University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORTS IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE KASSENA NANKANA MUNICIPALITY, GHANA. AMOAH ERNEST PAVALA 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION FACTORS INFLUENCING STUDENTS’ PARTICIPATION IN PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND SPORTS IN SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE KASSENA NANKANA MUNICIPALITY, GHANA. BY AMOAH ERNEST PAVALA (STUDENT ID: 10634122) Thesis submitted to the Department of Teacher Education of the School of Education and Leadership, University of Ghana in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Master of Philosophy Degree in Education December 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Sports and other types of physical activity have long maintained a thorny position in schools and colleges, frequently being relegated to the periphery. Simultaneously, there is agreement that such activities are vital for young people's healthy growth. This was proven in the second half of the twentieth century, resulting in a paradigm shift in health research. Recent advances in neurology, psychology, and allied fields point to a second revolution in which the tight separation of mind and body is no longer necessary. The main purpose of the study was to examine the factors influencing students’ participation in physical activity and sports in Senior High School in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana. Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study and quantitative methodology using a survey method was used to gather primary data from students and teachers. The research instruments used were the questionnaire and observation checklist. The self-administered data collection method was used in collecting information from respondents. The target population for the study involved all Senior High/Technical school students’ and P.E Teachers in the Kassena Nankana Municipality, Ghana. A total of 350 student respondents and 11 P.E Teachers were sampled for the study using the mathematical model expressed as: n=N / 1+N (e2) from the total population 5097 of students’ and all the P.E Teachers in the selected schools. Simple random sampling technique was used to select participants for the study and descriptive statistics (Frequency, percentages, mean and standard deviation) were used in analyzing and discussing the results. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study interestingly revealed that all students in the Senior High Schools were engaging in some form of physical activity and that is a good sign that students perceived the benefits of physical activity and sports to promote health and wellbeing. But on the contrary, the findings also showed that on the average, Senior High School students’ have a negative attitude (M=2.77, SD=1.42) towards participation in physical activity and sports and that has brought serious implications on their health and wellbeing. The factors that contribute to physical inactivity included; physical environment, biological or demographic, psychological, behavioural, social and cultural factors. The results showed that, societal misconception (67.14%), social role (55%), facilities and equipment (49.42%), requisite movement skills (49.14%), Motivation and self-confidence (49.14%) and on demographic and socio-economic factors, (49.14%) agreed that males participate more on physical activity than their female counterparts and ( 46.85%) also confirmed that young people also perform physical activity and sports than adults and these are significant factors influencing students’ non-participation in physical activity and sports in Senior High School in the Kassena Nankana Municipality, Ghana. It is recommended that after school games and activities should be made fun and the games should not be male dominated. Students should be educated on the importance of physical activity and sports. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I owe all thanks and praise to the Almighty God for His divine providence and for showering his bountiful mercies on me by granting me all the wisdom, knowledge, health and strength I needed to complete this academic work. Studying alongside working full-time has been challenging, but at the same time a most educational process which I would not have been without. However, without the help of a few great people I would not have managed to finish this thesis. All thanks to my main supervisor Dr. Austin Luguterah. You have been most helpful with all your constructive feedback on my writing and your flexibility regarding meeting times made it possible to combine the writing with working. In addition, your encouraging attitude from day one really helped keeping my spirits up during this period. I will also like to thank Dr. Samuel K. Donkor (Co-Supervisor), despite your busy schedule, you manage to read through my drafts and provided me with a lot of useful and constructive feedback. Many thanks to you. I would like to thank Prof. Reginald Ocansey for his continuous support during the pursuit of both my first degree and this master’s degree. Without his willingness to take on a student searching for a way forward, I would not have found this programme to be successful in and further my career aspirations. When we set goals for ourselves, there are always obstacles on the way that may deter us from accomplishing those goals. There are also people in our lives that are aware of those goals, and encourage us and support us to continue regardless of the obstacles. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to Amanda Josephine Puruse (Wife), David Wetani Amoah (Brother) Leticia Yidangye Amoah, (Sister), Marciana Amoah, Wilbert-Gregg Amoah and Crescentius Maadiwe Amoah (Sons), Mary- Prisca Anutuah Amoah (Daughter) and all colleagues and friends especially Mr. Ebenezer Yeboah. MAY GOD BLESS YOU ALL v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This Thesis is dedicated to my Mum, Mrs. Priscilla Adagebonu Amoah, Bro. Damien Anetu Amoah (Both of Blessed Memory), and Amanda Josephine Puruse (Wife), Wilbert-Gregg Amoah and Crescentius Maadiwe Amoah (Sons), Mary- Prisca Anutuah Amoah (Daughter) and Rev. Fr. Vitus Alnaa (Spiritual Father) for your unconditional love, support, and guidance throughout my life. You have always been and will be my Heroes and Heroines. Thank you for the family that means more to me than anything in this world. vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLEARATION ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... v DEDICATION......................................................................................................................... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... vii LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... xii DEFINITION OF TERMS.................................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Background to the Study ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 6 1.3 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 8 1.6 Delimitation of the Study ................................................................................................. 8 1.7 Limitation of the Study .................................................................................................... 9 1.8 Organisation of the Study ................................................................................................. 9 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 10 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .......................................................................... 10 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 The Scope of Physical Education and Sports. ................................................................ 10 2.2 Social/ Cognitive Development Framework .................................................................. 12 2.2.1. Physical Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports ..................................................... 14 2.2.2. Psychological Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports ............................................ 14 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.3 Cognitive/ Intellectual Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports ............................ 15 2.2.4. Attitudes of Students towards Physical Activity and sports participation .............. 17 2.3. Forms of physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Perform .................................. 19 2.3.1. Components of Physical Activity and Sports ......................................................... 20 2.3.2 Cardiovascular (Aerobic) Physical Activities ......................................................... 20 2.3.3. Muscular strength and endurance activities ............................................................ 21 2.3.4. Physical Activities that develops Flexibility .......................................................... 22 2.3.5. Physical Activities that develops Coordination ...................................................... 23 2.4. Factors that influence student’s participation in Physical Activity and Sports. ......... 26 2.4.1 Physical Environment .............................................................................................. 27 2.4.2 Social and Cultural Factors ...................................................................................... 28 2.4.3 Behavioural Attributes and Skills ............................................................................ 30 2.4.4 Physical Activity and Psychosocial Factors ............................................................ 32 2.4.5 Demographic and Biological Characteristics .......................................................... 34 2.5. Extent to which Male and Female students perform regular Physical Activity and Sports participation. ............................................................................................................. 36 2.5.1. Strategies Adopted for Promoting Physical Activity .................................................. 37 2.6. Summary of Related Literature ..................................................................................... 41 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 43 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 43 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 43 3.2 Population....................................................................................................................... 44 3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedures .................................................................................. 44 3.4 Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................................... 46 3.5 Reliability and Validity of Research Instrument ............................................................ 47 3.6 Data Collection Procedures ............................................................................................ 48 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Data Processing and Analyses ....................................................................................... 49 CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................ 51 PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF FINDING ........................................................ 51 4.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 51 4.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ..................................................... 51 4.1.1. Sex and Age of Respondents ...................................................................................... 52 4.1.2. Education Level of Physical Education Teachers ...................................................... 53 4.2. Forms of Physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Participate ................................ 53 4.3. Factors that Influence Student’s Participation in Physical Activity and Sports ............ 55 4.3.1. Physical Environment ................................................................................................ 56 4.3.2 The Social and Cultural Factors .................................................................................. 60 4.3.3 Behavioural Attributes and Skills ............................................................................... 64 4.3.4 Physical Activity and Psychosocial Factors ............................................................... 70 4.3.5 Demographic and Biological Characteristics............................................................... 73 4.4. Implication of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students’ ....................... 77 4.5 Extent to which Male and Female students’ Participate in Physical Activity and Sports 81 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 84 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 84 5.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 84 5.1 Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................ 84 5.1.1. Forms of physical activity and sports that students’ participate in schools .................. 85 5.1.2. Factors that influence student’s participation in physical activity and sports .............. 85 5.1.3. Implication of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students’ .................... 86 5.1.4 Extent to which Male and Female students’ Participate in physical activity and sports .................................................................................................................................................. 87 5.2. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 87 5.3. Recommendations ............................................................................................................ 89 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Suggestions for Further Research ...................................................................................... 90 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 91 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 110 APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 110 APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................ 117 APPENDIX C ........................................................................................................................ 119 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1- Sample of Students in Senior High Schools in KassenaNankana Municipality ....... 45 Table 2 provides a summary of the data analysis procedure. .................................................. 50 Table 3: Sex and Age of Respondents ..................................................................................... 52 Table 4: Education Level of Physical Education Teachers ..................................................... 53 Table 5: Forms of Physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Participate ............................. 54 Table 6: Physical environment as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports .................................................................................................................. 57 Table 7: Resources for Teaching and Learning P.E found in school as reported by teachers and through the Observation Checklist. ................................................................................... 60 Table 8: Social and cultural factors as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports .................................................................................................... 62 Table 9: Behavioural attributes and skills as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports .................................................................................................... 66 Table 10: Perception of students’ and P.E Teachers’ towards physical activity and Sports ... 70 Table 11: Psychological as a factor that influences students’ participation in Physical Activity and Sports................................................................................................................................. 72 Table 12: Demographic and socio-economic status as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports .......................................................................... 75 Table 13: Implications of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students………..76 Table 14: Extent to which Male and Female students participate in physical activity and sports…………………………………………………………………………………………80 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANOVA Analysis of Variance BMI Body Mass Index CBPA Classroom Based Physical Activity CHD Coronary Heart Disease GES Ghana Education Service IPAQ International Physical Activity Questionnaire KNM Kassena Nankana Municipality MET Metabolic Equivalent Task MOE Ministry of Education NaCCA National Council for Curriculum and Assessment NGO Non-Governmental Organization PA Physical Activity PAAC Physical Activity Across the Curriculum PE Physical Education SBPA School Based Physical Activity SHS Senior High School SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEFINITION OF TERMS Physical activity: Skeletal muscular activity that results in an increase in energy expenditure above the resting level of the body. Exercise: To put it another way, it's a type of physical exercise that aims to develop or maintain one or more aspects of physical fitness. Physical fitness: The ability to engage in physical exercise is a set of characteristics that people possess or achieve. Health-enhancing physical activity (HEPA): Participation in physical activity and sports provides health benefits. Sedentary Lifestyle: Inactivity and lack of participation in sports on a regular basis. P.E Tutors: Teachers who teach Physical Education in Senior High Schools or Colleges of Education Participation: Term used to refer to active involvement in physical activity and sports Sports: Formal competitive physical activities in the form of games and athletics engaged in by students during Inter-House/School competitions. Active Transportation: Any kind of transportation that requires the usher to exert energy in order to go from one point to another (walking). xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction Physical activity and sports have a significant impact on the health and well-being of students in Senior High Schools in the Upper East Region of Ghana, according to this study. This chapter provides an overview of the study's origins. Statement of problem, research questions, significance, limitations and delimitations of the study are all covered in this section. 1.1. Background to the Study It has been said that physical exercise and sports are good for physical fitness and safety in many parts of the world. A study conducted by (Gill, MacDougall, & Taylor, 2004) reveals that children as young as four (4) years old are missing out on the physical and health benefits of partaking in physical activity, sports, and games. The defined physical exercise as any bodily movement created by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a basal level. On top of that, (Bouchard, Blair, & Haskel, 2007) extended physical exercise to include the physical activities performed in school, such as attending sporting events in school as well as participating in athletic events or school tournaments, participating in school plays, and engaging in recreational activities in addition to all the other academic duties which students have to achieve in school that can be overwhelming. Physical activity which integrates games, fitness, sports and physical education in general has been a matter of interest for many people in to science, relevant governments, educationist and all well-meaning people globally in to health and wellbeing of students in High schools. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The epidemic of overweight and obese children is rapid and is no longer considered a "Special problem to few individual" because it is affecting many, moderate, and low socioeconomic classes and all ethnicities (Ogden, Carroll, Curtin, Lam, & Flegal, 2010). Regular physical activity, fitness and exercise are very relevant when dealing with the health and wellness of people at all ages, genders and most specifically when dealing with the health and wellbeing of people at the Senior High School stage. While study has shown the advantages of routine physical exercise for people of all ages, tests have shown that nearly all healthy individuals are capable of experiencing the extreme benefits of a more active physical activity, i.e., what we call athletics (Bauman, 2004). Latest findings show that young children of this era as young as six (6) years old are experiencing certain health problems primarily recognised among older adults. Many who suffer from these diseases are not just those who have an issue, but the many other people who don't recognize it, and may be victims of it (Bauman, 2004). Notwithstanding this, contemporary cultures have high levels of physical activity relative to much of the history. However, many of these individuals do have a relatively low physical activity level. This may be due to the vast amount of competitiveness with other people. This rivalry could very well be causing the physical inactivity that is leading to the high level of many diseases (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002). They also claimed that the ability to be physically active and mobile is compromised, individuality is lost, and the way a person feels emotionally is often greatly affected. In recent years; physical health of students in the Senior High Schools in Ghana has been found to be significant. Among the most evident ways of enhancing the physical fitness of students is by improved physical activity. To improve this practice, people in Ghana have begun to participate in sports and leisure, such as jogging and running. Identifying and using methods that are both reliable and cost-effective is crucial to 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh make optimal use of existing resources and funding to ensure that students get regularly engaged in physical exercise and sports (Buckworth & Dishman, 2002). Physical activities like running, volleyball, soccer and basketball are important from childhood for the physical growth and development of all people especially students in Senior High Schools and can enhance the physical and health-related fitness, have positive effects on psychological well-being, encourage moral thinking & optimistic self-concepts, promote good social interaction skills, and have negative effects on academic achievement and health- related expectations of physical appearance. (Biddle, Mutrie, & Zhang, 2009). Various researches (Warburton, Nicol & Bredin, 2006; Welch, Hulley, Ferguson & Beauchamp, 2007; Wilson, Rogers, Loitz & Scime, 2006), have shown that frequent physical activity and sports is linked to the prevention and treatment of diabetes type 1 and type 2 (insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, hypertension, and obesity are all part of the metabolic syndrome), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, coronary heart disease, and chronic heart failure are all examples of diseases associated with the metabolic syndrome. Other diseases in this category include osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoporosis, chronic fatigue syndrome, and depression. Education is regarded as a basic trait of the civilized societies, and so is the promotion of education among people in this region. One component of physical exercise that is important to academic success is the significance it holds in athletics and other physical activities. It has been demonstrated by research that the beneficial association between physical exercise and sports participation and mental health of the participants has been expressed in several studies. It has been found that, physical exercise and sports plays a very important role in the intellectual growth of the participants (Lau, Yu, Lee, So, & Sung, 2004), and the students give sufficient time to engage in physical activity and sports typically achieve better academic results (Satcher, 2005). