UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 

INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES 

 

STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE FARMING 

PRACTICES IN CHEREPONI, IN THE NORTH-EAST REGION OF GHANA. 

 

BY 

 

ABDULAI JAMANG JAMAL- DEEN 

(ID NUMBER-10806353) 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES, 

UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (MPHIL) 

DEGREE IN SUSTAINABILITY SCIENCE 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APRIL, 2023. 

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DECLARATION 

I, Abdulai Jamang Jamal-deen, hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research 

towards the award of Master of Philosophy in Sustainability Science. With the exception of 

quotations and references, which have all been acknowledged, no part of the work has been 

submitted for the award of any other degree at the University of Ghana or elsewhere.  

 

 19/4/2023  

……………………………………….     ……………………… 

ABDULAI JAMANG JAMAL-DEEN              DATE 

   (STUDENT ID: 10806353)                            

 

                                             19/4/2023 

……………………………………….                                                           …………………….. 

PROF. BENEDICTA FOSU-MENSAH                                                                      DATE 

  (Principal Supervisor) 

  

                                                                      19/4/2023 

…………………………………………..            ………………………. 

DR, JESSE S. AYIVOR                                                                                          DATE 

   (Co-Supervisor) 

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DEDICATION 

This work is dedicated to my father, Jamang Abdulai Mohammed and my mother Nana Memuna 

for their support in my academic pursuit. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Benedicta Y. Fosu-Mensah and Dr. Jesse 

Ayivor, for their invaluable guidance, support, direction, and constructive feedback, which were 

instrumental in the successful completion of this study. I could not have done it without their 

expertise and mentorship.  

I also extend my heartfelt appreciation to my friends and colleagues for their unwavering 

support, encouragement, and belief in me, especially during those moments when I doubted my 

ability to complete this study. Your assistance made all the difference. May God bless you 

abundantly. Special thanks to Sananu Zakaria. I would like to express my gratitude to Sananu 

Zakaria for his immense contribution to the success of this research study. Sananu was in charge 

of coordinating the data collection exercise, and he did an excellent job mobilizing research 

assistants to the field to collect data. His tireless efforts and attention to detail were instrumental 

in ensuring the quality and accuracy of the data collected. I also extend my appreciation to 

George Allotey for his assistance in proofreading and arranging the chapters of this study. His 

keen eye for detail and expertise in academic writing helped to improve the overall quality of this 

research work. 

 

. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ABSTRACT 

Sustainable farming practices involve methods and techniques that prioritize environmental 

protection, economic viability, and social equity. To promote and implement sustainable farming 

practices, it is essential to involve stakeholders who have a vested interest in the farming 

community. This study examined how stakeholders’ involvement promote sustainable farming 

practices in Chereponi (10.138012598017568, 0.29017181227194494). The study sought to 

investigate the level of stakeholder knowledge and perceptions about sustainable farming 

practices, farmers’ reasons for adopting sustainable farming practices and the barriers that 

hindered their adoption of sustainable farming practices. The theory of planned behaviour and 

the conceptualized model of Dessart were employed as the theoretical frameworks underpinning 

the study. The mixed method research design was used in this study. The main instrument used 

for quantitative data collection was structured questionnaire. A sample size of 155 using Slovin’s 

sample size formula was chosen for the quantitative data. Qualitative data was collected through 

focus group discussions.  The results revealed that stakeholders have relatively high level of 

knowledge and positive perception of sustainable farming practices. Majority of the respondents 

in the survey agreed that sustainable farming practices increase crop yields, farm incomes, and 

farmers’ reputation in the community. Other stakeholders such as NGOs and agricultural 

extension officers also shared similar sentiments. The study also showed that farmers adopted 

sustainable farming practices based on personal choices, advice from other farmers, and advice 

from NGOs and extension officers. However, obstacles such as perceived risks of crop failure, 

costs, and technical difficulties as well as lack of government support, hindered adoption.  

