UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY 
 
 POLICE - DRIVER INTERACTION AND TRAFFIC LAW 
ENFORCEMENT IN MADINA AND ADENTA-GHANA 
 
 
 
BY 
 
SAMUEL KOFI ODAME 
(10247988) 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 
THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M.PHIL) DEGREE 
IN SOCIOLOGY 
 
 
 
 
JUNE, 2014
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DECLARATION 
I hereby declare that this project work is the outcome of my original research work carried 
out in the Department of Sociology under the supervision of Dr. Akosua Darkwah and 
Professor Chris Abotchie. References cited in this work have been duly acknowledged. I take 
responsibility for any error(s) that may be found in this project work. 
 
 
 
……………………………………… 
                SAMUEL KOFI ODAME . 
(STUDENT) 
 
 
 
…………………………………………...                  ………………………………………. 
DR. AKOSUA DARKWAH                                      PROFESSOR CHRIS ABOTCHIE 
              (SUPERVISOR)                                                               (SUPERVISOR) 
 
 
  
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ABSTRACT 
Road traffic accidents and fatalities are a serious concern globally due to its negative 
implications on health, social and economic wellbeing of the people. This preventable 
phenomenon is wiping away millions of lives and also depleting economic resources of 
countries especially developing countries who own 48% only of the world‘s vehicles yet 
account for 90% of all road accidents and fatalities in the world. Several attempts such as 
legislation, engineering and technological improvement of cars have yielded minimal gains. 
The solution seems to be with rigorous traffic law enforcement. In Ghana this interaction 
between the main actors in the traffic law enforcement is actively taking place yet the impact 
has been oblivious. Therefore, the main thrust of the study has been to explore nature of 
interaction between the main actors and to ascertain the impact of the alleged police 
corruptibility on traffic law enforcement in Madina and Adenta. Using the mixed method 
approach and drawing from the theories of social encounter and differential association, the 
study relies on observation, interviews and survey to obtain data from 60 police officers and 
120 drivers. The findings strongly suggest that drivers and the Police viewed the interaction 
between them as cordial and hostile respectively. The data also showed that the police is 
corruptible and extort monies from drivers in their official duties. This result gives credence 
to the outcome of the hypothesis that there is a significant relationship between bribe giving 
and the likelihood of drivers not to adhere to traffic regulations. The results of the second 
hypothesis tested, revealed significant relationship between being conversant with traffic 
laws and the propensity to violate it. The study recommended that enforcement activities 
should be designed to maximise deterrence effects, encourage the Police to undertake highly 
visible enforcement operations and also introduce automated red light cameras and turning 
lanes at high accident risk intersections. 
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DEDICATION 
To my parents, and the family of Gyamfi for showing me love, support, and favour. 
And to Naomi, the love of my life, thank you.  You have held me up when all I wanted was to 
fall. Thank you for making me laugh, challenging me to grow, and helping me see the world 
in a new way.  Without you, my life would be less. 
 
  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
My profound gratitude first goes to the Almighty God for His love, protection and healing. I 
also appreciate the effort of my supervisors Dr. Darkwah and Prof. Abotchie of the 
Department of Sociology for their patience and supervision in spite of their workload and 
tight schedules. My gratitude also goes to Abdul Hamid Kwarteng, Collins Gyamfi Sakordie, 
Joyce Serwa, JohnAggrey, Satch Avudzi, Joseph Fletcher, and all my Course mates for your 
encouragement and support during my ill health.  Many thanks go to the residents of Adenta 
and Madina and the Police who were patient enough to fill my questionnaires and allowed me 
to do the observation. 
 
  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i 
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... ii 
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. xi 
LIST OF ABBREVIATION .................................................................................................... xii 
 
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ............................................................................... 3 
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................................................................. 6 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................... 6 
1.5 HYPOTHESES ................................................................................................................ 7 
1.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................................... 7 
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................. 10 
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................... 10 
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 11 
 
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 13 
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 13 
2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 13 
2.2 CONCEPT OF TRAFFIC LAW  ENFORCEMENT .................................................... 13 
2.3 DETERMINANTS OF TRAFFIC LAW COMPLIANCE ............................................ 16 
2.2.1 Friction..................................................................................................................... 16 
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2.2.2 Culture ..................................................................................................................... 17 
2.2.3 Cost .......................................................................................................................... 17 
2.3.4 Perceived Risk of Driving Attitude and Legitimacy of Enforcements. ................... 18 
2.3.5 Sex and Age ............................................................................................................. 18 
2.3.6 The Drivers Motive ................................................................................................. 20 
2.3.7 The Deterrence Principle ......................................................................................... 21 
2.3.8 Defiance ................................................................................................................... 23 
2.3.9 Deviance .................................................................................................................. 24 
2.3.10 Visibility of Law Enforcement Officers on the Roads .......................................... 25 
2.4 THE ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PUBLIC TOWARDS THE POLICE
 .............................................................................................................................................. 25 
2.4.1 Values and Morals of the Community ..................................................................... 26 
2.4.2 Policing Perspectives ............................................................................................... 27 
2.4.3 Age........................................................................................................................... 29 
2.4.4 Class......................................................................................................................... 29 
2.4.5 Publicised and Controversial Policing ..................................................................... 30 
2.5   POLICE ATTITUDE TOWARDS DRIVERS ............................................................ 32 
2.6 POLICE CORRUPTION ............................................................................................... 33 
 
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 35 
RESEARCH METHODS ........................................................................................................ 35 
3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 35 
3.2 SOURCE OF DATA ...................................................................................................... 35 
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................... 35 
3.4 STUDY AREA ............................................................................................................... 37 
3.5 TARGET POPULATION .............................................................................................. 37 
3.6   SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ...................................................... 37 
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3.7 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT AND METHOD ............................................ 39 
3.8 DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS ................................................................ 40 
3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ..................................................................................... 40 
3.10 LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................................ 41 
3.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ................................................................... 41 
3.11.1 Adentan Municipal Assembly (ADMA) ............................................................... 41 
3.11.2 LA Nkwantanang Madina Municipal Assembly (LANMMA) ............................. 45 
3.12 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 51 
 
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 52 
THE POLICE AND ROAD SAFETY IN GHANA ................................................................ 52 
4.1 HISTORY OF THE GHANA POLICE SERVICE ....................................................... 52 
4.2 ROAD SAFETY ............................................................................................................ 54 
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 58 
ANLYSIS OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPODENTS AND 
THE NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DRIVERS AND THE POLICE ............... 58 
5.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 58 
5.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DRIVERS AND THE POLICE
 .............................................................................................................................................. 58 
5.2.1 Age........................................................................................................................... 61 
5.2.2 Sex Distribution of Drivers and Police .................................................................... 61 
5.2.3 Educational Background of Drivers and Police ...................................................... 62 
5.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents ................................................................................. 64 
4.2.5 Religion of Respondent ........................................................................................... 64 
5.2.6 Working Experience of Respondents ...................................................................... 65 
5.2.7 Language Spoken .................................................................................................... 66 
5.3 NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DRIVERS AND POLICE ....................... 67 
5.4 THE ATTITUDE OF THE POLICE TOWARDS MOTORISTS ................................. 81 
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5.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 86 
 
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................ 87 
POLICE CORRUPTION AND KNOWLEDGE OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT .... 87 
6.0 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 87 
6.1 THE PREDISPOSING FACTORS OF THE ALLEGED CORRUPTIBILITY OF THE 
TRAFFIC POLICE .............................................................................................................. 87 
6.2 KNOWLEDGE ON TRAFFIC REGULATIONS BY BOTH MOTORISTS AND 
POLICE AND ITS POSSIBLE EFFECT ON TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT...................... 97 
6.3 TESTING HYPOTHESIS ONE OF THE STUDY ..................................................... 105 
6.4 POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION ON TRAFFIC LAW 
ENFORCEMENT .............................................................................................................. 108 
6.5 TESTING HYPOTHESIS TWO OF THE STUDY .................................................... 109 
6.5 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 112 
 
CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................... 113 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.......................................... 113 
7.0 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 113 
7.1 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 113 
7.3 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 117 
7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................. 119 
 
BIBLOGRAHPY ................................................................................................................... 121 
APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................ 139 
  
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1: Number of Schools in LaNMMA .............................................................................. 48 
Table 2: Distribution of Drivers by Demographic Characteristics. ......................................... 59 
Table 3: Distribution of Police by Demographic Characteristics. ........................................... 60 
Table 4: Distribution of the police by the nature of interaction between them and the drivers
 .................................................................................................................................... 78 
Table 5: Distribution of drivers by the type of vehicle the police often stop. ......................... 81 
Table 6: Distribution of the police by which vehicle they often stop ...................................... 82 
Table 7: Distribution of drivers of vehicle who are most likely to violate traffic offences ..... 83 
Table 8: Distribution of police by whether they give equal treatment to all drivers? ............. 84 
Table 9: Distribution of drivers by whether they agree with the assertion that the police treat 
commercial drivers differently from other drivers? ................................................... 84 
Table 10: Distribution of drivers by the attitude of the police towards drivers? ..................... 85 
Table 11: Distribution of the police by whether they have heard of the allegation that drivers 
who violate traffic regulations persuade them to accept gifts and give up on their 
prosecution ................................................................................................................. 88 
Table 12: Distribution of drivers by whether any police personnel has requested money from 
them before following the violation of nay traffic rules? ........................................... 90 
Table 13: Distribution of police by whether they have prosecuted a driver for a traffic offence 
even after the driver persuaded you with money. ...................................................... 91 
Table 14: Distribution of drivers by how often they encounter the MTTU/D police .............. 93 
Table 15: Distribution of drivers by whether they have any connection with police? ............ 94 
Table 16: Distribution of the police by identifying road signs .............................................. 102 
Table 17: Distribution of police by whether drivers know their regulations ......................... 102 
Table 18: Distribution of drivers by their level of knowledge on traffic regulations. ........... 103 
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Table 19: Distribution of police by whether knowledge of traffic regulations will encourage 
compliance ................................................................................................................ 104 
Table 20: Distribution of drivers by whether their knowledge on traffic laws influences them 
not to violate traffic rules ......................................................................................... 104 
Table 21: Cross tabulation between knowledge of drivers on traffic laws and violation of 
traffic laws ................................................................................................................ 106 
Table 22: Chi square table 1 .................................................................................................. 106 
Table 23: Distribution of drivers by whether they have ever paid bribe to a police officer to 
set them free after traffic violation? ......................................................................... 108 
Table 24: Cross tabulation between drivers giving bribes and adherence to traffic laws ...... 109 
Table 25: Chi-square .............................................................................................................. 110 
 
  
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1: Distribution of drivers on whether they think the police are right when they stop 
them ............................................................................................................................ 69 
Figure 2: Distribution of respondents by how the police threat them...................................... 74 
Figure 3: Distribution of drivers by the nature of interaction between them and the police ... 75 
Figure 4: Distribution of drivers by reasons why they think the nature of interaction between 
them and the police is very cordial ............................................................................. 77 
Figure 5: Distribution of drivers by how the police protect the rights of traffic offenders ..... 86 
Figure 6: Distribution of police by whether drivers contribute to the alleged corruptibility of 
the police .................................................................................................................... 89 
Figure 7: Distribution of drivers by whether their association with any police officer has 
helped them indiscriminately violates traffic rules .................................................... 94 
Figure 8: Distribution of drivers based on some traffic regulations that they know off. ......... 98 
Figure 9: Distribution of the police based on some traffic regulations.................................. 100 
Figure 10: Distribution of drivers by identifying some basic road signs. .............................. 101 
Figure 11: Distribution of the police by rating the knowledge of drivers on traffic regulations
 .................................................................................................................................. 103 
Figure 12: Distribution of drivers by whether their ability to escape the law by paying off a 
police officer has encouraged them for further traffic violations ............................. 111 
 
  
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LIST OF ABBREVIATION 
ATP    Attitude towards the Police 
BLS     Bureau of Labor Statistics 
CD               Commercial Driver 
CEPS                                       Customs, Exercise and Preventive Service  
CHRAJ              Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice 
DVLA               Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority 
GCC                                       Gold Coast Constabulary 
GCAPF                                   Gold Coast Armed Police Force 
GPS                                         Ghana Police Service  
GCMP                                     Gold Coast Militia and Police  
GCR                                       Gold Coast Regiment 
MTTU/D              Motor Traffic and Transport Unit/ Department 
NRSC    National Road Safety Commission 
OECD    Organisation for Economic Cooperative Development 
PD    Private Driver 
PO                                           Police Officer 
PSG    Passenger 
RS    Researcher 
TLE    Traffic Law Enforcement 
W.H.O    World Health Organisation 
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CHAPTER ONE 
1.1 BACKGROUND INTRODUCTION 
Road traffic fatalities are health concerns globally (Agnihotri & Joshi, 2006) as it is the 
second leading cause of death among the youth from the ages 15-29 years in the world 
(Kudebong et al, 2011). According to W.H.O (2010), the death of people between the ages of 
15 and 49, account for 59% of all road traffic accidents in the world. Developing countries, 
including Ghana, own 48% of the world‘s cars but record over 90% of all road fatalities 
worldwide (Bloomberg Global Road Safety Program, 2010). Yearly, 1.3 million people die in 
car crashes and 20-50 million people suffer severe injuries as a result (Bloomberg Global 
Road Safety Program, 2010). In response to these fatalities, the UN in 2010 declared 2011-
2020 as a decade of action to reduce preventable car crashes which constitute over 90% of the 
fatalities. The U.N. estimates road accidents to be the 5th leading cause of all deaths in the 
world by 2030 (W.H.O, 2004). 
 
Accordingly, the repercussions of these car crashes cannot be underestimated. According to 
the World Health Organisation (2011), an estimated 1.2 million and 50 million people die and 
sustain injuries respectively every year in the world. The Motor Traffic and Transport Unit 
(MTTU) of the Ghana Police Service reported that 20,000 people died from vehicle accidents 
and over the same figure sustained different degrees of injuries between 2000 and 2010. The 
economic cost of car crashes in developing countries is over $ 100 billion a year (Kudebong, 
et al, 2011).   
 
In Ghana, the estimated economic cost of road accidents less the direct and indirect cost 
borne by relatives of victims and funeral costs is $230 million a year representing over 1.7% 
of Gross Domestic Product (Sarpong, 2011). Apart from the psychological and emotional 
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traumas inflicted on victims and their families, it also brings about incalculable pressure on 
the health facilities in addition to loss of human resource and damage to properties. Of much 
concern is the fact that most road crashes are preventable (Krug, 2002; WHO, 2004; National 
Road Safety Commission (NRSC), 2007; Bloomberg Global Road Safety Program, 2010). 
The first counter-measure in the world to reduce road accidents in the 1970s was on 
education and training of drivers. This approach is from the first cell of the Haddon Matrix 
(O‘Neill &Mohan, 2002). Education may seem to have failed because most drivers could not 
be convinced that they are at risk of a crash that may result in fatalities. Mohan & Tiwari 
(1998) reviewed driver education and training programs and found no studies indicating a 
reduction in road fatalities. The world‘s attention was then shifted to traffic law enforcement 
to help change road user behaviour.  
 
Interestingly, traffic law enforcement has been more effective in combating road crashes than 
any other interventions including intensive education and training programs and the 
designing of better vehicles (WHO, 2011; Zaal, 1994; Krug, 2002; O'Neill & Mohan, 2002). 
Traffic law enforcement has been an effective approach because it is aimed at controlling 
road user behaviour (Zaal, 1994). But Zaal, (1994) was quick to add that for enforcement to 
be effective and efficient it has to ride on meaningful interaction between enforcement 
agencies (police) and public or road users.  
 
 According to the NRSC (2013), in Ghana, 60% of all accidents in the country are due to over 
speeding which can be prevented through effective road traffic law enforcements. 
Additionally, Haadi (2012) asserts that overloading and over speeding are the two major 
causes of accidents on the roads of Ghana which are also preventable through effective road 
traffic law enforcement.   
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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
Traffic fatalities remain a serious public health problem particularly for low and middle 
income countries that boast of comprehensive traffic laws yet have weak enforcements 
(WHO, 2009).  If the current accident rate persists up to 2020, there will be a global 
frequency of one serious accident per second and one fatality per minute (WHO, 2011). Data 
on accidents record indicate low traffic fatalities for countries with well enforced traffic laws 
such as United Kingdom, Norway and America (WHO, 2011). According to Bloomberg 
Global Road Safety Program (2010), death itself is the fact that, along with education and 
engineering, there is no safeguard against this new and deadly enemy of the people other than 
effective law enforcement and individual self-discipline. 
 
The impact of traffic law enforcement is dependent on the type and frequency of enforcement 
and public perception of enforcement agents (Zaal, 1994). In a three step-wise components of 
traffic law enforcement namely: legislation; traffic policing and legal sanctions, Rothengatter 
(1990) intimated that the most important of these components is traffic policing. Traffic 
policing  is the most important component because it is the most visible and interactive aspect 
of traffic law enforcement; it regulates compliance with specific regulations; identifies road 
users whose behaviour needs disciplinary actions and forms the bases of public opinion on 
traffic law enforcement (Zaal, 1994).   The magic in the effectiveness of traffic law 
enforcement is the view from motorists that they are at risk of being detected, apprehended 
and punished whenever they violate traffic rules (O‘Neill & Mohan, 2002).  
 
In Ghana, the key partners at the fore front of combating road accidents include the Driver 
and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA), the National Road Safety Commission (NRSC), 
Department of Urban and Feeder roads and more importantly the Motto Traffic and Transport 
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Unit (MTTU) of the Ghana Police Service and motorists. On traffic law enforcement, the 
major actors who engage in interactions are the drivers and the police. Studies suggest that 
constant interaction and cooperation among the partners in the spirit of law enforcement will 
breed compliance with traffic laws and hence a reduction in accidents on the roads 
(Rothengatter, 1990; Evans, 1991; Zaal, 1994).In addition, positive interaction will result in a 
favourable attitude from the public towards the police (Scaglion & Condon, 1980; Cox & 
White, 1988). 
 
Unfortunately in Ghana, although these partners are engaged in constant interactions, the rate 
of accident and its fatalities are still on the rise. Data indicates that 20,507 accidents were 
recorded from the year 2000 to 2010, 13,572 in 2011, 13,761 in 2012 and 10,558 by 
September, 20131. The study will therefore explain the nature of these encounters between 
motorists and the police who are regarded as the primary partners in traffic law enforcement 
on our roads. Research on police–motorists‘ interactions on traffic law enforcement are rare 
in Africa especially in Ghana.  Rather, studies abound on police-public partnership on 
combating other forms of crimes where public perceptions of the police are deeply explored 
with scant attention to police perception of the public. For example, Soh (2004), in his study 
on community-police relationship, asserted that there is no collaboration between the police 
and community due to what he calls the ―intrinsic nature‖ of the police. This nature has 
resulted in antagonism between the public and police culminating in poor law enforcement.  
Tankebe (2009) indicated that the public have a negative attitude towards the police and 
mentioned higher levels of discrimination, ineffective performance of duties and 
concentration on large scale issues to the neglect of basic community duties on the part of the 
police as the bases for such conclusion. In these instances, for example, Rock (1998), Tyler & 
                                                          
1Daniel Wuaku, Greater Accra Regional Manager of the National Road Safety Commission. Retrieved 
November14, 2013 from  http://www.ghananewsagency.org/social/road-accidents-claims-1-539-lives-in-2013-
nrsc-66978 
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Huo (2002), Sunshine & Tyler (2003), Jackson & Sunshine (2007), did not cover the views 
the police have about the public. Thus this study explored this area. 
 
Most studies indicate that the public have negative perception about traffic police due to the 
bribery and corruption albatross hanging on their necks (Tankebe, 2010). But positive image 
of the police is a catalyst for effectiveness and efficiency (Murty, Roebuck & Smith, 1990).  
In effect thus, bribery and corruption has undermined the moral authority of the police in 
enforcing laws (Tankebe, 2010).  Yet most studies have ignored the role played by those who 
pay it.  They have rather concentrated their attention on the receivers (police) to the neglect 
of the givers (drivers). In view of this the study explored the predisposing factors of the 
alleged Police corruptibility. 
 
Furthermore the qualitative research procedure is mostly absent in literature on police-public 
attitudes or perceptions (Dirikx et al., 2012). According to Parmentier et al., (2004a, 2004b), 
the use of general evaluative questions based on the quantitative survey will not result in 
affirmative answers. This is because people tend to answer general questions more negatively 
than specific questions. According to Roberts & Stalans (2000), people think about questions 
well before answering and more importantly base their opinion on concrete information when 
specific questions are asked from the qualitative survey method- interview. Dirikx et al 
(2012) assert that even where the general survey was used (for example, Brunson, 2007; Carr 
et al., 2007), these studies have mainly been conducted in developed countries such as US 
and UK. There was therefore the need to go beyond the Anglo-Saxon world to developing 
countries like Ghana to test the area with the triangulation method where observation and 
questionnaires were utilized. The idea is that the observation helped to answer some of the 
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research questions and also filled in the gaps that were left by the survey instruments due to 
the nature of the study.  
 
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 
The research, will among other things, answer the following questions:- 
1. What is the nature of interaction between the police and motorists? 
2. What explains the attitude of the Police towards motorists‘ i.e. private, government, 
diplomatic corps and commercial drivers during traffic law enforcement? 
3. What are the pre-disposing factors (if any) of the alleged bribery and corruption 
among motorists and the police in terms of traffic law enforcement? 
4. What is the extent of motorists and police knowledge on traffic laws in Ghana? 
5. What are the possible effect(s) of bribery and corruption on traffic law enforcement?  
 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 
The broad objective of the study is to explore the nature of the interaction among the key 
partners effective traffic law enforcement, and ascertain the extent of the alleged corruption 
of the Police and the effects on traffic law enforcement outcomes. The specific objectives are  
1 To observe and explain the nature of interaction between drivers and the Police. 
2 To explore and explain the attitude of the Police towards motorists‘ i.e. private, 
government, diplomatic corps and commercial drivers during traffic law 
enforcement. 
3 To identify from drivers the pre-disposing factors of the alleged corruptibility of 
the Motor Traffic Police. 
4 To find out the extent of the knowledge on traffic regulations by both motorists 
and police and its possible effect(s) on traffic law enforcement. 
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5 To ascertain the effects of bribery and corruption on traffic law enforcement. 
1.5 HYPOTHESES 
 The higher the knowledge drivers have about the traffic laws, the less likely they are 
to violate them. 
 The more often drivers give bribes the less likely they will adhere to traffic 
regulations. 
 
1.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 
This study finds expression in Goffman‘s social encounters and Sutherland‘s differential 
theory. 
In his book ‗Encounters: Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction‘, Goffman (1961), 
differentiated between encounters and small groups. An encounter occurs when social actors 
converge, pay particular attention to a specific activity and then disperse. In most cases these 
actors may not converge on this specific activity again because they cease to exist after the 
activity. This is what Goffman calls focused interaction. According to Sykes & Clark (1975),   
it is described as focused interaction due to the fact that actors focus on a particular agenda 
and disband after its execution. Police-drivers‘ interaction can therefore be described as an 
encounter because it is an interaction between two actors i.e. police and drivers, where most 
of their interactions are short and cease to exist after the meeting. For instance the interaction 
between a driver who is stopped by a policeman for over speeding ends right there if the 
officer chooses to warn the driver. Even if he decides to hand him over for prosecution, his 
encounter with him also will end after a prosecutor has taken charge of the case.  
 
But police-civilian encounters are a special kind because the roles the actors perform contrast 
with the normal roles social actors perform in an encounter (Sykes & Clark 1975). In police-
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driver encounters, the police accept and cherish their role as an authority mandated by law to 
enforce order and laws which the drivers must accept. This acceptance of the police of their 
roles is termed as ‗role embracement‘ (Goffman, 1961:106).  According to Sykes & Clark 
(1975), citizens often do not accept their roles as the ruled or powerless and hence do not 
engage in role embracement. The simple reason of their encounter with the police is often 
embarrassing i.e. after a violation, or a distressing event i.e. after being an accident victim. 
 
The behavior of social actors in an encounter is governed by rules of conduct. These rules of 
conduct fall under two kinds of act, namely deference and demeanour. I postulate that there is 
an exchange of deference and demeanour in Police-Driver encounter. Deference according to 
Goffman (1956:477),―... refer to that component of activity which functions as a symbolic 
means by which appreciation is regularly conveyed to a recipient, or of something of which 
this recipient is taken as a symbol, extension, or agent‖. With regards to police-driver 
interaction, drivers usually yield or submit to the judgment of the police. But to execute an 
act of deference, a social actor must convey an image of him or her through demeanour as 
well as rely on how people interpret the demeanour. Demeanour is described as any behavior 
depicted by appearance, nature of movement, self-control and other outward visible 
presentation. Now to carry out this act of deference in a police-driver interaction, drivers 
demonstrate gentleness, calmness, soft in speech, self-control, give bribe and sometimes 
create their own demeanour depending on how they want the police to view them. 
 