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The high and rising percentage of school dropout in developing countries like Ghana is a major worry for education. Students at High schools have a high rate of school attendance (Stevenson, 2006) and a lower rate of missing classes, which suggests that physical activity and athletics can help them succeed academically and avoid dropping out of school (Guest, & Schneider, 2003; Ghana Education Service, 2010). The matter of young people's wellbeing has been under the spotlight recently since it is being debated as an issue in the latest controversies about current ideas on health. The United Nations is addressing the problem of physical inactivity alongside people who drink alcohol, a phenomenon that is linked with motor car crashes; British physicians have put their doctors signatures on the bottom of a national campaign to encourage people to start physical exercise as a preventative measure against a number of negative health effects; a medical journal published a special edition on physical activity as a preventative measure against various health effects; and the U.K. Chief Medical Officers published a media campaign to highlight the negative health effects of physical inactivity. In Ghana, study has shown that it is all right for people of any age to take advantage of practices that can improve wellbeing by introducing a bit of physical exercise to their everyday lives (Dake, Tawiah & Badasu, 2010). Encouraging findings from several research trials (WHO, 2005) show that even a small level of physical exercise greatly decreases the risk of morbidity and mortality. While the prevalence of obesity is comparatively low, there has been a huge jump in body weight in recent years. Despite the fact that studies have indicated an elevated risk for physical inactivity among individuals, the problem is still being worrisome (WHO, 2005). Physical exercise can further be divided into three (3) proportions, as in frequency, length, and strength and these three levels together institute the sum or the quantity of physical activity that the person requires to perform (WHO, 2014). Although there is little difference 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the exercise rate between the stable controls and the premature babies, there is a difference in the resulting level of fitness. Frequency talks about how many times each day an exercise or activity is done, while length talks about how long or amount of time an exercise/activity is performed. To improve one's health-related physical fitness, one must perform physical activity at a high level of commitment (WHO, 2010). It is crucial that physical exercise is integrated into the lifestyle of children and teenagers because it helps children learn to be physically active individuals, and it can also help them cultivate healthier behaviours as they become adults, including engaging in sports and daily physical activities. The current physical activity guidelines suggest that all people be more active, particularly teens. Because television and sitting on the internet can take place when at a desk, the activity recommendations claim that these patterns of sitting should be avoided as much as possible while at a desk (Bouchard, Blair, & Haskel, 2007). A lack of physical activity is the main cause of morbidity worldwide, leading to obesity, diabetes, hypertension, and other health issues (WHO, 2010). The current physical activity guidelines recommend that adults, especially teenagers, exercise for 30-60 minutes, three times a week. However, recent demographic studies show that many people may not be following these suggestions, highlighting the need for creative school and home-based interventions to engage young people in physical activity, games, and sports (Centres for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010). According to Weiss (2000), adolescence is the period that offers opportunity to affect the human mentality, understanding, and behaviour towards physical activity and sports participation. After passing adolescence, teenagers' subsequent behaviours, expectations, and most of the people in this age range (15-24) are still in High school and hence subject to the guidance and direction of their teachers and parents when it 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh comes to their attitudes toward physical activity and sports involvement. The assumption that teenagers' personalities are created during this time period is based on this fact. When it comes to health and fitness, adolescence is thought to be an ideal time for adolescents to form healthy habits that they can continue into adulthood. For the optimum results from physical exercise and sports participation, Weiss (2000) emphasises the significance of raising awareness of how youngsters perceive themselves. 1.2 Statement of the problem In Ghana, where obesity and other hypokinetic disorders are on the rise, there are so many challenges as far as health is concern. In the 21st century, there are a number of studies showing that sedentary lifestyles among students in High Schools and Colleges might have a negative impact on their health (Department of Health, 2004). Coronary heart disease (CHD) is comparable to smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and high cholesterol levels in terms of health consequences for inactivity (McPherson, Britton, & Causer, 2002). A lack of regular and sustained physical activity has been linked to an increased risk of developing chronic diseases such as obesity, colon cancer, osteoporosis, Type II diabetes, hypertension, etc. and the majority of Ghana's population appears to be lacking in this regard (Amoah, 2003). The consequence of physical inactivity is very detrimental to healthy life and productivity, as shown in various literatures. Furthermore, limited student participation in sports and physical activity has hampered sports and games in most Ghanaian schools and institutions (Ampong, 2011). Senior High school students in Ghana are expected to excel in physical education, which prepares them for physical activities, games, and sports. The goal of regular sporting events, in addition to practical sessions and classroom work, is to keep prospective students fit and develop their talents in athletics (track and field events), games, (soccer, netball, basketball & badminton), 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and gymnastics (ice hockey and volleyball). Few students attend these sessions, and it is difficult to recruit female students to Inter-House Games and sports. There have been researchers who have investigated into the phenomenon. For instance, Cudjoe (2015) did research on the impact of regular physical activity on the general well- being of physically disabled students in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Nkrumah (2016) also studied the factors influencing female Teacher-Trainees' non- participation in physical activity and sports in Colleges of Education in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. At Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa, (Haycocks Toriola, & 2009) investigated the factors that contribute to poor student engagement in sports. Although this is the case, there is little study on the factors that influence students’ participation in physical activity and sports on the Senior High School student’s population in Ghana. This study is to explore the factors influencing students’ participation in physical activity and sports in Senior High School students in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The major goal of the study is to examine the factors influencing students’ participation in physical activity and sports in Senior High Schools in the Kassena Nankana Municipaity, Ghana. Specifically, the study sought to: 1. Identify the forms of physical activity and sports undertaken by students in Senior High Schools. 2. Examine the factors that influence students’ participation in physical activity and sports. 3. Examine the implications of physical inactivity on the health and wellbeing among students. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. Compare the extent of regular physical activity and sports among male and female students. 1.4 Research Questions 1. What forms of physical activity do students undertake? 2. What factors influence student’s participation in physical activity and sports? 3. What are the implications of physical inactivity on the health and wellbeing among students? 4. To what extent do male and female students perform regular physical activity and sports? 1.5 Significance of the Study This study will investigate into the role of physical activity and sports participation in promoting the health and well-being of students in the Kassena Nankana municipality, Ghana. If the results of this study are anything to go by, the Ghana health service, as well as the Ghana education service, will greatly benefit from the collaboration between the Ghana Health Service and the Ghana Education Service to organize seminars on the importance of physical activity and sports participation for the well-being of students at various educational institutions on a regular basis. The outcomes of this research will help reduce the early onset of cardiovascular diseases and other hypokinetic conditions among students in Senior High schools and to design the appropriate strategies/ interventions to carry out in order to promote increase levels of participation in physical activity and sports. 1.6 Delimitation of the Study This study will focus on students in selected schools in the Kassena Nankana municipality of Ghana. Despite the vast range of physical activity and sports engagement levels. The study also used a questionnaire to collect data and used frequency, percentages, means, and 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh standard deviation to analyse data. The study is also bounded around school and household activities like soccer, volleyball, handball, netball, basketball, athletics, and moving about to complete everyday chores. 1.7 Limitation of the Study Untruthfulness on the part of the participants could affect the outcome of the findings in this study since most of the students’ may not be willing to answer questions on their health and physical activity behaviour patterns and others may also try to protect their schools as being better than average in terms of physical activity and participation in sports, and this could have an impact on how broadly these findings can be applied. There may be a disconnect between what people say they do and what they actually do when it comes to physical activity. Some people may hide their sedentary habits, while others may exaggerate their efforts. 1.8 Organisation of the Study In total, there are five chapters in the study. Five sections in chapter one: introduction; problem statement; research questions; study significance; delimitation; limitations; and study organization. Accordingly, in chapter two, the literature related to the study is evaluated to support the claims stated in the study. Research designs, population size, sample and sampling strategy, instrument(s), data collecting and data processing processes are discussed in chapter three. The study's conclusions and data analysis are presented in chapter four. All noteworthy and novel findings have been discovered, evaluated, and addressed in this report. This summarizes the findings of the study and the conclusions drawn from them, based on past research in the field. Finally, in Chapter 5, the findings, conclusions, and suggestions are summarized. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction A variety of academic perspectives on physical education and sports are discussed in this chapter, including the social/cognitive development framework, the benefits of physical activity and sports participation, the attitudes of students toward physical activity and sports participation, the forms of physical activity and sports that students engage in, and the components of physical activity and sports that influence students' participation in these activities. As a theoretical framework, this review aims to guide the collection of information in the form of quantitative data from the primary sources. 2.1 The Scope of Physical Education and Sports. As stated by Lee et al. (2007), historically, P.E. has been the primary venue for students to participate in physical activity and sports. Despite this, only 25% of elementary schools and 50% of Senior High schools in the United States need Physical Education to be taught successfully in classrooms and universities. Only 3.8 percent of schools offer students daily P.E. practical lessons to help them develop their motor skills and their talents. When it comes to Physical Education teaching, Burgess and Wechsler (2001) stated that it will be different from teacher to teacher. Sitting for long periods of time during the school day becomes increasingly important if children are engaging in more sedentary activities outside of school. Senior High School students spend about seven hours a day at school, so it's critical to think about how to divide that time between physical activity and non-physical activities in order to get the most out of it. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As a result, children are getting less time for physical activity and sports in their school day than they did even a decade ago because of strict academic expectations and restricted school budgets ( Fedewa & Ahn, 2011). According to Basset et al. (2013), Hundreds of school-based interventions have been created to combat this tendency and address the demand for more physical activity and sports among school-aged children and in response to this call; mandatory physical education, classroom activity breaks, after-school exercise programs, walk-to-school programs, adapted playgrounds, and modified recess are all examples of school-based treatments that might be implemented. Although they all promote physical activity and sports participation, their overall impact on physical activity is not the same. It has recently been determined that classroom-based physical activity (CBPA) is the second most effective intervention for raising physical activity levels in elementary and middle school pupils (Basset et al., 2013). Reaching young people where they spend the most time is now possible with CBPA, a brand- new approach. When it comes to classroom physical activities (PAs), they are referred to as CBPAs because they are carried out under the guidance of the classroom teacher while other academic subjects are being taught. CBPAs that are unrelated to subject content are known as Activity Breaks, while Integrated Physical Activities (IntPA) integrate academic content with the movement. For five-twenty minutes, both sorts of activities are created with an eye toward maximizing the available space while also ensuring that children are actively engaged. Students and teachers alike appreciate the CBPA programs because they are simple to execute and need minimal preparation time (Stewart et al., 2004). Stewart et al., (2004) also said that, although schools play a significant part in the physical activity levels of students, the home is as crucially important; recess is another opportunity for students to be physically active. Physical activity requirements can't be met by relying solely on recess. The first thing to keep in mind when it comes to recess is that it is 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh completely up to the children to decide how much time they spend engaging in moderate-to- vigorous activities. It was found that more than 200 kids had their physical activity time at recess measured using accelerometers in a study conducted by (Ridgers et al., 2005). Male students engaged in more intense activities than female students, although they spent less than half their recess time engaging in physical activity (Ridgers et al., 2005). Children are being negatively impacted by sedentary lifestyles and are missing out on the health benefits of an active lifestyle. People are encouraged to engage in regular physical activity throughout their lives in order to improve both their physical and mental well-being. According to Pate et al., (2005), Movement in active play situations is critical to children's physical and mental health. Additionally, students learn to use movement as a means of communication, cognitively co-ordinate, respect and enjoy movement for its own sake, both with and without the aids of a physical activity or sport. Learn and comprehend the rules and regulations in sport and enforce them in order to establish self-discipline, explore in order to have fun, enhance interpersonal and social skills, and develop an appreciation for the world in which they live. Young people's first years of life are a critical time for play, children's physical and emotional well-being helps youngsters become less dependent and more self-sufficient by providing them with a wide choice of activities to engage in that include a variety of motor abilities (Woodfield, 2014). 2.2 Social/Cognitive Development Framework Social/Cognitive development according to Bandura’s theory drove this investigation. The foundation of social cognitive theory is triadic reciprocal determinism, a model that attempts to account for the multidirectional influence of psychological, environmental, and 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh behavioural elements on human action and the individual desire to participate in physical activity and sports (Bandura, 1986). In another way, the theory implies that personal and environmental factors influence a person's behaviour in the same manner that personal and environmental factors influence behaviour (Bandura, 1986). For example, without the parents agreeing to provide transportation, a teenager may not be able to participate in a sporting activity. Similarly, a parent may refuse to give transportation unless the adolescent completes all of the specified responsibilities. Furthermore, the direction and strength of the influence between the aforementioned components is thought to be continually changing and reliant on a person's current view of the world, which is thought to be built through a process known as human agency (Bandura, 1986). In the social sciences, agency refers to a person's ability to act autonomously and make their own decisions. Human agency is regarded to be made up of four unique components: intention, forethought, self-reactivity, and self-reflection (Bandura, 2006b). According to Bandura (1986), humans are capable of gaining knowledge about their surroundings and cultivating meaning and value based on that knowledge. Furthermore, people form situational and dispositional preferences depending on the meaning and value obtained from personal or mediated experiences. As a result, people's intentions are formed as a result of the meaning and worth they derive from their lived or vicarious experiences (Bandura, 2001). To inspire and guide, proximal and distal goals can be set based on intent, while self- reactiveness refers to the process of goal realization and people then reflect on their actions and make changes for the future (Bandura, 2001). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bandura’s Theory of Social/ Cognitive development and the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development's (2001) Secondary School Syllabus mention some of the benefits of physical activity and sports, attitudes of students towards physical activity and sports, and factors that influence students’ participation in physical activity and sports as discussed below: 2.2.1. Physical Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports Various groups promoting healthy living aim to get individuals to exercise regularly (Pesce, Faigenbaum, Crova, Marchetti, &Belluci, 2013). They also found that frequent physical activity strengthens children's motor skills. If children develop strong motor abilities early in infancy, they can carry these skills into maturity. According to Baily (2006); Staiano and Calvert (2011), children develop most of their motor skills and physical activity in P.E class. Including physical activity in regular routines can help youngsters live longer and better. Physical activity increases children's quality of life by lowering disease risk and preventing premature death, Physical activity helps promote bone development, lower blood pressure, and avoid cardiovascular diseases like diabetes (Bailey, 2006). Practical physical education programs provide youngsters the skills they need to participate in most sports (Bailey, 2006; Overdorf & Coker, 2013; Sallis et al., 1999). Children who learn basic movement skills through sports are more likely to be active as adults, helping them to enjoy long and healthy lives (Bailey, 2006; Overdorf & Coker, 2013; Sallis et al., 1999). 2.2.2. Psychological Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports According to Bailey (2006), Children's psychological health can also be improved by regular physical activity. This is in addition to the many physical benefits, such as minimizing unhealthy weight gain, preventing the development of type 2 diabetes and improving bone growth. A child's self-esteem is the most important psychological factor (Baily, 2006). Adolescents in particular, need a high level of self-worth to succeed in the real world (Mitrovic et al., 2012). Self-esteem is described by Mitrovic et al., (2012) as "an evaluative 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh feature of the self-concept that is of tremendous relevance to the individual". In addition to boosting a child's self-esteem, physical activity can alleviate tension, anxiety, and even despair (Bailey, 2006; Taras, 2005; Taras et al., 2005). Taras and Bailey (2006) also pointed out that, physical education classes can assist students stay on track with their academics, as well as improve their attitudes toward school. Physical education classes have a surprising effect on children who are ordinarily disinterested in going to school. Physical education lessons can have positive psychological effects on children who continue to engage in physical activity. Moral reasoning, good sportsmanship, and a growing sense of personal accountability are all signs of these abilities being developed (Bailey, 2006; Mouratido, Goutza, & Chatzopoulos, 2007). Physical education teachers and coaches are able to assist students in dealing with competition-related situations and teach them how to deal with them in an appropriate manner (Bailey, 2006). Sportsmanship, rationality, and responsibility can be better learned from school-based physical education programs and because physical education teachers can illustrate how students should behave in competitive settings, there are many ways in which physical education classes can foster teamwork and that people from different backgrounds form a team and create a sense of unity (Bailey 2006; Mouratido et al., 2007). 