 

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The study concluded that stakeholder involvement is crucial for promoting sustainable farming 

practices in Chereponi. 

Positive perception and collaboration between stakeholders, especially government and NGOs, 

can ensure successful implementation of sustainable farming practices.  The study recommended 

that the Ministry of Food and Agriculture implements policies that provide support for farmers 

through subsidized equipment and farm inputs. This can increase the number of farmers adopting 

sustainable farming practices. Additionally, policies encouraging banks to offer loans with 

favourable payment structures should be considered.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENT 

Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………i 

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………….i 

Acknowledgement…...…………………………………………………………………………….i  

Abstract………….………………………………………………………………………………...ii 

Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………........vi 

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………vii 

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………….vii 

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………..1 

1.0 Background of the Study……………………………………………………………………...1 

1.1 Problem Statement…………………………………………………………………………….3 

1.2 Objectives of the Study………………………………………………………………………..6 

1.2.1 General Objective…………………………………………………………………………...6 

1.2.2 Specific Objectives………………………………………………………………………….6 

1.3 Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………6 

1.4 Significance of the Study……………………………………………………………………...7 

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………….8 

2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………8 

2.1 Concept of Sustainable Farming……………………………………………………………....8 

2.2 Knowledge and Perception of Farmers………………………………………………………..9 

2.3 Government Extension Officers and NGOs…………………………………………………11 

2.4 Sustainable Agriculture in the North-East Region…………………………………………...14 

2.4.1 Sustainable Agricultural Strategies used by Farmers……………………………………...15 

2.4.1.1 Conservation Agriculture………………………………………………………………...16 

2.4.1.2 Organic Agriculture……………………………………………………………………...17 

2.5 Hindrances to the Implementation of Sustainable Agriculture………………………………17 

2.5.1 Personal Barriers…………………………………………………………………………...18 

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2.5.2 Practical Barriers…………………………………………………………………………...17 

CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK……………………………….…...21 

3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..21 

3.1 Theory of Planned Behaviour………………………………………………..........................21 

3.2 Behavioural Factors (Conceptualized Model of Dessart et al.)……………………………...23 

3.2.1 Cognitive Factors…………………………………………………………………………..23 

3.2.1.1 Farmers' Personal Sense of Mastery……………………………………………………..24 

3.2.1.2 Farmers' Assessment of the Expenses and Advantages Associated with Adopting 

Sustainable Farming Practices…………………………………………………………………...24  

3.2.1.3 Farmers’ Perception of Risk……………………………………………………………..26 

CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY……………………………….……………………...27 

4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..27 

4.1 Research Design……………………………………………………………………………...27 

4.2 Quantitative Approach……………………………………………………………………….28  

4.3 Qualitative Approach………………………………………………………………………...28  

4.4 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Technique………………………………………….29 

4.5 Data Collection Instrument…………………………………………………………………..30  

4.6 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………………...31  

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4.7 Ethical Issues and Considerations……………………………………………………………31  

4.8 Summary……………………………………………………………………………………..32 

CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS……………………………….…………………………………33 

5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..33  

5.1 Respondents Personal Data…………………………………………………………………..33  

5.2 Knowledge and Perception on Sustainable Farming Practices (SFPs) by Farmers working in 

the Chereponi District……………………………………………………………………………36  

5.2.1 Influence of Knowledge and Perception of Farmers on Farmers’ Intention to Adopt 

Sustainable Farming Practices (SFPs)…………………………………………………………...38 

5.2.2 Results from Regression…………………………………………………………………...39 

5.3 Farming Strategies Used by Farmers………………………………………………………...42 

 

5.3.1 Reasons for the Adoption of Sustainable Farming Strategies……………………………..50 

5.4 Barriers to the Adoption and Implementation of Sustainable Farming Practices……………57 

5.4.1 Impact of Barriers on Farmers’ Decision to Adopt Sustainable Farming Practices……….60 

5.4.2 Results from Regression…………………………………………………………………...62 

 