Another theory that best explains the alleged corrupt activities between the police and the 
drivers is Sutherland‘s differential theory. Differential association is a learning theory that 
postulates that individual become deviants through imitation or learning from the in-group. 
Differential association was propounded by Edwin H. Sutherland in 1939. According to 
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Sunderland, criminal behaviours are transferred among in-groups where new members are 
socialized to pick up the attitudes of the primary group. Central to the theory are the 
postulations that committing deviant behaviour or crime is not an inherent trait of an 
individual. Instead, they are learned from constant interaction among close-knit groups where 
new members are taught the rubrics and intricacies of the deviant behaviour thereby 
perpetuating the act. In addition, deviant or criminal act as defined by the legal codes are not 
subject to motives, needs or values. This is because others failure to commit crime is equally 
based on such factors. Instead anybody can become a criminal.  
 
In relating the theory to the study, the activities of these two groups- the police and the 
commercial drivers, no doubt mirror the differential association theory of Sunderland. The 
police and the commercial drivers at this point are considered close in-group or a subgroup. 
Each group‘s constant communication and interaction with new members leads to 
socialisation of new members into the group. Since individuals are exposed to positive acts 
likewise are similar acts of corruption and deviant acts of bribery and the techniques taught 
them to ensure survival. In order to perpetuate the act in the system the rubrics of it are taught 
to ensure that each survive in achieving the motive for which those deviant acts are 
committed in their constant engagement with each other. For instance though there are 
always new recruit of people into the police system yet these new group of people in no time 
collect bribes from drivers despite having gone through formal training. On the other hand, 
commercial drivers are made aware of traffic rules/regulations but fail to adhere to them 
rather with the motive of subverting the system and paying their way through. In some of 
these deviant acts of bribery on the part of the drivers and the police are not intrinsic parts of 
the system or inherent behaviour of the actors rather these are acts that emanate from 
association with groups that teach members avenues of breaking the rules. 
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1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS  
A concept must have a meaning that has an ascertainable and agreed content. It must not be 
so generally accepted but can apply across a broad spectrum of societies as possible. In 
addition, simple explanations are more testable (Stinchcombe, 1968). This is because the 
more such tests it survives, the greater its explanatory power. In the context of this research 
therefore the following concepts have been defined. 
Police 
Police refers to the peace preservation body whose main function is to protect life, limb and 
property specifically the MTTU/D officials of the Ghana Police Service. 
Commercial Drivers 
Commercial drivers, according to Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) (2009: 435), ―encompass 
a variety of professions including bus drivers, long-haul truck drivers, pick-up and delivery 
drivers‖. For the purposes of this study, commercial drivers are referred to as bus ―trotro‖ and 
taxi drivers. 
Traffic law enforcement 
Traffic law enforcement is the process of enforcing traffic laws as enshrined in the road 
safety Act.  Enforcement is based upon the assumption that not all road users will adhere to 
the specified traffic rules and regulations, and may need to be encouraged, educated and 
persuaded to do so (Zaal, 1994). It is the area of activity aimed at controlling road user 
behaviour through preventative, persuasive and punitive measures in order to affect the safe 
and efficient movement of traffic (Zaal, 1994) 
1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 
Academically, the study will introduced new literature on police- motorists‘ interaction in 
Ghana. It has helped to advance literature by exploring the state and nature of interactions 
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between police and motorists, the meanings of these perceptions formed out of the 
interactions and the effects it has on traffic law enforcement outcomes.  
 
Adopting the survey and observation as my methods, I have advanced the triangulation 
method in this area of research. In addition, conducting the study in a developing country like 
Ghana will broaden literature in this area which has received scant attention according to 
Dirikx et al, (2012).  The study will also be a useful tool in the hand of road safety agencies 
like NRSC and the Police MTTU/D. 
 
1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY 
This study contains seven chapters which are organized in a concise, logical and systematic 
order. Chapter one starts with the introduction which deals with the background information 
on the study. The chapter then plunges the reader into the problem under study after which 
research questions were formulated. The chapter further stated the objectives of the study. 
These were classified into two; the broad and specific objectives. Hypotheses were 
formulated to test the relationship between the dependent and independent variables on the 
police-driver interactions. The justification of the study was then discussed. This was 
followed by a discussion of the theoretical framework of the study, definition of key concepts 
and the chapter ended with the organisation of the study. 
 
Chapter two reviews the literature relevant to the study. The review includes materials on the 
police-drivers interaction on traffic law enforcements and the traffic law enforcement 
situation in Ghana. The chapter also looked at Traffic Police and drivers relationship, Traffic 
Police corruption, and the public attitude towards the police (ATP) 
 
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Chapter three dealt with the Research Method of the study. The site of the study – Adenta and 
Madina was focused on. Attention was paid to the social structure of Adenta and Madina. 
The study sample and selection procedures were considered. The chapter deliberated further 
on data collection methods and instruments as well as explanation of the underlying reasons 
for the adoption of such methods and instruments. This was followed by methods of data 
management and ethical considerations. The chapter was concluded with the limitations of 
the study. 
 
Chapter four highlighted the history of Ghana Police Service and traffic law enforcement. 
Chapter five and six, which is the next stage of the research process, focused on the 
presentation and discussions of the field data. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were 
used. The research hypotheses were tested and conclusions were drawn in this chapter. 
 
The final stage of the study was the chapter seven. This consisted of a summary, the 
conclusions and the policy implication of the study. 
  
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
 Literature on police- driver‘s interaction is limited. However literature abounds on police- 
public relationships. This chapter will therefore review findings and argument related to the 
specific objectives. The areas to be covered are the concept of traffic law enforcement, Public 
attitude and behaviour towards the police and police attitude and behaviour towards the 
public, police- public relations, and police corruption.  
 
2.2 CONCEPT OF TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT 
According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (1974), 
traffic law enforcement (TLE) is the area of activity aimed at controlling road user behaviour. 
Human behaviour on the road needs to be controlled and regulated so as to reduce the 
rampant occurrence of road accidents, hence the essence of traffic laws. Laws are made to 
regulate the behaviour of individuals in a society so as to ensure conformity and reduce chaos 
among people interacting with one another in a society and it is for this reason that traffic 
laws were enacted to ensure sanity on the roads and perhaps reduce road accidents to its 
barest minimum.  
 
Traffic laws are enforced by using three main measures (preventive, persuasive and punitive) 
to effect a change in driving behaviour to ensure efficient movement of traffic and avoid 
accidents on our roads. These three measures are enforced by the law enforcing agencies 
which in most cases are the police officers so as to ensure that drivers put up the best of 
behaviour on the road and observe all traffic rules and regulations in order to reduce 
accidents. 
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 Preventive traffic measures are traffic laws that are put in place to reduce and possibly 
prevent the occurrence of road accidents. Such measures include: Avoiding over speeding 
and avoiding drinking of alcohol whiles driving. All these measures are put in place as 
preventive measures to reduce the occurrence of road accidents. Persuasive measures are 
more or less like preventive measures but the only distinction that can be drawn between 
them is that, persuasive measures in most cases do attract severe punishment but rather law 
enforcing agencies persuade drivers to adopt such measures for their own safety. The most 
persuasive traffic measure which has been mentioned by most scholars is ―not to drive under 
fatigue‖. Drivers are mostly persuaded and advised to take some rest when they began to feel 
fatigue and continue their journey later after they have rested for a while. Punitive traffic laws 
are laws that specify the type of punishment associated with the violation of any traffic law. 
Punitive traffic laws differ in magnitude depending on the type of offence that the driver 
commits. These measures are put in place to deter drivers from voluntarily disobeying traffic 
laws and encourage compliance of traffic regulations on the road (Elvik & Vaa, 2004).   
 
The traffic laws and regulations that specify acceptable road user behaviour are important 
elements in the development of a safe road environment and it is the enforcement of these 
laws that is commonly regarded as one of the most effective means of moderating and 
reinforcing compliant road user behaviour (Elvik & Vaa, 2004). Searles (1985) asserts that 
the type and frequency of enforcement and public perception of enforcement activities are 
critical issues that affect road users‘ behaviour. Drivers, road users and police must be 
encouraged, educated and persuaded to obey these specific traffic rules and regulations and 
also to promote road safety. A cordial relationship and interaction between drivers and police 
who are two important stakeholders in traffic laws in a country is of high importance and 
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should be encouraged in all circles so as to ensure the smooth enforcement of traffic rules and 
regulations on the road (Elvik &Vaa, 2004). 
 
In developed countries like Norway, traffic law enforcement provides the means of 
modifying road user behaviour and this has been demonstrated to reduce a number of road 
injury accidents (Pennay, 2008). Similarly, Sisiopiku & Patel (1999) found out that speed 
limits were normal where the police patrol car was visibly positioned but drivers unusually 
increased their speed where no patrol car was visible along the road. Thus for the fear of been 
punished for over speeding, drivers who notice the presence of a police patrol team on the 
way reduce their speeding limit so as to avoid being accused for over speeding and this 
explains why the study conducted by Sisiopiku & Patel in 1999 find speed limits to be normal 
at place where there were police patrol teams and the vice-versa.  
 
It is the activities associated with the actual policing of traffic laws that are regarded as the 
central element of the enforcement system in Ghana (Tankebe, 2010).  Such activities form 
the link between the other components of the system and provide the means for regulating 
compliance with specific legislation as well as identifying those road users whose behaviour 
require some form of disciplinary actions. If traffic laws are not strictly enforced and the 
punishments for noncompliance are not applied where necessary, road accidents are likely to 
increase as the behaviour of drivers on the road will not be regulated by any rules and where 
there are no rules and regulations regulating behaviour, chaos is likely to become the order of 
the day. 
 
In Ghana, the Police bear the main responsibility for traffic control, although in some large 
urban areas civilians are now employed by local councils to control traffic and supervise 
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specified metered and unmetered parking zones (Atuguba, 2007). The police do not only 
perform such typical control duties as directing traffic at busy intersections, but are also 
required to detect and apprehend criminals as well as act as the quasi-prosecuting agency on 
behalf of the Attorney General. 
 
Traffic authorities have dedicated considerable effort to increasing driver awareness of the 
risks associated with drunk driving, speeding, driving while fatigued, and failing to wear a 
seatbelt (Pennay, 2008). Their efforts have been more successful in changing some attitudes 
and behaviours than others.  For instance, they have been largely successful in persuading 
drivers to rob their seat belts before they drive but have not succeeded curbing over speeding 
and drunk driving (Pennay, 2008). According to Elvik & Vaa (2004), speeding remains by far 
the most common traffic infringement, with most drivers ignoring posted speed limits with 
impunity.  
 
2.3 DETERMINANTS OF TRAFFIC LAW COMPLIANCE 
Studies have it that several factors can influence the individual‘s willingness and ability to 
comply with traffic laws and regulations. Among these factors are the perceived risk of 
various driving attitude and legitimacy of laws and associated enforcements (McKenna, 
2007), Sex and age (Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006), the drivers motive Tyler, (1990) the 
deterrence effect Homel, (1988), defiance (Sherman, 1993) and visibility of law enforcement 
officers on the road. 
 
2.2.1 Friction 
Studies show that several factors inhibit the smooth operations of TLE. Firstly, friction 
between drivers and the police is a major concern. Radelet & Carter (1994) asserted that 
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traffic law enforcements serve as the biggest avenue for friction between the police and the 
public (drivers). Tos et al (2004) supported this argument by saying that it is so due to the 
personal interaction that takes place between the police and the public. This friction often 
results in negative attitude towards the police. Meanwhile negative attitude towards the police 
in enforcing traffic laws have wide ramifications on its effectiveness (Skogan& Hartnett, 
1997; Stoutland, 2001; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003).  
 
2.2.2 Culture 
The second has to do with culture (Hayden, 1989).  In a comparative study of the USA and 
former Yugoslavia where compliance was achieved in USA as opposed to former 
Yugoslavia, Hayden (1989) argued that culture is a major but not exclusive determinant of 
compliance to enforcement of traffic legislations. Watson (1986), however, disagrees and 
attributed the outcome of the implementation to stricter traffic enforcement by the Police in 
America as compared to that of former Yugoslavia. This is a clear indication that some 
cultures inherently breeds compliance. 
 
2.2.3 Cost 
The third factor that militates against the effectiveness of a TLE system is cost. Evans (1991) 
intimated that traffic law enforcement can be an extremely costly exercise especially the 
financial and human resources. He argues that, a lot of money is needed to be invested in 
educating the public on traffic regulations as well as the training of personnel to be on the 
road to ensure compliance and enforcement of these laws. Elvik (2000) disagree with this 
assertion and argues that TLE is the most cost effective of all the road safety measures. He 
opined that the estimated benefit of TLE is four times greater than the cost involved in 
executing it. The lost that is going to occur in the form of losing lives and property cannot be 
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equated to the amount of money that is needed to be invested in the enforcement of traffic 
laws hence Elvik, (2000), disagrees with the assertion that cost is one of the variables that 
inhibits the effective enforcement of traffic laws. 
 
2.3.4 Perceived Risk of Driving Attitude and Legitimacy of Enforcements. 
Some perceived attitude of motorists that cause crashes include over speeding, drunk driving, 
driving while fatigued, and failing to wear a seatbelt (Pennay, 2008). A remarkable 
proportion of individuals drive when they are feeling fatigued with a large proportion of 
drivers stating that they would continue to drive even when aware of their increasing levels of 
fatigue (Pennay, 2008). Nordbakke & Sagberg (2007) also reported that there is emerging 
evidence that driver fatigue is still largely underappreciated by drivers. The risk of driving 
without seat belt, driving whiles receiving phone calls and drink driving among motorists 
have more implications on individuals although speeding and fatigued driving are also 
aligned with perceptions of risk and behaviours (Pennay, 2008). If people‘s perceptions of the 
different driving behaviours differ, it follows that the perceived fairness of traffic law 
enforcement activities targeting these behaviours may also differ. In addition, if the behaviour 
and its enforcement methods are perceived as legitimate, then it could be expected that 
compliance is more likely (McKenna, 2007). Individuals who do not think speeding is a high 
crash risk may not be likely to comply with speed limits voluntarily (McKenna, 2007) and 
may also not think it is legitimate for police to enforce speeding laws and issue harsh 
penalties for speeding.  
 
2.3.5 Sex and Age 
The sex of motorists can also predict compliance (Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006). It is so because 
studies have shown that sex and normlessness are strong predictors of risky driving behaviour 
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and accident involvement (Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006). Normlessness is explained by these 
scholars as low respect for traffic rules and regulations and irresponsibility on the part of 
drivers. The fact that males were found to be involved in risky driving behaviour was also 
emphasized (Oltedal & Rundmo, 2006). This means that males are likely to disobey traffic 
regulations as compared to females. This line of argument is also supported by Rosen & 
Peterson (1990) who posits that boys take more risks than girls. (Byrnes et al., 1999) also 
argue male adults engage in more road traffic violations than female. Yagil (1998) and 
Rossenbloom (2004) for instance report that male pedestrians violate more rules than 
females. 
 
Similarly men expect less negative effect of traffic violations than women. Thus men do not 
attach much weight and importance to the violation of traffic regulations and its possible 
consequences if an individual is apprehended and as such they violate most traffic regulations 
as compared to their female counterparts. These scholars argue that is quite rare to see a 
female drivers been apprehended for violation of traffic laws like over speeding and drunk 
driving but most men are almost always apprehended by the police for over speeding and 
drunk driving. Most female drivers fear harassment and humiliation in public and as such 
they try their possible best to desist from acts that will call for such public embarrassment 
unlike some male drivers who perceive the act of violating traffic laws and challenging a 
police officer in that regard as a sign of braveness hence traffic law violation on the part of 
males are much higher than that of females.    
 
Young drivers perceive low levels of risk in driving (Deery, 1999). They underestimate the 
risk involved in driving hence they over speed (Milech et al, 1989). Gregersen (1996) argues 
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that young men overrate their driving skills. Young men perceive themselves as having lesser 
risk for traffic accidents compared to older men and women in general (Glik, et al., 1999).  
 
2.3.6 The Drivers Motive 
Tyler (1990) argues that there are two main reasons why an individual may decide to obey 
laws or not. 
The first is based on instrumental motive related to the benefit or losses one will incur if he or 
she comply or do not comply with the laws. This means that an individual will decide to 
comply with laws or not only when the individual perceived the losses of such disobedience 
as higher than the likely benefit to be accrued. Thus if the individual does a cost benefit 
analysis of his or her actions and comes to the realization that the consequences of disobeying 
a law is massive than the benefit he or she is likely to acquire, then that individual will refrain 
from such an act and the vice versa. Young drivers in this regard perceived themselves as 
smart in driving and have lesser risk of traffic accidents and as such violate most traffic laws 
like over speeding as compared to older drivers hence age is a an important determinant of 
traffic law compliance on the part of drivers. 
The second has to do with normative motive. This where the individual has internalized the 
law and holds it as a value which he strongly feels and is obliged to it. Here, the individual 
obeys the laws because the individual holds the laws in high esteem and has the belief that 
such laws are made for the benefit of the entire society and as such compliance is seen as a 
civic responsibility to ensure peace and development in the society. 
  
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2.3.7 The Deterrence Principle 
The deterrence principle proposes that the perceived consequences of being caught while 
engaging in an illegal driving behaviour will dissuade the illegal behaviour (Homel, 1988). 
Classical deterrence is centered on three factors; certainty, severity and swiftness of 
punishment. Taxman & Piquero (1998) argue that individuals are likely to be deterred, as the 
certainty of punishment is high, the punishment is severe, and dispensation of punishment is 
swift (Homel, 1988).  
 
The attitudes of road users toward drink driving, speeding, receiving calls, driving while 
fatigued and driving without a seatbelt may appear to differ and therefore, the severity of a 
penalty must be consistent with the severity of the offence and that it must be substantial to 
influence illegal behaviour (King & Shi, 2009). However, the purpose of traffic law 
enforcement is to encourage road users to comply with established traffic law, and it is 
traditionally underpinned by deterrence theories and principles. When the certainty of 
detection is low, automatically the certainty of punishment will also be low (Sisiopiku & 
Patel, 1999). Thus, mandatory penalties can ensure that certainty of punishment exists for 
detected offenders. Issues of low certainty of detection and low certainty of punishment are 
particularly problematic for behaviours that are more difficult for police to detect (Sisiopiku 
& Patel, 1999). This is indeed the case for fatigued driving, compared to speeding and drink 
driving where objective measures like speed readings, observing drivers who receive mobile 
phones calls, breath alcohol concentrations can be obtained and used to determine the 
appropriate offence categories and sanctions. Swiftness of punishment can be enhanced with 
the use of administrative penalties rather than court processes (Homel, 1988). 
 
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 The understanding of the factors that influence compliance with traffic laws is required to 
explore the attitudes of road users towards illegal driving behaviours and their influence on 
perceived behaviours that examine the enforcement strategies designed to target these 
behaviours. Moreover, enhancing individuals‘ understanding of the factors that influence 
one‘s ability to comply with traffic laws can facilitate the identification of appropriate targets 
for intervention (Akers, 1990). This is an important measure for road safety compliance, 
especially when the likelihood of apprehension may be low and certain penalties may not be 
perceived as severe. The practical problem with these enforcement strategies is that it 
imposes significant resource implications on police services although Elvik (2000) disagree 
with this assertion and argues that TLE is the most cost effective of all the road safety 
measures. He opined that the estimated benefit of TLE is four times greater than the cost 
involved in executing it.  
 
The ability of traffic authorities and police services to manipulate deterrence variables to 
compel individuals to adhere to traffic laws is also limited.  First, research indicated that 
more than 30% of people convicted for traffic offenses, especially, drunk driving are repeat 
offenders or recidivists (Brewer et al., 1994; Hedlund & McCart, 2002). This reason defeats 
the argument that consistent application of legal sanctions will breed compliance to road 
traffic laws and regulations. Brewer et al. (1994) and Taxman & Piquero (1998) argue that 
people become immune to specific legal sanctions when the same punishment is metered out 
on several occasions.  Homel (1988) and Piquero & Pogarsky (2002) add that some 
deterrence theory principles are counterproductive because some violations are positively 
correlated with punishment. Sherman (1993) argues that deterrence cannot adequately 
explain why drunk drivers are continuously being punished but yet they are engaging in the 
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act. In view of this, Sherman proposed defiance theory to explain the aspect of offending that 
deterrence theory failed to do (Freeman, 2006).  
 
2.3.8 Defiance 
Defiance is ―the net increase in the prevalence, incidence, or seriousness of future offending 
against a sanctioning community caused by a proud, shameless reaction to the administration 
of a criminal sanction‖ (Sherman, 1993:459). The main thrust of the theory is the interaction 
between an offender and the punitive system. Three main themes explain defiance theory 
namely: Offenders perceived fairness of sanctions, feeling of shame, and the perceived 
legitimacy of the sanctioning authority (Freeman, 2006). 
 
Studies indicate that the penal system engineer compliance with laws but may be ineffective 
if the offender believes that the sanctioning system is not fair (Tyler, 1990). This means that 
fair  punishment increases compliance and conformity whiles unfair sanctions reduces the 
rate of compliance with the law (Sherman, 1988). According to Homel (1988) and Tyler 
(1990) for any offender to categorize a sanction as fair, two issues are considered; whether 
justice has been served and equality of treatment as compared to others in the same area of 
offending. Studies show that more people perceive legal punishment around the world as fair 
(Searle, et al., 2003). For example Williams et al. (1984) found out that more than half of 
people convicted for traffic offences believe that the penal system is fair. 
 
On the issue of shame, Freeman (2006), explain shame as an inert feeling emanating from 
embarrassment and humiliation as a result of a person acting badly. Shaming techniques have 
been found to effective in changing unacceptable behaviour than traditional legal punishment 
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(Sherman, et al., 2000). It has however been found to be ineffective in changing road traffic 
violations such as drunk driving (Sherman & Strang, 2000). 
 
On the legitimacy of the sanctioning authority, individuals who perceive the legal sanction 
system as illegitimate, may not conform even after being punished (Tyler, 1990). Meanwhile, 
there is a positive correlation between an individual and his or her perception about 
legitimacy of the sanctioning system (Freeman, 2006). Despite all the strength that deterrence 
theory wills in explaining why people comply or do not comply with laws, it is difficult to 
objectively define some of the tenant of the theory namely fairness, severity and immediacy.  
This weakness thus empowers deviance as a way of filling in the weaknesses. 
 
2.3.9 Deviance 
Deviance has been explained in different ways across space, time and fields. For the purpose 
of this discussion, I will adopt the explanation from Freeman (2006:7) ―who defined deviance 
as a state, condition or behaviour that is markedly different from the norm‖. The two main 
factors that focus on deviations from this norm are moral commitment to the norm and 
respect for the law. According to Brown (1998), moral commitment and respect for the law 
have effects on compliance. Research indicate that people who have strong moral 
commitment to norms and respect for laws have been found to have low prevalence in 
violating laws (Silberman, 1976; Tittle, 1977; Homel, 1988). Relating this to traffic laws and 
its compliance, Berger & Snortum, (1986) and Green (1989), reported that people who have 
strong moral attachment to laws refrained from constant and consistent violations  to traffic 
laws. Freeman has however disputed this argument by asserting that when recidivists are 
subjected to the same test, the contrary would be obtained.   
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2.3.10 Visibility of Law Enforcement Officers on the Roads 
The presence or absence of law enforcement officials and the intensity of the enforcements 
on the road, are crucial factors which explains traffic law violations or otherwise. Highly 
visible enforcement is very effective in reducing crashes on our roads (Lacey, et al., 2008). 
Studies again show that when the volume of traffic enforcement intensifies, Montag (2014) 
reported that there was a decrease in accident related crashes on the road when the law was 
passed and strictly enforced. Montag (2014) argued that as time goes by, the police reduce 
the resources invested in the implementation unintentionally and this affects its effectiveness 
negatively going forward. 
 