2.2.3 Cognitive/ Intellectual Benefits of Physical Activity and Sports According to Sallis et al., (1999) ; Komorowska et al., (2008), physical activity and mental health have been related before until the 1950s, they say, there was no research on this. "Physical exercise and academic ability" research started in France in the 1950s (Bailey, 2006). As part of the investigation, children were removed from academic classrooms and placed in physical education programs. The children's academic performance had not diminished. Throughout the day, pupils were more focused and discipline concerns lessened (Bailey, 2006). Researchers have noted the benefits of physical activity and sports on 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cognitive ability (Tomporowski et al., 2008). Educators needed to recognize the usefulness of physical education sessions as their benefits grew. Due to recent technological advances, more children are becoming sedentary (Greer & Gilbert, 2006; Tremarche et al., 2007). Some students only receive exercise in P.E class. Regular exercise has many benefits, including better health and vitality. Regular physical activity helps children develop sportsmanship and improves their self-esteem. There is also a link between exercise and academic accomplishment. Studies show that students who exercise regularly progress cognitively and academically and P.E class activity has been found to improve academic performance (Taras, 2005). Castelli et al. (2007) discovered a positive association between fitness levels and academic performance on the Stanford Achievement Test. The greater the Fitness gram score, the better the academic performance (Castelli et al., 2007). They conducted additional research with third and fifth grade students in Illinois after reviewing the California Department of Education's research. Third and fifth grade students performed a range of fitness tests. In addition to these fitness tests, students took the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in reading and mathematics. The research findings came out that, physically active kids fare better on the tests. The study indicated that students who excelled in maths and reading had better aerobic fitness and a lower BMI than their classmates. A relationship between students' physical health and academic competence was demonstrated by Taras (2005) using Castelli et al., (2007) data. They splinted second to fourth graders into two groups and compared the findings. One group exercised whereas the other did not. Students did 15 minutes of aerobics and walking before taking the Woodcock-Johnson Test of Concentration (Taras, 2005). Those who exercised in fourth grade outperformed those who did not. The concentration levels of second and third grade students were affected by physical activity (Taras, 2005). Some schools and districts are trying to eliminate P.E to make way for 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other subjects like Language arts, Maths, and Science. Despite this information, many schools and districts are trying (Bailey, 2006; Coe, Pivarnik, Womack, Reeves, &Malina, 2006; Jensen, 2008; Langford & Carter, 2003; Sallis et al., 1999; Sherman et al., 2010). Administrators recognize the importance of physical education but do not prioritize it, especially if academic performance is their major goal, according to Langford and Carter (2003). Across the board, they added, schools lack a physical education assessment related to school ratings (personal communication, March 9, 2014). Parents, school administrators, and instructors are concerned about PE class time (Bailey, 2006). Many kids are left behind due to these attitudes and ideas regarding P.E, physical exercise, and sports in many schools nationwide despite the benefits of exercise and sports engagement. 2.2.4. Attitudes of Students towards Physical Activity and sports participation Regular exercise improves self-esteem and reduces stress, and it helps kids develop sportsmanship. Children and adolescents who regularly exercise throughout their childhood and adolescence are less likely to have health problems later in life (Hogg & Vaughan (2005). Indeed, Hogg et al., (2005) defined an attitude as a generally long-lasting arrangement of ideas, sentiments, and behavioural tendencies toward socially relevant objects, groups' events, or symbols. As a result, researchers in the field of physical activity and sport categorized people's reasons for participating in physical exercise and sports. People exercise for many reasons, including health, fitness, social, psychological, leisure, and recreation (Treasures, & Roberts, 2001). In addition to lowering total body fat and blood pressure, participating in numerous sports and physical activities have been scientifically demonstrated to increase one's quality of life (Armstrong et al., 2006). Physical education teachers must have a strong passion to educate as well as a strong desire to participate in physical activities (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Weiss, 2000). Children's intrinsic drive to engage in and return to 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh physical activity is based on enjoyment. Many of these notable academics' study fields overlap motivating theories. Perceiving oneself as competent increases the likelihood of engaging in or actively participating in such activities (Chiung-Huang et al., 2011). From youth through adulthood, a number of researches have examined how exercise habits change (Malina, 2001). A person's physical activity/inactivity behaviour is more likely to remain steady, rather than change, over time, despite the equivocal results of this study. Adolescence is a critical time for establishing physical activity habits that will carry over into adulthood, and physical activity promotion should be stepped up for this age group (Malina, 2001). Research on the attitudes of adolescents toward physical exercise and sports involvement at various educational levels has yielded inconsistent results (Shamshoum, 2003). P.E. classes in high school are more likely to result in lifelong engagement, according to the research of Hildebrand and Johnson (2001). Students' good views about physical activity and sports can be attributed to their desire to be successful or to spend time in P.E. classes without the burden of academic performance ( Koca, Asci, & Demirhan, 2005). Negative attitudes, on the other hand, discourage kids from participating in physical activities that contribute to their growth, not only physically but emotionally, socially, and mentally (Shamshoum, 2003). Students at all levels of education have admitted that their peers and the community at large view students participating in physical activity and sports at the university as dull and unintelligent, and that this deficiency limits their potential to pursue more "academic" pursuits. They also stated that pupils had a negative outlook on physical exercise and sports engagement (Shamshoum, 2003). In order to counter the decline in young people's participation in sports and physical activity, health professionals are urging physical education teachers to provide their students the tools 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they need to be physically active for the rest of their lives (Williaskell & Ades, 2007). To encourage physical education in Senior High Schools, students must have a good attitude toward participating in physical exercise and sports. This is why physical activity and sports should be encouraged at all stages of education, and schools should provide opportunity for students to master basic movement skills as well as participate in school sports (Williaskell et al., 2007). 2.3. Forms of physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Perform In the context of daily, family, and community activities, physical activity is any body movement that requires energy expenditure in order to engage in physical activities, such as recreational pursuits, transportation, work, and domestic tasks (WHO, 2014). In the words of Brabazon (2006), young people can participate in a wide range of physical activities to keep their health and well-being in check. There are too many to list here depending on a person's age, gender, body type, personality qualities, cultural background, etc., certain hobbies may be more suited than others. If young children are given the opportunity to try a variety of physical activities and sports, they will have a better chance of sticking with physical exercise for physical fitness and well-being because these elements play a bigger role in their success in life. Young people who participate in a variety of physical activities and sports as they grow up are likely to develop a more comprehensive physical and skill set (Small et al., 2001). To increase the likelihood that a kid or adolescent will remain with an activity, Small et al., (2001) suggested that the characteristics of such activity should be suited to their own personality traits. Some youngsters, for example, may be naturally competitive, making competitive sports and physical exercise a better fit for them than non-competitive ones. Team versus individual sports are crucial considerations to keep in mind. If your child is more outgoing, he or she may prefer participating in a team sport like football or hockey; if 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh your child is shy, he or she may prefer participating in an individual activity like table tennis or Badminton. When it comes to sports, some youngsters have a natural affinity for racquet sports or football, while others are more prone to grow disappointed or frustrated if they don't. There will be some young people who favour highly structured physical activities like (rules-based sports and games), while there will be others who prefer less structured activities with fewer limits or rules (Small et al., 2001). 2.3.1. Components of Physical Activity and Sports Physical activity and sports have been found to develop different components of fitness (Washington et al., 2001). Cardiovascular (aerobic) work, strength and muscular endurance, flexibility, and coordination-based activities and sports are the most important forms of physical activity for children and adolescents. 2.3.2 Cardiovascular (Aerobic) Physical Activities According to Small et al., (2001), cardiovascular activities are also referred to as "cardio- respiratory" or "aerobic" activities since they require the body to carry oxygen through the heart and lungs, which is why they are also referred to as cardiovascular activities. Endurance for actions that involve large muscle groups, frequently for long periods of time, is known as cardiovascular endurance (several minutes or more). To get the oxygenated blood that our muscles need, our hearts and lungs have to evolve through time to become more efficient at pumping it through our bodies. Walking, jogging, swimming, bicycling, paddling, dancing, and other continuous physical activity might help you build up your cardiovascular endurance (Washington et al., 2001). Remember and take note of the following when engaging in these kinds of physical activities: Especially if you've never done much physical activity before, you must begin slowly with modest intensity and duration and gradually increase these as you become more fit. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To increase the possibility of frequent participation, it is important that the physical activity chosen be pleasurable and conveniently accessible. Your chances of sticking to an exercise regimen if you don't love it are little if it takes a lot of pricey equipment or a long drive. Wearing proper safety gear, such as a helmet, is also important (helmet when riding a bike, knee guards, running shoe etc.). High-intensity physical activities should be avoided unless the child or adolescent concerned has medical conditions that necessitate consulting a doctor or exercise professional before participating (Small et al., 2001). 2.3.3. Muscular strength and endurance activities A muscle's strength is defined by its ability to generate tension and contract an opposing force, as defined by Small et al., (2001). On the other hand, muscular endurance is the ability of a muscle to maintain its tension or contractions over a lengthy amount of time. Taking part in these exercises helps to strengthen your bones and muscles. When we push, pull, lift, or carry things like big grocery bags, bags of cement, or weight lifting, we rely on our muscle power and endurance. Exercises for building strength and endurance can be done alone or with a partner (such as rope skipping or climbing), or in groups (such as tug of war or a game of Wheelbarrow Races), or in a gymnasium (such as weight lifting or carrying things). One must keep in mind when engaging in muscular strength and endurance activities that one must progress wisely, especially when one is new to these kinds of physical activities. To avoid excessive muscle pain and injuries, one must begin slowly and with lighter resistance. In order to build muscle strength, it is not required to utilize weights, since there are a number of other exercises that can do so. Physical activity such as push-ups, climbing, handstands, and so on are examples. Other simple objects, such as elastic tubing and bands, can also be used to build muscle strength. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Strength training with too much weight or resistance can damage growing cartilage and bones, which is why it's not recommended for children under the age of 18, when the body is still developing. Consult an expert such a physical education teacher, physical trainer, doctor, etc. if you have any doubts (Small et al., 2001). 2.3.4. Physical Activities that develop Flexibility Washington et al. (2001) defined flexibility as the ability to move joints. Flexibility relies on the type of joint and the suppleness of the muscles and connective tissue (tendons, ligaments) around it. Flexibility is required for any physical action requiring bending, lunging, or twisting. Flexible and range of motion exercises such as gentle stretching, sports like gymnastics and karate, yoga and Pilates, as well as muscular strength and endurance workouts are all ideal strategies to develop body flexibility. When undertaking flexible physical exercises, keep in mind: It takes weeks or months to see considerable changes in flexibility. Movements must be controlled and done without bouncing or jerkiness as well as never stretching to the point of pain. Your health could be in danger if you force yourself to imitate someone whose flexibility is greater than your own. However, according to Washington et al. (2001), you should frequently stretch (preferably several times a week or even daily). If you don't continue to work on it, you can easily lose flexibility which can helps prevent injury. Also, as we age, our flexibility diminishes. Because we are most flexible while we are young, it is best to begin flexibility exercises as soon as possible and continue them for the rest of our lives. Stretching should also be done when the muscles and joints are warm and pliable, since this will make them more flexible. After a warm-up at the beginning of physical exercise or as part of a cool-down, stretching is a great idea. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To sum up, it's crucial to realize that flexibility varies greatly between boys and girls (typically superior in the latter), and it's also usual to witness a decline in flexibility when the bones expand quicker than muscles and tendons (Washington et al., 2001). 2.3.5. Physical Activities that develop Coordination Small et al., (2001) defined coordination as the ability to employ the brain and neurological system in conjunction with the locomotor system to produce smooth and accurate motions. There are several types of physical activities in which coordination is required, including: activities that require the body to be balanced, such as (walking on a beam or standing on one leg), activities that require rhythmic timing, such as dancing to music, activities that require spatial awareness and kinaesthetic awareness, such as learning a new dance move or performing a somersault, and activities that require foot-eye coordination like football kicking and dribbling. In performing physical activities requiring coordination, Small et al., (2001) mentioned that you must be aware of your surroundings and other individuals in the proximity in order to avoid falls and other accidents. Most youngsters like participating in coordination physical activities, especially in the early stages of their development. Some kids learn these skills more quickly than others, and the learning curve for each child is unique (Small et al., 2001). For some young individuals, a perceived amount of risk or uncertainty in an activity like (wall/rock climbing or surfing) may serve as a motivating factor, whereas for others, a more predictable physical activity is preferable because it is seen to be less dangerous. Assault or high-ropes courses, water slides in swimming pools, paintball, and other adventurous pastimes may appeal to more adventurous young people since they require more stimulation to keep them engaged. No matter what classification system you choose, the most important thing is that children have a wide variety of options from which to choose, and that you do it 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with consideration for their individual abilities and preferences. In the end, the most important thing is to make physical activity enjoyable for young people so that they continue to engage in it throughout their lives and not be compelled to participate in certain sports or activities by their parents, physical education teachers, and other adults (Washington et al., 2001). Additionally, Small E, et al. (2001) noted that, as adolescence approaches, a child's physical activity choices may shift. The type of physical exercise they engage in isn't as important as the fact that they're doing it. Those in the Senior High School level also have the right to participate, the right to participate at a level appropriate to their maturity and ability, the right to share in the leadership and decision-making of their participation, the right to participate in safe and healthy environments, the right to proper preparation for participating. Many studies have established the link between physical activity and health, but there have been alarming declines in adult physical activity in recent years, and students at the Senior High Schools are no exception. Every day or nearly every day, adolescents and especially Senior High Students, according to Brabazon (2006) should engage in physical activity as part of play, games, sports, work, transportation, recreation and school physical education classes. As suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO), adolescents should participate in three or more sessions per week of activities lasting at least 20 minutes and requiring moderate to vigorous levels of exertion; (WHO, 2010). Walking to and from school, playing games like (soccer, table tennis, basketball, handball, volleyball, etc.), athletics (track and field events), and gymnastics are the most popular kinds of physical activity and recreation among students. The term "active transportation" refers to any kind of transportation that requires the user to exert energy in order to go from one point to another. An alternative to driving can be found in the form of active transportation, which 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh boosts one's level of daily physical activity (Sims, Huang, Pietsch & Naccarella, 2004). Health benefits can be gained by walking for at least 30 minutes a day on most days of the week and engaging in muscle-strengthening activities (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). Just 30 minutes of moderate exercise each day could help prevent heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure, diabetes, breast and colon cancer, as well as falls and depression. But despite the overwhelming evidence that this level of regular physical activity is necessary, few people achieve it (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013). About one-third of American teens, or 94.2 million, reported a sedentary lifestyle, and only one-fifth of those reported are reaching the physical activity recommendation for maintaining health (National Health Interview, 2012). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) standards for assessing healthy levels of participation in physical activity and sports among High School students will be used (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). When asked how many days per week they were moderately active (exercise that increases breathing and heart rate without exhaustion or extreme fatigue), participants in a US Department of Health and Human Services study (2002) said they were average. For general health and well-being, the guidelines recommend that individuals do at least 30 minutes of physical activity every day for at least five days a week. That was the definition of physical activity utilized in that study. Inadequate exerciser was defined as those who exercised less than four (4) days per week, while those who exercised more than five (5) days per week were defined as 'adequate exercisers'. Sedentary behaviour was the subject of two queries. Watching TV or sitting down and doing nothing else for a long period of time is a waste of time, as is playing computer games. Each response had five options, but these were reduced 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to three categories: "Less than half an hour," "1 to 4 hours," and ">4 hours," respectively (Poobalan, Aucoot, Clarke, & Smith, 2012). The World Health Organization (2010) recommends that teenagers between the ages of 13 and 25 engage in 150 minutes of cardiovascular or aerobic activity per week. The number of days of moderate to strenuous activity, such as walking, cycling, climbing stairs, manual work, swimming, etc., will be counted as part of this evaluation. At least two of the seven days in a week should be devoted to muscle building activities, according to the suggestion. The number of days per week of muscle-strengthening physical activity, such as body weight, circuit training, or weight lifting movements of most of the major muscle groups, will be used as a measure of this activity. At least two of the seven days of the week should be devoted to muscle flexibility activities. Flexibility activities that include stretching, gymnastics, or yoga-type motions targeted at increasing the range of motion of the major joints will be counted as days per week. Finally, the BMI (Body Mass Index) is used to categorize participants into healthy adult body weight and overweight or obese body weight groups based on cardiovascular endurance (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2011). According to the American College of Sports Medicine, a BMI of 18.5 to 24.9 is considered a healthy weight based on self-reported height and weight reported to the nearest pound (WHO, 2010). 2.4. Factors that influence student’s participation in Physical Activity and Sports. According to Small et al., (2001), every person's health and well-being can be improved and maintained via regular physical activity. Cardiovascular disease mortality risk is reduced significantly by participation in moderate to intense physical activity. Several elements, such as biological, demographical, psychological and behavioural, environmental, social and cultural factors, influence physical activity (Buckworth & 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dishman, 2002). Considered and explored here are some of the elements that contribute to students' physical inactivity in Senior High Schools. 2.4.1 Physical Environment People's perceptions of the physical environment and how they interact with it can have a substantial impact on their level of physical activity and participation in sports (Gordon- Larsen, McMurray, & Popkin, 2000). Involvement in physical exercise and sports can be influenced by factors such as access to facilities and equipment, the season of the year, the competing attentions of television and computers, and safety concerns. The school is an important aspect when it comes to access to facilities and equipment. Participation in physical education classes will likely improve if schools increase the amount of physical exercise promoted in the classroom (Kahn et al., 2002). Research has indicated that involvement in school Physical Education and community recreation programs has a considerable impact on the physical activity patterns of teenagers (Gordon-Larsen et al., 2000). Sporting or physical activity equipment, as well as transportation, can be purchased or provided by parents to help their children participate in leisure activities. If youngsters are given the opportunity to be physically active, they are more likely to remain physically active throughout their lives. Sedentary habits such as watching television and surfing the internet will be limited if children are taken out of their homes and into the natural world. Additionally, a reduction in television viewing time may be particularly helpful because it is linked to the consumption of energy-dense foods that may be associated with obesity (Biddle & Mutrie, 2001). Because children are less likely to go outside and more likely to watch television or use the computer when it's cold outside, it has been found that they are less active in the winter (Datar, Nicosia, & Shier, 2013). 