment one.
4.2 MATERIALS AND METHOD
i, Diets : A basal diet was formulated. Forty percent of the 
basal diet was substituted for the test ingredients listed in 
experiment one. because this level of inclusion was within the 
range of levels used by other workers (Porter et al, 1961; Vohra 
and Kratzer, 1970). The composition of the basal diet and eight 
test diets are shown in Table 2.
ii, Birds and Management:
Adult roosters, of Shaver starcross (SX) 288 and 579 strains 
weighing 2kg to 3.2kg were used in this experiment. They were 
first trained to consume their daily ration in one hour each day. 
This was accomplished by feeding the roosters on a mash diet for 
decreasing time intervals over a period of four weeks. At the end 
of the training period five of them were put in individual cages, 
for a week to get used to the cages, before feeding of the assay 
diets started. The feeding of the assay diets usually took place 
between 7am and 8am daily. Sheets of paper were spread beneath 
each cage during feeding time to collect spilled feed. Amount of
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feed consumed was estimated everyday for each bird.
Each assay test diet was fed to the five birds for four days. 
Faeces were collected during the last three days.The feeding of the 
assay test diets followed one after the other through to the ninth 
diet.
Table 2
COMPOSITION OF TEST DIETS FOR THE ROOSTERS
Basal
Diet
Sorghum Rice
bran
Maize
bran
Wheat
bran
Copra
meal
soybean
meal
white
maize
fish
meal
White Maize 88.5 53.10 53.10 53.10 53.10 53.10 53.10 53.10 53.10
Fish meal 8 . 0 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80
Dical P04 1.25 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Vit/Min Mix 1 . 0 0 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60 0 . 60 0 . 60 0.60
Salt 0.25 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
Oyster shell 1 . 0 0 0 . 60 0.60 0.60 0 . 60 0 . 60 0 . 60 0.60 0 . 60
White Maize - - - - - - - 40 -
Sorghum - 40 - - - - - - -
Rice bran - - 40 - - - - - -
Wheat bran - - - - 40 - - - -
Maize bran - - - 40 - - - - -
Copra meal - - - - - 40 - - -
Soybean meal - - - - - - 40 - -
Fishmeal — — — — — — — — 40
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
iii. Experimental design:
The randomised complete block design was used with five 
replicates as blocks. Each bird was regarded as a block. The 
treatment consisted of the various test diets.
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iv. Faeces: Collection and Treatment:
At the end of each day's feeding period, the papers spread 
beneath the cages were withdrawn and replaced with polythene sheets 
for faecal collection. The faeces associated with the previous 
day's feeding were collected over the next 24 hours, weighed, 
wrapped in polythene and stored in a deep freezer until analysis 
were done. Between 80-100g of the pooled samples were later dried 
in an oven at 45°C after adding few drops of concentrated sulphuric 
acid to acidify the samples, and thereby help minimise nitrogen and 
energy losses (Fleischer et al, 1981). The moisture content was 
determined after drying at 45°C for one week.
vi. Gross Energy Analysis (GE).
Gross energy was later determined on the fresh faeces using a 
polyethylene film (pef) primer (Fleischer et al, 1981). Gross 
energy was also determined on the test diets and test ingredients 
using an adiabatic oxygen bomb calorimeter.
vii. Calculation of ME :
The ME value of diets were computed from gross energy values 
of test diets, faeces together with urine and feed intake as:
MEDiet(kcal/9)
GEintake " GEfaeces
~ ( 1 )
MEingredient (kcal/9)
Feed Intake (FI)
MET - MEb (1-P)
-(2)
P
where MET = Metabolizable energy of test diets 
MEjj = Metabolizable energy of basal diet
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P = level of inclusion of ingredients in the 
basal diet.
4.3 RESULTS
i. Feed Intake of Test Diets:
The mean values of feed intake of test diets are shown in 
Table 3. Feed intake per rooster was least for copra cake test 
diet (37.25 g/bird/day) and highest for white maize 
(78.34g/bird/day). Generally the cereal grains (maize and sorghum) 
recorded higher feed intake values (ie 78.34 and 71.18 g/bird/day) 
than the other diets. Among the cereal brans, wheat bran recorded 
the lowest intake. (44.84 g/bird/day). With regard to the protein 
concentrates, copra cake was least eaten, however the feed intakes 
for the cereal brans and protein concentrate diet were similar.
Statistical analysis of feed intake values indicated 
significant differences between roosters and between assay diets 
(P<0.01) shown in Table 3. For most of the assay diets feed 
intakes by SX 579 roosters were higher than those of SX 288 
roosters Appendix 1).
ii. ME of Test Diets and Test Ingredients
The values of ME of assay diets and ingredients are shown in 
Table 3. There were significant differences (P<0.05) of ME values 
between diets and non-significant differences of ME values of diets 
between roosters. Also there were significant differences of ME
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TABLE 3
Mean Feed Intake and ME of basal and Test Diets and ME of Test
Ingredients
Diet/Ingredient Feed
Intake
of
Diet
ME of Assay Diet 
± SD 
Kcal/g
ME of Ingredient 
± SD 
Kcal/g
Basal 56.18 3.024 ± 0.07 -
White Maize 78.34 3.384 ± 0.08 3.835 ± 0.21
Sorghum 71.18 3.321 ± 0.02 3.768 ± 0.14
Maize bran 55.52 3.031 ± 0.09 3.042 ± 0.17
Rice bran 62.04 2.770 ± 0.16 2.389 ± 0.34
Wheat bran 44.84 2.495 ± 0.27 1.702 ± 0.66
Fish meal 54.08 2.915 ± 0.09 2.752 ± 0.12
Soybean oil meal 61.52 2.829 ± 0.31 2.352 ± 0.42
Copra cake 37.28 2.417 ± 0.22 1.508 ± 0.45
values between test ingredients and non-significant of ME values 
of ingredient between roosters (Appendix 4 and 5).