2.4 THE ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PUBLIC TOWARDS THE 
POLICE 
The rudimental ground for effective law enforcement program is the mutual interaction 
between the public and police, public attitude towards the police and police attitude towards 
the public (Radelet, 1986; Skolnick & Bayley, 1986). Decker (1981) posited that police need 
attitudinal support from the public in order to achieve their goals. Similarly, Murty, Roebuck 
& Smith (1990) intimate that positive image of the police is a catalyst for effectiveness and 
efficiency in enforcement of laws. In addition, Radelet (1986), Skolnick & Bayley (1986) 
agree that unfavourable attitude towards the police will breed ill feelings, lack of respect, 
inefficient and ineffective policing as well as ineffective collaboration between the police and 
the public.  
Citizens generally give favourable attitude towards the police. Abbrecht & Green (1977); 
Bell (1979); Hindelang (1974); and Corbett (1981) for instance, intimated that the police are 
even rated higher than supreme and lower court judges, congress and the president in the 
United State of America. Others have rated the activities of the police as negative (Peek, et al, 
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1981; Parker,et al,1995; Sampson & Bartusah, 1999; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999, 2005). All these 
rating are done based on the consideration of some influential factors. Specifically, the 
attitude and behaviour of motorists towards the police is determined by values and morals of 
the community, policing perspective, race, age, gender, nature of community- urban or rural, 
class- low or high income, publicised and controversial policing, police contact, social 
relations and individual behaviour.  
 
Literature indicates a raging argument about which of the aforementioned serves as the best 
determinant of ATP. Webb & Marshall (1995) asserted that race variables were the greatest 
in terms of variables that affect ATP followed by age, gender and police contact. This 
argument is consistent with other findings from (Block, 1971; Bouma, 1969; Gamson & 
McEvoy, 1970; Preiss & Erlich, 1966; Reiss, 1967; and Smith & Hawkins, 1973). 
Conversely, Peek et al, (1981) posited that age is a more significant predictor of ATP than 
race followed by neighbourhood contact. Race is seen as a key determinant of ATP (Hurst, et 
al, 2000) in countries such as USA and France but will not have any effect in Ghana since 
race has not been an issue in Ghana. I will therefore be silent on its influence as determining 
factor of ATP in Ghana. 
 
2.4.1 Values and Morals of the Community 
Jackson & Sunshine (2007) postulate that the values and morals that underpin community life 
shape the public‘s trust and confidence in the police. They explained that crime and disorder 
often challenge moral structure of a society hence a deterioration of community values and 
morals will lead to a decline in the confidence that people have in the police. In a similar 
argument, Leiber et al. (1998:151), reported ―that juvenile attitudes develop as a function of 
socialization in their communities‘ social environment …‖ This implies that communities 
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with wide spread social vices and delinquent norms will have a negative attitude towards the 
police and hence evaluate them police. 
 
2.4.2 Policing Perspectives 
Dirikx et al (2012) outlines a three (3) dimensional policing perspective namely performance, 
procedural and distributive justice and how it affects the public attitude towards the police 
(ATP).  
 
According to Dirikx et al (2012), the performance based    perspective hold the view that 
people attitude towards police (ATP) is influenced by the effectiveness of the police in 
controlling crime and how it is carried out. Thus, people will have positive or negative 
attitude towards police when the rate of crime is low or high (Sunshine & Tyler, 2003b). For 
an illustration Kari, (2012), insisted that police work include patrolling and answering call 
which means that the police constantly interact with the public. Languages then become a key 
means by which these interactions take place. To Kari (2012), the communication process 
forms the basis for police legitimacy and consequently police success. He found out that 
dealing with the public in a polite and respectful way enables the police to maintain sound 
relationship between them and the public, thus earn a favourable impression from the public. 
Dirikx et al (2012) argue that the distributive justice perspective becomes operational when 
peoples‘ attitudes toward the police are graded in the fairness of the distribution of police 
service across people and communities. The underlying factor here is that people will have a 
positive ATP if they believe that different people or group of people across race, gender,  and 
age receive the same form of treatment from the police (Tyler, 2000). Nofziger& William 
(2005) stated that confidence in police is influenced by positive encounters with them. They 
suggested that since positive interactions between community and police can reduce fear of 
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crime, then good community-police relationships should be developed in order to make law 
enforcement more effective. 
 
The procedural justice perspective also known as the instrumental justice perspective 
(Renauer & Covelli, 2010) thrives on fairness of the process of police decision making and 
exercise of police authority (Sunshine & Tyler 2003b). According to Tyler (2000) peoples 
judgment about procedural justice is encompassed by four elements namely opportunity for 
participation in decision making, friendliness and politeness, neutrality and trustworthy. 
Therefore attitude towards the police from the public will be rated based on these 
perspectives and dimensions such that a person who thinks he or she has been involved in 
decision making will evaluate the police positively. Similarly, a person is more likely to have 
a favourable impression about an officer if he is treated humanely and with dignity and 
respect (Tyler & Huo, 2002; Tyler, 2003) as well as to a positive outcome of the encounter 
(Engel, 2005). Unfavourable impression could emanate from being stopped or being arrested 
(Tyler & Huo, 2002; Shuck, et al., 2008; Reitzel & Piquero, 2006; Tyler & Wakslark, 2004). 
It stands to reason that people who are more likely to accuse the police of poor policing 
decisions are those that the police have badly or unfairly treated when they encountered them 
(Cox & White, 1988). In view of this, Stoutland (2001) found out that the public have 
positive perception towards the police because the public believe that the police are 
competent and trustworthy. Conversly, studies also show a negative ATP (Peek, et al, 1981; 
Parker,et al., 1995; Sampson & Bartusah, 1999; Weitzer & Tuch, 1999, 2005). According to 
these researchers, the public rate the police in this manner due to cases of corruption, 
brutalities and hostilities from them.  
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2.4.3 Age 
Juveniles, youth or young people have unfavourable attitudes towards police as compared to 
adult (Hurst & Frank, 2000; Albrech & Greek, 1997; Peek et al, 1981; Wallach & Jackson 
1973; Jacob, 1969; Campbell & Schuman, 1968). But Hurst (2007) argued that adults in 
urban areas have high positive attitude towards the police than the youth. In a comparative 
studies Hurst (2007) found out that rural youth were more positive in their evaluation of the 
police than the urban youth.  
 
2.4.4 Class 
With respect to the issue of class, Scaglion & Condon (1980) assert that research has proven 
that people within low income group give favourable impression about the police (Albrech & 
Greek 1997; Jacob 1969). In line with this assertion, minority groups such as non-whites and 
less income group expressed negative ATP (Bayley & Mendelsohn, 1969; Campbell & 
Schuman, 1972). However, Jesilow et al (1995) refuted this argument by stating that peoples‘ 
attitude towards the police has nothing to do with group membership contrary to prevailing 
findings about low income group, black minority or white majority. The explanation from 
Jesilow et al (1995) is that people who disliked characteristics of their neighbourhoods which 
fell within a specific police jurisdiction were more likely to have negative feelings about the 
police.  Additionally they posited that ―…people who live in areas that they perceive of as 
crime free would have positive things to say about the police, while those who saw their 
neighborhoods as crime ridden would supply negative comments‖ (Jesilow et al, 1995: 81). 
This explanation is well articulated by Reising & Parks (2000) who stated that areas where 
there are high crimes, drugs and gang activities, the people are more likely to have negative 
ATP.  
 
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Beyond the issue of class, Scaglion & Condon (1980) set out to investigate factors such as 
past contact, arrest, record, residential history etc. and its effect on police attitude. Scaglion & 
Condon (1980) reported that people who have had an informal interaction but in an official 
way were satisfied with the attitude the police exhibited.  Closely related to this fact is the 
argument that positive experience with the police increases the confidence  the public have in  
the police whiles negative experience tarnishes public confidence in them (Bradford et al., 
2000; Jackson & Sunshine, 2007; Sunshine & Tyler, 2003; Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). 
According to Sun & Wu (2000) the communal intimate relationships between the police and 
citizens have eroded leading to crisis of legitimacy as a result of police abuse of power, 
corruption and brutality. Sun, Wu & Hu (2013) on the other hand greater satisfaction and 
trust in police were expressed where there is law and order.  Again, Scaglion & Condon 
(1980) reported that people who have police officers as family members or friends were more 
satisfied with the police. 
 
2.4.5 Publicised and Controversial Policing 
Tuch & Weitzer (2005) indicate that several research have explained public ATP based on 
one single year (cross-sectional) rather than tracking of attitudes over time (longitudinal). 
They further claimed that comparisons on immediate and long term effect of controversial 
policing have not be explored. They therefore analysed data taken before and after three well 
publicised brutalities in Los Angeles. They found out that whenever there is a well-publicised 
brutality, public confidence in the police is greatly affected.  
 
Drivers exhibit several character traits and behavioural tendencies toward law enforcement 
officers and fellow motorists which eventually influences their evaluation of the police. The 
most prominent of these traits is drivers‘ aggression. The behaviour of drivers and for that 
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matter driver‘s aggression towards law enforcement officers emanate from frustration due to 
traffic congestion and delays (Shinar, 1998). Shinar (1998), premised the driver‘s aggression 
on frustration-aggressive hypothesis. The hypothesis stipulates that drivers easily get annoyed 
and frustrated during traffic congestions. Conversely Lajunen et al (1999) reported that 
congestion does not increase drivers‘ aggression as directly as suggested by Shinar (1998). 
 
The American Auto Association (1998) reported that 25% of all drivers who get frustrated 
whiles driving engage in aggressive driving. Aggressive driving has been defined by Mizzell 
(1997:3), as ―an accident in which an angry or impatient motorist or passenger intentionally 
injures or kills another motorist, passenger, or pedestrian, or attempts to intentionally injure 
or kill another motorist, passenger, or pedestrian, in response to a traffic dispute, altercation, 
or grievance‖. According Parker, Lajunen et al. (1999) aggressive driving and behaviour in 
general among road users has become a common phenomenon. It has resulted in about 
28,000 deaths in the US between 1980 and 1996 (Martinez, 1997).  
 
Several factors have contributed to this. Parker et al (1998) attribute it to attitudes of drivers 
and drivers‘ safety orientation whilst Underwood et al., (1999) associate it to personality 
factors. Lajunen et al. (1999) however attributed drivers aggression and behaviour to a 
national culture and stated that national culture determines traffic culture and not vice versa. 
This argument is firmly rooted in the findings of (Connell & Joint, 1997) who said that 
drivers‘ aggression is a microcosm of the aggression in a particular society. Drivers who act 
aggressively towards law enforcement officers and other motorists drive aggressively. 
Drivers who drive aggressively often see themselves as good and skilful drivers instead of 
dangerous drivers (Miles & Johnson, 2003). Drivers who drive aggressively tend to have 
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negative attitude towards the police because their activities attract intensive policing 
(Cassidy, 2011). 
 
2.5 POLICE ATTITUDE TOWARDS DRIVERS 
Certain communication style and tactics can bring about compliance and reduce violence 
when it comes to traffic law enforcement (Thompson, 1983). Also failure to effectively 
communicate can bring about negative interactions that will adversely affect enforcement of 
traffic regulations (Forehand & McMahon, 1981). The Police must therefore develop a 
coherent communication style in order to ensure traffic safety. They must also be fair and 
firm in order to win the trust of all drivers. 
 
Gender is very important variable when the attitude of the police is under consideration. 
Studies however show that in terms of decision making at traffic stops, no difference were 
found to exist between policemen and women (Lundman, 2009). 
 
Day & Ross (2011) reported that drivers who exhibit remorse by saying sorry to law 
enforcement officers after traffic violation get lesser fines. To them, the Police favourably 
evaluate drivers who apologize and gave convincing excuses than those that give 
justifications and denials. This finding is similar if not the same to the findings from 
Gonzales et al. (1994) as well as Schonbach (1990) who reported that law enforcement 
officers value remorse and tend to be more lenient when one says sorry and that it won‘t 
happen again. For instance Schafer & Matrofski (2005), posited that the police are very 
lenient in issuing out sanctions but rather expected drivers to be responsible and accept their 
mistakes. Further they found out that the most common sanctions the police meted out were 
verbal warning. 
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Abbasi et al. (2014) indicated that new and current traffic police are more mature and refined 
in their dealings with the public. This according to them facilitates police-motorists 
interaction (Sykes & Clark, 1975). To them we must understand the behaviour of the police 
from the rules that order their relations with civilians and which are usually mutually 
acknowledged by both. Abbasi, et al., (2014), argued that officers expect civilians (drivers) to 
submit to their judgment of superiority because they occupy a lower status. 
 
2.6 POLICE CORRUPTION 
Police corruption spans cultures, countries, and generations simply because it is based on 
human weakness and motivations (Newham, 2002). It is associated with power and it is also 
inevitable (Carter, 1997). Public experiences of police corruption undermine the authority 
especially the moral authority of the police (Bayley, 1985). Despite its universality, empirical 
study of the phenomenon is very difficult because people do not want to report it and also 
officials record it in a bias manner (Klockers, 2000). It is however important to note that 
more people are willing to talk about corruption openly retrospectively (Bayley, 1985).  
Research indicates that personal experiences of police corruption do not downgrade the moral 
authority of the police (Tankabe, 2010). According to him, it is vicarious experiences that 
rather undermine the police authority. Public attitude on this subject worldwide is that the 
police is very corrupt and lacks integrity (Sayed & Bruce, 1998). In Ghana the citizenry view 
the police as very corrupt as any other institution (Blankson, 2006). To be more specific, 
Blankson (2006) asserts that Ghana is gradually gaining grounds of becoming the country 
with the most corrupt traffic police because it is practice in the full glare of the public without 
fear or favour.  
 
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Inyang & Ubong (2013) researched on police-drivers behaviour on highways in Nigeria and 
how it has been characterised by corruption and asserted that there is no link between police 
corruption and their entitlement rather police corruption is based on unavailability of police 
logistics like a vehicles to convey them to their duty points. They however found a direct 
relationship between motorist daily sales and police extortions. They also realized that 
corruption within the police force is a miniature of the larger society and that all other things 
being equal any Nigerian who found himself in the polices‘ position will behave alike. Fred 
et al. (2010) conducted an experiment on corruption and inequality using four automobile 
drivers who commit identical traffic violation which are monitored by transit police. Fred et 
al (2010) were to identify effect of citizens‘ wealth and police officers‘ urge to take bribes 
and the size of bribe they take. They realized that the police are more likely to worn citizens 
with economic weight but extort those with less economic resources. 
 
  
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CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODS 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter presents the method employed to address the research questions. The method 
discussed in this chapter includes research population, the design of the research, sampling 
procedure, research instrument, the description of how the instrument was administered 
during the data collection, data management and analysis limitations and ethical 
consideration of the study. 
 
3.2 SOURCE OF DATA 
Two major sources of information or data were used namely; Primary and secondary data. 
Primary data constitute data that the researcher himself collected from the field of the study 
and this information was gathered through the use of semi-structured questionnaires, 
encompassing open and closed ended questionnaires, and observation. Secondary sources of 
data on the other hand constituted data which had already been collected and documented by 
institutions or organizations e.g. polices‘ accidents records, the hand book on learning to 
drive in Ghana and Ghana‘s Road Safety Act of 2004. The secondary data also included data 
or information or literature collected from scholarly materials such as books and journals. 
 
3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN 
The study adopted the mixed method approach to research. This approach enabled me to 
gather data qualitatively and quantitatively to address the research questions (Baker, 1990; 
Creswell, 2003; Neuman 2003). 
The qualitative approach enabled me to understand, observe and offer meaning (Bryman, 
2004) to the motorists-police interactions with reference to traffic law enforcement due to its 
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effectiveness in constructing  social reality(Neuman, 2003; Mikkelsen, 2005).The 
quantitative approach enabled me to use formal and generally recognized instruments to 
gather large quantity of structured data which helped me to establish effects and relationships 
(O‘Brien, 1998; Newman, 2003; Mikkelsen, 2005) that exists between the nature of motorist-
police encounters and enforcement outcomes. 
  
Researchers have utilized several methods in studying police-motorists‘ encounters (Briggs, 
2007). Among these methods are surveys, observation and the use of police recorded data 
(Briggs, 2007). But all these methods have their strengths and weaknesses. Access to police 
recorded data in studying police-motorists‘ encounters may not be too difficult but it comes 
with its problems. The data obtained from the police may be inaccurate and invalid since the 
police personally gather the data and may not want to implicate themselves (Novak, 2004). 
The sample may be biased (Petrocelli, Piquero & Smith, 2003) and the integrity of the data 
may also be compromised (Petrocelli, Piquero & Smith, 2003; Novak, 2004). According to 
Westly (1970) and Schafer & Matrofski (2005), although the use of observation in police-
motorists studies are expensive, time consuming and there is the tendency of officers 
changing their natural behaviour when they become aware of being observed, better and 
efficient data are ascertained when this method is adopted. When it comes to data collection, 
especially interviews, the data obtained may have integrity problems due to the fact that not 
all motorists are willing to discuss their encounter with the police (Warren, Tomaskovic-
Devey, Smith, Zingraff & Mason, 2006). Taking the aforementioned discussions and the 
thesis statement into consideration I decided to use observation and questionnaires.  The use 
of the semi-structured questions dealt with some of the problems outlined whiles observation 
gave it the natural touch especially where the non-literate drivers were uncomfortable with 
responding to a questionnaire.   
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3.4 STUDY AREA 
The study area for this research is Madina and Adenta. This area was selected based on a 
number of reasons.  First, they have one of the busiest routes in Accra, described by the 
commander of Madina Divisional MTTU/D as accident prone road. Second, they boast of 
one division, 3 Police districts, 6 Police stations and over 15 police posts. And finally the 
researcher is conversant with the area and has witnessed and engaged in the interaction 
between motorists and the Police. 
 
3.5 TARGET POPULATION 
According to O‘Brien (1998) and Neuman (2003), research should target a population that 
has all the necessary information for the research such as sampling elements, sampling units, 
and area of coverage. The population for this study is police and commercial drivers who are 
estimated to be 155 and 635. Specifically, the target people were policemen and women from 
the MTTD division and bus ‗trotro‘ and taxi drivers in Adenta and Madina. The choice of 
commercial drivers is based on the fact that 71 percent of passengers are transported by bus 
―trotro‖ vehicles and taxi cabs (Quashie, 2007), they are accessible and also, the police are 
more likely to interact with bus drivers (Apostolopoulos, 2011). 
 
3.6 SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE 
Due to the mixed method approach, both the probability and non-probability sampling 
techniques were adopted. The study employed the purposive sampling method for the 
observation. This non-probability sampling technique was selected based on the fact that the 
researcher needed to observe conveniently specific interactions. Aside the routine 
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observations made by the researcher, four major and hot spot police check points were 
selected for the observation of interaction between the police and all categories of drivers.  
Random sampling was used to select the target group (police officers and drivers). This was 
done to give each member in the target group an equal chance of being selected from the 
target population (Creswell, 2003; Neuman, 2003; Bryman, 2004). 
 
Using the random sampling technique, the researcher selected a total of 60 respondents from 
a sampled frame of 155 policemen obtained from the Madina Divisional Police Command 
who are road traffic policemen and women. The division has three districts with the 
following strength; Madina-60, Adenta-50 and Kwabenye-45.  Using the aforementioned 
groups, I computed 40% of all the clusters since according to Duverger (1964), 10% of a 
population ought to be a representative sample. I then randomly selected 24, 20 and 18 from 
Madina, Adenta and Kwabenya districts respectively. To do this, the identifiable numbers of 
the officers from their respective districts were written on papers, folded and placed in one 
container. They were then drawn randomly from the bowl till the numbers required were 
obtained. 
 
On the sampling of the commercial drivers, a sample frame was obtained from the various 
lorry stations as organized below. The lorry stations were selected based on the size and its 
wide recognition and organisation. 
  Bus drivers; Madina-250 
                        Adenta-120 
                        Kwabenya-51 
  Taxi drivers; Madina-101 
                        Adenta-65 
                        Kwabenya-48 
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From the above clusters, I calculated 20%, on the aforementioned, on the principle that 10% 
of a large population is representative and had the following figures respectively; 50, 24, 10, 
20, 13, 10 totaling 123 respondents. I then wrote the numbers of all the cars on pieces of 
papers in a particular station, placed them in a bowl and randomly selected them till the 
required number was obtained.  
 
Sample sizes randomly selected consisted of sixty (64) policemen and women and one 
hundred and twenty (123) drivers. However, additional 10 and 20 subjects from the police 
and drivers respectively were selected for questionnaire administration due to the limitations 
associated with self-administered questionnaires. At the end of questionnaire administering 
period, 60 and 120 respondents‘ questionnaires were retrieved from the police and drivers 
respectively. 
 
3.7 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT AND METHOD  
The questionnaire was pre-tested. Intimate rapport was created with respondents before data 
were collected.  According to Emory and Cooper (1995), two primary types of data collection 
methods are used quantitatively, namely; interviewing and the use of questionnaires. 
  
I used questionnaire as the research instrument to gather the data. This study further 
employed the semi-structured questionnaires. Semi-structured questionnaires were made up 
of open-ended and close-ended questions. Open-ended questions allowed respondents to 
express their views in their own words (Bryman, 2004). The questionnaires were self-
administered to the police and literate drivers.  On the other hand the questions were read to 
non-literate respondents and the responses were written down by the researcher. 
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Qualitatively, observation was used to gather the data. Four major hotspot checkpoints in the 
study area were selected. Also the researcher observed and took notes anytime the bus 
‗trotro‘ or the taxi he boarded encountered the police. 
 
3.8 DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS 
The observations were typed and the data cleaned. The questionnaires on the other hand were 
cleaned and coded. Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) and Microsoft excel 
software were used for the analysis. Then I analysed the data using frequencies and tables. I 
also used non-parametric test e.g. chi-square to test the hypotheses. 
 
3.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION 
Letters were sent to the MTTU/D commander in the Division and the driver unions of my 
intention and it was duly approved. The MTTU/D commander even went further by sending 
messages to all the districts under his jurisdiction of my presence in the division. So the 
consent of the police and driver unions were sought before I moved to the field. The study 
ensured that all respondents were well-briefed about the purpose of the study before the 
questionnaires were administered. A covering letter was attached to the questionnaire to 
highlight the purpose of the study. 
 
The names and identity of the police and drivers were not taken. It was their respective police 
and car numbers that were used for the random sampling and even that, their numbers were 
kept confidential till they were destroyed after the collection of the data. On the field, nobody 
was forced against his or her will to participate in the study. 
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3.10 LIMITATIONS 
The demeanour, gestures utterances from some of the drivers and the police especially 
indicated an unwillingness to answer the questionnaire. Even though they answered them 
finally, I sensed that they thought they risked exposing themselves as evidenced in the 
utterance of one of the policemen; ―Ah but these are sensitive issues, why won‘t you allow 
our authorities to give you the responses?‖ There was a relatively low response rate 
apparently in fulfillment of the earlier gestures they exhibited. Out of the 80 police officers 
selected and given the questionnaire only 60 returned them. A follow up to retrieve the 
remaining proved futile. 
 
3.11 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA 
This section unearths the social structure of the Adenta and Madina with special emphasis on 
the social institutions.  
 
3.11.1 Adentan Municipal Assembly (ADMA) 
According to AdMA (2010), Adentan Municipal Assembly with Adenta as its capital, lies 
19kilometres to the northeast of Accra, which is specifically located on latitude 5‘‘43‘north 
and longitude 0‘‘09‘west. It shares boundaries with Tema Metropolitan Assembly in the east, 
Ga East Municipal Assembly in the west, Oyibi Township in the north and Madina a suburb 
of the Assembly in the south and in the Greater Accra Region. This municipality, due to its 
geographical location, is a nodal centre and one of the fascinating developing areas in the 
region. It offers to its inhabitant‘s easy access to market centres like Madina, it also has the 
main Accra/Aburi/Koforidua and Accra/Dodowa trunk roads passing through. There is also, 
under construction, a road which runs parallel to the Accra/Tema motorway which upon 
completion will provide smooth transportation to and from various parts of the Eastern and 
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Greater Accra Regions. AdMA lies at the bottom, southward side of the Akuapem-Togo 
range. It has an undulating terrain, which barely rises above 50metres. 
 
According to the 2010 population census and housing survey released in 2012, the estimated 
total population of the Assembly is 78,215 made up of 39,366 males and 38,849 females. The 
males form about 51% of the total population whiles the female population is 49%. Majority 
of the population falls within the economic active range between 15 and 49. The age-sex 
structure of the Adentan Municipality is influenced by most known factors, which contributes 
to population increases generally. These factors include natural birth rate, migration, 
mortality rate, socio-economic activities, etc.  
 
The Municipal Assembly has fairly good road network within various communities.  Most 
access roads, although partially surfaced with very little dressed kilometres, are generally 
very bumpy. A significant number of these roads have no drains or pedestrian facilities, and 
those that exist are generally in deplorable conditions.  Roads in areas like Lakeside Estates 
are inadequate, whilst storm and road side drains are not available. 
 
The Municipality is polarized into urban, semi-urban, and rural settlement. The linkage 
between the urban and rural is by roads classified into highways, urban and feeder roads.  The 
major urban towns or places includes Adentan, (Housing Estates), Ashale Botwe, Ritz Area, 
Adjirigannor and Trasacco area, whereas rural settlements are Amrahia, part of Frafraha, and 
Foster Home (AdMA, 2010).  Most rural settlements are fast developing into semi-urban and 
urban settlements.   
 