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Increasingly essential environmental factor of physical activity is the safety of the surrounds and environment. As stated earlier by Datar et al., (2013), physical exercise can be hindered by a lack of safety in the environment (including school), either by parental decision or control or by the children themselves. When it comes to getting to school, this is especially true. As a result of safety concerns, the number of youngsters who walk or ride their bicycles to school has decreased. All of society is affected by a decreased sense of personal safety, and actions from a variety of sectors will be necessary to remedy this mind set. Gender also has a big role in the perception of an environment's suitability for physical activity (Garcia, Bengoechea, Spence, & McGannon, 2005). As a result, initiatives to encourage physical activity by improving perceptions of the environment may need to be tailored to the genders. 2.4.2 Social and Cultural Factors Physical exercise habits are influenced by the attitudes of family members, friends, and coaches. It is well-established that physical education instructors, coaches and physical fitness trainers can influence the degree of involvement and physical activity behaviour of their students (Gilson & Feltz, 2012). A number of studies have found that the support of a coach or physical education teacher may have an impact on levels of performance, self- efficacy, and persistence (Gilson et al., 2012). The motivational climate produced by the trainer or coach, the perception of the coach's judgment of the athlete's competency, and the amount and type of feedback supplied by the coach are all important aspects (Jackson, 2010; Santi et al., 2014). It has been found that the family's support has been shown to predict self-efficacy and physical activity behaviour across the lifespan (Ornelas et al., 2007). In the domain of family support, For example, as a child learns to walk, he or she looks to his or her parents for reassurance that they are satisfied with the progress they have made (Beets et al., 2010). As a 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh result, children are more likely to continue behaving in a certain way if they believe that their parents believe they can succeed. When children become teenagers, they increasingly rely on their parents and other family members for financial assistance in the form of participation fees, equipment, and transportation (Beets et al., 2010). For certain elite athletes, social interaction may be managed so tightly that peer support is ineffective, leaving athletes to continue dependent on their parents for emotional assistance (Hayman, Borkoles, Taylor, Hemmings, &Polman, 2014). Peer influence is the final form of social support system. Self-efficacy and physical activity behaviour can be strongly influenced by peer support, which includes classmates, teams, or close friends (Gao, 2012; Harmon et al., 2014; Martin & McCaughtry, 2008; Martin et al., 2011). Recent research links adolescent physical activity to peer social support and self-efficacy (Harmon et al., 2014; & Martin et al., 2011). Various researches have shown that peer social support influences behaviour (Anderssen & Wold, 1992; Gao, 2012; Harmon et al., 2014; Kirby, Levin, & Inchley, 2011; Martin & McCaughtry, 2008; Martin et al., 2011). Peer aid in substance abuse treatment includes self-help groups, peer advocates, and paraprofessional counsellors employed by treatment clinics. These sorts of support are seen to be successful since the supports have been through the same experience and understand the clients' feelings. Addicted counsellors who have first-hand experience with addiction are more effective in these settings (Kaplan, Nugent, Clark, & Veysey, 2010). The company of like-minded individuals may also encourage participation in physical exercise or even perseverance in the face of adversity (Chang, Brown, & Nitzke, 2009). Cancer patients who are encouraged to keep active by their peers are more likely to do so than those who are not. According to study, having a group of active pals increases your 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh likelihood of participating (Davison, 2004; Maturo & Cunningham, 2013; Saxena, Borzekowski, &Rickert, 2002). However, longitudinal research by Corder and Colleagues (2013) indicated that classmates may influence students' physical activity more than any other period. The study found that peer support influenced after-school physical activity levels. Thus, peer contact has been shown to be a powerful predictor of physical activity (Kirby et al., 2011). Sport-specific investigations found the same. Peer motivation influences how much fun, how dedicated, and how often athletes participate in sports (Santi et al., 2014; Torregrosa et al., 2011; Weiss & Weiss, 2003). A strong sense of support from co-workers can prevent low self-efficacy, low confidence, and burnout (DeFreese & Smith, 2013; Freeman & Rees, 2010; Marcos, Miguel, Oliva, & Calvo, 2010). Athletes are more inclined to focus on skill improvement than outcomes if they don't receive peer judgment for poor performance. In addition to peer support, some elite athletes report being socially confined (Atkins, Johnson, Force, & Petrie, 2015). Social support systems may have an impact on physical activity based on mutual interests, as well as demographic information (Edwardson et al., 2013). While younger children are more impacted by their parents, adolescents are more likely to be influenced by their peers. Existing data supports the concept that age influences the relative impact of social support systems. Peer support may also be influenced by gender; particularly, young males may sense more support for physical exercise than girls, according to research findings (Edwardson et al., 2013; Kirby et al., 2011). 2.4.3 Behavioural Attributes and Skills One approach of describing an action for a task with a specified goal or objective is to use the term "motor skill," which refers to seamless execution of physical movement and responses 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Zhang, Solmon, Gao, & Kosma, 2012). In other words, one's coordination, balance, agility, and reaction time are all influenced by one's genetic make-up. The benefits of physical activity for children of all ages can be realized through participation in organized sports. Sporting activities, on the other hand, must be appropriate for the child's age and stage of development. Putting youngsters in sports they aren't ready for can cause them to become frustrated and drop out early (Zhang et al., 2012). For example, as stated by Domangue and Solmon (2010); another potential obstacle to physical exercise engagement is the perceived motivational climate. To better understand motivational climates, you can think of them as either task or ego-oriented. There are two types of training environments: task climates are focused on learning and perfecting the skill and normative environments are focused on winning. A personal trainer who berates a client for not losing weight as quickly as another client at the gym is an example of an egocentric atmosphere. Because of this, ego climates are typically associated with developing low self- esteem and a lack of perseverance in the face of difficulties and research has shown that ego climates are associated with increased participant burnout (Chiung-Huang et al., 2011). Students with low levels of competence may be discouraged from participating in physical activity if the environment is ego-oriented (Domangue et al., 2010). Students' participation in physical activity and sports is influenced by their level of motivation. There are moments in physical education when a student's skills are critical to their success. P.E. lessons are generally designed to help students learn new skills while also improving their abilities in a specific sport. One must practice and dedicate time and effort in order to improve at something. When a student lacks motivation to enhance a skill that is required for physical education programs, this degree of effort may yield little gain (Ntoumanis et al., 2004). Academic achievement has been found to be a greater motivating factor for some girls than athletics, sport, or fitness, in terms of gaining admission to 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh postsecondary institutions. According to Biddle and Whitehead (2008), adolescence is a time of shifting priorities, with many girls saying they can't be bothered to participate in physical activity. Females may be less physically active because of a cultural expectation that they are better academically than their male counterparts. Recommend an increase in physical education engagement by increasing parental support, creating peer mentoring schemes involving girls who like and frequently participate in physical activity and providing pleasant, informal activities for adolescent girls. Using this format, female students will see physical activity as more important than it was before. As a result, the "options provided within many physical education programs" do not appear to be appreciated by, or important to, female students (Gibbons, Gaul & Blackstock, 2004). Sport can be physically and emotionally draining for a young girl, especially when she is competing against other girls of her own age (Gibbons, Gaul & Blackstock, 2004). 2.4.4 Physical Activity and Psychosocial Factors People's growth is influenced by the psychological and social components of their lives. Because they are inseparable, they are generally referred to as a pair. In order to be successful in school, kids must execute a wide range of social, personal, and academic activities. These elements influence the educational experience for young people and can either promote or hinder their progress. For more than just learning and passing exams, school is a vital place for students to create relationships, develop social identities, and cultivate a sense of community (Biddle & Nigg, 2000). There is a plethora of psychological elements that could play a role. Focusing on just a few topics, this section concentrates on those that have a direct correlation to educational success. Self-Efficacy is described as the idea that one has the ability to do a behaviour that will lead to a desired outcome (Biddle et al., 2000). The Self-Efficacy theory asserts that one's belief in one's ability to carry out a task is strongly linked to one's real ability (Usher, & Pajares, 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2008). If an individual has low self-efficacy, they are more likely to avoid an achievement circumstance. They also found that self-efficacy beliefs are more accurate predictors of future behaviour than previous results (Usher et al., 2008). Another factor that influences engagement in physical activity is an individual's sense of self- worth. Self-esteem and overall efficiency are seen as indicators of a person's worth and ability to succeed (Usher et al., 2008). Playing in a supportive environment while developing the necessary skills and competences fosters the development of long-term patterns of intrinsic motivation and good attitudes towards physical activity among participants (Piltz, 2002). In physical education or sports, girls often assume that everyone is watching them, and no matter what the game, they feel that every time they touch the ball or make a play, they are being analysed and judged, and become terrified to make a mistake (Fraser-Thomas & Beaudoin, 2004). However, research reveals that parental support and modelling are important motivators and markers of teenage physical activity. As stated by Sallis, Prochaska, and Taylor, (2000), having parental support and encouragement will assist girls gain self-confidence in any physical or sporting endeavour. Adams-Blair (2002) stated that girls who participate in sports and athletics have a favourable impact on their life as self-confidence takes time to build. They will be able to continue to grow their self-confidence while coping with unfavourable comments if they continue to take part in physical education classes and participate in physical exercise, as well as with the right physical educators in the teaching profession (Adams-Blair, 2002). A psychological component that influences student engagement in physical exercise and sports is the teaching strategy of physical education instructors and coaches (Piltz, 2002). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Teacher-coaches are always looking for new and better ways to engage students in games and sports in order to help them achieve a wide range of learner objectives, including the development of competent and confident players (Piltz, 2002). However, the approach to teaching should be gender-sensitive. Four themes have been identified by Chung and Phillips, (2002) that can help students become more engaged in exercise: the ability to choose what they do; a desire to learn; a sense of support; and a clear understanding of what they can expect from the course. There may be an increase in student motivation and enrolment if the physical educator employs these methods. Teachers should also provide options while teaching physical education classes, since this encourages students to be more engaged in what they're learning (Gibbons, 2007). Participants in the class feel validated, empowered, and supported if the expectations are clear and everyone feels supported in their learning environment (Hurtes, 2002). 2.4.5 Demographic and Biological Characteristics Existing research has shed light on the potential moderating impacts of social cognition theory components such as race, gender, and socioeconomic position (Dishman et al., 2002; Edwardson, Gorely, Musson, Duncombe, &Sandford, 2014; Kirby et al., 2011). There may be a greater impact on non-Hispanic Whites than Hispanic or Black participants on concepts from social cognitive theory. For example, non-Hispanic Whites may be more susceptible to the influence of social cognitive theory concepts than Hispanic or Black participants (Gao, 2012). Rogers and colleagues (2007), on the other hand, found that black individuals were more influenced by social cognitive conceptions than white participants, therefore future studies are needed to evaluate the moderating of race within the theory (Dishman et al., 2009; Rogers et al., 2007). 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When it comes to physical activity, gender may also play a role. Men are more likely than women to participate in physical activities and to exert more energy, according to a wide range of studies (Martin et al., 2011). A lot of research has shown that males have a better sense of self-efficacy when it comes time for them to engage in physical activity than their female counterparts. Young girls, on the other hand, may have a greater sense of maternal support and so be more likely to stick with a smaller group than young males (Woods et al., 2012). According to Sherar, Esliger, Baxter-Jones, and Trembley (2007), the gender differences in physical activity extend to other aspects. A male's interest for strenuous activities is larger than that of a female's, and they are more welcomed by their peers in games and sports. Study after study shows that prevention efforts focusing on preserving one's physical fitness and exercise throughout adolescence will help one's future health. According to studies by Sherar, L. et al. (2007), a person's attitude toward physical activity changes over the course of their life, with the negative effects becoming more noticeable around the age of 40-50. Sherar, L. et al., (2007) cautioned that groups are a wonderful tool to communicate knowledge about familiar and personal situations, leisure activities, and individual interests. In order to achieve acceptance, recognition, social prestige, and admiration from peers, adolescents feel the need to impress their peers of both sexes in order to accelerate the process of parental independence and simultaneously build a new dependence on peers. Adolescents are more likely to engage in physical activity if they have friends with whom they share an affinity for the activity and who also do so. They are also more likely to be able to find the time to do so. In terms of social cognitive constructs, such as tangible support, socioeconomic position has also been demonstrated to be a major predictor. Edwardson and colleagues, (2014) as well as Raudsepp, (2006) found a link between household income and the concrete support parents 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh could give for their children. Non-essential material help, such as gas for transportation or entry fees, is less likely to be purchased by parents who are struggling financially (Eime, Harvey, Craike, Symons, & Payne, 2013). 2.5. Extent to which Male and Female students perform regular Physical Activity and Sports participation. In Spain and many other nations, girls have been found to be less physically active than boys, especially during adolescence (Riddoch & Andersen L, 2004). School-aged males are 25 percent more fit than females in terms of aerobic (cardiorespiratory) fitness compared to body mass (Riddoch et al., 2004). To explain this gender disparity, it is likely that girls' engagement in physical activity and sports decreases at a faster rate (about 7.4 percent per year) than boys' participation declines at a faster rate (roughly 2.7% each year) (Robbins, Pender & Kazanis, 2003). The logical question is: Why is there such a disparity between the amount of physical exercise males and girls engage in while in school? Multifactorial explanations are most plausible; with developmental, environmental, and social factors all playing a role. Differential development of motor skills, changes in body composition during childhood and maturation, and more socialization toward sports and physical exercise have all been suggested as possible causes for this phenomenon (Robbins et al., 2003). As a result, boys are more likely to be encouraged to participate in physical activity by their parents and teachers than girls. Unfortunately, many adults have a deeply ingrained belief that physical exercise is primarily the domain of men. Adults may not be able to tell if they have a bias. These biases must be uncovered so that girls of all ages are encouraged to engage in physical activity. With young girls (under the age of ten), there's a better likelihood they'll keep up their physical activity and sports engagement as they get older, which has obvious advantages for their health and well-being. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Adolescent girls (particularly) have unique obstacles to physical activity compared to their male counterparts of the same age group (Robbins et al., 2003). Girls are more likely than boys to report physical activity as a barrier due to body image and social pressures. As a result, it is critical that initiatives aimed at increasing young people's participation in physical exercise take this into account. Gender-blind interventions aimed at younger groups will only be somewhat successful. There was evidence that boys are more physically active than girls in investigations done by Sherar et al. (2007) which revealed that the drop of physical activity is more pronounced among male participants (over the age of 15) as compared to female participants (over the age of 15). Men are more likely than women to have a favourable attitude toward physical activity, according to a study conducted by Sherar et al. (2007), which included 2800 participants aged 12 to 92 (including 1245 men and 1555 women). In addition, Sherar et al. (2007) claimed that the gender differences in physical activity extend to other dimensions. Males have a stronger interest in physical exercise, or are more accepted by their peers (in games and sports), place more significance to physical activity, and enjoy games and sport more than their female counterparts. Following are some techniques to encourage students in high schools to get more active and participate in sports since physical activity participation is declining, particularly among females, and because young people are adopting more sedentary lifestyles. 2.5.1. Strategies Adopted for Promoting Physical Activity Children's physical activity should be integrated into their daily routines, researchers in 2012 wrote in their paper, designed to Move, in an effort to combat the growing epidemic of inactivity (Nike et al., 2012). It is believed that favourable health-related behaviours learned in childhood will persist throughout adulthood (Singh et al., 2008). Active children are more 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh likely to grow up to be active adults. According to Nike et al., (2012), almost 80 percent of children who were overweight at the ages of 10 to 15 became obese adults at the ages of 25. At the heart of the SBPA model is the idea that physical exercise may be included into the daily lives of students. Any physical activity that is done under the direction of a teacher in the same classroom or school as the other academic courses is referred to as SBPAs. In order to combat this tendency and address the demand for increased physical activity among school-aged children, school-based interventions have been established. Mandatory physical education, classroom activity breaks, after-school exercise programs, walk-to-school programs, adapted playgrounds, and modified recess are all examples of school-based treatments that might be implemented. Physical activity and sports benefit from a variety of approaches, but not all are equal (Nike et al., 2012). It has recently been determined that classroom-based physical activity (CBPA) is the second most effective intervention for raising physical activity levels in elementary and middle school pupils (Basset et al., 2013). Researchers have found that physical activity can have a positive impact on academic performance even if it is still in its infancy. According to Donnelly and colleagues (2009), classes employing the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum Program (PAAC) performed much better in reading, math, spelling, and composite achievement than classrooms that did not use PAAC. As Naughton et al. (2006) reported, the incidence of overweight and obesity among young people is increasing as a result of the school environment's failure to instil the importance of a physically active lifestyle for future health and well-being (Wardle, Brodersen, Cole, Jarvis and Boniface, 2006). However, this surge is despite regulatory frameworks (such as the National Curriculum for Physical Education, England and different programs (e.g., PE and school sport club links strategy, PESSCL) aimed at giving young people with opportunity to become "independently 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh active for life") (Harris & Penney, 2000). Young individuals may be more active throughout the school day than during their free time at home because of the sedentary activities they have at their disposal. The results of research are mixed; however, it has been established that a child's overall level of physical activity is greatly increased by physical exercise that occurs outside of school hours (Cox, Schofield, Greasley and Kolt, 2006). Informational approaches, according to Salmon, Booth, Phongsavan, Murphy, and Timperio (2007), are also intended to increase physical activity by providing people with the information they need to motivate and enable them to change their behaviour and maintain that change over time. The focus is mostly on the cognitive skills, which are regarded to precede the behaviour that follows them. As part of their instructional strategy, the interventions employ media including television, radio, newspaper inserts, and movie trailers to spread the word about various programs. In addition, they have a "tag line" or "brand statement" that is