The ME values of the cereals in this experiment ie, white 
maize and sorghum were higher than those of the cereal brans and 
the protein ingredients. These high ME contents reflected their 
high NFE values reported in experiment one.
Among the brans studied, maize bran registered the highest ME 
value, (3.042 kcal/g) and this was largely because of its high NFE 
and low fibre content compared to those of rice bran and wheat 
bran, and also its high ether extract compared to that of wheat 
bran.
Whilst the ME value of fishmeal was similar to values reported 
in literature, those of copra cake and soybean oil meal were lower 
than values reported in literature (Crampton and Harris, 1969; NAS- 
NRC, 1969, 1977).
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discussion
Level of feed intake influences metabolizable energy values 
obtained by ME determination (Guillamme and Summers, 1970; Farrel, 
1975; Muztar and Slinger, 1980). This is because at low feed intake 
ie. below maintenance requirements metabolic faecal energy losses 
assume a higher proportion of excreta losses causing a reduction in 
ME value of feedstuffs. But at high level of feed intake, ie. 
above maintenance requirement, it ceases to have effect on ME 
values (Farrel 1975).
To overcome the effect of endogenous urinary and metabolic 
faecal losses Farrel (1978), suggested that an average weight of 3 
kg assay bird should consume about 70 g of feed per day. Shang and 
Hamilton (1982), found that this was not readily achievable with 
light birds like White Leghorn cockerels.
In the present study mean feed intake of four out of five 
birds used fell below the 70g suggested by Farrel (1978) . This is 
because the SX 288 strain of birds used were light weight birds and 
hence they ate less. Also with the exception of copra cake diet, 
the birds ate enough of the other diets to satisfy their 
maintenance requirements of 45 g/bird/day as suggested by Guillaume 
and Summers (1970). The value 71.18 g of sorghum diet intake in 
this study was similar to the 71.63 g recorded by Ncube, (1981) who 
also used the same procedure, similar basal diet and similar size 
birds.
The non-significant differences on ME values between the assay 
birds agreed with published results (Sibbald and Slinger, 1963;
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Foster, 1969) which indicated that there were no differences of ME 
values between different strains and breeds of layer birds. It was 
also observed that though differences in feed intake between the 
assay birds were highly significant, differences in ME values 
between the birds were non-significant. This observation shows 
that variation in feed intake did not have any significant effect 
on ME values obtained which is contrary to the observations of 
either Guillaume and Summers (1970) or Muztar and Slinger (1980). 
These two groups of authors demonstrated that AME values diminished 
with increasing feed intake. Nevertheless, the variation in feed 
intake which did not have any significant effact on ME values 
obtained agreed with findings of Hill and Anderson (1958) who 
reduced chick feed intake to as little as 3 0% of ad libitum and 
found no change in dietary ME values. The possible explanation to 
these contrasting reports is that at very low level of feed intake 
dietary ME value is influenced but as feed intake rises, within a 
certain range, the influence of feed intake on dietary ME 
diminishes (Farrel, 1978). Therefore the level of feed intake 
recorded in this study may have fallen within the range where 
influence of feed intake on ME is minimal.
Among the outstanding ME values of the ingredients was the 
high ME of maize bran. This was largely because of its high 
nitrogen free extract and low fibre content compared to the other 
brans (ie. wheat and rice brans). And also its high ether extract 
compared to that of wheat bran. Considering the rice bran and 
wheat bran their ME contents were found to be higher than values
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obtained in literature (NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977) . The proximate
composition of these brans also showed that rice bran had higher 
values found in literature (NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977;Crampton and
Harris, 1969) . The lower value of ME of soybean oil meal and copra 
cake could be related to their higher fibre and lower NFE content 
reported in Experiment one in this study compared to what was 
reported in literature (Crampton and Harris, 1969; Owusu-Domfeh et 
al, 1970; NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977). This is because a feedstuff must 
first be digested and absorbed to be a useful source of energy. 
And since fibre is not digested to any appreciable extent by 
poultry, high fibre content of an ingredient is most likely to 
affect the level of its ME (McDonald et al 1987) .
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CHAPTER 5 
EXPERIMENT THREE
BROTT.KR PERFORMANCE ON DIETS WITH SORGHUM AND SOYBEAN OIL MEAL AS 
ENERGY AND PROTEIN SOURCES.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Ghana maize and fish meal have been the major feed
ingredients that serve as sources of energy and protein for
poultry. The overreliance on these ingredients has led to
spiralling cost of feed production during the lean periods when
they are in short supply. Often cheaper ingredients ie. cereal
bran and copra cake are also used to cut down cost of producing
feed but their use is also limited due to their nutrient
composition. Sorghum and soybean oil meal have been suggested as
good substitutes for maize and fishmeal respectively because
sorghum has a high content of available energy and soybean oil meal
is also high in essential amino acids.