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Facilities such as banking institutions, police station or post, developed market centres and 
postal services appears to be non-existence in almost all the electoral areas.  This implies that 
residents travel to nearly Metropolitan and Municipal areas to have such services.  The 
implication of the above scenario is the continuous rural-urban drift existing in Ghana as a 
whole and also serving as a disincentive to investors. 
 
The Traditional Political Structure 
Traditionally, the seat of the traditional council is at ―Adenta village‖ and occupied by the 
Mantse Nii Okataban II who is also a sub-chief under the Ga Mantse. However his 
lieutenants are dispersed in the entire traditional area.   
 
The Local Government Structure 
Adenta Municipal Assembly (AdMA) finds itself within the local government structure of 
Ghana initiated by Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) in response to the need to 
have a more efficient mechanism of development in the country. Local government in Ghana 
is a three tier structure starting from Regional Coordinating Councils, District /municipal/ 
metropolitan   assemblies as the second tier and sub structures, like town and area council, 
zonal councils and sub-district structures. The purpose of the district, metropolitan, municipal 
assemblies is for implementation of development projects and programmes. The Sub- 
structures are basically for grass root participation in decision making and the regional 
coordinating councils are for monitoring and harmonization of plans, projects and 
programmes. 
 
According to AdMA (2010), AdMA was established by Legislative Instrument 1888 of 2007.  
The LI spells outs 86 functions to be performed by the assembly. The General Assembly is 
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the highest political and Administrative body in the District Assembly. The presiding 
member who is elected by the members of the assembly has oversight over all meetings of 
the General Assembly. In the exercise of the executive functions, the assembly has an 
executive committee which is chaired by the municipal chief executive. 
Health 
Adenta can only boast of six (6) health facilities with all of them being privately owned 
except a clinic in the SSNIT flat area. Among these six health facilities none has achieved the 
hospital status except that the construction of a multi- purpose hospital that is underway 
(AdMA, 2010). 
 
Education 
There are 18KG/Pre-schools, 19 Primary and 20 Junior High Schools which sum up the 
number of public schools in the municipality (AdMA, 2010) .There are also 50KG/Pre-
schools, 64 primaries, 45 junior high, 7 senior high and 2 tertiary private school but no public 
tertiary institutions. 
 
Religion 
The predominant religion in the Municipal area is Christianity. A proportion of the 
population is also Muslims, with few practicing Traditional Religion. 
 
Occupation 
The most common occupation in the Municipality is civil, public servants and other workers 
who work in Accra. Farming in the Municipality is fast giving way to housing estates. Stone 
quarry is another main occupation. Other economic activities being done include tourism 
(guest houses, hotels, etc), transport services, trading (SSNIT market centre is the biggest 
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shop centre in the municipality), commercial farming including rearing of piggery, poultry, 
cattle where dairy products are produced. The area also has many distribution points for daily 
essential commodities, artisans and hardware sellers. However, lack of raw materials and 
storage facilities hinders manufacturing activities. 
 
3.11.2 LA Nkwantanang Madina Municipal Assembly (LANMMA) 
La Nkwantanang Madina Municipal Assembly (LaNMMA) with Madina as its capital and 
inaugurated in 2012 is a cosmopolitan area with diverse people places and languages. Ninety 
one point six (91.6%) percent of the total population in the municipality are Ghanaians by 
birth, 4.0 percent dual nationals and 1.2 percent are Ghanaians by naturalisation (GSS, 2010 
PHC) 
 
According to the 2010 population and housing Census (2010 PHC), LaNMMA has an 
estimated total population of 111,926 and by 2014 the population of LaNMMA was 
estimated to be 136,421. All these are figures projected from the 2010 population and 
housing Census because LaNMMA was initially part of the Ga East Municipal Assembly 
(GEMA) and was split in 2012. Females constitute a majority of the population in the 
Municipality with 51.5 percent of the total population while male make up 48.5 percent.  
The changing spatial distributions of the population including rapid rural-urban migration and 
urbanization are affecting the nature of employment, poverty reduction, and environmental 
impacts and vulnerabilities. La Nkwantanang- Madina Municipal Assembly is predominantly 
an urban and this mirrors the distribution of population among rural and urban localities.  
Majority of residents (84%) live in urban area while the rest 16 percent of the population 
resides in rural area. 
 
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Traditional Authorities 
LaNMMA covers two Ga traditional paramouncies; namely the La Nkwantanang traditional 
authority and the Oyarifa traditional authority (LaNMMA, 2014). These paramouncies are 
the structures of the indigenous Ga population. Below these paramouncies, every community 
in the Municipality has a chief. These chiefs wield a lot of authority in the community and a 
significant influence on the social organisation of the community. Among the Gas, lower 
level of social life is organised around clans and families with the heads of each entity 
responsible for a large array of functions and responsibilities in the lives of its members. 
Family and clan heads are responsible for organising and mobilizing each unit. For this 
reason, chiefs, clan and family heads are important in the developmental dynamics of each 
community in the Municipality.  
 
They are seen as the natural representatives of the people and their status is also enhanced by 
the 1992 constitution that recognizes their authority and specifies their role in local 
governance. They control lands, which is a vital resource in every developmental effort, 
making it obligatory to involve them as part of the essential stakeholders in the planning and 
execution of activities in the Municipality. Urbanisation and migration may have reduced 
their influence and authority somewhat, but they remain a vital institution in the social, 
cultural and economic development of the Municipality.  
 
As an urban and cosmopolitan area, there are large groups of settler communities in the 
Municipality who have evolved their own systems of organisation heavily influenced by their 
cultural heritage. The settlers communities comprise of settlers include Ewes, Akan, Gonja, 
Dagomba, Wala, Frafra, and Hausa stock. The Gonja, Dagomba, Wala, Frafra, and Hausa 
communities have evolved their own traditional systems with Zongo chiefs and tribal chiefs 
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(LaNMMA, 2014). They wield much influence over their kinsmen requiring their 
participation as decision makers on behalf of their people. The community and family leaders 
are part of the key stakeholders in the Municipality who are regularly consulted and involved 
in decision making on developmental issues. They have also on numerous occasions 
contributed immensely to development through the donation of lands for the constructions of 
economic and social amenities. 
 
Religious Institutions and Affiliation 
Religion plays an important role in the lives of the residents in the Municipality with 99.8 
percent of the population professing one faith or another. The population of the Municipality 
is dominated by Christians (Catholic, Protestant, Pentecostal/Charismatic and other 
Christians) with approximately four out of every five persons (79.2%) being Christians 
(LaNMA, 2014). Residents of the Municipality who profess Islamic faith   constitute 17.5 
percent while traditionalists make up 0.2 percent. Two percent profess no religion while 0.9 
percent belongs to various other religions (LaNMMA, 2014). 
 
Religious institutions are influential in the lives of citizens. As a result local government 
institutions are required to properly involve them in decision making since they represent a 
large community of people. Some of the notable Churches that are in the community include 
Presbyterian, Catholic, Methodist, Pentecost and the growing number of large charismatic 
churches. Through social services such as schools, health facilities and orphanages, they have 
positioned themselves as formidable social partners. The Muslims community also wields 
much influence among its numerous followers and also through the schools and health 
facilities they run. Religious leaders are regularly consulted and incorporated into decision 
making processes of the Assembly. 
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Education 
The recognition of education as the key to socio-economic development has motivated the 
Assembly to devote a substantial proportion of their resources to the provision and expansion 
of education infrastructure. The table below exhibits the distribution of schools in the 
municipality. 
Table 1: Number of Schools in LaNMMA 
SCHOOLS PRIVATE PUBLIC 
Pre-school                    38  28 
Primary                    29  59 
JHS                    23  47 
Totals                    90  134 
Source: LaNMMA, 2014. 
There are two public Senior High Schools, three private SHS and one private Technical and 
Vocational Institute in the Municipality in addition to the National Community Development 
Training Centre  that take care of secondary, technical/ vocational education needs of 
residents and others from  nearby areas. There is a public tertiary institution in the 
Municipality; the University of Professional Studies as well as other privately owned post-
secondary professional institutions that offer tertiary education opportunities to residents. 
 
Marital Status 
Most of the households are headed by currently married persons; in general, the proportion of 
currently married male heads is higher than female heads.  According to LaNMMA (2014) 
over half (51.2%) of all residents in the Municipality have never been  married, while slightly 
more than  one  in three (37.2%)  residents are married. This contrasts with those living in 
informal or consensual unions (3.8%), widowed (3.3%), divorced (2.7%), and separated 
(1.8%). A significantly higher proportion of households are headed by divorced and widowed 
females than males and the trend seems to be increasing. 
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Health 
According to LaNMMA (2014), there are 23 health institutions in the Municipality with a 
majority of them (18) being private and 5 public health Institutions. Also the number of 
wards in the private health facilities is more than those in the public with only 1 in five wards 
in the Municipality being public.   However public health institutions dominate in other 
indicators of capacity of the health facilities.   The biggest hospital in the Municipality is the 
Pantang Specialist Psychiatrist Hospital though the Alpha Medical Centre in Madina is the 
biggest general hospital in the Municipality which is owned by the church of Pentecost. 
 
Economic Activities  
The major economic activities identified include agriculture-farming, trading-commerce, 
manufacturing, informal-artisan, service-tourism, mining-quarrying and public sector. 
Trading or commerce is the most widespread economic activity in the Municipality 
dominating in all electoral areas. It is the major sector in the La Nkwantanang electoral area 
which is probably as a result of the location of a market and it is highly urbanised. The 
manufacturing and fabrication sector is also found in all electoral areas contributing 
significantly in Tataana, Social Welfare, Madina West, and Danfa. Agriculture is also a major 
economic activity in the Municipality especially in the rural areas such as Danfa,Oyarifa  and 
Pantang. Mining and quarrying is found in Oyarifa and Pantang while service and tourism is 
a major sector in many communities (LaNMMA, 2014). 
 
Access to Safe and Potable Water  
The main sources of potable water in the Municipality, according to LaNMMA (2014), are 
boreholes, wells (both protected and unprotected) and water trucks.  Other sources of water 
include indoor plumbing, inside standpipe, outside standpipe, dugouts/dams and rivers and 
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streams. Among the electoral areas, water truck is the biggest source of water for household 
use in the municipality. Most communities in the various electoral areas get their water from 
boreholes  as the second most common source of water followed by indoor plumbing , 
outside standpipe and unprotected well. Indeed all the electoral areas depend largely on water 
trucks which show the level of acute water problems in the Municipality. Only two 
communities reported getting access to water from rivers or streams while inside plumbing 
was reported in Madina West, Pantang, Tataana and North Legon only.  In fact, even where 
there is access to pipe-borne water, the frequency of access is so erratic most of them still 
have to depend on water trucks and sachet water. 
 
Road and Transportation 
Transportation is a major economic activity in the Municipality connecting it to the other 
parts of Accra and the country. This sub sector contributes at least 6.5 percent to the total 
employment in the Municipality (LaNMMA, 2014). Commercial transportation is by 
minibuses, buses, taxis and others. There are 3 main lorry parks and numerous satellites parks 
in Madina community serving many areas of Accra and other regions. Madina is gradually 
becoming a transport hub for the northern part of Accra as well as a major transit zone from 
Accra to Eastern Region, Ashanti Region and Volta Region (LaNMMA, 2014).  
 
Road is the only form of transport in the Municipality. Maintenance and rehabilitation of 
these roads will facilitate and lower transportation cost and integrates the all parts of the 
Municipality to each other to reduce poverty.  In general, the road network in the district can 
be described as fairly good. The total length of paved and unpaved road in the Municipality is 
280km (LaNMMA, 2014).  The paved which comprises asphalt and surface treatment is 
about 54km. This notwithstanding, there are specific areas that need urgent attention to 
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reduce travel time. The construction of the Madina-Ayimensah portion of the Accra-Aburi 
highway is a major intervention that has facilitates economic activities in the Municipality 
because of the linkages with other urban, peri-urban and rural communities. 
 
3.12 SUMMARY 
The main focus of this chapter has basically been on the research method and the social 
structure of the people under study. Here the investigator has sought to vividly explain the 
method adopted in ascertaining the requisite data for analysis and interpretation. The 
investigator further described the land and the people, the population, their traditional and 
modern political structure, and other social institutions in the area. This state of affairs is to 
able the reader know at first hand the factors likely to enhance or constrain the smooth 
interaction between the police and drivers. 
  
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CHAPTER FOUR 
THE POLICE AND ROAD SAFETY IN GHANA 
4.1 HISTORY OF THE GHANA POLICE SERVICE 
According to Appiahene-Gyamfi (2009), formal policing in Ghana began in 1844 with the 
establishment of the Gold Coast Militia and Police (GCMP) to guard the English Castles, 
investigate crime and serve summons. In 1860, Her Majesty‘ Messenger Corps replaced the 
GCMP. By the year 1871, the Hausa constabulary imported from Nigeria to aid in the 
Ashanti war was absorbed into the Queen‘s Messenger Corps and renamed the Gold Coast 
Armed Police Force (GCAPF). By the year 1873, a new law brought in the Gold Coast Police 
Force (GCPF). In 1876, the GCPF was renamed the Gold Coast Constabulary (GCC) and 
assigned paramilitary and prosecuting roles in addition to the traditional roles. In 1901, the 
paramilitary role was reassigned to Gold Coast Regiment (GCR). In 1902, the GCC was split 
into General and Escort and Mines and Railways units. In 1916, a Marine Police Corp was 
established but disbanded in 1942 and replaced with Customs, Exercise and Preventive 
Service (CEPS). The CEPS was integrated into the police service in 1960 and renamed 
Border Guard Unit of the Ghana Armed Forces in 1972. In 1957, the GCPF was renamed 
Ghana Police Force and in 1958, the first Ghanaian commissioner of police E.R.T. Madjitey 
was appointed. In 1960, the GPF became part of the Public Service of Ghana and was 
renamed the Ghana Police Service (GPS). 
The GPS has its headquarters in Accra.  Article 203 and 204 of the 1992 constitution 
stipulates that the Inspector General of Police (IGP) is the chief executive officer of GPS 
shall be appointed by the president of Ghana. The IGP is assisted by two Deputy IGPs, 
commissioners and deputy commissioners and the headquarters. The GPS has several 
divisions such as Criminal Investigations Department (CID), Police Intelligence and 
Professional Standard Bureau, Strategic Direction and Monitoring Department, Armored 
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Division, Special Services, Operations, Motor Traffic, Services, Welfare, Finance, Human 
Resources, Legal Department and the Domestic, Violence and Victim Support Unit 
(DOVVSU). The GPS has 12 regional commands with Greater Accra divided into Accra and 
Tema regions and railways, ports and harbour police also constitute a region. The 12 regional 
commands have 51 divisions, 179 districts and 651 stations and posts. The current strength of 
the GPS is over 18, 000 and police-civilian ratio is 1:1200. 
 
The police are a peace preservation body whose functions are the protection of life, limb and 
property. The police see to crime investigation, detection, apprehension and prosecution of 
offenders (Abotchie, 2008). The Police also bear the main responsibility for traffic control, 
although in some large urban areas civilians are now employed by local councils to control 
traffic and supervise specified metered and unmetered parking zones (Atuguba, 2007). It 
should however be noted that traffic control causes the police more annoyance and subjects 
them to pressure from a greater number of sources than any other problem (Wilson, 1963).  
 
On the advice of the police administration, the government has allowed the participation of 
the private sector in the provision of internal security. As a result, there are presently a 
number of private security organizations performing guard duties in various companies (i.e. 
banks, offices, foreign missions, recreational facilities, etc.). These companies operate under 
the supervision and directive of the police administration. The registration and licensing of 
these companies to operate are issued by the police after background checks and intensive 
training have been completed. The police also monitor and evaluate their performance as well 
as having regular meetings with the management of these private security organizations to 
ensure that they work within the confines of the laws in Ghana.  
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4.2 ROAD SAFETY 
O‘Neil & Mohan (2002) postulate that the earliest form of measures to curb road crashes, 
injuries and deaths were on education which in their view was too simplistic because the 
number of casualties kept rising. The attention was then shifted to public health approach. 
The public health approach consists of expanding prevention option and the evaluation of 
effective counter measure. This, they say has been effective though road crashes still persist. 
As a result of the public health approach, a mix of counter- measures has emerged. A typical 
example of this mix is the Haddon mix which gives you a complete range of options after 
dividing crash phases (Pre-crash, Crash and Post-crash) by human, vehicle and environmental 
factors and the result is nine cell matrixes (O‘Neil & Mohan, 2002). 
 
All these counter measures: environment; engineering; education; legislation enforcement; 
etc. have their weaknesses and strengths. Education alone, for instance, has been found to be 
ineffective (Tiwari, 1996). On the technological improvement of cars, Peltman (1975:677) 
analysed the effect of vehicle safety regulation of 1960‘s in America and reported that 
mandating fixing of safety devices in new cars ―had no effect on the highway death toll‖ 
instead ―may have increased the share of this toll borne by pedestrians and increased the total 
number of accidents‖. For instance, construction of better roads and provision of visible sight 
lines, as part of engineering, only helps drivers to drive faster and does not reduce the risks of 
accident in anyway (Evans, 1991). Consistent efforts to charge road users behaviour have 
resulted in enactment of several laws which is also ineffective since according to O‘Neil & 
Mohan (2002:1143) ―the key factor in the effectiveness of a traffic law is motorists‘ 
perception that they run a high risk of being detected and punished for violating the law‖. To 
O‘Neil & Mohan (2002), therefore, the key to reducing road crashes is strict enforcement of 
traffic regulations. 
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Rothengatter (1990) identifies three approaches out of these counter measures as the best in 
improving road safety by road users. They include legislation which specifies laws and 
regulations governing road users‘ safe use of the traffic system, traffic policing to ensure that 
road users comply with specified legislations and legal sanctions imposed on the road user 
when a breach of the legislation has been committed. He found out that these activities are 
very important elements that can shape or influence the public but it is traffic policing carried 
out as traffic law enforcement that has been found to be very effective in the process of 
moderating road user behaviour. 
 
According to Lewin (1982) and Evans (1991), majority of traffic accidents and fatalities are 
caused by human factors of which traffic violation is the major one. To Elvik (1997) a 
country can reduce road traffic accidents and fatalities by 48% on the average if TLE are 
effectively enforced. For example through effective TLE, Norway was successful in reducing 
accidents by 48% (Elvik, 1997); USA reduced it by 40% (Evans, 1991) and Sweden by 76% 
(Elvik, 1999). 
 
According to Groeger & Rothengatter (1998:5) the basic premise for traffic enforcement is 
―the alternative to providing incentives for desired behaviour which is providing 
disincentives or punishment for undesired risky behaviour‖. Zaal (1994) asserted that the 
preventive and reductive approaches commonly prescribed by literature include environment 
and engineering solutions, education and enforcement. According to him, the most publicised 
approach is traffic enforcement which aimed at controlling road user behaviour. But he was 
quick to add that for enforcement to be effective and efficient it has to ride on meaningful 
interaction between enforcement agencies (police) and public or road users. To him, 80% to 
90 % of accidents are due to errors from drivers. Therefore, in the course of interaction 
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between the police and drivers the police must be firm so that these mistakes from drivers 
will be minimized. 
 
In the course of enforcing traffic laws, the police actively engage the public in order to be 
effective. Fell et al. (2014), Walker (2001), and Reising & Kane (2014) reported that a good 
of measure of the level of police enforcement in the form of interaction and most frequent 
interaction between the police and citizens occur at traffic stops. According to Thompson 
(1983), 97% of the work of the police involves interacting with the public.  
 
To be specific, Durose, Schmitt, & Langan, (2005) reported that 40% of all police contact 
with the citizenry transpires in traffic stops. Wilson (1963), Wilson & Chappell (1970) and 
Thompson (1983) added that the police can be very effective and efficient if there is public 
cooperation. 
 
According to Fell et al (2004) US States with highly publicized enforcement programmes 
with police presence on the street tend to have lower rates of accidents. For instance, Fell et 
al (2008) assert that the State of Georgia has one of the lowest crash rates that is 56% 
reduction in proportion from 1982 to 2011 due to consistent and visible enforcement that has 
been conducted in the State for years.  
 
There are two ways of assessing the effectiveness of T.L.E. These are; when no TLE exist 
and a new enforcement is initiated and when TLE is intensified or increased and compared 
with the normal enforcement. Under the intensification category, when the volume of 
enforcement was intensified over a certain period of time in a separate experiment, Zaal 
(1994), Elvik (2000), and Makeen (1990) all reported a drastic reduction in accidents. This 
therefore means that effective and intensified TLE decreases road fatalities and accidents.  
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Studies indicate that, there are two main periods when there was no enforcement and 
therefore comparisons were made when enforcement was initiated. The first one occurred in 
Finland in 1979 when police went on strike. Summala & Roine (1980) reported that, speeding 
of cars in both rural and urban centres increased just that it was slightly higher in urban 
centres by an average of 2 to 3 km/h. This gives a firm indication that the absence of Police 
officers on our roads impact negatively on motorists‘ behaviour. The second instance when 
there was no enforcement was reported by Car et al. (1980). This happened when there was a 
contract dispute between traffic police in Nashville State and the State authorities.  Car et al., 
(1980) reported that no significant difference in accidents and road fatalities were recorded.  
According to Makinen et al.,(2003), the most effective road safety measure is TLE with the 
following as the most effective strategies; stationary speed enforcement, use of speed 
cameras, enforcement of red lights, drunk driving enforcements and wrong parking 
enforcements. 
 
Elvik (2000) postulates that aside the overriding advantage of TLE as being able to change 
road user behaviour as a result of its deterrence principle, it is the most cost-effective of all 
the road safety measures including campaigning and education, engineering, legislation and 
technological enhancement of vehicles. In an assessment of human factors as determinant of 
road traffic accidents among commercial  vehicle drivers, Adebayor (2015) found out that the 
most significant determinant of road traffic accident is driving under the influence of alcohol, 
followed in order by excess speeding, indiscriminate parking, impressionistic driving and 
sleepiness. He therefore called for a ban on the sale of alcohol in lorry parks, engage in 
proactive education and intensify enforcement. 
 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
ANLYSIS OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF 
RESPODENTS AND THE NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN 
DRIVERS AND THE POLICE 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter looks at the first part of the analysis and discussion of data obtained from the 
field, through the use of questionnaires as well as the observations. This is to enable the 
researcher establish how the interaction between the police and drivers on the road helps in 
the enforcement of traffic laws in Ghana and the attitude of the police towards motorists. In 
order to enable the researcher do a coherent comprehensive analysis of the data, the responses 
of both the drivers and police through the questionnaire and observation were analysed 
concurrently. 
 
5.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DRIVERS AND THE 
POLICE 
The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents give a clear picture of respondents who 
participated in the research. The socio-demographic variables which were considered include 
age, sex, educational background, marital status, religion and working experience of 
respondents. 
  