used consistently across all mediums and channels. Signs posted at escalators and elevators to encourage people to take the stairs instead are known as "point-of-decision cues." A variety of health and weight-loss-related messages are shown on the placards. By alerting individuals who may already be more active for health or other reasons of the opportunity at hand, or by advising them of a health advantage from using the stairs, signs are regarded to be helpful. At least 39 points of evidence suggest that point-of-decision prompts boost levels of physical activity by raising the percentage of people who choose to walk up and down the stairs instead of using an elevator or escalator (Salmon, t al., 2007) There are a number of behavioural and social techniques that aim to increase physical activity by teaching people how to better manage their own behaviour and by arranging the social environment so that those who want to adopt new habits have the support they need. Individual or group behavioural counselling is commonly used as part of an intervention, 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which often includes members of an individual's social network. Skill sets focus on recognizing and responding to physical activity cues and opportunities, as well as techniques to avoid relapse in high-risk situations and maintain healthy habits. In addition to making adjustments in the home, family, school, and workplace, interventions are also necessary. Interventions include (school-based PE), college-based PE, classroom teaching about the dangers of watching too much TV, community-based programs to help families cope with stress, and individual health-behaviour programs that can be tailored to the needs of each individual participant (Salmon, t al., 2007). The goal of environmental and policy approaches is to provide people with the opportunity, support, and cues they need to adopt better habits. Efforts are made to create healthy physical and organizational environments through the adoption of policies that encourage community involvement and support (Brownson, Haire-Joshu & Luke, 2016). The goal is to encourage physical activity by altering social networks, organizational norms and policies, the physical environment, resources, facilities, and the laws. Another two environmental and policy measures to improve physical activity include transportation policies and infrastructure reforms to promote non-motorized mobility, and urban planning initiatives. Creating or Expanding Opportunities for Physical Activity Combined with Outreach: Activities Workplaces, coalitions, organizations, and communities all work together to build or improve access to physical activity centres and facilities. Weight and aerobic fitness equipment in fitness centres or community centres, as well as walking routes, playing fields for students and access to local fitness centres are examples of evidence-based interventions (Brown et al., 2010). Active transportation to school initiatives, according to Brown et al. (2009), are aimed at encouraging and supporting students to walk, bike, or skate to school. Kids walk to school, walking school sus, and Safe Routes to School are all examples of these interventions. They 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh may include non-infrastructure activities such as walking programs, as well as urban design components and practices that improve circumstances for active transportation. This method can be used in elementary, middle, and high schools. There is evidence in a 2008 study from the National Safe Routes to School Task Force 24 that these interventions can be beneficial in boosting physical activity, enhancing safety, and developing long-term infrastructure to support physical activity (Brown et al., 2010). 2.6. Summary of Related Literature In order to achieve goal of getting young people to be more active in physical activity and sports, educational curricula must emphasize the holistic development of each student (Madigan, 2009; Pica, 2006; Tremarche et al., 2007; Young, 1996). This can be accomplished by ensuring that students receive a well-rounded education that addresses their mental, social, psychomotor and physical health. Math, language arts, and the sciences all have a role to play in the development of children's mental skills, but they may not have the same impact on their social or physical development. Physical education is one part of the school curriculum that can aid in the development of a child's physical and social talents. Children who take part in physical education classes reap a variety of benefits. P.E. classes have the added benefit of instilling healthy habits in young people (Pesce et al., 2013). Depending on your perspective, competing might be positive or negative (O'Brien, 2007). Females often believe that co-curricular activities can get excessively competitive to the point that the activity is no longer pleasant and the level of competition is too high for their comfort, as observed (Hannon & Ratliffe, 2007). In team sports, women "felt inadequate," (Fogelholm, 2010). The idea is that healthy competition is more important than winning. If the game gets too competitive, the girls in the group may start intimidating the new girls. We believe that girls would prefer to see courses divided by talent and competitiveness so they may participate and not feel excluded due to the high level of competition. P.E. As Hannon 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Ratliffe (2007) noted, hostility and rough physical contact, typically a component of competitiveness in certain physical activities, are often "associated with male sports and boys’ engagement in coeducational physical education courses tends to silence participation of females." 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction Here, the methodology of this study is laid forth in detail. There are sections on the research design, target population, samples, instruments, data collection methods, as well as the analysis of the collected data. In addition, measures taken to improve the validity and trustworthiness of the data and the instrument are detailed. 3.1 Research Design The field data was gathered using a quantitative research method and the Descriptive survey design was adopted for the study. The choice of this design was influence by the assertion of Fraenkel and Wallen (2000) that when trying to describe the current state of a phenomenon, the most appropriate is descriptive survey design. Again, the use of this particular design helps in achieving the purpose of the study and a quantitative approach was used to collect a large amount of data that could be used to draw conclusions. Statistical approaches are used to collect and interpret numerical data in quantitative designs. The findings of this study can be generalized to the general population because there are so many participants. A survey was used for data collecting. Students in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of Upper East Region were asked to complete a survey using a descriptive survey design since it was the most relevant and convenient way to utilize for gathering information about their thoughts and views. The study relied on primary data for its analysis. Primary data came from the researcher's surveys and observations, and these were incorporated into the study. In order to assess the quantity and quality of educational resources, surveys are given to students and teachers, and an observation checklist is used. Rather than focusing on just one aspect of the 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh subjects under inquiry, this approach provided for a more comprehensive knowledge of the issues at hand. An in-depth evaluation of the issues revealed in the research was possible because of the method's implementation in the study. Although this design has its advantages, there are also downsides. The invasion of respondents' privacy may be an issue. Survey participants may be reluctant to reveal their true identities as a result. 3.2 Population The targeted population for the study involved all students in Senior High Schools in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region. The estimated total number of respondents were all eleven (11) Physical Education teachers and five thousand and ninety- seven (5097) students from SHS 2 and SHS 3 because SHS 1 students had just reported and undergoing orientation. 3.3 Sample and Sampling Procedures According to Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2018), a representative sample of 350 students is adequate for a population of 5097 or more. Using the mathematical model: n=N / 1+N (e2), n=5,097/1+5,097 (0.052) =350 (Gomez & Jones, 2010). The ‘n' stands for sample size, ‘N' for sampling frame, and ‘e' for error margin. After the total sample size was derived, the proportional sampling strategy was used to obtain the sample size for each School (see Table 1). 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1- Sample of Students in Senior High Schools in Kassena Nankana Municipality S.H.S No. of students Percentage (%) Proportionate Sampling NAVASCO 1690 1690/5097x100=33 33.1/100x350=115 St.BENEDETTE 540 540/5097x100=10.5 10.5/100x350=37 PAGA SHS 300 300/5097x100= 5.8 6.0/100x350=21 St. JOHNS 520 520/5097x100=10.2 10.2/100x350=36 O.L.L GIRLS 547 547/5097x100=10.7 10.7/100x350=38 N’DAME BOY 300 300/5097x100=6.0 6.0/100x350=21 AWE SH/T 1200 1200/5097×100=23.5 23.5/100x350=82 Total 5,097 350 Source: Field survey, Pavala (2020) Male and female respondents were selected based on their percentage representation in the population because the number of students at each Senior High School was not evenly distributed, and thus the proportionate random sampling technique was used to select male and female respondents from each school and all the P.E teachers from the selected schools. When the devastating epidemic of the coronavirus struck, only final-year students and a few second-year students were in school, therefore only those pupils willing to participate were picked for this study. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Covid-19 preventative measures were observed by pupils at each of the seven schools, and this was done on a voluntary basis. Although each student had an equal chance of being chosen using simple random sampling by replacement, selection was done until the required sample was obtained for each school during the coronavirus epidemic. Because of this, I decided to conduct the study with a sample size of 350 students and all the 11 P.E teachers in the selected Senior High Schools. 3.4 Data Collection Instruments For this investigation, the researcher relied on a questionnaire and an observational checklist. Open and closed questionnaires were employed by the researcher to collect data from P.E. instructors as well as students, when needed. As a result of the improved uniformity provided by questionnaires, the results provided are more compatible as a whole. According to Orodho (2009), a questionnaire can capture a large amount of data in a reasonable length of time while also providing context for or in addition to a certain opinion. The questionnaire was prepared by the researcher, and some of the questions were also incorporated and adjusted to fit the study. P.E teachers and students were each given a questionnaire to complete. There were five (5) sections to the survey. There were five items (1-5) in Section 'A, all of which featured generic information provided by educators and students. These things aided in locating respondents' schools and colleges, as well as other crucial data for the investigation. It was the goal of Section B to discover what kinds of physical and sporting activities students in single-sex and mixed-sex schools engage in, as well as the extent to which various background characteristics predicted their engagement. Section C focused on the obstacles and circumstances that keep students from becoming physically active. Male and female students' level of regular physical activity was measured on a three-point scale ranging from positive to 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh negative in Section D. Segment E, the final section, focused on the impact of inactivity on students' health and well-being. (Appendix A). This section of the questionnaire was presented in a five-point Likert scale, 5=Strongly Agree, 4=Agree (A), 3=Undecided (UN) 2=Disagree (D) and 1=Strongly Disagree (SD). Closed-ended questions were included in the survey. Answers to statements presented were to be selected by ticking in the corresponding column by those who took the survey. Likert scale made it simple to conduct statistical analysis (Jackson, 2009). The Observation checklist, based on the research questions, was the second component of the instrument. The observations were deliberate and well-thought-out." For the purpose of identifying resources and potential problems, the researcher employed an observation checklist. Advantageous in that it provided precise data gathered through direct observation of facilities and equipment, whether P.E practical sessions were taught in schools. 3.5 Reliability and Validity of Research Instrument To ensure the validity of the questionnaire, the content of the literature was examined to ensure that the questions were based on it. Experts from the Department of Physical Education and Sports at the College of Education, University of Ghana, examined the instrument's content and face validity once again. The instrument's validity and reliability were tested in a pilot study before it was used in the main investigation. Bolgatanga Senior High School in Upper East Region pilot tested the instrument to ensure that items were accurately phrased and understood by respondents. This was done in order to remove any potential weak points, deficiencies, or ambiguities that may have existed in the original draft. In order to avoid ambiguity, I used students from Bolgatanga Senior High School since I thought they shared similar qualities with those who participated in physical activity and sports in the study. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IBM SPSS 21.0 was used to analyse the gathered data. The Cronbach coefficient alpha was used to calculate the instrument's reliability coefficient. Its internal consistency reliability coefficient was 0.80. A reliability value of at least 0.70 and ideally greater was judged satisfactory by researchers (Bonett, 2010; Cronbach & Shavelson, 2004; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2000). 3.6 Data Collection Procedures The data gathering process was conducted in accordance with ethical standards because the study involved human participants. Beginning on December 20th, 2019 and ending on January 20th, 2020, data will have been gathered. The data was gathered over the course of nine weeks. The Department of Teacher Education at the University of Ghana provided an introduction letter to the selected Senior High Schools prior to the data collection. Personally, I presented these letters to the Headmaster, the Rector, or any other school official. My introduction to the school's Physical Education teachers was then made by the associate Headmasters/Headmistresses of academic affairs. When I described the purpose of the study and asked if they would allow me to use their students in it, they agreed. They gave me the go-ahead to administer the questionnaires and the days on which I could do so. The P.E. Tutors from the selected schools assisted me in administering the questionnaire. The sampled students were gathered in a classroom and given an explanation of the purpose of the study and asked to fill out a questionnaire as part of the process. Given the opportunity to reply, they were given time to do so while observing Covid-19 health and safety regulations. Respondents handed up their completed surveys. In total, 350 questionnaires were sent out, and all of them were returned, resulting in a 100% response rate. We numbered and classified each questionnaire after it had been collected, making it easier to enter data in our database. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Data Processing and Analysis According to Orodho (2009), data analysis is the lifeblood of a study, and the method of analysis is the backbone and conduit wire. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used to perform descriptive statistics on quantitative data. Numbers were used to convey the findings of quantitative research. Descriptive statistics were used to examine the initial data on students and other variables. Results were presented in the form of frequency tables; pie charts and bar graphs were used as well as percentages, mean standard deviations, and mean differences were calculated and thoroughly discussed. Following the study objectives, findings were reported and judgments and recommendations based on the study findings made. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2 provides a summary of the data analysis procedure. Table 2 - Summary of Data Analysis Research Type of Data Statistical Tool Question/Hypotheses 1.What forms of Quantitative physical activity do Frequencies/Percentages students undertake? 2.What factors Quantitative Frequencies/Percentages contribute to physical inactivity among students? 3. What are the Quantitative Means, standard implications of deviation physical inactivity on health among students? 4. Extent to which Quantitative Frequencies/Percentages students perform physical activity Source: Field Data Pavala (2019). 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDING 4.0 Introduction This part of the research gives the outcomes of the survey done in seven Senior High Schools in Kassena Nankana Municipality in the Upper East Region. The study employed both primary and secondary data acquired from the survey for analysis. For the sake of clarity, descriptive statistical tools such as tables, frequencies, averages and standard deviation were employed in the presentation of the data. Relevant literatures were also used to support the conclusions of the investigation. The chapter covers findings on the characteristics of the students and teachers in the Senior High Schools, forms of physical activity and sports, factors influencing participation in physical activity and sports, implications of physical inactivity on health and wellbeing of students and the extent to which male and female participate in physical activity and sports. 4.1. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents This section explains the physical characteristics of respondents. It includes the Sex and Age group of student respondents and the level of education for Physical Education teachers. 4.1.1. Sex and Age of Respondents Table 3 shows the sex and age of respondents in the study. The statistics provided in the table shows that, the majority of the respondents are males representing 51.43% whiles 48.57 % are females. This implies that, even though physical activity and sports participation is seen more in males, females are doing better than before as far as participation in physical activity and sports was concerned. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3: Sex and Age of Respondents Variable Subscale Frequency Percent (%) Gender Male 180 51.43 Female 170 48.57 Total 350 100 Age 15-19 years 223 63.71 20-24 years 109 31.14 25-29 years 18 5.14 On the age of respondents in the seven Senior High Schools under this study, the statistics in the table shows that, 63.71 % are within 15-19 years, 31.14% are between 20-24 years and 5.1 % fall within 25- 29 years. It was observed that majority of the respondents are between 15-19 years. This shows that majority of students in the study are within what can be categorized as the adolescence or youthful age group. This data agrees with Hogg and Vaugan (2005) who said regular physical activity is essential during childhood and adolescence in order to maintain normal growth and development and also to establish lifestyle physical activity patterns that will reduce risk factors for health problems in later life. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.2. Education Level of Physical Education Teachers Table 4 below indicated that, the majority of 10 teachers’ out of 11 representing 90.90% of the teachers were degree holders. However only 1 out of the 11 teachers’ representing 9.09%) was a master’s holder. The result shows that majority of teachers were trained and thus have enough skills for effective implementation of Physical Education in the Senior High Schools in order to promote physical activity and sports among students. Table 4: Education Level of Physical Education Teachers Educational level of Teachers Frequency Percentage Certificate 0 0 Diploma 0 0 Degree 10 90.90 Masters 1 9.10 Total 11 100 4.2. Forms of Physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Participate in This research question sought to identify the forms of physical activity and sports undertaken by Senior High students in the Kassena Nankana municipality of the Upper East Region. The intention was to find out the forms of physical activity and sports individuals regularly engaged in, which positively or negatively impact on their general wellbeing. Table 5 therefore presents the results of respondents regarding the forms of physical activity and sports they engaged in. The result shows that, majority of the respondents 224 representing 64% engaged in games such as soccer, volleyball, basketball, table tennis, handball etc. A 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh total 178 respondents representing 50.86% do manual work such as weeding, sweeping and fetching water from borehole etc. Table 5: Forms of Physical Activity and Sports that Students’ Participate Forms of Physical Activity Frequency Percentage (%) Games 224 64 Manual work 178 50.86 Climbing stairs 133 38 Athletics 121 34.57 Brisk walking 120 34.29 Gymnastics 66 18.86 Cycling 20 5.71 Aerobics 11 3.14 Weight lifting 8 2.28 Martial art 1 0.29 Then again, 133 of respondents representing 38% used the stairs as a form of physical activity and 121 respondents representing 34.57% perform athletics (Track and field) in the form of running, jogging, jumping, and throwing of missiles. Furthermore, 120 of the student respondents representing 34.29% also participate in brisk walking. It was also evident from the table that, while 18.86% and 5.71% respectively were doing gymnastics and cycling; 3.14% of the respondents engaged in aerobic activities, 2.28% of them participated in weight lifting and 0.29% also performed martial art as a form of exercise. The result interestingly revealed that all the respondents were engaging in some form of physical activity and that is a good sign that students perceived the benefits of physical activity and sports to promote health and wellbeing. This is in line with what Pesce et al. (2013), when children engage in regular physical activity during their formative years, it helps to enhance their motor skills. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It helps to prevent the early beginning of cardiovascular illnesses in adolescence when children acquire good motor skills at a young age and are able to carry those skills into adulthood. Children should expect a longer and higher quality of life by adopting a physical activity-incorporated lifestyle (Bailey, 2006 & Taras, 2005). They went further to add that, exercise improves children's quality of life by lowering their risk of contracting numerous diseases and delaying the onset of early mortality. For instance, being physically active can help prevent the onset of diabetes, lower blood pressure, stimulate bone growth, and reduce unhealthful weight gain (Bailey, 2006). According to Bailey (2006), Overdorf and Coker (2013), taking part in physical education classes helps children develop the foundational abilities they need for most physical and sporting endeavours, in addition to their physical well-being. Through sports, kids learn basic movement abilities that they can carry into adulthood, making them more likely to be physically active and allowing them to live long lives. 