Many investigations have shown that there are no significant
differences between the growth rate of chicks fed with diets
containing sorghum and those fed with maize or with a combination
of sorghum and maize (Stephenson and Johnson, 1960; Chavez et al,
1966; Sykes, 1967).
Other investigations have also indicated that animal protein
per se is not needed as supplements to soybean oil meal in poultry
ration provided the limiting amino acid in such diets ie.
methionine and minerals and vitamin are well supplied, (Marvel et
al. 1945; Bird, 1948; Anderson et al, 1968; Bonstein and Lipstein,
1975). Nevertheless, some investigations had contrasting views as
38
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far as the use of sorghum (Chang et al, 1964) and soybean oil meal 
(McGinnins and Carver, 1947) were concerned.
For this reason, the purpose of this study was to observe the 
response in growth and feed efficiency of broiler when part or all 
of corn and fish meal were replaced with sorghum and soybean meal.
5.2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
i, Location of the Experiment : The feeding trial was carried out 
on the University of Ghana, Agricultural Research Station (ARS) 
Legon.
ii, Diets : The composition of the treatment diets as well as 
their calculated ME, Crude protein, lysine and methionine values 
are shown in Table 4. Treatment diets had maize and/or sorghum as 
the main energy sources and fish meal and/or soybean oil meal as 
the main protein sources. The diets were formulated to be iso- 
nitrogenous and iso-caloric with an average energy: protein ratio 
of 131.8 kcal/kg/% CP, which has been recommended for poultry by 
Nesheim et al, (1969). Methionine which is the most limiting amino 
acid in soybean oil meal diets was included at levels indicated to 
satisfy the requirements of the birds. The requirements of calcium 
and phosphorus were also met by including appropriate levels of 
oyster shell and dicalcium phosphate. Minerals and vitamins 
mixture and salt were also added to fortify the diets with most of 
the required vitamins and mineral elements. Soybean oil was added 
to some of the treatment diets to help bring the energy level of 
those diets to the required energy level, thus making the diets
39
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iso-caloric.
iii, Birds and Management
Since space was limited the trial was carried out one 
replicate at a time. Broiler birds were used as the experimental 
animals. They were brooded until they were twenty-five day old, 
before they were put on the experimental diets. There were nine 
treatment diets with ten birds per treatment. Each feeding trial 
lasted 4 weeks. At the start of each trial the birds were weighed 
and distributed into groups of ten so that the average weight per 
group was similar. The treatment diets were randomly assigned to 
the groups.
Each group was put in a pen, 1.5 m x 3.5 m in dimension. Feed 
and water were provided ad libitum. Faecal material was removed 
from the feeders every morning before fresh feed was added.
The birds were weighed in groups at weekly intervals and average 
weight gains calculated. Records were also taken of the weekly 
feed consumption and from this feed conversion efficiency was 
calculated. The birds were given the usual preventive medication 
as required for healthy growth.
iv, Experimental Design: A 3x3 factorial in a randomized complete 
block design was used.There were three replicates (blocks). The 
treatment consisted of all combinations of three levels of sorghum
40
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The composition of treatment Diets in Experiment 3
Table 4
MAIZE MAIZE +S0RGHUM SORGHUM 7 V ~
Fish FM Soybean Fish FM Soybean Fish FM Soybean
meal + meal + meal +
FM Soybean Meal FM Soybean Meal FM Soybean Meal
Soybean oil - - 1.25 - _ 1.40 - — 1.70
Maize 61 60 55 33 32.5 30 - ~ -
1 Sorghum - - - 29 28.5 25 63 hT. r>4 .4
Wheatbran 15.75 6.65 - 14.75 5.65 - 13.75 4. 65 -
Fishmeal 21 10.5 - 21 10.5 - 21 10.5 -
Soybean meal - 19 38 .25 - 19 38.10 - 19 38.40
Oyster shell .25 .50 .75 .25 .50 .75 .25 .50 .75
Dical P04 j .75 | 2 . 0  | 3.25 | .75 | 2 . 0  | 3.25 | .75 | 2 . 0  | 3.25 I
Vit/Min Mix 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Salt .25 . 25 .25 .25 . 25 . 25 .25 .25 .25
Methionine — . 1 0 .25 - . 10 .25 - . 10 .25
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
M. E.(kcal/kg) 2838.9 2837 . 1 2849 . 7 2842.8 2842 2844.6 2843 .7 2844.5 2839.5
C. P.% 21.5 21.5 2 1 . 67 21.5 21.5 21. 65 ' 21.5 21.5 2 1 . 8
ME/C?(kcal/kg) 132 132 131.5 132.2 132.2 131.4 132.3 132.3 130.3
Lysine % 1.27 1. 25 1.25 1.26 1.24 1.24 1.25 1.24 1.25
Methionine % . 55 . 56 . 61 .53 . 53 . 59 .50 . 51 0.56
Calcium % 1. 07 1 . 08 1 . 1 0 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.07 1.08 1 . 1 0
Phosphorous % 1 . 00 .99 1 . 00 .99 .98 1 . 00 .98 .98 1 . 0 0
*+l
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and three levels of soybean oil meal in the diets. The levels 
were:-
Sorghum: 0%; 46%; 100%
Maize : 100%; 54%; 0%
Soybean oil meal: 0%; 50%; 100%
Fish meal : 100%; 50%; 0%
v, Data Analysis : The data on live weight gains, feed
consumption and feed conversion were subjected to analysis of 
variance. Treatment means between various protein diets which 
showed significance were differentiated using Duncan's multiple 
range test. All tests of significance were based on 5% level of 
probability.