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Table 2: Distribution of Drivers by Demographic Characteristics. 
Sex                                                            Frequency                               Percentage (%) 
Male                                                           119                                                          99.2                              
Female                                                        1                                                               0.8            
Total                                                           120  100                            
Age                                                                                                                                            
20-24                                                            14                                                            12 
25-29                                                            28                                                            23                    
30-34                                                            53                                                            44                                    
35-39                                                            20                                                            17       
40-44                                                             5                                                              4      
Total                                                             120100 
Educational background 
Basic ( Primary/JHS)                                    66                                                           55 
Secondary                                                      36                                                          30 
Technical/Vocational                                     12                                                          10 
Tertiary                                                            6                                                             5 
Total                                                              120   100 
Marital status 
Married                                                           42                                                          35 
Divorced                                                         36                                                          30  
Not married                                                      6                                                            5 
Cohabitation                                                    18                                                         15 
Separation                                                      12                                                           10   
Widowed                                                          6                                                             5       
Total                                                                120100   
Religion 
Christianity                                                       48                                                       40 
Muslims                                                            42                                                       35 
Traditional                                                         24                                                      20 
Others                                                                 6                                                        5 
Total                                                                  120100   
Languages  
Akan                                                                  51                                                       43 
Ga-Adangbe                                                      26                                                       22 
Ewe                                                                   20                                                       17 
Gur                                                                    16                                                        13 
Guan                                                                   7                                                         6   
Total                                                                  120100  
Working experience 
1-4 yrs                                                                6                                                           5 
5-9 yrs                                                                64                                                        53.3 
10-14 yrs                                                            34                                                        28 
15-19  yrs                                                           16                                                        13.3 
Total                                                                  120 100    
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
  
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Table 3: Distribution of Police by Demographic Characteristics. 
Sex                                                            Frequency                               Percentage (%) 
Male                                                                 46                                              77                              
Female                                                              4                                                23           
Total                                                                 60100 
Age 
20-24                                                                 5                                                    8.3 
25-29                                                                12                                                 20                    
30-34                                                                11                                                 18.3                                    
35-39                                                                15                                                 25      
40-44                                                                 8                                                  13.3   
45-49                                                                 7                                                   12 
50 and above                                                     2                                                    3.3 
Total                                                                 60100 
Educational background 
Basic ( Primary/JHS)                                        7                                                  12 
Secondary                                                         40                                                  66 
Technical/Vocational                                       12                                                 20 
Tertiary                                                             1                                                    2 
Total                                                                 60 100 
Marital status 
Married                                                            29                                                   48 
Divorced                                                           8                                                    14  
Not married                                                      11                                                    18 
Cohabitation                                                      3                                                     2 
Separation                                                        7                                                     12   
Widowed                                                           2                                                       4       
Total                                                                 60100    
Religion 
Christianity                                                       25                                                     42 
Muslims                                                            18                                                     30 
Traditional                                                        15                                                     25 
Others                                                                2                                                      3 
Total                                                                 60 100    
Languages  
Akan                                                                  23                                                     38 
Ga-Adangbe                                                      13                                                      22 
Ewe                                                                   15                                                     25 
Gur                                                                     6                                                      10 
Guan                                                                   3                          5   
Total                                                                  60100   
Working experience 
1-4 yrs                                                                12                                                       20 
5-9 yrs                                                                14                                                        23 
10-14 yrs                                                            24                                                        40 
15-19  yrs                                                             10                                                      17 
Total                                                                    100100   
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
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5.2.1 Age 
Age is related to wisdom in a traditional society like Ghana and for this reason elderly 
members of families in particular and society in general are seen as an embodiment of 
wisdom (Nukunya, 1992).  The age of a person is usually believed to contribute greatly to 
shaping his knowledge and focus due to the experience he might have acquired as a result of 
his encounters in his day to day activities. But as one ages and grows older, he or she 
experiences declining strength and endurance (Brinkerhoff & White, 1988).  
 
When the age distributions of drivers were analyzed, it revealed that (44%) were within the 
range of 30-34 years. The next ages were those within the range of 25-29 years (23%). The 
least represented age were those within the range of 20-24 years and lastly by those within 
the ranges of 40-44 years (4%) (Table 2).This shows that a greater portion of the drivers were 
matured enough to express their knowledge on the nature of interaction between them and the 
police on the road.  
 
When the age distribution of the police on the other hand was analysed, it revealed that 
majority of them (25%) were between the ages of 35-39 years, followed by 20% who were 
between the ages of 25-29 years. Next to this were those between the ages of 30-34 years 
(18.3%). 15% had attained the ages of 50 years and above; 13.3% were between the ages of 
40-44 years; 12% were within the ages of 45-49 years and lastly 3.3% were between the ages 
of 20-24 years (Table 3). 
 
5.2.2 Sex Distribution of Drivers and Police 
The researcher considered sex as important to the study because ones sex could influence 
ones views in an interaction between the police and drivers. Studies suggest that women have 
positive attitude towards police (Friedrich, 1980; Austin & Vodel, 1995; Hurst & Frank, 
2000; Eschhol, 2002; Rowe, 2009). However, policewomen have been described as very 
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lenient in their dealings with the public (Yagil, 1998).  The explanation is that women are 
treated politely and tenderly (Friedrich, 1980) hence their reciprocal evaluation. Additionally, 
men are more likely to be involved with the criminal justice system as offenders and victims 
(Eschhol, 2002). 
 
The fact on the ground is that out of the one hundred and twenty (120) drivers sampled, only 
one driver was a female. This fact is supported by my observation in the sense that 
throughout the observation no woman was seen driving a commercial vehicle. 
 
The analysis of the sex distribution of the police revealed that, out of the 60 police personnel 
that were sampled, the majority (77%) were male with the remaining representing 23% being 
female. This finding shows male dominance in the police service even though in recent times 
a lot of female personnel have joined the police service. Ghana police service has 
traditionally been dominated by males since independence and as a result, all the major 
positions in the service are occupied by males. The situation is however changing with more 
female personnel assuming some managerial positions. 
 
5.2.3 Educational Background of Drivers and Police 
Education was selected as one of the important demographic characteristics because of the 
argument that the greater the level of education of the individual, the less there is the need for 
him to be guided to obey laws2.Rydberg & Terril (2010) postulates that a well-educated 
individual knows his or her rights and better understands laws and such a person will abide 
by such laws with or without the guidance or cohesion in any form. Education broadens ones 
                                                          
2
Hudson, J. (2006). Who is the Law Abiding Citizen? Retrieved on 4
th
 May 2015 form 
http://www.homooeconomicus.org/lib/getfile.php?articleID=68&PHPSESSID=7286155376f110ca4c2c059c6ed
87ea9 
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knowledge and outlook to enable him learn to adapt to new roles after being widely informed 
(Rydberg & Terril, 2010).   
 
When the education background of drivers was analyzed, the following results were obtained. 
The majority of drivers (55%) have attained only the basic (Primary and Junior High).This 
was followed by 30% high school graduates (SHS). About 5% only had attained tertiary 
education. They, however, informed me that the cars would have been with their drivers if 
not for their insincerity. The findings run counter to what transpired on the field. The 
majority of the respondents (77%) could not fill the questionnaires on their own and were 
assisted by the researcher, though the entire respondents claimed to have some formal 
education. Such an outcome will have effect on their ability to read and understand road 
traffic signs, laws and regulations as well as their interaction with the Police. This partly 
explains why Hinderlang (1974) found no relationship between having some form of formal 
education and their ATP. A large number of those who filled the questionnaires themselves 
were successful in identifying more than six road signs correctly.  This finding is consistent 
with the results from Murty et al. (1990); Hudson (2006); and Gamson & McEvoy (1970), 
who found that those who are highly educated are more likely to have more knowledge on 
traffic laws and engage in a fruitful interaction with the police.   
The educational background of the police also depicted the following responses. The majority 
(66%) have attained the secondary education, 20% had technical or vocation education, while 
2% stated tertiary education (Table 3). Comparing the age distribution of respondents, one 
can draw the conclusion that the educational background of the police, to a large extent, is 
much better than that of the drivers due to the fact that whiles the majority of the drivers 
indicated basic education as their highest level of education, the majority of the police had 
secondary education as their highest level. The finding is considered as ideal for policing due 
to the argument from Rydberg & Terril (2010). To them, higher (tertiary) education has no 
influence on traffic policing.  Rydberg &Terril (2010) argued that an average level (high) of 
education is adequate to ensure effective policing. They reasoned that enforcement of traffic 
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laws is mostly discretionally based, therefore, similar policing decision will be made across 
board no matter the level of education unless such discretionally powers are abused. 
 
5.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents 
The marital status was deemed important in this research because in the Ghanaian society, 
marriage is seen as a determinant of some level of responsibility.  
Analysis of the marital status of drivers revealed that 35% were married with 30% divorced; 
15% are cohabitating with their partners; 10% are separated; 5% are not married and another 
5%  indicated that they are widowed (Table 2). This indicates that most of the drivers that 
were sampled for the study are married and living with their families. Analysis of the marital 
status of the police also revealed that 48% were married; 18% were not married; 14% were 
divorced; 12% were separated; 5% were cohabitating with their partners and 2% indicated 
that they are widowed (Table 3). Thus, greater portions of the police that were sampled for 
the study were married just as the drivers. 
 
4.2.5 Religion of Respondent 
Religion is pervasive in Ghana. Religion serves to give assurances about the basic 
preoccupations of the society in terms of certain collectively expressed desires such as 
wealth, health, peace, security, and fertility (Abotchie, 2008). When one goes to the poor, 
who are unhappy, and asks them what prevents them from engaging in crime, their response 
will be the idea of duty to a supernatural authority (Assimeng, 1981). In the light of this, 
religion was seen as an important variable in assessing the views of respondents about the 
research. 
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The results from the public indicated that 40% of the respondents were Christians with 
Muslims constituting 35%. 20% of them were traditionalist and 5% indicated other forms of 
religion. This result goes a long way to confirm the religious plurality of Ghana with the three 
being dominant. It should however be noted that most of those whose professed to be 
Christians confessed having some form of links with their ancestral homes.  
The responses of the police on their religious background also showed that many of them, 
42%, were Christians with 30% being Muslims and 25% being traditionalists. 3% indicated 
other forms of religion.  
 
5.2.6 Working Experience of Respondents 
Since the researcher had the aim of establishing the nature of interaction between drivers and 
police and how their interaction impact on the enforcement of traffic laws, analysis on the 
working experience of drivers was necessary. The number of years the individual has served 
in a particular profession enables the individual to be well acquainted with rules and 
regulations of that profession. As such the working experience of drivers will give the 
researcher an insight as to the duration these drivers have been in the business and whether 
their working experience has helped them to relate better with the police in the enforcement 
of traffic regulations. According to Tankebe, (2010), some Ghanaian commercial drivers 
have established rapport with some police officers as a result of the long experience they 
have gained plying the route likewise the police. 
 
When the responses of drivers on their working experience were analyzed, the following 
results were obtained. Majority of the respondents representing 53% indicated that their 
working experience range between 5-9 years, followed by 28% who indicated 10-14 years, 
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13% were between 15-19 years and lastly by 5% whose working experience as drivers range 
between 1-4 years. 
 
Analysis of the working experience of the police revealed that 40% had attained a working 
experience of 10-14 years. This was followed by 23% who stated their working experience as 
between 5-9 years. 20% had been in the service for about 1-4 years and finally 17% who 
indicated 15-19 years as their working experience in the police service. This therefore means 
that majority of the police sampled for the study had attained a much longer working 
experience than the drivers as most of them indicated that they had worked in the police 
service for about 10-15 years and as such are much better to understand the extent to which 
interaction between the police and drivers affect traffic law enforcement on the road. 
 
5.2.7 Language Spoken 
According to Klemfuss et al. (2012) language provides an important means for describing the 
contents of our conscious experience. It enables us to share our perceptual experiences, 
thoughts, and intentions with other individuals. Language is a great determinant of effective 
communication and it shapes the ideas of man (Whorf, 1956). The individual in the 
interaction should be able to communicate effectively in a language that the recipient 
understands so as to get correct feedback from the recipient. Language is therefore an 
important determinant in the interaction between the police and drivers and as such, a 
discussion of the language spoken by drivers was important for this study.  
 
From the data, 43% of the drivers indicated that they speak Akan. This was followed by 22% 
who indicated Ga as the language they speak; 17% were fluent in Ewe language; 13% speak 
Gur and 6% speak Guan. The greater portion of the police (38%) also indicated that they are 
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more fluent in the Akan language. This was followed by 25% who indicated they speak Ewe 
with 22% indicating that they speak Ga. Next to that was 10% who indicated that they speak 
Gur and lastly, 5% who indicated that they speak Guan. This results goes on to support the 
ethnic plurality of Ghana with Akans forming the greater section of the Ghanaian population. 
 
5.3 NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DRIVERS AND POLICE 
Interaction has a great impact on the reactions of individuals. If the nature of interaction 
between actors is hostile, it could have an impact on the outcome of the interaction. It was 
therefore important for the researcher to explore the nature of interaction that exists between 
the drivers and the police so as to help identify the possible impact of these interactions have 
on the enforcement of traffic laws in Ghana. 
 
When drivers were asked to state some of the statements or reactions that they often hear 
from the police when the police stop them, the following response were obtained. Many 
(43%) indicated ―Hey, why did you stop here‖; followed by 26% who indicated ―You people 
are too troublesome‖; 23% indicated ―why can‘t you obey simple rules‖; while 8% said they 
often hear the police say indicated ―we will continue to pressure you till you do the right 
thing‖. These statements depict frustrated actors. It could also show the preconceived ideas 
that the police have about commercial drivers. According to the police, commercial drivers 
are fond of intentionally violating traffic regulation without any tangible reasons 
(Apostolopoulos, 2011) hence the reaction of the police towards them. In most of the 
observations, the police were left frustrated by the indiscriminate violation of the traffic laws 
and regulation as evidenced in a remark from an officer;  
You people, so can‘t you abide by these simple rules, hey (referring to one 
officer), let all the passengers alit and lead those drivers to the station. We will 
not forgive any of them. We will take them to court. Take them away. Nobody 
should come here with an excuse. We know you and those flimsy excuses. 
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However, the police intimated that listening to drivers who have violated traffic regulations is 
essential due to the fact that drivers could engage in a violation for some tangible reasons 
such as ill health or when the car develops a fault. 
 
Analysis of the response of drivers on whether they think the police are always right when 
they stop them revealed the following findings. The majority (68%) indicated ―Yes‖ whiles 
the remaining 32% said ―No‖. This therefore means that the majority of the drivers in the 
study do agree with the fact that the police, in most cases, are right when they stop them. 
Meanwhile, the field observations portray a mixed reaction. Most drivers who were stopped 
at the main highway demonstrated a disapproving behaviour by murmuring and throwing 
their hands in the air whiles others were silent behind their seats when they were stopped. 
One driver remarked; ―Oh, but we know why you are here. Why should you (Police) stop us 
in the middle of a highway? Yes we agree you have the right but I don‘t support this. If it 
were not that my name will be in their bad book I would have driven away‖.   
 
The drivers who were of the view that the police are right when they stop them basically gave 
two main reasons for their answers. A greater portion of them (72%) indicated that the police 
are right whenever they stop them because they are mandated by the laws of the country to do 
so and the remaining 28% also gave the reason that the police are to check them to do the 
right thing when they are driving on the roads of Ghana. Thus, majority of drivers who 
agreed with the fact that the police are right in stopping them believe that the laws of Ghana 
have empowered police officers to do so. I, therefore, argue that, most of these drivers 
respond when they are stopped by the police because they respect the constitutional mandate 
of the Police and also would wish to be viewed as law abiding citizens. 
  
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Figure 1: Distribution of drivers on whether they think the police are right when they 
stop them 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
Drivers who were of the view that the police are not always right when they stop them also 
gave various reasons for their answers. The greater portion (48%) indicated that the police 
stop them sometimes without any reason, 36% stated that the police stop them sometimes 
only because they just want to extort money from them, another 10% were of the view that 
the police are not interested in enforcing traffic laws and lastly, 6% who said that the police 
discriminate against them. Thus drivers who disagree with the fact that the police are not 
always right when they stop them harboured some negative perception about the police. This 
is due to their belief that the police sometimes stop them without any tangible reason(s) and 
most at times just to extort money from them.  
 
An observation made by the researcher on the Madina- Adenta road supports this assertion. 
The researcher noticed that a police officer stopped about six commercial cars and two 
private cars at the Madina Zongo junction. The police officer then asked the drivers of the 
commercial vehicles to come out of their cars and wait for him whiles he went to talk to the 
drivers of the private vehicles. Whiles the police officer was talking to the private car drivers, 
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
Yes No
72%
28%
Do drivers think the police are always right when they 
stop them?
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the drivers of the commercial vehicles assembled in one place waiting for the officer. The 
researcher quickly rushed to the commercial drivers and asked them whether they have an 
idea why they have been stopped by the police officer and one driver replied, ―These police 
officer(s), they only stop us for no reason but only to extort money from us‖. The researcher 
then moved a distance away from the drivers and observed what was happening. When the 
officer returned after the private car drivers have moved away he requested for their driving 
licenses which they obliged. He then went behind one of the cars, came back, handed over 
their licenses to them and said ―go next time do not over speed‖.  When we got back to the 
car I asked the driver in the car why they did not explain their actions yet the police man 
allowed them to go and he replied ―what do you expect, we gave it to him (meaning they 
placed money in the license for him). The researcher then remarked ―but you did not do 
anything wrong so why waste such an amount?‖ The driver replied ―why? Do you think we 
want to sleep here?‖  
 
Short (2015)3 in an interview stated that we constantly see the police stopping cars most 
especially commercial vehicles and draw them to the side of the road. He added that when 
you talk with such drivers why the police stop them, they will tell you that the police stop 
them normally to extort money from them. My observation at the Atomic junction check 
point further support this assertion. The researcher observed that the police officer stopped 
about eight commercial vehicles but the police allowed almost all the private drivers to pass 
away without stopping them. When the commercial driver came back to sit in the car after he 
has gone to talk to the police officer, the researcher asked him why the police had stopped a 
lot of commercial vehicles but has allowed almost all the private vehicles to drive on without 
                                                          
3
Emile Short is the immediate past Commissioner of the Commission of Human Rights and Administrative 
Justice (CHRAJ). He made these remarks on Star FM in March 2015. 
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stopping them and the driver answered ―they say we often break traffic regulation and most 
of our cars do not have road worthy certificates so they often stop us and ignore the others.  
 
However, the reality is that they stop us just to take money from us‖. A passenger buttressed 
this point by saying that;―drivers accuse the traffic police of moving away from their core 
duty of enforcing road traffic regulations to the extortion of money from motorists‖. It was 
therefore not surprising that the majority of the drivers interviewed for the study indicated 
that the police stop commercial drivers more frequently than any other drivers. Further, the 
police are more likely to stop a male than a female and conduct a search. This was portrayed 
in most of my observations. In one of such observations, the researcher recorded this scenario 
in a bus at Adenta barrier. A private car passed by after the policeman had stopped us 
including the private car. It was a young lady. This is what transpired; 
Police: why did you do that? Didn‘t you see me stop all of you? Why? 
Lady: my brake failed me. That is why I passed by him to prevent collision. 
Police; do you have a driving license 
Lady: yes 
Police: let me have it. 
PSG1:  look at him, he is only doing something for us not to suspect anything, he will   
not do anything to her. He will surely allow her to go but if it were a male, only 
payment could set you free especially with what has happened. 
PSG2: ahhh these people (police) they give different treatment to different drivers. 
They usually pamper private and government car drivers. 
PSG3: I know they are very soft on women but strict on men. 
Trotro driver; whether male or female if it is a private car they are safe but 
commercial like mine, oh you will be sorry. 
 
The police allowed her to move and we followed. This clearly depicts the gender bias the 
police are constantly being accused of. Some drivers are very bold to inform the police of 
their wrongs. This is depicted in the following observation where a private driver intimated. 
I did so but the one behind me was very close. You cannot blame me. I was interested 
in what could have happened if I had applied the brake. In any case I stopped not 
because you said so but to inform the PO1 that what he did was dangerous. These are 
some of the things you do that results in the death of many innocent people. 
 
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It was also discovered that motorists, especially, private drivers who can make strong cases 
against the police and stand their grounds are allowed to go unpunished. This is exactly what 
happened when the private driver made the above comment. The police man allowed him to 
go leaving the others there.  
As a result the other drivers accused the police of discrimination and unfair treatment. The 
findings from the observations were also dominated by these accusations and counter 
accusations. A typical example is the comment from a commercial driver;  
See, you do not know these people (police) ehh. Two people can commit the same 
traffic offense at the same time but one can be allowed to go and the other left to his 
fate. I have witnessed this on countless occasions. They are very selective in the 
performance of their duties. They are always interested in what will benefit them first 
before they consider what we will call fairness or justice. 
 
The interesting thing is that even passengers share similar perceptions about police. As one 
passenger stated: 
This is an unfair treatment of the PD2and CD.  Why would you allow one to go and 
seize the keys of others? This is what we have been talking about. This is unfair. For 
us we are late, so say what you want to say so that we can go. If you do not have 
anything against them too, then give out their keys so that we can get out of here. 
Even though the unfair treatment meted out by the police to drivers may involve drivers of all 
kinds, commercial drivers see themselves as worse victims. In one of the observations, a 
commercial driver after being stopped and unduly delayed lamented: 
Hmm, these people see us as very different people. They claim we are the worst of all 
drivers in the country. Some police officers even claim that we violate traffic 
regulations more than any other category of drivers and that is why they treat us this 
way. But I am telling you today that some private drivers are worse. As for drivers of 
government vehicles they behave as if the traffic rules do not apply to them. Ehheeee 
did you not watch Anas‘s expose of that driver of a government bus? 
 
Generally, from the above discussions it is clear that from the perspective of the drivers, their 
relationship with the police is defined by unfairness, discrimination and biases. Drivers feel 
that the police treat some harshly whiles handling some and others with tender gloves. 
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Drivers think that the police do not apply the traffic laws uniformly and that they circumvent 
the law to suit their selfish interest. 
 
Majority of the police (75%) were of the view that they are always right when they stop 
drivers. The police personnel were of the view that they stop drivers because they are 
mandated by the laws of the country to ensure sanity on the road and to make sure that 
drivers do the right thing so as to prevent unnecessary accidents on the road. The remaining 
25%, however, were of the view that they are not always right when they stop drivers mainly 
because they do have the perception that commercial drivers are found of violating traffic 
regulations as well as not doing the right thing on the road. As a result of this perception, they 
sometimes stop drivers and realize that such drivers have everything in the right place and 
have not violated any regulation leading to an unnecessary and an unjustified delay of some 
drivers for no reason. 
 
Generally speaking based on the data, both motorists and the Police agree that the Police have 
the right to stop them. This finding confirms the survey reported by Eith & Durose (2011) on 
a special report of the contact between the police and the public. The responses provided by 
the respondents during the survey showed that most motorists and the public at large support 
the fact that police have the right to stop drivers, since this enhances their work as police 
officers and reduces crime and accidents on the road. Even though there is a consensus that 
the police have every right to stop drivers, the police in this regard did not take the safety of 
the public into considerations. In almost all the observations, the researcher noticed that 
vehicles were stopped abruptly without due course which had repercussions on the safety of 
the public. This outcome is synonymous to the finding reported by Schafer & Matroski 
(2005) who argued that the police did not factor the safety of the public when stopping cars. 
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The question of how the police treat drivers is an important one because it is largely absent in 
the literature. 46% of the drivers indicated that the police treat them well; 34%  indicated 
very well; and 15% and 5% were of the view that the police treat them ―bad‖ and ―very bad‖ 
respectively on the roads (Fig. 2). This means that in the view of majority of the drivers the 
treatment being meted out to them by the Traffic Police is not bad. That is, to a large extent, 
they believe that the police threat them in a good manner. 
Figure 2: Distribution of respondents by how the police threat them 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
There is no doubt that the extent to which people interact with one another in the society has 
an influence on the way such people will collaborate with one another in the achievement of 
their social goals. If the nature of interaction between groups is hostile, it could have an 
impact on the way those groups will be willing to cooperate to achieve the goals that they 
have set for themselves. It was therefore important to measure the nature of interaction that 
exist between the police and drivers on the road so as to help the researcher see whether they 
nature of such relationship is an influencing factor when it comes to the enforcement of 
traffic laws in Ghana.  
46%
34%
15%
5%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
Good very Good Badly Very bad
How do the police threat you?
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When drivers were asked to describe the nature of interaction that exist between them and the 
police, 48% indicated that the nature of interaction between them and the police is cordial, 
22% indicated that it is hostile, this was followed by 20% who were of the view that their 
interaction with the police is a very cordial one, and lastly 10 % who were of the view that 
the nature of interaction that exist between them and the police is very hostile (Fig. 3). This 
therefore means that in the view of majority of the drivers, they interact in a cordial manner 
with the police.  
Figure 3: Distribution of drivers by the nature of interaction between them and the 
police 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Drivers gave various reasons for the answers they indicated with regards to the nature of 
interaction between them and the police. Drivers who were of the view that the nature of their 
interaction with the police is cordial basically gave two main reasons for their answers. The 
greater portion of them (78%) stated that the police listen to them, and the remaining 22% 
also stated that the police regard them as partners in enforcing traffic rules and regulation on 
the road. Thus these drivers were of the view that the police relate to them in a cordial 
manner mainly because the police always listen to them and sometimes direct them and 
48%
22%
20%
10%
Describe the nature of interaction between you and the 
police
Cordial
Hostile
Very cordial
Very hostile
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enlighten them on some of the traffic laws and regulation that they might not be familiar 
with. 
 
Drivers who indicated that the nature of interaction between them and the police is hostile 
also gave different reasons for their answer. Majority of them (84%) stated that the reason for 
their response is due to the fact that the police shout at them and the remaining 16% also 
stated that the police treat them inhumanely. Thus these drivers were of the view that the way 
and manner the police treat them and sometimes shout at them with slightest provocation or 
mistakes they commit makes them think that the police do not relate to them in the best way 
and as such they will describe the nature of interaction between them and the police as a 
hostile one. 
 
Divers who indicated that the nature of interaction between them and the police is very 
cordial also gave different reasons why they chose that option. Analysis of the response of 
drivers who were of the view that the nature of interaction between them and the police is a 
very cordial one revealed that majority of them representing 74% indicated that the police 
listen to them, next to that was 16% who also stated that the police understands them and 
lastly 10% who were of the view that the police humbly take in their suggestion and respect 
their views. These drivers describe the nature of interaction between them and the Police as 
very cordial mainly because the police treat them with the maximum respect and sometimes 
humbly accept their views on some of the issues regarding the enforcement of traffic laws on 
the road. 
 