4.3. Factors that Influence Student’s Participation in Physical Activity and Sports Another important objective of the study was to find out the factors that contribute to physical inactivity among Senior High School Students in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana. Physical activity plays an important role in improving and maintaining the health and well- being of every individual. Participation in moderate or vigorous physical activity considerably lessens risk for all cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. Many factors influence youth physical activity, including the physical environment as well as biological, psychological, behavioural, social, and cultural aspects (Sherar, Esliger,,Baxter- 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jones & Trembley, 2007). Physical activity and sports engagement among seniors in high school are heavily influenced by many factors, including but not limited to: 4.3.1. Physical Environment Senior High School students' participation in physical exercise and sports is influenced by their perception of the physical surroundings, according to Gordon-Larsen P. et al. (2000), a huge body of research. As a shown in Table 6 below, 350 students from seven (7) Senior High Schools in the Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana responded to these questions and out of the total number of respondents, 96 respondents representing 27.42% strongly agreed to the fact that Poor facilities in the schools prevented them from participating in physical activity and sports while 77 respondents representing 22% agreed. Similarly, 25 respondents representing 7.14% were uncertain about this statement. However, 85 respondents representing 24.28% and 67 respondents representing 19.14% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement that poor facilities and equipment in the school prevented them from participating in physical activity and sports. With this study, we can agree on the importance of sports equipment and facilities, as Gordon-Larsen et al., (2000) argued. They help children develop physically and foster creative activity, and they allow for a wide range of other activities to take place. Participation in sports is encouraged by the presence of facilities like playing fields and gymnasiums. Table 6 again indicated that 37 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 10.57% strongly agreed to the fact that the facilities and equipment are more accessible to all students whenever they want to engage in physical activity and sports while 50 respondents representing 14.28% agreed. Similarly, 28 respondents representing 8% were uncertain about this statement. However, 99 respondents representing 28.28% and 136 respondents 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh representing 38.85% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. It can be deduced from the result that many of the students did not have access to physical activity and sports facilities/equipment in their respective schools in order to promote participation in physical activity and sports. Table 6: Physical environment as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports Statement S.A A U D S.D Environment No % No % No % No % No % Poor facilities in the school prevent me from participating in physical activity and sports 96 27.42 77 22 25 7.14 85 24.28 67 19.14 The facilities/equipment are more accessible to all students 37 10.57 50 14.28 28 8 99 28.28 136 38.85 Students get the chance to use the facilities /Equipment only during official P.E class period 135 38.57 100 28.57 29 8.28 36 10.28 50 14.28 The facilities/equipment at the school/ home is closer to students making it easy for them to participate in physical activity and sports 69 19.71 77 22 24 6.85 86 24.57 94 26.85 Average Frequency and Percentages 84.25 24.06 76 21.71 26.5 7.56 76.5 14.78 86.75 24.78 For children and adolescents, some of the more important environmental factors associated with involvement in physical activity and sports are access to facilities and equipment, competing attentions of television and computers, the season of the year and safety issues. A significant component in determining access to facilities and equipment is the school (Kahn et al. 2002). If schools encourage more physical exercise and physical education, 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participation among young people is likely to rise. Findings are consistent with research by Torkildson (2000), who found that access to facilities and equipment in the school environment is critical to encouraging students to participate in physical exercise at all levels of education. Furthermore, Table 6 shows that 135 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 38.57% strongly agreed to the statement that students’ get the opportunity to use physical activity and sports facilities/equipment only during physical education classes and 100 respondents representing 28.57% agreed. In the same view, 29 respondents representing 8.28% were uncertain about the assumption. However, 36 respondents representing 10.28% and 50 representing 14.28% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. Again, using Table 6, it was determined that, on average, 69 respondents, or 19.71 percent, strongly agreed to the statement that students can participate in physical activity and sports more easily because the facilities and equipment are located close to their homes or schools, and 77 respondents, or 22 percent, also agreed. In a similar vein, 24 respondents, or 6.85 percent, expressed uncertainty regarding this claim. But 86 respondents, or 24.57 percent, and 94 respondents, or 26.85 percent, disagreed and strongly disagreed with the assertion, respectively. These findings suggest that students' participation in physical activity and sports in senior high school is influenced and determined by the accessibility and availability of facilities and equipment. This indicates that the adequate availability of the resource would influence and encourage students to participate in physical activity and sports while absence of these resources would discourage and kill their morale. The study's conclusions agreed with those of Awosikas (1982), who argued that facilities should always be available so that children can practice the skills they learn in physical 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education classes and during sports and physical activity programs. These assume that people can now participate in sports and physical activities during their free time. The importance of sports facilities and equipment in the growth and organization of sports in the nation, and specifically in educational institutions, should be acknowledged by physical education instructors, coaches, and all other sports figures in light of these findings. Even the most skilled coach and players would be severely hampered without this. In line with poor facilities and equipment, table 7 below indicated that, majority of 10 respondents out of 11 teachers representing 90.90% reported that they had balls during physical activity and for games. However, such learning resources as nets, P.E/sports kits, playing field and gymnasium were inadequate in majority of the schools. Hence, it was difficult for teachers and coaches to conduct P.E and sports classes due to lack of such essential facilities and equipment. Facilities and equipment are important aspects of recreational needs and interests of students. Facilities such as playing fields and gymnasium attract sportsmen and women to participate and all these challenges were seen during the observation undertaken by the researcher. Students find it difficult to engage in physical activity or sports if they cannot get access to the necessary facilities (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2007). In disagreement to this assertion, Sports and Recreation South Africa (2005) concluded in their studies that people will participate in sports or not regardless of human access to sports club or sport equipment and kit. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 7: Resources for Teaching and Learning P.E found in school as reported by teachers and through the Observation Checklist. Resources Frequency Percentage Balls 10 90.90 Playing field 8 72.72 P.E/Sports kits 7 63.63 Gymnasium 2 18.18 Nets 6 54.54 Clothing which are so revealing may be a barrier to some females. The issue of facilities has been found to be one of the problems being encountered by sportsmen and women. The reason is that the existing facilities are obsolete and in states of disrepair. The sporting world has reached a stage where complex facilities and equipment are needed for the teaching of Physical Education and participation in physical activity and sports. 4.3.2 The Social and Cultural Factors The influences of the social environment on physical activity habits include the attitudes of family, peers, and coaches. On physical education history, research has consistently supported the postulation that physical education teachers, coaches and physical fitness trainers have the ability to affect both physical activity behaviour and levels of participation of athletes (Gilson & Feltz, 2012). Findings from a number of researches have suggested that, the support from a coach or physical educationist may be influential to levels of performance, self-efficacy, and persistence (Gilson & Feltz, 2012; Jõesaar et al., 2012). 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With reference to the item on whether family and friends encourage students to engage in physical activity and sports, Table 8 below revealed that 54 out of 350 respondents representing 15.42% strongly agreed and 71 representing 20.28% agreed. In the same view, 30 respondents representing 8.57% were uncertain about this statement. Moreover, an overwhelming number of 93 respondents representing 26.57% and 102 respondents representing 29.14% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the fact that family and friends do not encourage participation in physical activity. It can be deduced from the assumption that family and friends have a role to play when it comes to physical activity and sports participation and they have the moral responsibility to motivate and encourage them to engage in at least moderate to vigorous amount of physical activity. This supports the study that the family’s support has been shown to be a predictor of self-efficacy and physical activity behaviour throughout the lifespan. According to Harter (1978) who said that, as infants learn to walk, they look to their parents for confirmation of success and to obtain a sense that their parents are pleased with their mastery of a task. Thus, behaviours are likely to persist the more children feel as though their parents perceive success in whatever physical activity they are undertaking (Ornelas et al., 2007). Then again, as children grow into adolescents, many rely on family members to provide unique tangible sources of support, such as participant entrance fees, equipment, and transportation (Beets, Cardinal, & Alderman, 2010). However, for some elite athletes, peer interaction may be regulated so much that peer support is not influential, leaving athletes to continue relying on parents for emotional support (Hayman et al., 2014). 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 8: Social and cultural factors as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports Statement S.A A U D S.D Social and cultural factors No % No % No % No % No % My family and friends do not encourage me to engage in physical activity and sports 54 15.42 71 20.28 30 8.57 93 26.57 102 29.14 Physical activity and sports are meant for men not women according to societal roles 140 40 95 27.14 28 8 40 11.42 47 13.42 Female students are expected to learn cultural values that will help them nurture their children but not to spend time on sports 135 38.57 100 28.57 29 8.28 36 10.28 50 14.28 P.E teachers and coaches assist me to learn movement skills in order to engage in physical activities 132 37.71 94 26.85 24 6.85 45 12.85 55 15.71 Average Frequency and Percentages 115.3 32.9 90 25.71 27.8 7.9 53.5 15.3 63.3 18.1 Then again, Table 8 showed that 140 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 40% strongly agreed to the statement that physical activity and sports are meant for men only according to societal roles and 95 respondents representing 27.14% agreed. In the same statement, 28 respondents representing 8% were uncertain about the assumption. 40 respondents representing 11.42% and 47 representing 13.42% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement but rather thought physical activity and sports should be for all people regardless of sex. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It has been argued that misconceptions regarding sports and physical exercise have a negative impact on women's engagement in these activities. These findings concurred with Perry's (2007) discovery that the paucity of female engagement in weightlifting is mostly a result of many myths and misconceptions regarding the benefits of strength training on women. He claimed that because of the resulting muscle hypertrophy, society typically treats women who engage in strength training as men. This finding is consistent with a 2007 study by the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, which noted that there are misconceptions regarding sport and its effects on girls' sexual and reproductive health. Sport-related physical effort, such as sprinting, kicking, or jumping, is thought to cause the hymen to tear, which inhibits female participation. This belief is popular in several cultures. Hymen integrity is often believed to be a physical sign of virginity Furthermore, Table 8 again indicates that 135 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 38.57% strongly agreed to the fact that female students are expected to learn cultural values that will help them nurture their children while 100 respondents representing 28.57% agreed. Similarly, 29 respondents representing 8.28% were uncertain about this statement. However, 36 respondents representing 10.28% and 50 respondents representing 14.28% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. From Table 8 again, it was realized that 132 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 37.71% strongly agreed to the statement that P.E teachers and coaches assisted students to learn movement skills in order to engage in physical activity and sports and 94 respondents representing 26.85% agreed. In the same view, 24 respondents representing 6.85% were 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh uncertain about the assumption. 45 respondents representing 12.85% and 55 representing 15.71% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. Findings from a number of researches have suggested that, the support from a coach or physical educationist may be influential to levels of performance, self-efficacy, and persistence (Gilson & Feltz, 2012; Jõesaar et al., 2012). Significant factors include the trainer or coach created motivational climate, the perception of the coach’s assessment of the athlete’s competence, and the amount and type of feedback provided by the coach (Jackson, 2010; Santi et al., 2014). Health professionals are urging school physical education to provide children with the skills and information necessary to become physically active for a lifetime in order to offset the declining levels of participation in physical activity and sports among young people (Krouscas, 1999). The promotion of physical education in senior high schools depends on students having a good attitude toward participating in physical exercise and sports. As a result, schools at all levels should foster and promote good attitudes toward engaging in physical exercise and sports and give students the chance to learn fundamental movement skills and excel in school sports (Williams, Haskell & Ades, 2007). 4.3.3 Behavioural Attributes and Skills Motor skill is smoothly executing physical movement and responses, or it is one way of denoting an act for a task that has specific aim or goal to achieve (Wesson, Wiggins-James, Thompson, & Hartigan, 2005). This implies that skill depends on one’s innate inherited traits that determine one’s coordination, balance, agility and speed of reaction. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Physical activity is good for children of all ages. Participation in organized sports may be an enjoyable way for children to increase their physical activity. However, sporting activities must be developmentally appropriate for the child. Enrolling children in sports that are beyond their developmental ability can lead to frustration and early dropout from school. Firstly, with reference to the item on whether students have the requisite movement skills to engage in physical activity and sports, Table 9 below revealed that 94 out of 350 respondents representing 26.85% strongly agreed and 78 representing 22.28% agreed. In the same instance, 26 respondents representing 7.42% were uncertain about this statement. Moreover, 84 respondents representing 24% and 68 respondents representing 19.42% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the fact that having the requisite movement skills influences participation in physical activity and sports. In Ghana, the typical school curriculum does not devote enough class time to physical education to allow students to learn necessary skills. Many schools do not offer physical education in elementary school, and in secondary school, some teachers' time is limited by the school's schedule. According to Kahn et al. (2002), when it comes to access to facilities and equipment, the school is a significant issue to take into consideration. Because nearly all young people attend school, schools that encourage physical activity and physical education to a greater extent are likely to see an increase in participation in physical activity and physical education. In accordance with the findings of Torkildson (2000), who came to the same conclusion that the availability and accessibility of facilities and equipment in the school environment is extremely important and motivates physical activity participation at all levels of learning, the findings of this study support that conclusion. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 9: Behavioural attributes and skills as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports Statement S.A A U D S.D Behavioural attributes and skills No % No % No % No % No % I do not have the requisite movement skills to engage in physical activity and sports 94 26.85 78 22.28 26 7.42 84 24 68 19.42 I have been thinking of the risk of getting injured when I participate in physical activity and sports 90 25.71 74 21.14 30 8.57 72 20.57 84 24 I have low level of interest in physical activity and sports 52 14.85 82 23.42 36 10.28 95 27.14 85 24.28 I have not been thinking about physical activity and sports as having any positive effects on my health 34 9.71 52 14.85 30 8.57 98 28 135 38.57 Average Frequency and Percentages 67.5 19.3 7 1.5 20.4 30.5 8.7 87.3 24.9 63.3 26.6 Then again, Table 9 indicated that 94 respondents representing 25.71% strongly agreed to the fact that the fear of getting injured when they engage in physical activity and sports prevented them from participation while 74 respondents representing 21.14% agreed. Similarly, 30 respondents representing 8.57% were uncertain about this statement. However, 72 respondents representing 20.57% and 84 respondents representing 24% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. It can be deduced from the result that the student’s fear of getting injured when they participate in physical activity and sports is a major factor that influence them from involvement in exercise. There is a perception in some circles that the time spent in physical activity and sports in school may harm the health needs 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of students. However, there is no evidence in the literature for such a claim. In fact, the opposite may even be true. As previously stated, there is evidence that a significant increase in the amount of school time dedicated to health-related physical education, physical activity, and sports has no negative effects on health and well-being, and that accidents will occur everywhere, not just on the playing field (Butcher et al., 2002)). Fear of the risk of injury should never be a factor preventing a child from being physically active. In fact, the risk in not performing physical activity during one’s youthful ages far outweighs the risk of injury from participation in appropriate sports and physical activity pursuits. Sports and exercise injuries are, for the most part, entirely avoidable through attention towards the behaviour and attitudes of children and the adults who influence them (Van Mechelen et al., 2005). The responsibility for instituting this change lies with parents, trainers, coaches, teachers and health professionals involved with physical activity and sports among students in Senior High School. Table 9, again indicates the result of low level of interest as a factor that influences Senior High school students’ participation in physical activity and sports. As evident in Table 7, 52 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 14.85% strongly agreed to the fact that they have low interest in physical activity and sports while 82 respondents representing 23.42% agreed. Similarly, 36 respondents representing 10.28% were uncertain about this statement. However, 95 respondents representing 27.14% and 85 respondents representing 24.28% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. It can be deduced from the assumption that majority of the respondents did indicate having interest in participating in physical activity and sports but about 48 percent of them also showed low interest as a factor which influences participation. This result corroborated Koca et al., (2005) assertion that 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh students' positive attitudes toward participating in physical activity and sports are a result of their desire to succeed or their desire to spend their time in Physical Education classes without being under pressure to perform well academically. While negative attitudes, on the other hand, tend to impede such development, positive attitudes encourage students to participate in physical activities that support their growth not only physically but also emotionally, socially, and psychologically (Shamshoum, 2003). Colleges (Muindi, 1998), secondary schools (Wamukoya, 1994), universities, and other settings have all indicated negative perceptions against participation in sports and physical exercise (Chew, 2006). Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2010) acknowledged that students participating in university physical education and sports programs are perceived as being dull and uneducated by their peers and the general public, and that this shortcoming restricts their ability to pursue more "intellectual subjects." Additionally, he noted that kids had unfavourable views toward participating in sports and physical activity. Furthermore, Table 9 showed that 34 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 9.71% strongly agreed to the statement that physical activity and sports have no positive effects on health/ wellbeing and 52 respondents representing 14.85% agreed. In the same view, 30 respondents representing 8.57% were uncertain about the assumption. However, 98 respondents representing 28% and 135 representing 38.57% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement and did not belief that regular physical activity had no positive effects on health and wellbeing of students. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In connection with physical activity and sports not having positive impact on health and wellbeing, table 10 shows the result of the students’ and teachers’ perception towards participation in physical activity and sports in the Senior High Schools of Kassena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana. The findings showed that on the average, female students’ have a negative perception towards participation in the physical activity and sports as compared to their male counterparts. The result indicated that, 94 out of 180 male respondents representing 52.22% developed positive perception towards physical activity and sports and that of female was 84 respondents out of a total of 170 representing 49.41%. However, 86 out of 180 male respondents representing 47.77% and 86 out of 170 female respondents representing 50.58% had negative perception towards participation in physical activity and sports. Then again, on the perception of Physical Education teachers towards the teaching of physical education, and participation in physical activity and sports, it was realised that 5 respondents out of 11 representing 45.45(%) developed positive perception towards physical activity and sports while 6 respondents out 11 representing 54.54(%) had negative perception towards physical activity and sports. From this result and the observation that was carried out, the teachers’ expressed a great displeasure about the time allocation on the schools’ timetable, inadequate resource to purchase physical activity and sports equipment and facilities among others were the reasons for their negative attitude. The findings of this study are in agreement with a Bailey (2006) and Taras (2005) who stated that children can expect a longer and higher quality of life by selecting a lifestyle that incorporates physical activity. He added that physical activity improves children's quality of life because it lowers some risks for contracting various diseases and can prevent early mortality. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For instance, regular exercise can aid in preventing the early onset of cardiovascular and respiratory conditions. Table 10: Perception of students’ and P.E Teachers towards physical activity and Sports Do you think P.E is an important Male Female Part of learning Frequency Percent (%) No (%) Positive (Yes) 94 52.22 84 49.41 Negative (No) 86 47.77` 86 50.58 Total 180 100 170 100 Physical Education Teachers’ Positive (Yes) 3 60 2 34.4 Negative (No) 2 40 4 66.6 Total 5 100 6 100 4.3.4 Physical Activity and Psychosocial Factors Psychosocial factors are the psychological and social aspects of human development. They are often treated as a pair because they are inseparable. These factors influence the educational experience of young people; they can support or hinder success because being successful at school requires students to perform a range of social as well as personal and academic tasks. And, of course, in addition to mastering subject matter and performing well in tests, school is also an important setting for the development of friendships, social identities and a sense of community belonging. The potential number of psychosocial factors is vast. This section focuses on a small number of themes, chosen because of their close relationship with educational achievement. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To begin with, Table 11 below indicated that 52 out of a total of 350 respondents representing 314.85% strongly agreed to the fact that they get worried about their physical appearance when they engage in physical activity and sports while 86 respondents representing 24.57% agreed. Similarly, 41 respondents representing 11.71% were uncertain about this statement. However, 93 respondents representing 26.57% and 91 respondents representing 26% disagreed and strongly disagreed respectively to the statement. It can be deduced from the table that, the student’s physical appearance when they participate in physical activity and sports is not a major factor that influence them from involvement in exercise. There is a perception in some circles that the time spent in physical activity and sports in school may harm the health needs of students and particularly lower academic performance. However, there is no evidence in the literature for such a claim. In fact, the opposite may even be true. Table 11 shows that 44 out of 350 respondents strongly agreed that exercise is tough and tiring, whereas 73 respondents strongly agreed. Similarly, 43 respondents (12.28%) were unsure about the assumption. However, 108 respondents (30.85%) disagreed with the assertion, while 93 respondents (26.57%) strongly disagreed. For children to participate in sports and physical exercise, it is suggested that all educational stakeholders work together to make physical education engaging and exciting in the classroom and playground. This result backed up Shamshoum (2003) that a positive attitude motivates children to engage in physical activities that promote their emotional, social, and mental growth, whereas negative attitudes have the reverse effect and tend to hamper such progress (Shamshoum, 2003). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 11: Psychological factors that influence students’ participation in Physical Activity and Sports Statement S.A A U D S.D Psychological Factors No % No % No % No % No % I have been worried about my physical appearance when I do exercise 52 14.85 86 24.57 41 11.71 93 26.57 91 26 I have been thinking about exercise as difficult and tiring 44 12.57 73 20.85 43 12.28 108 30.85 93 26.57 Students would have played sports for their schools if they were motivated enough 86 24.57 85 24.28 45 12.85 68 19.42 66 18.85 I have low level of self- confidence to engage in physical activity and sports 135 38.57 98 28 30 8.57 52 14.85 34 9.71 Average Frequency and Percentages 79.3 22.6 85.5 24.4 39.8 11.4 80.3 22.9 71 20.3 Table 11 further illustrates that motivated students would have participated in school athletics. As seen in Table 9, 86 out of 350 respondents strongly agreed, while 85 agreed. Similarly, 45 respondents (12.85%) were unsure about this assertion. Moreover, 68 respondents (19.42%) disagreed with the statement, while 66 respondents (18.85%) strongly disagreed. It is assumed that psychological and physiological elements influence performance in physical activity and sports, and various research have shown the impact of psychological aspects on sports performance (Crespo, 2002). According to Bailey (2006), consistent physical activity can also help a child's mental health. The most critical psychological factor is a child's sense of worth. A person's feeling of self- worth is crucial to their life success. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 11 shows that 135 out of 350 respondents (38.57%) strongly agreed that they lack confidence to participate in physical exercise and sports, whereas 98 respondents (28%) agreed. Similarly, 30 respondents (8.57%) were unsure. However, the assertion was disagreed by 52 respondents (14.85%) and strongly disagreed by 34 respondents (9.71%). These findings show that students' degree of participation in physical exercise and sports is influenced by their self-confidence. This validates Neil's (2005) results that self-confidence is a factor in determining physical activity and sports involvement. Based on self-esteem and overall efficiency, this conviction in one's personal value and chances of success. With practice and positive reinforcement, players develop intrinsic motivation patterns and good attitudes towards physical activity, laying the groundwork for future active lifestyles (Piltz, 2002). Fraser-Thomas and Beaudoin (2004) concluded that students commonly assume that everyone is observing them when they are involved in sports. They fear making mistakes because they believe they are inspected and judged every time they touch the ball or make a play, according to the writers. 4.3.5 Demographic and Biological Characteristics Existing research shows that demographic characteristics including race, gender, and socioeconomic background can mitigate the effects of social cognitive conceptions (Dishman et al., 2002; Edwardson et al., 2014; Kirby et al., 2011). Although Rogers and colleagues (2007) indicated that Black individuals were more influenced by social cognitive conceptions than Whites, more research is required to test racial moderation within the theory (Dishman et al., 2009; Rogers et al., 2007). Table 12 shows that 98 out of 350 respondents strongly agreed that male students are more likely than female students to participate in physical exercise and sports, while 86 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respondents strongly agreed. Similarly, 26 respondents (7.42%) were unsure. However, 76 respondents (21.71%) disagreed with the assertion, while 64 respondents (18.28%) strongly disagreed. The data shows that male students engage in more physical exercise and sports than female students. Gender may also have a role in the interaction between social cognitive ideas and physical activity (Dzewaltowski, Ryan, & Rosenkranz, 2008; Kirby, Martin et al., 2011; Patnode et al., 2010; Raudsepp, 2006). Males are more likely than females to engage in physical activity and sports, and to expend more energy in these activities (Martin et al., 2011). While females may be more influenced by peer support systems, males may receive greater paternal care and modelling (Edwardson et al., 2014; Kirby et al., 2011; Raudsepp, 2006). Males appear to have higher levels of self-efficacy towards physical activity and sports than females (Beets et al., 2006; Martin et al., 2011; Trost et al., 1997). Young females, on the other hand, may feel more maternal support and adhere better in smaller groups (Woods et al., 2012). Gender differences exist in various elements of physical exercise and sports. Males are more incline towards active pursuits, are more accepted by peers in games and other sporting activities, and love games and sports more (Sherar et al. 2007) . Table 12 shows that 90 out of 350 respondents (25.71%) strongly agreed with this statement, while 74 (21.14%) agreed. Similarly, 30 respondents (8.57%) were unsure about this statement. Moreover, 72 respondents (20.57%) disagreed with this statement, while 84 respondents (24% severely disagreed). It follows that socio-economic position is a key predictor of social cognitive constructs, specifically tangible assistance. Indeed, Edwardson and coworkers (2014) and Raudsepp (2006) found a link between household income and parental support. In other words, 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh struggling parents are less inclined to spend extra money on non-essential items like gas, entrance fees, or equipment (Eime et al., 2013). Table 12: Demographic and socio-economic status as a Factor that influence students’ Participation in Physical Activity and Sports Statement S.A A U D S.D Demographic and socio-economic status No % No % No % No % No % Male students are more likely to engage in physical activity and sports than female in the school 98 28 86 24.57 26 7.42 76 21.71 64 18.28 My parents cannot afford to pay the fees for me to attend physical fitness clubs 90 25.71 74 21.14 30 8.57 72 20.57 84 24 Young people participate more actively in physical activity that adults 95 27.14 82 23.42 36 10.26 52 14.85 85 24.28 I have no exercise equipment at home to engage in physical activity and sports 135 38.57 98 28 30 8.57 34 9.71 52 14.85 Average Frequency and Percentages 104.5 29.9 85 24.3 30.5 8.7 58.5 16.7 71.3 20.4 Table 12 shows that 95 out of 350 respondents (27.14%) strongly agreed that young people participate more actively in physical activity than adults, whereas 82 respondents (23.42%) agreed. Similarly, 36 respondents (10.26%) were unsure about the assumption. However, the statement was disagreed by 52 respondents (14.85%) and strongly disagreed by 85 respondents (24.28%). Concerning age, Laurel (2004) suggests that maintaining physical fitness and activity throughout adolescence will have long-term health benefits. Age and physical activity are inversely associated. Studies by Montes Dosil (2004) shows that 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attitudes towards physical activity change over time, becoming more pronounced from 40-50 years old. Existing research shows that demographic characteristics including race, gender, and socioeconomic background can mitigate the effects of social cognitive conceptions (Dishman et al., 2002; Edwardson et al., 2014; Kirby et al., 2011). They claim that peer groups are a great approach to share information about personal issues, leisure activities, and interests. Adolescents experience the need to impress peers of both genders to achieve acceptance, recognition, social prestige, and admiration, which accelerates parental independence while creating a new peer dependence. Table 12 shows that 135 out of 350 respondents (38.57%) strongly agreed that they do not have home exercise equipment for physical activity or sports, whereas 98 respondents (28%) agreed. Similarly, 30 respondents (8.57%) were unsure. However, 971 percent disagreed with the assertion, while 14.85 percent strongly disagreed. The results revealed that respondents had no access to exercise equipment at home or in the community, despite their awareness of the benefits exercise has on their health and welfare. Access to facilities and equipment in both the school and community or home environments is vital for children and adolescents involved in physical exercise and sports. This will greatly influence student participation in physical exercise and sports at all levels. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Implication of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students’ Based on the third objective, the study sought to determine the benefits of physical activity and sports on the wellbeing of students. According to Pesce et al. (2013) getting individuals to participate in regular physical activity is the main goal of numerous organizations that promote healthy lifestyles and when children receive regular physical activity during their childhood, it helps to develop their motor skills. The findings were presented in the table 11below: Table 11: Implications of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students Statement Mean S D The pursuit of physical activity and sports helps to develop motor and movement skills 3.51 1.29 Students who participate in physical activity and sports are academically weak 2.61 1.53 Physical fitness cannot prevent the early onset of diabetes, lower blood pressure and promote growth 2.72 1.47 Physical activity and sports help to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression 2.27 1.40 Total Means/ SD 11.11 5.69 Means of Means/ SD 2.77 1.42 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This finding shows that Senior High School students have a negative attitude towards physical activity and sports (M=2.77, SD=1.42), which negatively impacts their health and wellbeing. The standard deviation score demonstrated that kids' responses to physical activity and sports, as well as the benefits they provide, are varied. Table 13 shows that most respondents (M=3.51; SD=1.30) agreed that physical activity and sports assist strengthen motor and movement abilities. This finding is in line with Pesce et al. (2013) that regular physical activity and participation in sports during childhood helps enhance motor abilities. Early motor development gives youngsters the capacity to carry these talents into adulthood. Children acquire most of their motor skills and how to be physically active in physical education class (Bailey, 2006; Staiano , & Calvert , 2011). Bailey (2006) and Taras (2005) state that children can expect a longer and better quality of life by selecting an active lifestyle. However, 80 respondents (M=2.60; SD=1.55) disagreed with the notion that kids who indulge in sports and physical activity are academically deficient. This study shows that most students dislike physical activity and sports because they believe it wastes time and does not improve academic achievement. According to Tomporowski et al. (2008), there is a link between physical activity and cognitive function, but the research on this topic has only been done since the 1950s. Gender may also have a role in the interaction between social cognitive ideas and physical activity, according to several researches (Dzewaltowski, Ryan, & Rosenkranz, 2008; Kirby, Martin et al., 2011; Patnode et al., 2010; Raudsepp, 2006). Males are more likely than females to engage in physical activity and sports, and to expend more energy in these activities (Martin et al., 2011). While females may be more influenced by peer support systems, males may receive greater paternal care and modelling (Edwardson et al., 2014; Kirby et al., 2011; Raudsepp, 2006). Parents, teachers, and policymakers place a high importance on educational attainment, such as exam and grade success. Indeed, educational attainment correlates with later career success, especially among 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh underrepresented groups (Jacobson & Mokher, 2009). Many decision-makers believe that classroom-based subjects like arithmetic and reading are vital and must be prioritized in educational budgeting. Schools have been under increasing pressure to eliminate non examinable subjects like arts, P.E, and Sports. Increasingly, parents are concerned about the consequences of time spent away from academically rewarding subjects. Thus, physical education and sport are typically dismissed as fun but frivolous distractions from the serious job of education and intellectual pursuits. Many researches have looked into the links between physical activity, fitness, and academic success. In earlier research, 81 Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, based at the University of Bristol, UK. Over two decades, this birth cohort research followed 14,000 pregnant women, their kids, and partners (Boyd et al. 2012). The Avon researchers used accelerometers to track nearly 5000 11-year- olds' weekly activities. The more active 11-year-old girls did higher on standardized English, math, and science assessments. They also did better in science, with the most active girls doing particularly well (Booth et al. 2013). The researchers modified the data to account for characteristics that could affect school performance, such as birth weight, current weight, a mother's smoking while pregnant, and the family's socioeconomic position. Trudeau and Shephard (2008) concluded that many forms of physical activity contribute to academic success. A separate program was adopted in certain trials to increase physical activity levels during school PE lessons. Classroom physical exercise breaks are also a thing. Even the most cautious observers admit that considerable gains in physical exercise do not damage academic achievement in other areas, despite the time constraints. On a group of 10–11-year- old children in Vanves, a Parisian neighbourhood, in the 1950s. The teacher researchers allocated 26% of the school day to PE. Half the kids exercised morning and afternoon, while the other half got the usual two hours of PE per week. Despite losing a quarter of classroom teaching time, the experimental group's grades did not decline, but often improved. Teachers 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reported fewer disciplinary issues, better class attendance, and decreased absenteeism. This was a tiny study with a control group. Similarly, most students (M=2.72; SD=1.47) expressed a negative attitude towards the statement “Physical exercise cannot prevent diabetes, control blood pressure, or encourage growth”. These findings contradict Bailey (2006) and Taras (2005) who claim that children can expect a longer and higher quality of life by selecting an active lifestyle. He also mentioned that physical activity improves children's quality of life by lowering their chances of disease and death. Physical activity can help prevent diabetes, lower blood pressure, support bone formation, and prevent unhealthy weight gain (Bailey, 2006). The statement “Physical activity and sports can reduce stress, anxiety, and depression” was met with a mixed response (M=2.27; SD=1.40). Also, according to Bailey (2006), students who exercise regularly can improve their mental health. The key psychological aspect is self-esteem. Self-esteem is vital to a person's success in life and can assist alleviate stress, worry, and even depression 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Extent to which Male and Female students’ Participate in Physical Activity and Sports The results showed that senior high school students have a negative attitude towards physical activity (M=2.77, SD=1.42). The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) short form was used to assess male and female students' participation in PA and sports in Senior High Schools. It measures the frequency and duration of walking, moderate, and strenuous physical activity lasting at least 10 minutes (WHO, 2005). This included all sports and physical exercise on college, at home, and in leisure. The IPAQ group's short-form scoring protocol version of November 2005 classifies physical activity participation into three levels (WHO, 2005). This study's three categories are: Table 14: Extent to which Male and Female students participate in physical activity and sports. Level of participation Male Female Frequency Percent (%) No (%) Vigorous physical activity 42 23.3 26 15.3 Moderate physical activity 66 36.7 60 35.3 Low physical activity 72 40 84 49.4 Total 180 100 170 100 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (a) No activity reported or (b) Some activity reported but not in the (moderate) or (high) categories (WHO, 2005). Moderate (any standard): 5 days of walking, moderate or strenuous activity achieving 600 Metabolic Equivalent Task (MET)-min (WHO, 2005). High (any of the above): 7 days of walking, moderate or strenuous activity, accumulating 3000 MET-min (WHO, 2005). Participants in the ‘High' Physical activity category met PHR. So, they hit the health-promoting PA threshold (WHO, 2005). The median MET for each Physical activity level was calculated in frequency and percentage. According to Table 14, none of the 350 Senior High School students met the high level of physical activity, while 42 male respondents (23.3%) and 26 female respondents (15.3%) participated vigorously in physical activity and sports for the past week. However, only 40% of males and 49% of females reported low participation in physical exercise and sports. So, in the Upper East Region of Ghana, the majority of students, notably females, did not meet any of the following three standards: 60 metabolic equivalent minutes (MET) of moderate- intensity physical activity five days a week or 20 minutes of vigorous-intensity physical exercise three days a week. Research found out that, physical inactivity among Saudi adults ranged from 43 to 99 percent (Al-Hazzaa, 2004; Dumith et al, 2011). In Spain, as in many other nations, girls are less active than boys, particularly throughout adolescence (Lasheras et al., 2002). Riddoch & Andersen (2004) reported that aerobic fitness relative to body mass remains stable from age 6 to 16 in males, but for females it declines about 2% each year and that, overall, school aged males are about 25% fitter than females. He mentioned that gender difference is almost certainly linked to the greater decline in participation of girls in physical activity during the school age years (approximately 7.4% per year) in comparison to boys (approximately 2.7% per year). 