5.3 RESULTS
ii. Weight Gain: Average daily weight gains of chicks as
influenced by energy and protein are shown in Table 5. Birds on 
maize, sorghum and the combination of the two had mean weight gains 
of 39.4, 38.9 and 40.0 g/bird/day respectively. The differences 
obtained between diets were small and not significant (P<0.05).
Marked differences in daily weight gains based on protein 
sources (ie. 37.5 g for fish meal, 40.1 g soybean oil and 40.6 g 
for the combination of the two sources) were obtained and found to 
be statistically significant (P<0.05). It was observed that chicks 
fed fish meal diet consistently had lower weight gain than either
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Daily Weight. Gains. Feed Intake. Feed Conversion Efficiency. Cost per 
Kilogram weight gain and cost per kilogram of feed as influenced by
Energy and Protein Sources.
Table 5
ENERGY SOURCES PROTEIN SOURCES
Parameters
Maize Maize
+
Sorghum
Sorghum Fish meal Fish meal 
+
Soybean meal
Soybean meal
Daily Weight 
Gain(g/bird/day) 39.4a | 40.°a 38. 9a 37. 6b 4 0.6a 4 0. ia
Feed Intake 
(g/bird/day) 107. 6 a | 107.0, a 107 *1a 106.2a 108.3a 1 0 7 .8a
Feed Conversion 
Efficiency 11 • 3 ? a 1 0.38a 0.37a 0.3 63 0.38a o C
J CD 0)
Cost fo.r kc 
weight gain jt 467.20 445.71 443.36 47 2.62 438.60
j
445.09
Feed cost per kg 
of feed £ 170.76 166.26 161.04 168.04 164.58 165.44
NOTE: All figures bearing the same subscripts are not significantly different. Cost per
kg wt gain and feed cost per kg of feed do not have subscripts because they were 
not subjected to analysis of variance.
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soybean diets or soybean - fish meal combination diets. 
Statistically non-significant differences (P<0.05) of weight gains 
(Appendix 6) were observed for the interaction effect of energy and 
protein sources.
ii, Feed Consumption : Average daily feed intake as influenced by 
energy and protein sources is shown in Table 5. The feed intake by 
birds on maize, sorghum and maize-sorghum combination were 107.6,
107.1 and 107.0 g/bird/day respectively. The differences obtained 
were small and non-significant (P<0.05).
Differences in feed intake based on protein sources (ie. 
106.2, 107.8 and 108.3 g/bird/day for fish meal soybean oil meal 
and fish-soybean meals respectively) were non-significant 
(P>0.05). However fish meal diet alone showed lower feed intake 
which agrees with the results of Avila and Balloun (1974) who 
observed low levels of feed intake were non-significantly 
associated with high levels of anchovy fish meal.
Non significant difference of feed intake were also recorded 
for energy and protein interaction.
iii. Feed Conversion Efficiency: Feed conversion efficiency of the
birds as influenced by energy and protein sources is shown in Table 
5. No significant (P>0.05) differences were found among the energy 
sources (.37, .38, .37 for maize, sorghum-maize and sorghum
respectively). With regard to protein sources, the results were 
not statistically significant (P>0.05) ( .38, .38, .36 for soybean,
44
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soybean-fish meal and fish meal respectively).
iv. Cost Analysis: The cost per kilogram weight gain and per
kilogram of feed are shown Table 5. With regard to the energy 
source, it costs more for the chicks on maize diet to gain 1 
kilogram of live weight (£467.20) than for those on sorghum 
($£443.36) . Also with regard to protein sources, gain of 1 kilogram 
live weight was more expensive for fish meal diets (£472.62) than 
with soybean oil meal diets (£445.09). It was therefore observed 
that it costs more for chicks on maize and fish meal diets to gain 
1 kilogram of live weight than chicks on sorghum and soybean oil 
meal diets. Analysis of cost of 1 kilogram of feed showed that 1 
kg of the maize diet was more expensive (£170.76) than sorghum diet 
(£161.04). And 1 kilogram of fish meal diets also cost more 
(£168.04) than soybean oil meal diets (£165.44).
v. Mortality: During the period of the trial, three birds died.
Two died as a result of snake bite and the third through fowl pox 
disease.
DISCUSSION
In this study, maize was compared with sorghum, while fish 
meal was compared with soybean oil meal as alternative sources of 
energy and protein respectively.