Drivers who stated that the nature of interaction between them and the police is very hostile 
also gave different reasons for their answer. When the response of these drivers were 
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analysed, it revealed that majority of them (80%) stated that the police regard them as law 
breakers and the remaining 20% also stated that the police see them as people whose 
intentions are to refuse to obey simple rules and instructions. This suggests that drivers have 
not been adhering to the traffic laws in the country. 
 
Figure 4: Distribution of drivers by reasons why they think the nature of interaction 
between them and the police is very cordial 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Data from the Police in Table 4 on the other hand indicate that a greater portion of them, 
(38.3%) indicated that they see the nature of interaction between drivers and the police as a 
hostile one and the reasons being that they have to apply force in their interaction with drivers 
before they comply and also, drivers think that the police are only interested in extorting 
money from them rather than helping them. A quarter on the other hand, stated that the nature 
of their interaction between them and the drivers is a cordial one and the reasons they gave 
was that the drivers corporate with them and also drivers ask question politely when they 
want some clarification from the police. A fifth was of the view that the interaction between 
them and drivers is very hostile because they force drivers to comply with simple rules and 
regulations and also drivers speak aggressively to them. The remaining 16.7% described the 
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
They listen to 
us
They 
understand us
They humbly 
take our 
suggestions
74%
16% 10%
Reasons given by drivers as to why they think the nature of 
interaction between them and the police is very cordial
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nature of interaction between them and the police as a very cordial one and the reasons they 
gave was that drivers are always willing to stop and accept corrections from them and also 
drivers engage in meaningful interactions with them and give them the maximum respect 
they demand.  
Table 4: Distribution of the police by the nature of interaction between them and the 
drivers 
 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Very hostile 14 23.3 
Hostile 23 38.3 
Cordial 13 21.7 
Very cordial 10 16.7 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60 
 
This means that majority of the Police agree that the nature of interaction that they have with 
drivers is one that is characterized by some form of hostilities mainly because they have the 
perception that drivers see them as people who are not concerned about their welfare and as 
such the police has to use force to compel drivers to comply with the road traffic regulations. 
This run counter with the finding from the drivers who see a cordial and cooperative 
relationship though the observation indicated otherwise. It is in this regard that Iddrisu (2010) 
urged the police to intensify their efforts in enforcing laws and fighting crime rather than 
extorting money from drivers on the road. He added that, some police officers are only 
interested in the pittance they take from drivers by way of extortion rather than concentrating 
on the core issues for which they were employed by the state. 
 
All the sixty police personnel that answered the questionnaires indicated that the nature of 
interaction have effect on traffic law enforcement. They gave several reasons for their 
responses; their interaction with the drivers enable them to know the problems of drivers; it 
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triggers positive road safety campaign and finally bad interaction between them and the 
drivers stifles the efforts of the police in law enforcement. The results show that the nature of 
interaction between the police and drivers has implications for traffic laws enforcement 
which is in consonance with the findings of Teye-Kwadjo (2011) who found that any 
deficiency in the traffic law enforcements e.g., risk taking, disposition of the road user and 
uncouth behaviour from drivers is thought to have a repercussion on effective traffic law 
enforcements. 
 
An observation made by the researcher at Adenta barrier supports this assertion. The 
researcher observed that two police officers were directing the traffic at Adenta barrier and 
one officer suddenly raised his hand up to stop a commercial vehicle and a private driver 
simultaneously but the two drivers did not stop immediately but they went quite a distance 
and parked. The second police officer approached both the commercial and private driver and 
asked them why they did not stop immediately the first officer raised up his hand. One driver 
humbly remarked that, if he had stopped immediately the police raised his hand it could have 
caused an accident because they were speeding and applying the brakes immediately could 
have been disastrous. The officer said ―if you had observed the head-on-interval that is 
supposed to exist between cars, you would have been able to stop at the first instance but 
nevertheless it was a good idea that you did not stop since that could have resulted in an 
accident but next time minimize your speed and also try and observe the normal interval‖. 
The drivers said thank you to the officer and went away without being told why they were 
stopped initially.  
Reciprocity 
There are also some exchanges of items and services between drivers and police in the course 
of their interaction. This is where drivers willingly or unwillingly supply some specific police 
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officers with items such as food, drinks, recharge cards and money. Two drivers divulged this 
to the researcher at Zongo junction when they had parked their cars and were waiting for 
passengers. When the researcher engaged one of them in a conversation, this was his 
response;  
Oh that man, I know him. He is called check-check (meaning fast food), if you fail to 
give or buy him something then rest assured that he will arrest you and send you 
away. As for me, I buy him food (check-check) every weekend when he comes here. 
In view of this he will pretend he has not seen me. He has also informed his 
colleagues about me so they too will not bother me. Oh yes they don‘t worry me when 
I stop here and pick passengers‖. 
 
In the process of this interaction, drivers and police also engage in nonverbal communication 
in order to conceal their activities from the public. On the field, one driver commented;  
Why? You want to see it. You know this is illegal so there is no way we will make it 
public. But you know that these are some of the things that help us in our job. It is 
hand go, hand come. We give them and they allow us to operate. Most of us will be 
unable to make sales if these exchanges do not take place. 
 
This finding is no different from other findings. Klocker et al. (2000) reported that motorists 
are fond of bribing officers with materials so that they can violate traffic rules without being 
arrested. Tankabe (2010) indicates that, these exchanges are partly the cause of impunity on 
the roads in Ghana. Police-drivers interaction is also characterized by the use of jargons 
notably the names given to the cedi notes as depicted in a conversation in a mini bus when we 
were approaching a police barrier; 
Driver: mate, give me 2 cedis and the mate handed it over. 
PSG1; don‘t they take the blood anymore? 
Driver replied: if only you do not want to continue with your journey then give them 
blood to drink. They say they have graduated from drinking blood to digging gold. 
PSG2: Hmmmm a driver told me sometimes they ask you to take them to the sky or to 
the bush. 
RS: Eiiii, what do you mean by all these? 
PSG3: oh so you have not heard this before? 
RS: no, not at all. 
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PSG2: ok it‘s simple. When they mention blood it means 1cedi, gold means 2cedis, 
sky means 5cedis, and forest or bush means 10cedis 
PSG4: interesting, so how did they come by all these names? 
PSG2: they named the Ghana cedi notes after the colours of some natural resources in 
Ghana. The 1cedi is red, 2cedis yellow, 5cedis blue and 10cedis green representing 
blood, gold, sky and forest respectively. 
Researcher observed that in order to undertake this illegal activity the police and drivers need 
to have terms that they only understand hence the invention of an unspoken code.  
 
5.4 THE ATTITUDE OF THE POLICE TOWARDS MOTORISTS 
As part of the objectives of the study, the researcher sought to find out what kind of attitude 
the police portray to motorist on the road. The nature of attitude that the police portray to 
motorists could have an influence on the extent to which the motorist would like to cooperate 
with the police in enforcing traffic regulations in the country. 
When drivers were asked which type of vehicle they think the police normally stop on the 
road: 40% indicated commercial vehicle; this was followed by 30% who indicated private 
vehicles; 20% indicated government vehicles and lastly; 10% indicated diplomatic cars 
(Table 5). 
Table 5: Distribution of drivers by the type of vehicle the police often stop. 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Government vehicles 24 20.0 
Private vehicles 36 30.0 
Commercial vehicles 48 40.0 
Diplomatic vehicles 12 10.0 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
When the police were asked, as to which vehicles they often stop, the following responses 
were obtained as shown in Table 6; they offered a vastly different opinion. The  
majority(75%) stated commercial vehicles and gave some reasons like, commercial vehicles 
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engage in careless driving and are more likely to violate traffic laws than other drivers. 18% 
indicated private drivers, mainly because most of them drive without licenses. This was 
followed by 5% who were of the view that they often stop government vehicles and the 
reason being that some of them drive without caution because they have the perception that 
they are driving government vehicles and lastly, 2% sated diplomatic drivers because 
diplomatic vehicles sometime think they are immune to the laws.  
Table 6: Distribution of the police by which vehicle they often stop 
 
Which of the following vehicles do you often stop 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Government vehicle 3 5.0 
Private vehicle 11 18.3 
Commercial vehicle 45 75.0 
Diplomatic vehicle 1 1.7 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60 
 
As part of the objectives of the study to establish the attitude of the police towards motorist, 
the police were asked to state which drivers are more likely to violate traffic regulations and 
the following were the response that were obtained. The greater portion, 94%, indicated that 
commercial drivers are most likely to violate traffic rules than any other driver. The reasons 
they gave were that commercial drivers are always in a hurry to pick passengers so that they 
can make their daily sales. 4% indicated private drivers with the remaining 2% indicating 
government vehicles. One can infer from this that the police normally stop commercial 
vehicles mainly because they have the perception that commercial drivers are more likely to 
violate traffic regulation than any other drivers.  
 
When drivers were asked to state the type of drivers that are likely to violate traffic 
regulations on the roads, half stated  that commercial drivers are most likely to violate traffic 
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offenses, 30% on the other hand indicated private drivers, 15% stated government vehicles 
and lastly 5% stated diplomatic vehicles (Table 7). This is in line with the assertion of Teye- 
Kwadjo (2013) and Efaah (2015). Thus, both drivers and the police all agree to the assertion 
that commercial drivers are likely to violate traffic laws than other drivers on the road. 
Table 7: Distribution of drivers of vehicle who are most likely to violate traffic offences 
In your opinion which of the drivers of the following vehicles is mostly likely to 
violate traffic laws? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Government vehicles 18 15.0 
Private vehicles 36 30.0 
Commercial vehicles 60 50.0 
Diplomatic vehicles 6 5.0 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
The majority of the police (85%) agreed with the assertion that the police treat drivers 
differently and the reasons they gave for their responses were that some drivers are not 
cooperative in the enforcement of traffic laws and the fact that their past experience and 
encounter with drivers of different vehicle compel them to treat drivers differently. The 
remaining 15%, on the other hand, disagreed with that assertion as they were of the view that 
the police do not treat drivers differently but rather the police treat all drivers in same manner 
and with the same kind of respect (Table 8). This finding is in contrast with the survey of Epp 
& Maynard-Moody (2014) who found that American police treat all citizens fairly. Thus, the 
police in Ghana, according to this survey treat drivers differently. 
 
 
 
 
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Table 8: Distribution of police by whether they give equal treatment to all drivers? 
Do you give all drivers equal treatment? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 51 85.0 
No 9 15.0 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60 
 
Table 9: Distribution of drivers by whether they agree with the assertion that the police 
treat commercial drivers differently from other drivers 
Do you agree with the assertion that the police treat other drivers 
differently from commercial drivers? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 74 61.7 
No 46 38.3 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
As part of the objective of the study to know the attitude of the police towards motorist, 
drivers were given the opportunity to express their opinion on the attitude of the police 
towards them on the road and the following responses were obtained. Majority of the drivers 
( 53%) stated that the attitude of the police towards them is positive, this was followed by 
37% who indicated that it is negative and 10% on the other hand indicated that it was neutral 
(Table 10). Thus, to a large extent, most of the drivers view the attitude of the police towards 
them to be a positive one. 
 
 
 
 
  
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Table 10: Distribution of drivers by the attitude of the police towards drivers 
 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Positive 64 53.3 
Negative 44 36.7 
Neutral 12 10.0 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Even though the police are to ensure that drivers comply with the traffic laws and regulation 
on the road, they are not supposed to infringe on the rights of offenders even if they go 
against the traffic regulations in one way or the other. When the responses of drivers on how 
the police protect the rights of traffic offenders were analysed, the following results were 
obtained (Figure 5). Many  respondents, 42%, indicated that the way the police protect the 
rights of traffic offenders is bad (their rights are not respected), this was followed by 33% 
who on the other hand indicated good ( their rights are respected). Next to this was 15% who 
were of the view that the way the police protects the rights of traffic offenders is very bad ( 
their rights are abused) and finally 10% who indicated that the police are very good in 
protecting the rights of traffic offenders. It was therefore not surprising that most of the 
drivers sampled for the study indicated that the way the police protect the rights of traffic 
offenders is bad, as found in the work of Stoutland (2001).   
The relationship between the public and the police in implementing road safety rules were 
also ascertained. 42% of the police were of the view that the relationship between the police 
and the public in implementing traffic rules is a good one. This was followed by 25% who 
indicated that it is a fair relationship. 20% however, were of the view that the relationship 
between the public and the police in implementing traffic rules is a bad one and lastly 13% 
who indicated that the relationship is a very good one. Obirikorang (2012) asserts that the 
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Ghana Police is one of the friendliest forces in Africa for their tolerance and patience in 
explaining issues to citizens. He argues that the Ghanaian police are kind and polite to 
citizens and treat them with maximum respect in the process of discharging their duties. 
Figure 5: Distribution of drivers by how the police protect the rights of traffic offenders 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
5.5 SUMMARY 
This unit has presented an analysis of data and discussions on: The socio-demographic 
characteristics of respondents; the nature of interaction between the motorists and the police; 
and the attitudes of the police towards the motorists. It was also discussed in this unit that: 
Commercial drivers are more likely to violate traffic regulations; Commercial drivers are 
more likely to be stopped by the police; Police discriminate in their dealing with different 
vehicle drivers as well as the police demonstrating a positive attitude towards drivers. 
 
 
 
15%
42%
33%
10%
How the police protect the rights of traffic offenders
Very bad
Bad
Good
Very Good
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CHAPTER SIX 
POLICE CORRUPTION AND KNOWLEDGE OF TRAFFIC LAW 
ENFORCEMENT 
6.0 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter discusses three specific objectives of the study namely: The predisposing factors 
of the alleged corruptibility of the police; police and drivers knowledge on traffic regulations 
and its possible effect on traffic enforcement; and the possible effects of bribery and 
corruption on effective traffic law enforcements. It also presents and discusses the hypothesis 
of the study. 
 
6.1 THE PREDISPOSING FACTORS OF THE ALLEGED CORRUPTIBILITY OF 
THE TRAFFIC POLICE 
According to Stoutland (2001), the police in most African countries have been accused of 
being corrupt especially on the road due to the fact that the public have the perception that the 
police always accept gifts and money from people who violate traffic regulation and set them 
free instead of prosecuting them (Stoutland, 2001). This perception in the minds of the public 
seems to create a bad image about the police which sometimes makes the public disrespect 
some police personnel. It was therefore important for the researcher to find out first whether 
the corruption allegations leveled against the police by drivers in previous research ie. 
Tankebe (2010) is true or not. 
 
A greater portion of police respondents (53.3%) agreed that the traffic police accept bribes 
and renege on their duties. The remaining 46.7% claim that they have heard the allegation but 
they think that it is perpetrated by few unscrupulous individuals in the service. 
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Table 11: Distribution of the police by whether they have heard of the allegation that 
drivers who violate traffic regulations persuade them to accept gifts and give up on their 
prosecution 
Have you heard of the allegation that drivers who violate traffic 
regulations persuade you to accept gifts to make you give up on 
their prosecutions? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 32 53.3 
No 28 46.7 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
Almost all the drivers (96%) indicated that the police extort money from them on daily bases 
even when nothing has been done wrong. One statement from a driver confirms this during 
the observation;  
there is a saying that if you are a driver especially commercial and a policeman or 
woman want to find fault on you, surely he she will find so it is better we succumb to 
their demands before they take us to the station and unduly delay your time. For us it 
is rare to argue with a police officer because our work is so demanding that we do not 
have the luxury of time to engage in arguments. Yes most private drivers do not pay 
because they can have time and argue their case out. 
 
The police and drivers were then asked if drivers are those that engineer this act. A greater 
portion of the police personnel, 92%, agreed to the fact that drivers play a role in the alleged 
corruptibility of the police. These police were of the view that, drivers persuade them to 
accept money and set them free when they violate traffic regulations. They also argued that 
some of the drivers who have connection with influential people also use those connections to 
outwit them and as such the police sometimes have no other option than to compromise 
themselves. The remaining 8% on the other hand, disagreed with the assertion that drivers 
contribute to the alleged corruptibility of the police and their reason was that police personnel 
should always exhibit professionalism at all levels no matter the situation. 
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Figure 6: Distribution of police by whether drivers contribute to the alleged 
corruptibility of the police 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60 
 On whether they contribute to this illegality, 60% of the drivers said yes. The remaining 40% 
said no but followed it up with an explanation that best fit their involvement. It stands to 
reason, therefore, that they aware they engage in such act but do not agree they are the 
engineers. 
 
For majority of the drivers (76.7%), a police has asked them for money following the 
violation of a traffic regulation. On the other hand, only 23.3% who disagreed with that 
assertion and stated that the police have never demanded money from them before upon the 
violation of any traffic rules. This therefore means that a greater number of the drivers have 
in one way or the other had an encounter with a police personnel who instead of either 
directing the driver to do the right thing or probably prosecuting an offender of traffic 
violation, rather demands some amount of money and allow the offender to escape the law.  
 
 
92%
8%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Yes No
Do you agree that drivers play a key role in the alleged 
corruptibility of the police
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Table 12: Distribution of drivers by whether any police personnel has requested money 
from them before following the violation of nay traffic rules 
Has any police personnel requested money from you before 
following the violation of any traffic rules? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 92 76.7 
No 28 23.3 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
According to Ikoh, Iyamba & Charles (2005) corruption can be seen as act of offering and 
accepting of bribes by an officer before performing the legitimately recognised duty, most 
especially as it involves police/drivers interaction on highway roadblocks. Following the 
concept of Ikoh, Iyamba & Charles (2005), conclusion can be drawn from this survey that 
drivers play a role in the alleged corruptibility of the police. This is because they accept 
paying bribe to the police after violating traffic laws before a police legitimate action. Thus, 
the results support the concept of Ikoh, Iyamba & Charles (2005). In general, it can be said 
that the allegation on the part of people that drivers who violate traffic regulations persuade 
the police to accept gifts and give up on their prosecution is true, as it agrees with the 
findings of Inyang & Ubong (2013) who postulate that both drivers and the police are to be 
blamed for the illegal act. 
 
On the prosecution of drivers even after they have offered bribe to the police, majority of the 
police representing 68% stated that, they have indeed prosecuted drivers on traffic offense 
even after the driver has persuaded him or her to accept money and set them free. The 
remaining 32% on the other hand indicated that they have never prosecuted any  driver for 
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traffic offense  after the driver persuaded them with money and as such, one can infer from 
this that these police personnel after accepting the money from these drivers give up on their 
prosecution. This finding portrays a police trying to ensure effective traffic law enforcement 
in Ghana. The police are always encouraged to exhibit professionalism in their duties so as to 
ensure compliance and also help save the lives of citizens. Awuni (2013)4urged the police to 
enforce traffic regulation without fear or favour. He said, ―We have a task to ensure safety of 
Ghanaians and the only way we can do that is to strictly enforce the laws; so act without fear 
or favour and some of us are prepared to defend you when you are rightly enforcing the law,‖ 
Prosecution limits traffic offenses in the country, according to Elvik & Christensen (2007), 
drivers who violate traffic rules must be prosecuted and their findings show that most drivers 
have been prosecuted even when they wanted to bribe the police officers. This finding 
affirms the report of Elvik & Christensen (2007) who argued that most police officers reject 
bribes and rather use it as evidence against drivers. 
 
Table 13: Distribution of police by whether they have prosecuted a driver for a traffic 
offence even after the driver persuaded you with money. 
Have you ever prosecuted a driver for a traffic offence even after the driver 
persuaded you with money 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 41 68.3 
No 19 31.7 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
In an attempt to establish the effects of corruption on the enforcement of traffic regulation, 
drivers were asked whether they have ever been prosecuted for a traffic violation after they 
have paid off the police officer and the following response were obtained; 
                                                          
4Angwubutoge Awuni is the Assistant Commissioner of the police and the Commander of the 
Motor Traffic and Transport Unit in Ghana. He made these remarks in a programme dubbed 
―You and the Police‖ on TV3 on the 5th of February 2013. 
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 Almost all the drivers (98%) stated that they have never been prosecuted by any police 
officer for any traffic violation after they have offered some amount of money to the police 
officer for the offense they have committed. It was only 2% of drivers who stated that they 
have ever been prosecuted by police officers even after they have paid some amount of 
money to the police officer for the violation of traffic regulation. From this result, one can 
infer that bribery and corruption has a negative effect on the enforcement of traffic 
regulations on the road due to the fact that drivers who have got some little amount of money 
to offer to a police officer will continue to violate traffic regulations without the fear of facing 
any prosecution at the law court. On the other hand, however, if most drivers are sent to court 
and prosecuted for the violation of traffic regulations, it will deter people from breaking 
traffic laws. Since most of these drivers have a perception that a police officer can always be 
paid off after the violation of a traffic regulation, they will continue to violate traffic 
regulations without any fear which in the long run affects the enforcement of traffic 
regulations on the road. 
 
Drivers were further asked whether their ability to escape the law by paying bribe to a police 
officer has encouraged them for further violation of traffic regulations. In the response, the 
majority of the drivers (94%) stated that indeed their ability to pay off police officers upon 
the violation of traffic regulations have encouraged them to further violate traffic regulations 
mainly because by offering money to a police officer to set them free upon traffic violation, 
they felt insulated against the laws and sometimes think they are above the law. The 
remaining 4% on the hand indicated that their ability to pay off an officer does not encourage 
them for continuous violation of traffic regulations because they do not break traffic 
regulation intentionally since some of these violations could lead to death. 
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When the response of drivers on how often they encounter the MTTU/D police on the road 
was analysed, the following findings were obtained. Majority of the drivers representing 
37.5% stated that they encounter the MTTU/D police daily, 26.7% indicated once every other 
week, next to this was 24.2% who indicated once a week and finally by 11.7% who were of 
the view that they encounter the MTTU/D police monthly (Table 15). This therefore means 
that most of the drivers encounter the MTTU/D police on daily basis. The MTTU/D police is 
the division of the police that is responsible for ensuring compliance of traffic laws on the 
road and therefore they are found almost all the time on the roads so as to ensure that traffic 
law offenders face the necessary punishment as stated by the laws of the country. Therefore it 
was not surprising that most of the divers sampled for the study indicated that they encounter 
MTTU/D police almost every day on the road.   
 
Table 14: Distribution of drivers by how often they encounter the MTTU/D police 
How often do you encounter the MTTU/D police? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Everyday 45 37.5 
Once a week 29 24.2 
Once every other week 32 26.7 
Monthly 14 11.7 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Drivers were also asked whether they have any connection (relation or friendship) with the 
police. 62.5% indicated that they do have some connection with the police in one way or the 
other. Such connections include nuclear family members, distant relatives, distant friends, 
close friends and close relatives. The remaining 37.5% on the other hand indicated that they 
do not have any connections with the police (Table 15). 
  
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Table 15: Distribution of drivers by whether they have any connection with police? 
Do you have any connections as in friendship or kinship, at all 
with the police? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 75 62.5 
No 45 37.5 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Drivers were also given the opportunity to express their views on whether their association 
with such persons has enabled him or her to indiscriminately violate traffic rules without 
being majority of the respondents (74%) stated that indeed their association with the police 
has helped them in some situation to violate traffic rules without being punished.  
Figure 7: Distribution of drivers by whether their association with any police officer has 
helped them indiscriminately violates traffic rules 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
 
74%
26%
Has your association with any police personnel enabled 
you to indiscriminately violate traffic rules?
Yes
No
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A personal observation made by the researcher at the Kwabenya check point supports this 
line of argument. The researcher observed that a police officer stopped a commercial car in 
which the researcher was a passenger. The police walked to the driver and asked him to 
produce his documents. The driver looked the police officer in the face and said ― eiikoo, is 
that you? It has been a while‖. The police officer then took a critical look at the driver and 
responded ―Oh Yaw, I did not notice you oo‖. ―I am fine my brother, I was transferred to a 
village in the northern region but now I am back. So has Bernice delivered?‖ The driver 
responded in the affirmative. The police officer said; ―then extends my greetings to her‖. 
After the conversation ended, the officer allowed the driver to move on without checking the 
documents. This indicates that the driver‘s social connection with the police officer helped 
him to escape the checking of his documents. 
 