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The logical question is why there is such a discrepancy between boys and girls in levels of physical activity during the school age years? The answer is likely to be multifactorial, with a complex interplay of developmental, environmental and social issues. Possible mechanisms that have been proposed include differential development of motor skills, differences in body composition during growth and maturation and greater socialization towards sports and physical activity (Riddoch & Andersen L, 2004). The latter may be due to a subconscious gender bias whereby boys are inadvertently encouraged more by parents and teachers in matters relating to physical activity and sports. Unfortunately, embedded deep in the psyche of many adolescents is the notion that physical activity and sports is more of a masculine pastime. This bias is often difficult for the adolescents themselves to detect. However, it is important that these biases are detected, so that young girls can be equally encouraged to adopt and maintain physical activity and participate in school sports. If this can be accomplished with young girls (less than 10 years old), there is a greater chance that these individuals will continue their physical activity and sports participation into adolescence and young adulthood, with the concomitant health benefits. Sherar, L., et al., (2007) again stated that the gender differences also extend to other aspects related to physical activity. Males have a greater attraction for vigorous activities, are better accepted by peers (in games and sports), give greater importance to physical activity and enjoy games and sport more than their female counterparts. In conclusion, many High School students in the world and Ghana is no exception lived sedentary lifestyle and few are meeting the recommendation for physical activity and sports to maintain good health and wellbeing (National Health Interview, 2012) 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Introduction This chapter summarizes, concludes, and make recommendations for future research. The study involved seven Senior High Schools in two districts of the Upper East Region: Kassena Nankana East and Kassena Nankana West. Some of the schools were Navrongo Senior High School, Our Lady of Lourdes Girls Senior High, St. Johns Integrated/Tech., Notre Dame Seminary Senior High (BOYS), St. Benedette Technical Institute, Awe Senior High/Technical, and Paga Senior High School. The study used a descriptive survey approach to assess the impact of physical exercise and sports on student wellbeing. This design is appropriate because of its low cost and utility in dealing with big populations. Students and teachers were surveyed quantitatively to collect primary data. A questionnaire and an observation checklist were employed. Respondents were asked to complete a self-administered survey. Participants in the study were all Senior High/Technical school students and P.E teachers in the Upper East Region of Ghana. The study sampled 350 students and 11 P.E teachers from the total population of 5097 students and all 11 P.E teachers in the specified schools. The study's participants were chosen at random. That is why it was created. The instrument was validated and reliable. The outcome was analysed using descriptive statistics (frequency, percentages, mean, and standard deviation). 5.1 Summary of Findings The study tested for four main objectives. The first objective is to find out the forms of physical activity and sports that students participate. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1.1. Forms of physical activity and sports that students participate in schools Students in Senior High/Technical Schools were asked to describe how they promote physical activity, fitness, and sports at their respective schools and homes. Athletes (both track and field sports and marathon) Aerobic dance/activities Martial art, and Weight lifting were some of the physical activities mentioned by respondents. The results showed that most of the respondents 224 (64%) played sports such soccer, volleyball, basketball, table tennis, and handball. 178 respondents (50.86%) undertake physical labour like weeding, sweeping, and borehole water fetching. Interestingly, all respondents were involved in some type of physical activity, indicating that students value physical activity and sports for their health and wellness. 5.1.2. Factors that influence student’s participation in physical activity and sports The second goal was to determine the causes of inactivity among Senior High School students in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Physical, biological, psychological, behavioural, social, and cultural elements were explored. Less availability of resources influences and discourages students from participating in physical exercise and sports, while lack of resources discourages and kills their spirit. In addition, social and cultural factors (support from parents, teachers, coaches, and friends, and societal stereotypes) influenced adolescents' participation in physical exercise and sports. This means that family, teachers, coaches, and friends should encourage and urge their athletes to engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study also found that most students (173 respondents, 49.14 percent) opt out of physical exercise owing to lack of skills and competence during primary school, which is regrettable. It also revealed that while the majority of respondents (134 out of 38.27%) expressed interest in physical exercise and sports, low interest was cited as a factor influencing involvement by nearly half (48%) of them. The study also shows that students' (164 respondents, 45.85%) fear of injury during physical activity and sports is a major issue that discourages them from participating. Some believe that school-based physical activity and sports may be detrimental to children' health. Motivation and self-confidence were also top psychological elements influencing students' participation in physical activity and sports. Students will be more motivated to participate in physical activity and sports if physical activity is made entertaining and exciting in the classroom and playground. Also, self-confidence is a crucial component that defines and predicts students' level of participation in physical exercise and sports. For the demographic and socio-economic factors, most respondents (184 respondents, 49.14%) agreed that males participate more in physical activity than females, and (164 respondents, 46.85%) agreed that young people participate more in physical activity and sports than adults, because attitudes toward physical activity change over time, with the most noticeable change occurring between 40-50 years old. 5.1.3. Implication of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students’ Another objective was to find out the implication of Physical Inactivity on Health and Wellbeing of students. The findings showed that on the average, Senior High School students’ have a negative perception (M=2.77, SD=1.42) towards participation in the physical activity and sports and that has brought serious implications on their health and wellbeing. The standard deviation score revealed that there is a heterogeneous response among male and 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh female students towards participation in the physical activity and sports and the benefits that are derived from these physical activities. 5.1.4 Extent to which Male and Female students’ Participate in physical activity and sports On the other hand, the majority of male and female students (72 males and 84 females) reported low physical activity and sports engagement. Moderate participation was also seen among males (66%) and females (35.3%) (Male: 66%). The majority of respondents (Male: 42, representing 23.3 percent; Female: 26, representing 15.3 percent) participated in sports or vigorous physical exercise. In the Kassena Nankana Municipality in the Upper East Region of Ghana, most students, particularly female, did not meet any of the following criteria: This can be achieved by combining 30 minutes of moderate intensity exercise five days a week with 20 minutes of intense intensity exercise three days a week. 5.2. Conclusion The study's major goal was to examine the factors influencing participation in physical activity and sports of students in Senior High School in the Kassena Nankana municipality of Ghana. A sound mind in lives in a sound body is a frequent saying. Also, one of the key messages heard during this inquiry is the importance of schools in encouraging students to engage in active lifestyles and based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were made: Most students were engaged in some type of physical activity and games such as: jogging, walking, aerobic dance, manual work (sweeping, fetching water, weeding); athletics in track and field events, weight lifting, martial art and in games (soccer, volleyball, basketball, hockey, handball, table tennis, badminton and tennis) which indicates that they understood 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the importance of physical activity and sports in promoting health and wellness. With formal compulsory physical education programs, school sports programs, and after-school physical activity activities, schools can provide appropriate physical exercise for all young people on regular basis. Motivating students to participate in physical exercise and sports was found to be a vital component in determining and influencing their engagement of students in Senior High Schools. These issues make it difficult for students to fully participate in sports. This means schools lack proper P.E, physical activity, and sports facilities. All children must learn basic motor skills in school to be healthy and resilient. A fundamental shift in the mindset is required to value students' health and welfare as much as their academic accomplishment. Parents also have a powerful and important role in promoting health-enhancing behaviours and therefore involvement of parents and the whole family is imperative in the drive for participation in physical activity and sports. The study also indicated that students had a negative perception towards physical activity and sports, which has major effects on their health and wellness. Children can expect a longer and better quality of life by selecting an active lifestyle. Physical activity improves children's quality of life by lowering disease risks and preventing early death. Physical activity can help prevent diabetes, lower blood pressure, support bone formation, and prevent unhealthy weight gain. On research objective four, the study reported that student participation in sports and physical exercise was minimal. Many groups that promote healthy lifestyles aim to get people moving often, and this helps youngsters develop their motor abilities. Early motor development gives youngsters the capacity to carry these talents into adulthood. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To offset the decline in young people's physical activity, students should be encouraged to take up their P.E classes very seriously in order to acquire the basic skills needed to participate in physical activity and sports. Positive attitudes encourage young people to participate in physical activities that benefit their physical, emotional, social, and mental development, whereas negative attitudes discourage them from participation which can lead to the early onset of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. 5.3. Recommendations Based on the findings and the conclusions of the study and bearing in mind its limitations, it is recommended that: 1. Teachers should promote physical activity and healthy behaviours through the curriculum 2. Parental involvement could be an integral part of school-based interventions as targeting children alone is likely to be insufficient to facilitate change. Teachers and schools should therefore encourage family involvement in promoting physical activity as much as possible, perhaps through the use of homework tasks or family fun days. 3. Schools should maximise available playground and field areas in order to promote physical activity during break and lunch times. This may require some changes within the school environment and encouragement of school staff. 4. Teachers and school staff should be encouraged to act as role models by demonstrating more physical activity during the course of the school day. 5. The study recommends that Senior High School students participate in at least 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity five days a week, 20 minutes of vigorous-intensity 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh physical activity three days a week, or an equivalent combination achieving 600 metabolic equivalents (MET)-minutes a week. 6. The government in collaboration with the Ghana Education Service should make facilities and equipment available outside of school hours for after-school games and physical activities. 7. Local residents should be encouraged to acquire basic training equipment at home so they may participate in regular physical exercise and sports. 8. Students must also be informed on the benefits of physical activity and sports for their healthy growth and development. 9. Encouraging students to flourish in sports is a must for the Ghana Education Service and all stakeholders in education. This would encourage more students participate in school sports so as to identify talents for the national teams. 5.4 Suggestions for Further Research Further research needs to be conducted on how school system is structured to influence the opportunities for students to participate in physical activities and sports. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adams-Blair, H. R. (2002). The importance of physical education and sport in the lives of young females. International Sports Journal, 6(1), 45-50. Allender, S., Cowburn, G., & Foster, C. (2006). Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies. Health Education Research, 21 (6), 826-835. Al-Hazzaa, H. M. 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Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/whr/2002/en/whr02_en.pdf. Woods, A. M., Graber, K., & Daum, D. (2012). Children's recess physical activity: Movement patterns and preferences. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31(2), 146–162. Woodfield, L. A. (2014). Young people’s physical activity, attitudes toward physical education, and health-related fitness. Thesis: Coventry University Zhang, T., Solmon, M. A., Gao, Z., & Kosma, M. (2012). Promoting school students’ physical activity: A social ecological perspective. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 24(1), 92–105. 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS’ Dear Respondent, I am a student from The University of Ghana, Legon. This questionnaire is meant to solicit your contribution towards gathering data for my research on the title: Examining the impact physical activity and sports on the wellbeing of Senior High School students in the KassenaNankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana. The project is in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Master of Philosophy Degree in Education. You have been selected as one of the respondents in this study. It is hoped that you can supply some information which are for research purposes only. The confidentiality of the information provided by you is assured. Instructions: Please tick (√) the answer that you feel is the most appropriate to questions. Thank you. Instructions: In order to answer the questions as honestly as possible, your name need not appear anywhere on the questionnaire. Please, note that there is no right or wrong answers. Your help in completing the questionnaire is of vital importance, although participation is entirely voluntary. Section A Background Characteristics of the Respondents 1. Which Senior High School are you? (Please Tick (√) 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a) Navrongo Senior High School [ ] b) Our Lady of Lourdes Girls S.H.S [ ] c) St.John’s Integrated/Tech. School [ ] d) Notre Dame Seminary Senior High School (Boys) [ ] e) St.Benedette Technical Institute [ ] f) Awe Senior High/Tech.School [ ] g) Paga Senior High School [ ] 2. SEX Male [ ] Female [ ] 3. AGE GROUP 15-19 years [ ] 20-24 years [ ] 25-29 years [ ] 4. FORM/CLASS SHS 2 [ ] SHS 3 [ ] SECTION B: Forms of physical activity 5. Do you currently participate in physical and sports activities? Yes [ ] No [ ] 6. If yes, what type of physical activities or sports do you normally perform? (You may circle more than one) a) Games (football, volleyball, basketball, netball, table tennis, handball, hockey, badminton) b) Cycling c) Brisk walking 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d) Climbing the stairs e) Manual work f) Gymnastics g) Athletics (both track and field events, marathon) h) Aerobic dance/activities i) Martial art j) Weight lifting k) Others (please specify) ……………………………………………………………………... SECTION C: Factors contributing to physical inactivity For items 9-16, please tick (√) only one response against each of the items provided Item Statement Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree Environment 7 Poor facilities in the school prevent me from participating in physical activity and sports 8. The facilities/equipment are more accessible to all students 9 Students get the chance to use the facilities/equipment only during official P.E class period 10 The facilities/equipment at the school/home are closer to students making it easy for them to participate in physical activity and sports Social and cultural factors 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. My family and friends do not encourage me to engage in physical activity and sports 12. Physical activity and sports are meant for men only 13. Female students are expected to learn cultural values that will help them nurture their children but not to spend time on sports 14 P.E teachers and coaches assist me to learn movement skills in order to engage in physical activities Behavioural attributes and skills 15 I do not have the requisite movement skills to engage in physical activity and sports 16 I have been thinking of the risk of getting injured when I participate in physical activity and sports 17 I have low level of interest in physical activity and sports 18 I have not been thinking about physical activity and sports as having any positive effects on my health and wellbeing Psychological factors 19 I have been worried about my physical appearance when I do exercise 20 I have been thinking about exercise as difficult and tiring 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Students would have played sports for their schools if they were motivated enough. 22 I have low level of self- confidence to engage in physical activity and sports Demographic and socio-economic status 23 Male students are more likely to engage in physical activity and sports than female in the school 24 My cannot afford to pay the fees for me to attend physical fitness sessions 25 Young people participate more actively in physical activity that adults 26 I have no exercise equipment at home to engage in physical activity and sports SECTION D: Extent of Participation in physical activity and sports I am interested in finding out about the kinds of physical activities and sports that people do as part of their everyday lives. Your answers will help me to understand how active people are. The questions are about the time you spent being physically active in the last 7 days. These include questions about activities you do at school, home, playing soccer, volleyball, handball, netball, basketball, moving from place to place etc. In answering these questions, vigorous physical activities refer to activities that take hard physical effort and make you breathe much harder than normal and moderate physical activities refer to activities that take moderate physical effort and make you breathe somewhat harder than normal. 27. During the last 7 days, how many days did you do vigorous physical activities like heavy lifting, playing soccer, netball, handball, volleyball, fast bicycling for at least 10 continuous minutes? a) None [ ] b) 1 days [ ] c) 2 days [ ] d) 3 days [ ] 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh e) 4 days [ ] f) 5 days [ ] g) 6 days [ ] h) 67days [ ] 28. During the last 7 days, how many days did you do moderate physical activities like carrying light loads, bicycling for at least 10 minutes? a) None [ ] b) 1 days [ ] c) 2 days [ ] d) 3 days [ ] e) 4 days [ ] f) 5 days [ ] g) 6 days [ ] h) 7 days [ ] 29. During the last 7 days, how many days did you walk continuously for at least 10 minutes at a time? This includes walking to school, walking from place to another, and any other walking that you did solely for recreation, sport, exercise or leisure. a) None [ ] b) 1 days [ ] c) 2 days [ ] d) 3 days [ ] e) 4 days [ ] f) 5 days [ ] g) 6 days [ ] h) 7 days [ ] The last question is about the time you spent sitting on weekdays while at school, at dormitory and/or during leisure time. This includes time spent sitting at a desk, visiting friends, reading a novel, traveling on a bus, watching television etc. 30. During the last 7 days, how much time did you usually spend sitting on a day? a) 1 hr-2hrs [ ] b) 3hr -4hr [ ] c) More than 4 hrs [ ] SECTION E: IMPICATIONS OF PHYSICAL INACTIVITY ON HEALTH AND WELLBEING OF STUDENTS. For items 21-23, please tick (√) only one response against each of the items provided Statement Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree 31. The pursuit of physical activity and sports helps to develop motor and movement skills 32.Students who participate in physical activity and sports are academically weak 33. Physical fitness cannot prevent the early onset of diabetes, lower blood pressure and promote 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh growth 34.Physical activity and sports helps to reduce stress, anxiety, and depression 35. What other benefits motivate you to participate in physical activity and sports……… i)……………………………………………………………………………………………… ii)……………………………………………………………………………………………… iii)……………………………………………………………………………………………… 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE Instructions: You are kindly requested to fill the questionnaire below. Be as frank and honest as possible in your responses. All responses will be treated with utmost confidence. Name of School …………………………………………………….......................................... Zone ……………………………………………………………………………………………. Date ……………………………………………………………………………………………. NB: P.E is Physical Education Tick (√) where applicable SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION 1.Gender Male [ ] Female [ ] 2.What is your level of education? Certificate [ ] Diploma [ ] Degree [ ] Masters [ ] 3. Is the teaching and learning of P.E. done effectively in the school? Done effectively [ ] Done irregularly [ ] Not done at all [ ] 4. How many periods/hours do you have on the time table for the teaching and learning of PE…………………………………………………………………………………………. SECTION B: AVAILABILITY OF PE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS /RESOURCES 5. Does the school encourage teachers to teach PE lessons and organize sports? Yes [ ] No [ ] 6. Do you have a budget for purchasing PE resources? Yes [ ] No [ ] 7. If yes, what kind of P.E resources do you purchase or have in your school? 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (i) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… (ii) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… (iii) …………………………………………………………………………………………....... (iv) …………………………………………………………………………………………… 8. How many PE teachers do you have in the school?............................................................. ………………………………………………………………………………………………... SECTION C: PERCEPTION AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS TEACHING PE 9. Is PE an integral subject in the school programme? Yes [ ] No [ ] 10. What is the attitude of teachers and students towards Physical activities and sports? Positive [ ] Negative [ ] SECTION D: PREPAREDNESS 11. Have you attended PE workshops since you left the university? Yes [ ] No [ ] 12. If you have attended PE workshops, how many times?........................................................ ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13. Do you prepare PE professional documents/records? Yes [ ] No [ ] 14. What other challenges are you facing in teaching PE? i)……………………………………………………………………………………………… ii) ………………………………………………………………………………………………. iii) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 15. Suggest ways of improving the PE/sports activities in your institution? i) ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ii)……………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii)………………………………………………………………………………………………. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C CHECKLIST ITEM/RESOURCE AVAILABLE NOT AVAILABLE 1. Playfield 2. P.E Periods on Time Table 3. Out of class P.E Programs 4. Peer Support 5. P.E/ Sports kits 6. Balls 7. Nets 8. Gymnasium 119