The non-significant differences in weight gain obtained 
between sorghum and maize diets agreed with the findings of Ozment
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et al (1963) and Sanford (1963) who reported similar observation 
with a similar treatments. The ratio of weight gained by birds on 
sorghum diet to those on maize diet was .987, This ratio is higher 
than the range of values (.90 - .95) reported in literature (Peo 
and Hudman, 1958; Schruben, 1959). High tannin sorghum is known to 
retard growth rate of chicks and this effect is only overcomed by 
inclusion of high levels of methionine and choline in the ration 
(Chang, Sang and Fuller, 1964). Since growth rates in this study 
for maize and sorghum were similar, perhaps the variety of sorghum 
used was the low tannin type, or the inclusion of methionine which 
helped to limit the tannin effect if it was present at all.
The differences in feed intake obtained for sorghum and maize 
diet were small and non-significant. This was expected since diets 
were formulated to be iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous. Chicks 
normally tend to regulate their feed intake primarily on the basis 
of dietary energy content provided other factors such as 
palatability, physical states, nutrient adequacy and accessibility 
to the feed are not limiting. All this factors did not appear to 
have posed any problem to the birds.
The non-significant differences of feed conversion effeciency 
of the sorghum and maize diet was expected since weight gained and 
feed intake of these diets did not differ from each other.
With regard to the protein sources, significant differnces 
were recorded between fish meal and soybean oil meal diet for 
weight gained but the differences in feed in fish intakeand feed 
conversion efficiency were non-significant. This growth depression
46
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observed in birds on fish meal diets agreed with the findings of 
Waldroup et al (1965); Avila and Balloun (1974), who also reported 
of a depression in the growth of chicks fed diets containing only 
anchovy fish meal as the main source of protein compared to those 
fed on soybean oil meal diet. On the contrary, Griffith and 
Schexnailder (1971) indicated that growth of chicks recieving 
anchovy fish meal was significantly greater than that of chicks fed 
on corn-soybean oil meal diet.
The good performance of birds on soybean oil meal diet agreed 
with the findings of Bonstein and Lipstein (1975) who observed that 
adequate inclusion of methionine in cereal soybean oil meal diet, 
makes such diets nutritionally adequate and complete to supply all 
the necessary essential amino acids required by the chicken. The 
results of this study indicated that methionine supplemented 
soybean oil meal protein was superior to anchovy fish meal as a 
protein source.
Differences in feed intake based on protein sources, were non­
significant. However, fish meal alone showed lower feed intake 
which agrees with the results of Avila and Balloun (1974) , who 
observed that low levels of feed intake were non-significantly 
associated wilth high levels of anchovy fishmeal in the diet.
The non-significant differences in feed intake recorded for 
energy and protein interaction, showed that the utilization of 
sorghum was not limited by its combination with a particular 
protein source. Similarly, the consumption of methionine 
supplemented soybean oil meal was also not linked to a particular
47
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type of energy source.
Observations from this experiment showed that the sole use of 
achovy fish meal as a source of protein for broiler chicken, was 
not very helpful to their body weight gain and feed efficiency. It 
may be better to use well supplemented soybean oil meal as the sole 
source of protein. This is because when anchovy fish meal is fed 
at high dietary concentrations, it tends to increase feed required 
per unit weight gained (Waldroup et al. 1965; Avila and 
Balloun, 1974) . This was why it was more expensive for birds on 
fish meal diet to gain one kilogram of live weight than with birds 
on supplemented soybean oilmeal diet.
Though maize and fish meal diets are more expensive than 
sorghum and soybean oil meal diets, they are the most used in the 
country as poultry feed ingredients. This may be because 
regardless of cost, they are more available. Thus, an increased 
availability of sorghum and soybean is a necessary prerequisite if 
they are to replace maize and fish meal as ingredients in broiler 
diet.
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GENERAL DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The major nutrients that constitute the bulk of rations fed to 
poultry are carbohydrate and protein. Though other nutrients such 
as vitamins and minerals are also very important, they only form a 
very small proportion of the diet. As such, they may be ignored 
when substituting one feed-stuff for another under practical 
feeding conditions (Ashton and Olsen, 1971). In addition, there 
are commercially prepared vitamins-mineral premixes which are not 
too expensive and are available for obviating any problem that may 
arise as a result of the substitution effects of feed ingredients.
Most often, animal nutritionists aim at finding cheaper but 
acceptable energy and protien feedstuffs that may be acceptabdle 
for replacing more expensive ones in the diets of animal. Thus, to 
get an effective and suitable feedstuffs for use as a substitute 
demands a thorough knowledge of their nutritive value. Three main 
levels of nutritive assessment are recognised: First is the
chemical composition, which is a measure of the ingredients 
potential usefulness. Second, is the bioavailability of the 
nutrient which estimates the ability of the animal to digest, 
absorb and metabolise nutrientls. And finally, feeding trial which 
gives an indication of the performance of the animal (Preston, 
1986).
It was in this regard that experiment 1 in the present studies 
was structured to determine the proximate composition of some 
poultry feed ingredients locally available in Ghana. Observations
CHAPTER 6
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from this study showed that most of the chemical composition values 
obtained were found to be similar to values reported in literature 
(Buamah, 1969; Crampton and Harris, 1969; NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977;
Owusu-Domfeh et ai, 1970 and Ncube, 1981). However, some 
differences were obtained regarding the ash and phosphorus contents 
of sorghum; high moisture and NFE contents of maize bran; high 
ether extract of rice bran; high moisture content of fish meal; 
high fibre content of soybean oil meal and the low fibrle and fat 
contents of groundnut cake.