Also, in another scenario, the researcher sat in a commercial vehicle at Zongo junction 
heading towards Accra. The driver of the vehicle asked the mate (driver‘s assistant) to open 
the door and call passengers to come and sit down for them to set off. The mate replied to the 
driver that there is a police officer standing there who will come and immediately arrest them 
if he opens the door because the car is not parked at a bus stop. Some of the passengers 
started shouting that the driver should move the car or the mate should open the door and take 
some passenger and be prepared to face the consequences. The driver shouted at the mate ―I 
said you should open the door for the passengers‖. The mate opened the door and the police 
officer raised his hand and shouted ―hey move the car!!!‖ Some of the passengers started 
shouting at the driver asking him whether he did not hear what the officer said. The driver 
responded that the passengers should not worry because that police man is a good family 
friend from his hometown and that explains the reason why the officer did not walk straight 
to the car and arrest them but instead shouted that they should move the car. 
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From the above responses and observation, some of the factors that predispose the police to 
accept bribes and engage in corruption are pressures from drivers, family ties, friendship, 
ethnic origin and the individual behaviour of police officers.  
 
On the predisposing factors of the police corruption, both the police and drivers were asked 
what causes it. The response of the police were; pressure from drivers, pressure from friends 
and family members, nuclear family obligation which they thought the pay is not enough to 
deal with and money for transportation to duty points.  
 
The drivers, though they gave similar factors as the police respondents, added other factors. 
They are inadequate pay for the officers, transportation challenges, non-supply of uniform to 
police officers, and officers‘ individual selfish behaviour. All the responses from both the 
police and the drivers were captured in three comments from some drivers during the 
observation. One driver said; 
Hmm as for the police some are very selfish so no matter the pay they get they will 
still extort drivers. As for such people no matter the way you beg them, they will 
collect something from you. But I think their pay is small and may be that is why one 
superior will give out a motorbike to an officer and expect him to make sales at the 
end of the day. Ehhhh!!! I have also heard from one officer that they buy the uniform 
themselves when what they are wearing get spoilt or faded which is provided when 
you pass out of training or given every four years. 
 
Another driver commented;  
See, just as the sales we make and pressure from family members and friends 
influences us to beg and then bribe the police, I think they are also facing the same 
situation. Thiers is even worse because a woman can tell the husband that look at your 
colleagues in the same public sector with you, they are riding in cars and you do not 
have anything to show for your hard work. You do not get up and do something for 
yourself before you die.  
 
The third driver told me that; 
ahh the Ghana police is very corrupt. They are nowadays not even shy to take the 
bribe from us in the full glare of the public eye. Did you not hear it that last two years 
in Madinahere, one police officer forced the greater Accra regional police commander 
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to give her money? It is so sad but I do not blame them. They say their pay is small, 
they live in deplorable places and their family members are all looking up to them. 
But you see some of them even if you give them the highest pay , they will still take 
bribe, it is part of them now. I also think that their uniforms, their transportation 
should be provided so that they can at least minimize their act.  
 
 
6.2 KNOWLEDGE ON TRAFFIC REGULATIONS BY BOTH MOTORISTS AND 
POLICE AND ITS POSSIBLE EFFECT ON TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT 
Having an in-depth knowledge about traffic regulations to a large extent enables the motorist 
to know what to do and what not to do at a particular point in time. This in the long run 
ensures compliance as both motorist and the police will be aware of what is expected of them 
as far as the laws are concerned. It was therefore necessary for the researcher to determine 
whether respondents had basic ideas about traffic regulations and the possible effects that 
their knowledge on traffic regulations can have on traffic enforcement.  
 
The researcher therefore asked drivers to list some of the traffic regulations they know and 
respondents listed quite a number of different traffic violations that they know. It was 
however realized that many of the drivers (42%) listed driving without licenses, this was 
followed by 34% who listed packing at unauthorized places on the road, 11% listed driving 
without observing traffic lights, 8% listed overloading and over speeding, 5% listed taking 
excessive alcohol whiles driving (Fig 9). Since drivers were able to at least mention four 
traffic regulations, it shows that to a large extent they have a good idea about traffic 
regulations. 
  
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Figure 8: Distribution of drivers based on some traffic regulations that they know off. 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
Just like the drivers, the researcher asked the police personnel to list some of the offenses that 
they know so as to enable the researcher find out the extent to which the police have a good 
idea about traffic regulation.  
The data showed that32% of the police listed driving without a license; this was followed by 
28% who listed over speeding; and next to this was 15% who listed driving without 
observing traffic lights. 10% listed driving without seat belts whiles 8% listed packing at 
unauthorized places and finally 7% listed driving on the shoulders of the road (Fig 9). 
Though a greater portion of the police were able to correctly identify at least six traffic 
regulations, it should also be noted that quite a significant portion of the police officer do not 
have a good knowledge about traffic regulations as some of the police officer were not able to 
list even four traffic regulations. An observation made by the researcher when he boarded a 
taxi from Madina to Adenta confirmed this assertion. While the taxi driver approached 
Adenta barrier, a police officer who was checking the road worthiness of cars stopped the taxi 
42%
8%
32%
11%
5%
Some traffic regulations listed by drivers
Driving without a 
liences
Over loading and over 
speeding
Packing at 
unauthorized places on 
the road
Driving without 
Observing traffic lights
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driver and asked him to park along the road. The researcher then asked the taxi driver if he 
has any idea as to why he has been stopped by the police officer and the taxi driver replied, I 
am sure it is because of my income tax. The researcher then asked the taxi driver why he has 
not filed his income tax and the driver replied that he has filed it but has not pasted it because 
he wanted to take his time to scrap the old one off before placing the new one there. The 
officer then said ―master step out of the car and give me your keys‖.  
 
The researcher then told the police officer that the driver has filed his income tax so he has 
not committed any offense just to stimulate the conversation. The police officer shouted at 
the researcher saying ―will you shut up and sit down quietly in the car, am I talking to you?‖ 
The researcher asked the police, did the law say that drivers should file and paste their 
income tax receipt on their cars or did the law say they should just file their income tax 
quarterly? The police officer stood for some few minutes and said; ―you this driver, you have 
been saved by that passenger but I will surely get you next time‖. One can infer from this 
that, some police officers are not conversant with some traffic regulations on the road. This is 
because the law only requires car owners and drivers to file their quarterly taxes but was 
silent on whether it should be pasted or not. It also implies that police officers take advantage 
of drivers who are ignorant of the traffic regulations. 
  
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Figure 9: Distribution of the police based on some traffic regulations 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
Studies indicate that speeding, drunk driving and fatigued driving are three of the top four 
factors listed as contributing factors to road crashes by Australian motorists (Pennay, 2008). 
According to Elvik & Vaa (2004), speeding remains by far the most common traffic 
infringement with most drivers ignoring posted speed limits with impunity. The survey by 
Elvik & Vaa (2004) is consistent with this study, as reported that majority of traffic violations 
and fatalities are as a result of over speeding by drivers. 
 
To further find out the extent to which motorist are familiar with traffic regulations, the 
researcher listed some road signs and asked drivers to identify them so as to test the 
knowledge of drivers on some of the basic road signs. The road sign that were shown by the 
researcher for identification by drivers were no parking, right curve turn, approaching a 
roundabout, left and right turn, no U turn, road work ahead and double reverse curve. These 
are basic road signs that are likely to be seen on the roads when driving. Analysis of the 
response of drivers on identification of basic road signs revealed that majority of the drivers 
32%
28%
15%
10%
8%
7%
Lsit any traffic regulations you know 
Driving without Liences
Over speeding
Driving without observing 
traffic lights
Driving without seat belt
Packing at unauthorized 
places
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(77%) were not able to correctly identify a maximum of six signs that were listed. The 
remaining 23% on the other hand were able to at least identify six or more of the signs 
correctly. Conclusions can be drawn that even though the drivers had a good idea about the 
road offenses, their knowledge on road signs were very low because greater number of them 
were not able to correctly identify the basic road signs that were listed by the researcher. 
Figure 10: Distribution of drivers by identifying some basic road signs. 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
The researcher in the same way exhibited the road signs and asked the police to identify them 
so as to further establish how the police are well informed about road signs. When the 
response of the police on identifying the exhibited roads signs were analysed, it revealed that 
majority of the police representing 63.3% were able to identify more than six signs correctly 
while the remaining 36.7% were unable to identify six or more road signs correctly (Table 
16).  
 
Again, comparing the results with that of the drivers, one can draw the conclusion that the 
police did better in identification of some basic road sign than the drivers since majority of 
the police were able to identify at least six signs correctly.  
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Not able to identify some 
basic road signs
Able to identify at least five 
basic road signs
77%
23%
Identifying some basic road signs
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Table 16: Distribution of the police by identifying road signs 
Identify the following road signs 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
 Able to identify more than six road 
signs correctly 
38 63.3 
Unable to identify six or more road 
signs correctly 
22 36.7 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
When the police were asked whether they think that drivers are conversant with traffic laws 
and regulations, majority of the police (68%) were of the view that drivers do not have a good 
knowledge about their traffic regulations with only 32% stating that in their view, drivers 
have a good knowledge about traffic regulations on the road. This means that in the view of 
the police, drivers do not know much about traffic regulations on the road and this perhaps 
could be one of the reasons why the police often stop drivers on the road to guide them on 
some of the rules regarding traffic regulation which they need to always take note of.  
Table 17: Distribution of police by whether drivers know their regulations 
Would you say drivers know their regulations? 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 19 31.7 
No 41 68.3 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
Drivers were also offered the opportunity to rate themselves with regards to their level of 
knowledge on traffic regulation and the following responses were obtained. The greater 
portion of them (32.5%) indicated excellent, 25.8% stated very good. Next to that was 15.8% 
who indicated good, 13.3% were of the view that their knowledge on traffic regulations is 
very poor and finally 12.5% stated that it was poor (Table 18).  
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Table 18: Distribution of drivers by their level of knowledge on traffic regulations 
How would you rate the level of knowledge on traffic regulations 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Excellent 39 32.5 
Very good 31 25.8 
Good 19 15.8 
Poor 15 12.5 
Very poor 16 13.3 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
The police (34%) on the other hand rated the level of knowledge of drivers as good. 24% 
were of the view that the knowledge of the drivers on traffic regulations is poor whiles 22% 
stated that it is very good. 15% stated that it is very poor and finally 5% were of the view that 
drivers have an excellent knowledge on traffic regulations ( Fig 12). 
Figure 11: Distribution of the police by rating the knowledge of drivers on traffic 
regulations 
 
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
Majority of the police (53%) strongly disagreed with the assertion that knowledge of traffic 
regulations will encourage compliance. 20% also disagreed with that assertion while 17% 
agreed and 10% stated that they strongly agree with the assertion that if drivers have a good 
5%
22%
34%
24%
15%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
Excellent Very good Good Poor Very poor
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knowledge on traffic regulation, it could encourage compliance (Table 19). Some police 
personnel have the perception that drivers intentionally violate traffic regulations on the road 
and therefore it was not surprising that majority of the police disagreed that knowledge of 
traffic regulations will encourage compliance.  
Table 19: Distribution of police by whether knowledge of traffic regulations will 
encourage compliance 
Knowledge on traffic regulations will encourage compliance 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Strongly agree 6 10.0 
Agree 10 16.7 
Disagree 12 20.0 
Strongly 
disagree 
32 53.3 
Total 60 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 60. 
A significant number of the drivers (76%) disagree with the assertion that their knowledge on 
traffic laws influences them not to violate traffic laws with only 24% percent stating 
otherwise. 
Table 20: Distribution of drivers by whether their knowledge on traffic laws influences 
them not to violate traffic rules 
 
Do you think your knowledge on traffic laws influences you not to violate traffic rules? 
 
 Frequency Percentage 
 
Yes 29 24.2 
No 91 75.8 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120 
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6.3 TESTING HYPOTHESIS ONE OF THE STUDY 
The higher the knowledge drivers have about the traffic laws, the less likely they are to 
violate them. 
 
The hypothesis was tested using the Chi-Square analysis specifically the Pearson chi-square 
test. 
Step 1 
Ho (Null hypothesis): There is no relationship (difference) between drivers‘ knowledge on 
traffic laws and their ability or inability to violation traffic laws 
H1 (Alternate hypothesis): There is a significant relationship (difference) between drivers‘ 
knowledge on traffic laws and their ability or inability to violation traffic laws. 
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Table 21: Cross tabulation between knowledge of drivers on traffic laws and violation of 
traffic laws 
 
Knowledge of drivers on traffic laws * Violation of traffic laws Cross tabulation. 
 Violation of traffic laws Total 
Yes No 
Knowledge of 
drivers on traffic 
laws 
Excellent 
Count 76 16 92 
Expected Count 58.3 33.7 92.0 
% within Violation of traffic 
laws 
100.0% 36.4% 76.7% 
% of Total 63.3% 13.3% 76.7% 
Very Poor 
Count 0 28 28 
Expected Count 17.7 10.3 28.0 
% within Violation of traffic 
laws 
0.0% 63.6% 23.3% 
% of Total 0.0% 23.3% 23.3% 
Total 
Count 76 44 120 
Expected Count 76.0 44.0 120.0 
% within Violation of traffic 
laws 
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 
% of Total 63.3% 36.7% 100.0% 
 
Table 22: Chi square table 1 
Chi-Square Tests 
 Value Df Asymp. Sig. 
(2-sided) 
Exact Sig. (2-
sided) 
Exact Sig. 
(1-sided) 
Pearson Chi-Square 63.083a 1 .000   
Continuity 
Correctionb 
59.576 1 .000 
  
Likelihood Ratio 72.703 1 .000   
Fisher's Exact Test    .000 .000 
N of Valid Cases 120     
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 
10.27. (b) Computed only for a 2x2 table. 
 
 
 
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Step Two 
From Table 22, the Chi-square value is 63.083 and with one degree of freedom it‘s 
assumption significance is .000 
Step 3 (Decision rule) 
Accept H0 if Chi-square value is less than it‘s assumption values and reject otherwise 
Step Four (Conclusion) 
Since the Chi-square value is 63.083 which is greater than its significance value (0.000), Ho 
(Null hypothesis) is rejected and H1 (Alternate hypothesis) on the other hand is accepted. One 
can therefore conclude that there is enough evidence to argue on the grounds that there is a 
significant relationship between knowledge of drivers on traffic laws and their ability or 
inability to violate traffic laws. Thus, the more drivers have an excellent or very good 
knowledge about traffic laws, the less likely they will violate these laws. 
 
According to Chakrabarty, Gupta & Bhatnagar (2013) the majority of drivers were found to 
be ignorant about the road signs, traffic rules and regulations that govern road users for 
safety. In their study, it was observed that only few drivers (10%) had a correct understanding 
of 50% or more commonly met signs while only one per cent exhibited 75% or more 
knowledge level. They argued that road safety measures such as road signs and markings are 
not self-enforcing; they may be less effective unless they are properly enforced with 
enforcement and publicity campaign. It was also found that drivers‘ attitude, awareness and 
knowledge on traffic regulations were poor in Libya (Hussin et al, 2014). They found a 
negative effect of drivers ignorant of the rules on traffic law enforcement. The findings of this 
study on knowledge on traffic regulations by both motorists and police and its effect on 
traffic law enforcement are consistent with the recent study by Chakrabarty et al (2013); and 
Hussin et al (2014). 
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6.4 POSSIBLE EFFECTS OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION ON TRAFFIC LAW 
ENFORCEMENT 
There is no doubt that bribery and corruption has an influence on the law enforcement. If 
police personnel who are to ensure compliance of drivers on traffic regulation compromise 
themselves due to some form of money that they will extort from drivers, it is likely to affect 
the extent to which such police personnel will ensure the enforcement of laws as expected 
from them. It is for this reason that the researcher sought to determine the effect that bribery 
and corruption can have on the enforcement of traffic regulations on the road. 
A greater number of drivers (86.7%) admitted that they have ever paid something in the form 
of money to a police officer upon the violation of traffic regulation so as to escape 
punishment. The remaining 13.3% had never paid anything to a police officer to set him or 
her free upon the violation of traffic regulation (Table 23). This result show that majority of 
drivers have at one point in time offered some amount of money to police officers so as to 
enable them escape the punishment of violating traffic laws and this to a large extent does not 
speak well of some police officers who instead of exhibiting some form of professionalism in 
their work by ensuring compliance of drivers on traffic regulations rather comprise and 
accept money from drivers and set them free. 
Table 23: Distribution of drivers by whether they have ever paid bribe to a police 
officer to set them free after traffic violation?  
Have you ever paid bribe to a police officer to set your free 
after traffic violation? 
 Frequency Percent
age 
 
Yes 104 86.7 
No 16 13.3 
Total 120 100.0 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
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6.5 TESTING HYPOTHESIS TWO OF THE STUDY 
The more drivers give bribes the less likely they will adhere to traffic regulations 
The hypothesis was tested using the Chi-Square analysis specifically the Pearson chi-square 
test. 
1. Step one 
Ho (Null hypothesis): There is no relationship (difference) between drivers giving bribe and 
their adherence to traffic regulations. 
H1 (Alternate hypothesis): There is a significant relationship (difference) between drivers 
giving bribe and their adherence to traffic regulations. 
Table 24: Cross tabulation between drivers giving bribes and adherence to traffic laws 
Have you ever paid something to a police officer to set your free after traffic 
violation? *Violation of Traffic Laws Cross Tabulation 
 Violation of traffic 
laws 
Total 
yes No 
Have you ever paid 
some time to a police 
officer to set your free 
after traffic violation? 
Yes 
Count 76 28 104 
Expected Count 65.9 38.1 104.0 
% within Violation of 
traffic laws 
100.0% 63.6% 86.7% 
% of Total 63.3% 23.3% 86.7% 
No 
Count 0 16 16 
Expected Count 10.1 5.9 16.0 
% within Violation of 
traffic laws 
0.0% 36.4% 13.3% 
% of Total 0.0% 13.3% 13.3% 
Total 
Count 76 44 120 
Expected Count 76.0 44.0 120.0 
% within Violation of 
traffic laws 
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 
% of Total 63.3% 36.7% 100.0% 
     
 
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Table 25: Chi-square  
Chi-Square Tests 
 Value Df Asymp. Sig. 
(2-sided) 
Exact Sig. (2-
sided) 
Exact Sig. 
(1-sided) 
Pearson Chi-Square 31.888a 1 .000   
Continuity 
Correctionb 
28.819 1 .000 
  
Likelihood Ratio 36.559 1 .000   
Fisher's Exact Test    .000 .000 
N of Valid Cases 120     
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 5.87. 
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table 
 
Step two 
From table 30, the Chi-square value is 31.888 and with one degree of freedom it‘s 
assumption significance is .000 
Step 3 (Decision rule) 
Accept H0 if Chi-square value is less than it‘s assumption values and reject otherwise. 
Step four (conclusion) 
Since the Chi-square value is 31.888 which is greater than its significance value (0.000), Ho 
(Null hypothesis) is rejected and H1 (Alternate hypothesis) on the other hand is accepted. One 
can therefore conclude that there is enough evidence to argue on the grounds that there is a 
significant relationship between drivers giving bribe and their adherence to traffic laws. Thus 
the more drivers give bribe; the less likely they will adhere to traffic laws. 
 
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Figure 12: Distribution of drivers by whether their ability to escape the law by paying 
off a police officer has encouraged them for further traffic violations   
 
Source: Field survey, 2015. NB: Sample size (n): 120. 
The data clearly give an indication that police officers involved in these activity renege on 
their duties as officers of the law and permit perpetuation of traffic violations. This act will 
surely defeat the deterrence argument. The observation buttressed the point outlined by the 
survey. One driver reported that; 
Ahh, but what do you suggest? If I pay then I must be protected. As for me, I am 
immuned because I have made the payment right from this place (roadside) to the top 
man at the station. So why should I be taken to court. But you know, the serious 
aspect is that if I had obeyed the traffic laws I would not have had the accidents last 
year. I did an overloading, passed right in front of the police and my car tilted right 
and feel sideways at atomic junction when I was negotiating the roundabout. As you 
know I was left to go free, though nobody died.  
 
Another driver claimed that; ―several people would have been alive but for the bribery and 
corruption taking place between the police and we the drivers. As me I know it is wrong so I 
try as much as possible to do the right thing so as not to pay anything to anybody‖.  
  
96%
4%
Do you think you ability to escape the law by paying off a 
policer officer has engineered you for further traffic 
violations?
Yes
No
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6.5 SUMMARY 
This unit has presented and discussed the field data on the rest of the three specific objectives 
and the hypotheses of the study. In the light of this discussion, it has been discovered that: 
Traffic police accept bribe and renege on their duties; drivers contribute to police corruption; 
drivers escape prosecution when they offer bribes to the police after violation and most 
drivers are not conversant with road traffic signs and regulations. It was further discovered 
that the  predisposing factors of police corruption are; pressure from drivers, friends and 
family members; nuclear family obligations; inadequate pay; transportation challenges and 
officers‘ selfish interest and behaviour. Additionally, the data supported the arguments that 
there is a significance relationship between the drivers giving bribes and their adherence to 
traffic rules and also a significance relationship between drivers‘ knowledge on traffic 
regulations and their pre-disposition to violate them.  
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CHAPTER SEVEN 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
7.0 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter puts together all the information gathered from the first six chapters. The 
objectives, literature reviewed, the research method and the data analyzed in the previous 
chapters are summarized in this chapter. The summary of findings relevant to the objectives 
is also presented in this chapter and conclusions are drawn. Finally, this chapter presents the 
policy implications of the study as well as recommendations for further research. 
 
7.1 SUMMARY 
Various findings of the discussion of data analysed emerged, and satisfied the objectives of 
the study. The findings have been categorized into various subsections to deal with the 
specific objectives of the entire study and other results which emanated from the analysis of 
the data. 
 
The study adopted simple random sampling technique to select one hundred and twenty (120) 
and sixty (60) drivers and police officers respectively in the study area. It used the mixed 
method approach (both quantitative and qualitative research methods) with the aid of 
questionnaires and observation. A questionnaire was administered to the sampled population 
and the information obtained from the respondents was input into the Statistical Package for 
Social Science (SPSS version 20) software for the purpose of data analysis. The processed 
data produced by the SPSS software was presented by the use of percentages, figures and 
tables which enabled the researcher to do a comprehensive analysis of the collected data. A 
number of personal observations were also made by the researcher. This enabled the 
researcher to acquire first-hand information for the study. 
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The objectives of the study include: (1) To observe and explain the nature of interaction 
between drivers and the Police; (2) To explore and explain the attitude of the Police towards 
motorists‘ i.e. private, government, diplomatic corps and commercial drivers during traffic 
law enforcement; (3) Identify from drivers the predisposing factors of the alleged 
corruptibility of the Motor Traffic Police; (4) Find out the extent of the knowledge on traffic 
regulations by both motorists and police and its possible effect on traffic law enforcement; (5) 
Ascertain the effects of bribery and corruption on traffic law enforcement. 
 
The nature of interaction that exists between the police and motorist on the Ghanaian road to 
a large extent is a mixed one. The reason is that whiles majority of drivers view the nature of 
interaction between them and the police as a cordial, majority of the police on the other hand 
view it as a hostile. The results from Figure 4,  shows that in the view of the drivers, the 
police interact with them in a cordial manner due to the fact that they listen and take 
suggestions from them, direct them and sometimes enlighten them on some of the traffic 
regulations that they are not familiar with. Again many of the drivers stated that the police 
treat them in a very good manner on the roads and regard them as partners in enforcing traffic 
rules and regulations. The minority who declared that their interaction is dominated by 
hostilities intimated that the police treat them inhumanely and shout at them at the slightest 
provocation. However, the police described the nature of interaction between them and 
drivers as a hostile. This is because they have to always use maximum force before drivers 
could comply with simple traffic regulations. Also, drivers have the view that the police are 
only the roads just to extort them. It therefore stands to reason that effective traffic law 
enforcements may not be obtained if these conflicting views are not checked. 
 
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The attitude of the Police towards motorists on the Ghanaian road could be described as a 
healthy one. Majority of the drivers indicated that the police behave positively towards them 
on the road. The police themselves also attested to this claim and indicated that the 
relationship between them and motorist in implementing road safety regulations is a good 
one. It must however be emphasized that even though the attitude of the police towards 
motorist is a positive one, the study also revealed that the kind of treatment being meted out 
to drivers by the police differ from one driver to the other. Majority of the police officers 
stated that they often stop commercial drivers than other drivers due to the fact that, 
commercial drivers engage in careless driving and more likely to violate traffic laws than 
other drivers. The result from Table 7 also supports this claim as most of the police agreed to 
the assertion that they treat drivers differently and the reasons they gave were that some 
drivers are incorporative in the enforcement of traffic laws and the fact that their past 
experience and encounter with drivers of different vehicle compel them to treat drivers 
differently. Some personal observations made by the researcher in some occasion also 
supported this assertion as police personnel will allow almost all private vehicles to pass but 
will rather stop almost all commercial vehicles and check them. In some situations were both 
a private and a commercial driver commits the same offense, the police officers allows the 
private driver to move on with just a warning but unduly delays the commercial driver for no 
reason. 
 