5.5 Interview Results…………………………………………………………………………....65 

5.5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………...65 

5.5.2 Perception on the Concept of Sustainable Farming and Sustainable Farming Strategies 

Introduced to Farmers……………………………………………………………………………65 

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5.5.3 Collaboration between NGO and Government for the Training of Farmers and 

Implementation of Sustainable Farming Strategies……………………………………………..67 

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5.5.4 Barriers to the Adoption of Sustainable Farming Practices by Farmers and Challenges 

Faced by NGOs and Government Extension Officers when Training Farmers to Adopt 

Sustainable Farming Practices…………………………………………………………………..71 

CHAPTER SIX: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS……………………………….……………...73 

6.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..73  

6.1 Finding Discussions………………………………………………………………………….73 

6.1.1 Level of Knowledge and Perception of Stakeholders on Sustainable Farming Practices…73 

6.1.2 Socio-Demographic Factors Influence on Farmers’ Decision to Adopt Sustainable Farming 

Strategies…………………………………………………………………………………………75 

6.1.3 Reasons for the Adoption of Sustainable Farming Strategies by Farmers………………...79 

6.1.4 Stakeholder Collaboration between NGOs and Government for the Training of Farmers on 

the Implementation of Sustainable Farming Strategies………………………………………….83  

6.1.5 Barriers Influencing Farmers’ Decision to Adopt Sustainable Farming Practices………..85 

6.2 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..88  

6.3 Limitations…………………………………………………………………………………..89 

6.4 Recommendations…………………………………………………………………………..90 

References………………………………………………………………………………………92 

Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………..107 

 

 

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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 2 Barriers to Adopting and Implementing SFPs………………………………………….60 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES 

Table 5.1 Demographic Characteristics of farmers in the study area……………………………34 

Table 5.2 Other occupation of respondents in the study area………………………………...….35 

Table 5.3 Knowledge and Perception on SFPs…………………………………………………..37 

Table 5.4 Reliability Test of Scale……………………………………………………………….38 

Table 5.5 Regression Results on Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Sustainable Farming Practices…39 

Table 5.6 Model Summary………………………………………………………………………40  

Table 5.7 Chi-Square Tests on Farming Strategies used by Farmers…………………………....42 

Table 5.8 Chi-Square Tests on Farming Strategies used by Farmers……………………………44 

Table 5.9 Chi-Square Tests on Farming Strategies used by Farmers……………………………47 

Table 5.10 Chi Square Test on Reasons why Farmers Adopt Sustainable Farming Strategies….49 

Table 5.11 Chi Square Test on Reasons why Farmers Adopt Sustainable Farming Strategies …52 

Table 5.12 Chi Square Test on Reasons why Farmers Adopt Sustainable Farming Strategies …55 

Table 5.13 Barriers to Adopting and Implementing SFPs……………………………………….58 

Table 5.14 Reliability Test of Scale……………………………………………………………...61 

Table 5.15 Regression Results on Barriers to the Adoption of Sustainable Farming Practices…62 

Table 5.16 Model Summary……………………………………………………………………..63  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.0 Background of the Study 

In many regions of the world, there is a rising interest in sustainable farming to meet the food 

demands of the surging human population, while guaranteeing the sustainability of agricultural 

operations (Beddington, 2011; Pawlak & Kołodziejczak, 2020; Tilman & Clark, 2015). 

Sustainable agriculture has been highlighted as a crucial avenue for decreasing poverty (Florini 

& Pauli, 2018), guaranteeing food security (Gil et al., 2019), and promoting environmental 

sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Holden, 2018), where agriculture is a major 

economic activity (Ayantunde et al., 2018). Stakeholder involvement has been proven to be 

beneficial in enlisting and empowering farmers to indulge in sustainable agricultural practices 

(Avea et al., 2016).  