For a better and detailed understanding of the nutritive value 
of the feed ingredients, their energy content was also required. 
This is because proximate composition of a feedstuff is known to 
correlate with its bioavailable energy content. Hence, Experiment 
2 was undertaken to biologically determine the ME of the feed 
ingredients whose chemical compositions were determined in 
Experiment 1. The results however, showed that with exception of 
the higher ME of maize bran, lower ME of copra cake and soybean oil 
meal, most of the ME values were similar to what was obtained in 
literature (NAS-NRC, 1969, 1977). The variations observed for
maize bran, copra cake and soybean oil meal, could be related to 
the levels of their nitrogen free extract and fibre contents.
The results also showed the high nutritional significance of 
sorghum as seen in its high content of ME which was very much 
similar to that of maize. This information helped in choosing 
sorghum as as an alternative energy source to replace maize in the 
diets in Experiment 3 which sought to evaluate the performance of
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broiler chickens fed diets containing sorghum and soybean oil meal.
It was also realised from the earlier work in Experiment 1 
that soybean oil meal being a plant protein source compared to fish 
meal had very low calcium and phosphorus contents. It was for this 
reason that when it had to be used to replace fish meal very high 
levels of the two minerals, calcium and phosphorus were included in 
the diets to overcome any effects that might arise.
Results from this Experiment showed that one kilogram of maize 
diet was more expensive than one kilogram of sorghum diet.
Consequently, it cost 23.84 Cedis more for birds on maize diet to 
gain one kilogram live weight than birds on sorghum diet.
Furthermore, fish meal diet was more expensive than soybean oil 
meal diet and it cost 27.54 Cedis more for birds on fish meal diet 
to gain one kilogramlive weight than birds on soybean oil meal 
diet.
CONCLUSION:
Observations from the results showed that most of the 
nutritive values obtained for the feed ingredients were similar to 
values obtained in literature. Nevertheless, some of the values 
were also significantly different from these literature values.
Therefore, it is very important to continue to analyse the locally
available feedstuffs, since some do show considerable nutritive 
variability. Observations from the feeding trial, also confirmed 
the possibility of sorghum and methionine supplemented soybean oil 
meal replacing maize and fish meal respectively as ingredients in 
broiler diets.
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RECOMMENDATIONS;
Since there are different varieties of sorghum in Ghana, further 
experiments should be carried out to investigate their tannin 
levels. The purpose should be the identification of varieties with 
low tannin levels. This would make possible the cultivation of 
these varieties on a large scale to provide the poultry and 
livestock industry in the country with an adequate and available 
alternate source of energy feedstuff.
It is also recommended that further studies be carried out 
aimed at finding out possible ways of ameliorating the poor growth 
promotion of anchovy fish meal, since it is available in sufficient 
quantities in the country.
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63
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APPENDIX 1
Anpendix 1
Daily Feedlntnkefa/bird/dav) and ME(kcol.'i) of Assay Diet: in ME Determination
ROOSTEPS
■
ASSAY DIETS 1 2 3 4 5 Mean
BASAL Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
57.40
2.997
70.3C 
3.117
48.20
2.916
56.00
3.031
49.00
3.058
56.18
3.024
WHITE MAIZE Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
98.90
3.381
107.90
3.427
59.90
3.333
84.10
3.379
40.90
3.221
78.34
3.348
! SORGHUM Feed ln:ake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
66.30
3.334
88.6U 
3.319
63.00
3.335
73.30
3.325
64.70 
3,. 294
71.18
3.321
MAIZE BRAN Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
53.70
2.998
74.30
3.166
53.80
2.972
52.50
3.070
46.30
2.948
55.52
3.031
RICE BRAN Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
62.10
2.521
73.20
2.895
50.00
2.720
60.70
2.888
64.20
2.826
62.04
2.770
WHEAT BRAN Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
60.00
2.781
55.30
2.718
42.90
2.394
40.40
2.465
25.60
2.118
44.84
2.495
FISH HEAL Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcel/g)
56.50
2.877
68.00
3.015
41.50
2.794
61.70
2.973
42.70
2.917
54.08
2.915
SOYBEAN MEAL Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
66.80
3.368
75.30
2.606
52.00
2.701
57.80
2.782
55.70
2.686
61.52
2.829
COPRA MEAL Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
38.70
2.550
48.8C. 
2.650
23.60
2.077
37,10
2.380
38.20
2.429
37.28
2.417
MEAN Feed Intake(g) 
ME (kcal/g)
62.30
2.979
73.50
2.990
48.00
2.805
58.20
2.921
47.50
2.833
57.90
2.906
ROOSTERS <--------- --------- > <---------------------------->
SX 579 SX 288
6*
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2Total Feed Intake, Gross Energy Excreta and Metabolizable Energy of 
Assay diets
Roosters 1 2 r 3 4 5
BASAL
Total F. I .(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
172.20
640.07
124.06
2.997
210.90
784.2?