With regards to the alleged corruptibility of the Motor Traffic Police, majority of drivers 
stated that the police always requested for money from them following their violation of 
traffic regulations and set them free instead of prosecuting them at the law court. This 
therefore means that a greater number of the drivers have had an encounter with a police 
personnel who instead of either directing the driver to do the right thing or probably 
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prosecuting an offender of traffic violation, the police personnel rather demands some 
amount of money and allow the offender to move on and this to a large extent is does not 
urge well for the enforcement of traffic regulations on the road. It must however be noted that 
some drivers also contribute to the alleged corruptibility of the Motor Traffic Police due to 
the fact that some drivers continue to plead with the police for a very long time upon the 
violation of traffic laws and finally voluntarily offers some amount of money to the police to 
set him free rather than prosecuting him. A lot of personal observations made by the 
researcher support this assertion. 
 
The police had a good knowledge of traffic signs and regulations. Unlike the drivers where 
most of them were unable to correctly identify five or more road signs, most of the police 
personnel sampled for the study were able to correctly identify five or more road signs that 
were listed by the researcher. This is very inimical to road safety campaigns and will thwart 
the efforts of road safety agents. 
Finally, it was discovered that bribery and corruption has a negative effect on the 
enforcement of traffic regulations as most of the drivers stated that they have never been 
prosecuted by any police officers for any traffic violation after they have offered some 
amount of money to the police officer for the offense they have committed. Thus drivers who 
have money to offer to a police officer will continue to violate traffic regulations without the 
fear of facing any prosecution at the law court. Also, almost all the drivers stated that indeed 
their ability to pay off police officers upon the violation of traffic regulations have 
encouraged them to further violate traffic regulations mainly because by offering money to a 
police officer to set him or her free upon traffic violation, they fell immune and insulated 
from the police and sometime think they are above the law. 
  
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7.3 CONCLUSIONS 
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn: 
The first objective sought to observe and explain the nature of interaction that exist between 
drivers and the police and the conclusion drawn is that, the nature of interaction that exists 
between the police and drivers on the road is the one that is characterized by mixed feelings. 
Thus whiles drivers see the nature of interaction between them and the police as cordial, the 
police on the other hand see the nature of interaction between them and drivers as a hostile. 
This, in the long run would have a negative effect on the enforcement of traffic regulation in 
the country because both the police and drivers are expected to be partners so as to ensure the 
full corporation of the two agents in the enforcement of traffic regulations. if the two agents 
do not see themselves as partners, then it will affect their full cooperation and willingness in 
the enforcement of traffic regulations. 
 
Second, the study also sought to explain the attitude of the police towards motorist and the 
following conclusions were drawn. Even though the police treat different kind‘s motorist 
differently, the attitude of the police towards motorist on the road could be described as a 
positive one. Thus the police accord drivers with the maximum respect that is expected of 
them and guide them on their duties and responsibilities on the road as well as the role that 
drivers are expected to play in the enforcement of traffic regulations on the road. 
 
Also, with regards to the predisposing factors of the alleged corruptibility of the Motor 
Traffic police, most of the drivers were of the view that the police personnel always request 
for some amount of money so as to set them free upon the violation of traffic regulation. This 
clearly indicates that effective traffic law enforcement will not be achieved because the police 
have compromised their roles. Even though some of the police officers were of the view that 
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some drivers contribute to the alleged corruptibility of the police as these police officers 
argue that it is the drivers that plead and persuade them to accept some form of money so as 
to set them free. A police personnel is however, expected to exhibit professionalism at all 
angles in discharging their duties and as such they should resist all forms of persuasion from 
drivers to set them free upon violation of traffic regulation but rather prosecute offenders of 
traffic regulations to serve as deterrents to others. Other factors that predispose the police to 
be corrupt are: Pressure from drivers, friends and family members; nuclear family 
obligations; inadequate pay; transportation challenges and officers‘ selfish interest and 
behaviour. 
 
Again, the study also sought to find out the extent of knowledge by motorist and the police on 
traffic regulations as well as its possible effect on traffic law enforcement. The conclusion 
drawn here is that, even though the police have a better knowledge and understanding than 
drivers with regards to road signs and regulations, the knowledge of the police and that of 
drivers on traffic regulations to a large extent is average. The police personnel have a good 
and in-depth knowledge and understanding than drivers with respect to road sign and this 
could probably be due to the fact that educational background of the police personnel 
sampled for the study was higher than that of the drivers. Based on the hypothesis tested, it is 
emphasized that there is a direct relationship between drivers‘ knowledge of traffic laws and 
their ability or inability to violate traffic laws. Thus, the more drivers improve on thier 
knowledge of traffic laws, the less likely they will violate these laws. 
 
The last objective of the study was to ascertain the possible effects of bribery and corruption 
on traffic laws enforcement. The conclusion drawn is that bribery and corruption has a 
negative effect on the enforcement of traffic regulations. The drivers who are able to 
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convince police personnel to accept some amount of money and set them free upon the 
violation of traffic laws will continue to violate traffic laws without fear of prosecution. 
Bribery and corruption therefore, can be seen as one main contributing factor to non- 
compliance of some motorists with regards to traffic regulations. 
 
The discussion of these factors should shape our understanding not only of the triggering 
conditions and their outcome but also facilitate the identification of some of the latent 
conditions that current road safety education in the country has failed to address. It is not 
uncommon that ineffective traffic law enforcement has increased the risk taking and risk 
tolerance levels of some road users. In conclusion, the best that may be hoped for in the 
immediate future is a shearing away of the more routine traffic duties to functionaries such as 
traffic wardens while real control of this area of law enforcement remains in police hands. 
 
7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 
In relation to the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations have 
been suggested: 
First, enforcement activities such as impounding of cars, imposition of fines and prosecution 
of traffic offenders should be encouraged to maximise both specific and general deterrence 
effects. The police must be encouraged to be disciplined and resolute in their enforcement 
operations. The police administration should weed out traffic police officers who misconduct 
themselves by taking bribes from drivers. 
 
Second, highly visible enforcement operations that are supported by sustained publicity are 
essential elements that must be carried out by all traffic enforcement agencies. Again, the use 
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of selective enforcement strategies by the police should be considered as one possible means 
of improving the effectiveness and efficiency of traditional enforcement activities. 
 
Also, primary consideration should be given to the introduction of automated red light 
cameras at high accident risk intersections. In view of this, the state must provide resources 
such as money and red light cameras based upon the use of new digital imaging systems to 
aid the police and other road enforcement authorities. 
 
In addition to the above, the widespread use of roundabouts, as an alternative to signalized 
intersections, should be given a high priority.Another recommendation of the study is the 
provision of turning lanes at intersections which should also be given a greater priority as 
such treatments have also been shown to have a considerable accident reduction potential. 
 
Finally, qualitative research would be useful for developing a more comprehensive view of 
the interaction between drivers and police officers on traffic law enforcement in the country 
and also explore road users‘ attitudes toward the police in helping to enforce traffic laws in 
the country.  Thus, future research is required to better understand how these factors 
influence each other to inform the development of multivariate predictive models.  
 
 
  
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Tyler, T.R (2000). Social Justice: Outcome and Procedure. International Journal of 
Psychology35(2): 117–125 
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Vaa, T. (2000).Effects of police enforcement measures on accidents and levels of injury.Oslo, 
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APPENDIX 
QUESTIONAIRE 
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
TOPIC: POLICE - DRIVERS’ INTERACTIONS ON TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT IN 
GHANA 
 
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR DRIVERS 
I am Samuel Kofi Odame conducting a research on the above mentioned topic. You have been 
selected to assist me in this regard by kindly and frankly answering the questions below. Remember 
that your identity (name) is not needed. I hereby promise that the information you give will be treated 
confidentially and would be used for purely academic analysis and purposes only. Thank you for your 
cooperation. 
Write your views in the spaces provided or tick as applicable. 
SECTION A: SOCIAL-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF THE RESPONDENTS 
1. Indicate your age interval 
Below20 20—24yrs 25-29yrs 30-34yrs 35-39yrs 40-44yrs 45-49 above 50yrs  
2. Sex 
Male       Female 
3. Highest level of education completed 
Basic        secondary     technical/vocational       tertiary 
4. Marital status 
Not married   married       divorced   widowed 
5. Religion  
Christian         Islam        traditional 
6. Working experience (If commercial driver) 
1—4 5—9 10—14 15—19 20—24 25-29 30 and above  
      7.   Local language spoken. 
AkanGa-Adangbe  EweGur   Guan   
ECTION B: NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DRIVERS AND THE POLICE 
7. What are some of the initial reactions or statements you hear from the police when they stop you? 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
8. Do you think the police are always right in stopping you? Yes or No 
Explain your response 
..................…………………….……………………………………………………………………. 
……………..............………………………………………………………………………………… 
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…..............……………………………………………………………………………..............................
...... 
9. Give at least 3 reasons why the police stop you? 
….………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….. 
10. How do they treat you?  
....................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................ 
11. Describe the nature of interaction between you and the police? 
Very hostile   Hostile   cordial    very cordial 
other(s)……………………………………............... 
Give reason(s) for your answer………………………………….…………………………………........ 
.………………………………………………………………………………………………...................
...... 
12. Would you be willing personally to collaborate with the police on traffic law enforcement?  
Yes or No  
Give reason(s) for your answer………………………………………………………............................. 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………............
..... 
13. How would you like to collaborate with the police?   
....................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
SECTION C: THE ATTITUDE OF THE POLICE TOWARDS MOTORISTS’ I.E. PRIVATE, 
GOVERNMENT, DIPLOMATIC CORPS AND COMMERCIAL DRIVERS DURING 
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT.   
14. Which drivers of the following vehicles do you think the police often stop? 
 Government vehicles   Private vehicles    Commercial vehicles    
others………………….............. 
 
15. In your own opinion which of the drivers of the following is most likely to violate traffic laws (list 
in descending order} 
Government vehicles   Private vehicles    Commercial vehicles   
others…………………................. 
Why do you think it is so?  ……………………………………………………………………………... 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………............
.... 
16. Do you agree with the assertion that the Police treat other drivers differently from commercial 
drivers? Yes or No 
Give reason(s) for your answer 
……………………………………………………………………............................................................
....…............................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
17. What are at least three of the responses you give when you are first stopped upon traffic violation? 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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…….……………………………………...................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
 
18. Which of these do you strongly agree when drivers are apprehended? 
They plead for leniency                          they accept their mistakes                                                       
they hardly accept their mistakes            they promise not to do it again                               they 
offer bribes to be set free                others 
 
19. Would you say that the Ghanaian Public is willing to cooperate with the police in enforcing traffic 
regulations? Yes or No 
Explain your response................................................................................................................................ 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………............
........ 
20. Do you think the police trust you in terms of your obedience to traffic rules? Yes or No 
Explain your response............................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
21. What do you think should be done by the police to foster public trust? 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..………………………………………………………………………………………..................... 
22. What in your opinion is the attitude of the police towards you? 
Positive  Negative  Neutral  
 
23. Do the police give drivers equal treatment? Yes or No 
Explain your response………………………………………………………...……………………......... 
 
................................………………………………………………………………………………............ 
24. What explains the different attitude of the police towards the different drivers? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
25. How often do you think Ghanaian drivers obey traffic laws? 
Very often            quite often             often                  sometimes             not at all 
Explain your 
response…………………………………………………………………………..................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
26. Does the Public play a major role in the quality of the Police work? Yes or No 
Explain your response............................................................................................................................ 
................................................................................................................................................................... 
27. Would you personally be willing to collaborate with the Police? Yes or No 
Explain your response............................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................. 
28. How would you evaluate the attitude of the police towards protection of traffic offenders‘ rights?   
Very bad, their rights are abused             bad                         good 
Very good, the treatment is humane                     others……………………………................. 
 
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29. In your opinion, are there certain areas in the police practices, which require urgent changes to 
improve the Police-public relation? Please specify such areas and state what changes are, in your 
opinion, needed? 
Police brutality………………………………………………………………………………….............. 
Police honesty…………………………………………………………………………........................... 
Police efficiency…………………………………………………………………………………............. 
Police courtesy.................................................................................................................................... 
Other(s)…………………………………………………………………………………..........................
. 
30. What do you think is the public‘s perception of the police duties and actions on traffic law 
enforcement? Positive   Negative   Neutral  
Explain your response........................................................................................................................... 
........................................................................................................................................................... 
31. What do you think is the police‘s perception of their duties and actions?  
Positive  Negative  Neutral  
Explain your response...................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................................... 
32. What is the relationship between the public and the police on implementing road safety rules? 
Very good      Good        Fair        Bad    
Explain your 
response......................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................... 
SECTION D: THE PREDISPOSING FACTORS OF THE ALLEGED CORRUPTIBILITY OF 
THE MOTOR TRAFFIC POLICE. 
33. How often do you encounter the MTTD police? 
 Everyday Once a week once every other week   monthly Never   other………………. 
 
34. Do you have any connections as in friendship or kinship, at all with the police?  Yes   or   No 
 
35. Which of the following usually helps you to escape the law anytime you violate traffic laws? 
Nuclear family member              Close relative 
Distant relative                           Close friend 
Distant friend                              others………………………………………………… 
 
36. Has this person ever helped you to get away from the law after you have violated it?  
Yes No 
 
37. Do you think your association with this person has made him or her prone to corruption by you?   
Yes No 
 
38. Do you think your association with this person has given you the impetus to indiscriminately 
violate traffic rules? Yes No 
 
39. What are at least three of the initial demands from the police when you are arrested or stopped in 
traffic?  .................................................................................................................................................... 
....................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................        
40. Have they requested for any money from you before following a traffic violation? Yes No 
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41. Which of the following statements do you agree with? In Ghana traffic offenders can avoid 
punishment if they have: wide social connection sufficient   others (state)................................  
 
42. Why are the police easily corruptible in Ghana? Thick in descending order 
Greed        inadequate salary         extended family pressures 
Desire to be rated as successful or wealthy  others (state)............................................................. 
 
43. Have you ever pleaded with a police officer to take something and set you free? Yes No 
If yes, why did you do so? 
............................................................................................................................ 
 
44. Do you agree that by offering money to the police you contribute to the alleged police corruption? 
Yes or No 
Explain your 
answer........………………………………………………………............................................ 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........
..... 
SECTION E: KNOWLEDGE ON TRAFFIC REGULATIONS BY BOTH MOTORISTS AND 
POLICE AND ITS POSSIBLE EFFECT ON TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT. 
45. List at least five traffic regulations you know. 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
.…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….………………………………………………………………………………………...................
....................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................. 
....................................................................................................................................................................
..... 
46. Look at the following signs carefully and tell me the meaning. A…………………………….......... 
B…………………………….C…………………………………..D………………………………........ 
E……………………………..F…………………………………..G………………………………........ 
H……………………………..I……………………………………J………………………………........
...... 
 
47. Do you think this knowledge you have on traffic laws influences you not to violate the rules? 
Yes No 
 
48. Do you think knowledge of these regulations can bring about sanity on our roads?  
If Yes reason……………………………………………………………………………………….......... 
If no, do you think enforcements of these traffic regulations can bring about sanity on our roads? 
If yes, in what way? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
............ 
If no, what is your proposition? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
........... 
49. Would you say that Ghanaian drivers know these regulations? Yes   No 
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50. How would you rate the level of their knowledge? 
Excellent    very good    good     poor     very poor 
 
51. How certain are you that drivers know these regulations? 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
52. Would you say that a good knowledge of these regulations contribute significantly to safety on 
Ghanaian roads?   Yes   No 
Explain your response......................................................................................................................... 
...........................................................................................................................................................   
53. Knowledge of traffic rules will encourage compliance. 
Strongly agreeagree       disagree       strongly disagree 
 
 
 
SECTION F: EFFECTS OF BRIBERY AND CORRUPTION ON TRAFFIC LAW 
ENFORCEMENT 
54. Have you ever paid something to a police officer to set you free after traffic violation? 
Yes or No 
If Yes: how often within a month? 
........................................................................................................................................................... 
 How much do you often pay? .......................................................................................................... 
55. Have you ever been prosecuted on a traffic offence even after you paid off the violation? Yes 
No 
 
56. In your own experience, give at least two of the strategies your peer drivers adopt in escaping 
from the law when they are accosted by the 
police................................................................................................ 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………........................................................ 
57. In your opinion list at least three of the main effects of bribery and corruption on traffic law 
enforcement. 
.................................................................................................................................................................. 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
58. Do you often engage in traffic violations after you paid off a violation?   Yes No 
Explain your response......................................................................................................................... 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
59. Do you think being able to escape the law after you have paid off a violation has engineered you 
for further violations? Yes No 
Explain your response......................................................................................................................... 
............................................................................................................................................................. 
60. Do you think drivers who pay bribes are less likely to obey traffic regulations? Yes No 
Explain your response......................................................................................................................... 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
61. Thick the one that best answers the preamble    
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          Giving of bribes will weaken the police ability to enforce traffic laws. 
          Strongly agreeagree       disagree       strongly disagree 
 
           Giving of bribes will encourage more violations 
          Strongly agreeagree       disagree       strongly disagree 
 
THANK YOUR FOR YOUR COOPERATION 
  
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DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
TOPIC: POLICE - DRIVERS’ INTERACTIONS ON TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT IN 
GHANA 
 
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE POLICE 
I am Samuel Kofi Odame, conducting a research on the above mentioned topic. You have been 
selected to assist me in this regard by kindly and frankly answering the questions below. Remember 
that your identity (name) is not needed. I hereby promise that the information you give will be treated 
confidentially and would be used for purely academic analysis and purposes only. Thank you for your 
cooperation. 
Write your views in the spaces provided or tick as applicable. 
SECTION A: SOCIAL-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA OF THE RESPONDENTS 
1. Indicate your age interval 
Below20 20—24yrs 25-29yrs 30-34yrs 35-39yrs 40-44yrs   45-49 50yrs&above 
2. Sex 
Male       Female 
3. Highest level of education completed 
Basic        secondary       technical/vocational       tertiary 
4. Marital status 
Not married   married       divorced   widowed 
5. Religion  
Christian         Islam        traditional      others.............................................. 
6. Working experience (If commercial driver) 
1—4 5—9 10—14 15—1920—24 25-29 30 and above  
       7. Local language spoken. 
Akan   Ga-Adangbe  Ewe   Gur   Guan   
 
 
SECTION B: NATURE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN DRIVERS AND THE POLICE 
7. What are some of the initial reactions or statements you hear from drivers when you stop 
them?..........................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
.... 
8. Do you think the drivers deemed it right to be stopped by you? Yes or No 
Explain your response…………………….…………………………………………………….............. 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ 
9. Give at least three main reasons why the police stop drivers?  
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
10. How do you see the nature of the interaction between drivers and the police? 
 Very hostile           hostile                      cordial                            very cordial 
Give reason(s) for your answer………………………………….…………………………………........ 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………................
..... 
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11. Do you think the nature of these interactions have any effect on traffic law enforcement in Ghana?  
Yes     No  
Give reason(s) for your answer.  
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………................
........ 
 
SECTION C: THE ATTITUDE OF THE POLICE TOWARDS MOTORISTS’ I.E. PRIVATE, 
GOVERNMENT, DIPLOMATIC CORPS AND COMMERCIAL DRIVERS DURING 
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT. 
12. Which of the following vehicles do you often stop? 
 Government vehicles     Private vehicles   commercial vehicles      others 
 
13. Why do you think it is necessary to often stop such drivers? 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………................ 
14. Which of the drivers of the following is most likely to violate traffic laws?(List in descending 
order)Government vehicles   Private vehicles    Commercial vehicles   
others………….................... 
Why do you think it is so?  ……………………………………………………..................................... 
........................................................................................................................................................... 
15. Do you agree with the assertion that the police treat private drivers differently from commercial 
drivers? Yes     No 
Give reason(s) for your answer ……………………………………………………………………........   
….......................................................................................................................................................... 
16. What are some of the responses from drivers when you first stop them upon traffic violation?  
List at least two..................................…………................................................................................... 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
17. Are traffic offenders willing to cooperate in terms of the enforcements of traffic laws?    Yes or 
No 
Explain your response........................................................................................................................ 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
18. Which of these do you strongly agree when drivers are apprehended? 
They plead for leniency                          they accept their mistakes                                                       
they hardly accept their mistakes            they promise not to do it again                               they 
offer bribes to be set free                others 
 
19. Would you say that the Ghanaian public is willing to cooperate with you in enforcing traffic 
regulations? Yes or No 
Explain your response........................................................................................................................ 
............................................................................................................................................................ 
20. Do you trust the public as partners in traffic law enforcement? Yes or No  
Explain your response....................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................................... 
21. What do you think should be done by the public to foster police trust? 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….................. 
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22. What in your opinion explains the attitude of the police towards drivers? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
............ 
23. Do you give all drivers equal treatment? Yes or No 
 Explain your response.......…………………………………………………...……………………......... 
  ................................……………………………………………………………………………….......... 
24. What explains the different attitude towards the different drivers? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
........... 
25. What is your general evaluation of the Ghanaian driver with reference traffic laws? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
............ 
26. In your opinion, do the Public play a role in the quality of the Police work?     Yes or No 
Explain your response........................................................................................................................ 
...............................................................................…………………………………………………..... 
27. Do you think drivers are willing to collaborate with the Police on traffic law enforcements? Yes 
or No 
Explain your response....................................................................................................................... 
28. How would you evaluate your attitude towards the protection of traffic offenders‘ rights? 
Very bad, their rights are abused             bad                         good 
Very good, the treatment is humane                     
others……………………………................................ 
 
29. In your opinion, are there certain areas in the police practices, which require urgent changes to 
improve the Police-public relation? Please specify such areas and state what changes are, in your 
opinion, needed? 
Police brutality………………………………………………………………………………….............. 
Police honesty………………………………………………………………………….......................... 
Police efficiency…………………………………………………………………………………........... 
Police courtesy.................................................................................................................................. 
Other(s)…………………………………………………………………………………......................... 
 
30. What do you think is the public‘s perception of the police duties and actions on traffic law 
enforcement? Positive     Negative       Neutral  
Explain your response....................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................................... 
31. What do you think is the police‘s perception about your own duties and actions?  
Positive     Negative       Neutral  
Explain your response....................................................................................................................... 
.......................................................................................................................................................... 
32. What is the relationship between the public and the police on implementing road safety rules? 
Very good       Good           Fair            Bad    
 
SECTION D: THE PREDISPOSING FACTORS OF THE ALLEGED CORRUPTIBILITY OF 
THE MOTOR TRAFFIC POLICE. 
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33. Do you agree that drivers play a key role in the alleged police corruptibility? Yes   No 
34. What role if any do they play? ……………………………………………………………................ 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
….………………………………………………………………………………………………............... 
35. Have you heard the allegation that drivers who violate traffic regulations persuade you to accept 
gift to make you give up on their prosecution?  Yes or No 
If yes, then is the allegation true? 
………………………………………………………………………………………………………........ 
36. What in your opinion makes you prone to corruption? List in descending order, 1 2 3... 
Greed        inadequate salary         extended family pressures 
Desire to be rated as successful or wealthy  others (state)..................................................................... 
 
37. Have you ever prosecuted a driver for a traffic offence even after the driver persuaded you with 
money? Yes No 
 
SECTION E: KNOWLEDGE ON TRAFFIC REGULATIONS BY BOTH MOTORISTS AND 
POLICE AND ITS POSSIBLE EFFECT ON TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT. 
38. How many years have you been in the service? 
1—3 4—6 7—9 10—12 13—15 16 and above 
 
39. List ten traffic regulations you know? 
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………................................ 
 
40. Identify the following road signs. A……………………………………………………………..... 
B…………………………….C…………………………………..D………………………………........
... 
E……………………………..F…………………………………..G………………………………........
... 
H……………………………..I……………………………………J………………………………........ 
 
41. Do you think knowledge of these regulations can bring about sanity on our roads?  
If Yes reason………………………………………………………………………………….......…….. 
If no, do you think enforcements of these traffic regulations can bring about sanity on our roads? 
If yes, in what way? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................................... 
If no, what is your proposition? 
....................................................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................... 
42. Would you say that Ghanaian drivers know these regulations? Yes   No 
 
43. How would you rate the level of their knowledge? 
Excellent   very good    good     poor     very poor 
 
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44. How certain are you that drivers know these regulations? ................................................................. 
.................................................................................................................................................................. 
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 
45. Would you say that a good knowledge of these regulations contribute significantly to safety on 
Ghanaian roads?   Yes   No 
Explain your response.......................................................................................................................... 
....................................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................... 
46. Knowledge of traffic rules will encourage compliance. 
Strongly agreeagree       disagree       strongly disagree 
 
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 
 
  
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ROAD SIGNS 
1        2      3  
 4 5      6  
7  8 9 10
  11      12  
 
 
 
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