126.25
3.117
146.60
537.43
115.81
2.916
168.00
624.46
115.31
3.C31
147.00
546.40
96.92
3.058
WHITE
HAIZE
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal> 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
296.70
1146.66
143.83
3.381
323.70
1251.04
142.0U
3.427
'(79.70 
69k .72 
95.77 
3.333
252.30
975.78
122.84
3.379
122.70
474.36
79.17
3.221
SORGHUM
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
198.90
768.36
105.50
3.840
265.8'J 
102c.9? 
145.1? 
3.422
189.CT 
730.10 
100.41 
3.96',
21V.90 
849.53n 
118.61 
3.766
194.10
750.00
110.79
3.648
MAIZE
BRAN
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
161.10
640.40
155.36
2.998
222.90
882.24
176.50
3.166
152.40
603.60
150.35
2.972
157.50
623.00
139.72
3.070
138.90
552.93
141.03
2.948
S0¥8EAN OIL 
MtAl
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
186.30
774.36
99.83
3.368
219.60
873.13
284.72
2.606
150.00
603.48
181.79
2,701
182.10
669.98
187.82
2.782
192.60
646.01
197.11
2.686
WHEAT
BRAN
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
180.00
710.10
209.44
2.781
165.93
654.87
203.73
2.71i
1^8.70
507.33
1V9.4V
2.394
121.20 
478. "3 
179.3« 
2.465
76.80
302.98
142.00
2.118
RICE
BRAN
Total F.l.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/y)
200.40
747.35
277.76
2.521
225.90
881.95
246.53
2.895
156.00
602.30
193.97
2.720
173.40
731.28
205.71
2.888
167.10
773.47
229.43
2.826
FISHMEAL
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
169.50
623.05
135.72
2.877
204.00 
749.94 
135.¥9 
3.0111
124.50
437.91
110.10
t./94
185.10
631.17
130.50
2.973
128.10
471.15
97.4?
2.917
COPRA
CAICE
Total F.I.(g)
GE Intake (kcal) 
GE Excreta(kcal) 
ME Diet (kcal/g)
116.10
455.16
158.85
2.550
146.if) 
573.4v 
165.49 
2.650
70.30
277.'.’
130.48
2.07V
; ii.30 
435.57 
17C.86 
2.380
114.60
448.89
170.51
2.429
6Jf
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Appendix 3
Analysis of variance of Feed Intake of Assay Diets in
Experiment 2
ss df S.S MS Fcal Ftab 1%
Roosters 4 4230.46 ?. 5 7 . 6 2 14 . 69 3.97 Sig.
Diets 8 6216.788 7 77.10 10.80 3 . 13 Sig.
Error 32 2303.38 71.98
Total 44 12750.63
Appendix 4
Analysis of variance of ME of Assay Diets in ME determination of
Exper.ir.ient 2
SS df S.S MS Fcal Ftab 5%
Roosters 4 0. 254 - . 603 5 2 . 37 2. 67 NS
Diets 8 4 . 149 0.518 6 19 . 35 2 . 24 Sig.
Error 32 0.805 0.0268
Total 44 5. 208
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Appendix 5
Analysis of variance o f ME of Test ingrediences in
Exper:’ nent 2
ss
'
df S.S MS Fcal Ftab 5%/l%
Roosters 4 0.809 0.2 02 3 1 . 66 . 2.71 NS
Diets 7 25.855 3 . 694 3 0.28 2.36/3 . 3,6 S
Error 28 3 .403 0 . 122
Total 39 30.067
67
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Daily Weight Gain as influenced by Energy an<L Protein Sources in
Experiment 3 
WEIGHT GAIN (g/bird/dayl
Append ix 6
REPLICATION
ENERGY SOURCE PROTEIN SOURCE I II III MEAN
Fish meal(FM) 41.6 32 . 3 40.2 38 . 0
MAIZE FM+Soybean meal 4 4 . 3 3 5.7 ' 41.8 40.6
Soybean meal(SB) 45.5 32 . 8 40.2 . 39 . 5
MAIZE
FM 39.9 31.4 40.3 - 37.2
&
SORGHUM
FM + SB 44 . 7 39. 3 38.8 40.9
SB A9 . 0 37 . 5 39 . 2 41.9
FM 41.2 35. 3 35.4 37.5
SORGHUM FM + SB 48.6 3 3.8 38 . 9 , 4 0.4
SB 43 . 8 36.0 .37.0 38.9
Analysis of Variance for weight qair, in Experiment 3
Source of 
Variation df SS
r
MS F P*
Energy (E) 2 5.0807 2.5404 0.42 0 . 6640 NS
Protein (P) 2 48.5610 24.28 4 . 02 0.0386 S
E x P 4 11.2590 2.8148 0. 47 0.7601 NS
Rep 2 329.81 19 6.4 0 32..48 0 . 0 0 0 0 S
Error 16 96.737 6.0461
Total 26 554.45
* All levels of probability (p) below 5% (0.05) are significant
and those above 5% (0.05) are net significant.
68
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Daily Feed Intake influenced by_J3nergy_and Protein Sources in
Experiment 3 
FEED CONSUMPTION (g/bird/day)
Appendix 7
REPLICATION
ENERGY SOURCE PROTEIN SOURCE I II III MEAN
Fish meal(FM) 100.5 111.4 109 . 1 1'07 . 0
MAIZE FM+Soybean meal 100 . 9 105.0 117 . 1 107 . 7
Soybean meal(SB) 100.6 109.8 114. 3 108 . 2
MAIZE
&
SORGHUM
FM
FM + SB 
SB
99.5 
103 . 2 
102.9
101.8 
108 . 4 
101. 6
113 . 1 
112 . 8 
119.8
104 .8 
108 . 1 
108 . 1
FM VO 00 104 . 8 110 . 9 105.2
SORGHUM FM + SB 109 . 3 105. 8 112. 3 109.1 |
SB
,1
101. 6 lOi. 3 110 . 0 107.0 I1
Analysis of Variance for Feed intake in Experiment 3
Source of 
Variation df SS MS F P*
Energy (E) 2 7 . 9622 3 . 9811 0.30 0. 7483 NS
Protein (P) 2 21.13 6 10.568 4 . 78 0.4735 NS
E x P 4 26.142 262.75 19 . 49 0.7468 NS
Rep 2 525.50 6.5356 0.4 3 0.0001 S
Error 3 6 215.74 13 . 48
Total 26 7 9 6.484
* All levels of probability (p) b^iow 5^ (0.05) are significant
and those above 5% (0.05) are not significant.
G9
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Daily Feed Conversion Efficiency as influenced by Energy and 
Protein Sources in Experiment 3
Appendix 8
FEED UTILISATION EFFICIENCY
REPLICATION
ENERGY SOURCE PROTEIN SOURCE I 11 III MEAN
Fish meal(FM) 0.41 0.29 ' 0.37 0.36
MAIZE FM+Soybean meal 0.44 0.34 0.36 0. 38
Soybean meal(SB) 0.45 0.30 0.35 0 . 37
MAIZE
&
SORGHUM
FM
FM + SB 
SB
0.40
0.43
0.48
0.31 
0.36 
0. 3 7
0.36 
0. 34 
0.33
.1
0.36
0.38
0.39
FM 0 .41 0. 34 0.32 0.36
SORGHUM FM + SB 0 . 44 0.32 0.35 0. 37
SB 0.43 0.33 0.34 0.37
0,43 0.33 0.35
K. J. ' K" ■
Analysis of Variance for Feed Conversion Efficiency in Experiment3
Source of 
Variation df SS MS F P*
i
Energy (E) 2 5.8519E-04 2.9259EVQ4 0. 54
I
3. 5940 NS
Protein (P) 2 2.1407E-03 1. 0704E-0'3 1.96 0.1729 NS
E x P 4 !9.9259E-03 2 . 4815E-04 0.46 0 . 7675 NS
Rep 2 5 . 4941E.-02 2.747 0E-02 ’ 50.37 ,0.0000 S
Error 3.6 8.7 2 59E-03 i
Total 26 6.7385E-03
i
'
* All levels of probability (p) balcw 5% (0,05)'aire significant and
those above 5% (0.05) are not significant.
70
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Append ix 9
Cost price of individual ingredients used, in Experiment 3
INGREDIENT UNIT COST (£)
1 . Maize 15 0/kg
2 . Sorghum 13 0/kg
3 . Wheat bran 4 0/kg ,
4 . Fish meal 2 50/kg
5 . Soybean meal I4 0/kg
6. Oyster shell 20/kg
7 . Dical P04 70/kg
8 . Salt 8 0/kg
9 . Vit/ Min Premix 2, 200/kg
10 . Methionine 283.33/kg
11. Soybean cil 666.70/kg
71
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Appendix 10
COST ANALYSIS
MAIZE MAIZE+SORGHUM SORGHUM
■
j-
FM FM+SB SB FM FM+SB SB FM FM+S3 SB
Corn oil _ _ 2b.*5 _ _ 28 .25 - -- 33.96
Maize 274.13 271.40 249.94 145.25 147.56 136.21 - - -
Sorghum - - - 110.63 112.14 98 . 37 241.24 246.22 211.88
Wheatbran 18 . 87 8 . 02 - 17 . 31 6. 84 - 16. 20 5. 68 -
Fishmeal 157.29 79. 16 - 154.06 79 . 45 - 154.65 80. 19 -
Soybean meal - 80.21 162.23 - 80.51 161.45 - 81.26 161.06
Oyster shell 0 . 15 . 30 .45 . 15 . 30 .45 .15 .31 .45
Dical PO, | 1. 57 | 4.22! 6. 88 | 1. 54 | 4 . 23 | 6. 88 | 1.54 I 4.27 | 6.8l|
/it/M:n Pre. 65.91 Go . 35 66.66 64 ,r>5 66. 59 66.59 . 81 67-21 65.91|; r* t a. , -.ua. l. . 6 G 6". CT . 53 . 61 .61 . b9 — r. 1. O U
Methionine . 8 6 2.14 - .86 2 .14 _ 1.01 2 . 1 2
Total Cost 
/bi..d/4 '.;ks £ 518.52 511.12 514.16 4f-4 . 0 8 *.39 . 09 500.95 479.18 486.76 482- / 9
Total weight 
Gain (kg) 1. 064 1.13 7 1. 106 1. 042 1. 145 1. 173 1.050 1.131 1.089
Cost of 1 kg 
| gain weight £ 487.33 449.53 464.88 474.16 435.89 427 . 07. 456.37 430.38 443.33
72
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