Historical estimates of the International Labour Organisation (ILO) department of the World 

Bank shows that the agriculture industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) employs over 50 percent 

of the working population and contributes approximately 14 percent of the regions total Gross 

Domestic Product (GDP) (Chauvin et al., 2012). In contrast to this, the agricultural sector of 

developed nations, for example that of the European Union (EU), only hires close to 4 percent of 

the regions workforce, which translates into a 1.6 percent input to GDP (Timmer et al., 2011). 

According to Bjornlund et al. (2020), large expanse of family-owned lands dominated by small-

scale farming in SSA is the main cause of this discrepancy.  In Ghana for example, over 85 

percent of farmers practice small-scale farming (Ehiakpor et al., 2021). Family farming, which 

produces between 75 and 80 percent of the world's food, is a primary driver of sustainable 

development in many countries, according to reports from the Food and Agricultural 

Organisation (FAO) (Brady & Pierri, 2019). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), although there is a 

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high level of engagement in agricultural activities, it does not necessarily translate to a 

significant increase in food production and supply for the population of a particular country (De 

Graaf et al., 2011).  In 2017, for instance, Somaliland, Kenya, Ethiopia and South Sudan 

declared that over 6 million of their population was in urgent need of food (Scribner, 2017).  

According to the United Nation’s (UN’s) Committee on World Food Security, a country can 

only be considered as food secure if all of its members have access to sufficient, safe and 

nutritious food at all times (Parvathamma, 2015). The key phrase here is “all times” and this is 

exactly where countries in the SSA have a problem. In other words, although production in this 

region is high, it is not sustained in all seasons due to poor farming practices and management 

systems (Bjornlund et al., 2020). 

Modern agricultural practices techniques such as the use of chemical fertilizers and 

agrochemicals are effective in increasing yields in the short-run but may be injurious to 

agricultural ecosystems in the long-run (Rezvanfar et al., 2009; Onder and Ceyhan, 2011; Kumar 

et al., 2019). These modern practices also impact the soil negatively by bringing about 

liquefaction of the soil and an increase in the salinity and alkalinity of the soil (Ali et al., 2020; 

Ervin et al., 2019). According to Brodt et al. (2011), sustainable farming involves a set of 

practices that can aid farmers in achieving higher crop yields, while simultaneously safeguarding 

the long-term health and sustainability of the environment. Although there are various expert 

opinions on what constitutes sustainable farming, it generally entails ecologically sound, climate-

resilient, socially responsible, and economically profitable methods of crop production, as noted 

by Bjornlund et al. (2020), El Chami et al. (2020), and Hrustek (2020). Thus, the interdependent 

aspects of sustainability—economic, social, and ecological—are the foundation of sustainable 

farming. The trio, which can be summarized as the farms, farmers and the environment, will 

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have to interact with each other in harmony; if food production is to be sustained over a long 

period of time. Sustainable farming practices involve components such as direct seeding without 

prior ploughing with either a plough or a hoe, leaving crop residue or planting of cover crops, 

and inter-cropping or crop rotation with legumes (Peigne et al., 2016; Thierfelder et al., 2015). 

The benefits of these practices are the significant reduction of production cost (Dalton et al., 

2014), increased yields (Khoshgoftarmanesh et al., 2010), improved soil structure and reduction 

of soil erosion (Shah & Wu, 2019). The application of organic manure also helps enrich the soil 

and increases crop yields with minimal negative agro-ecological impact (Agula et al., 2018; 

Fung et al., 2019). Sakapaji (2022), believes this concept will be successful if the various 

stakeholders of farming shift attention from the rigid and robust industrial, money-making 

system of farming to a more dynamic, innovative and natural way.  

1.1 Problem Statement 

In the past, farmers in the North-East part of Ghana including those living in Chereponi have 

often resorted to agrochemicals such as synthetic fertilizers, weedicides and pesticides with only 

a short term benefit (Demi & Sicchia, 2021). These practices despite ensuring higher crop yield 

is believed to reduce the carbon sequestration ability of the soil and impact the soil structure 

negatively (Rehman et al., 2022). The situation is compounded by the extreme low levels of 

poverty, literacy and lack of development (Rahman & Debnath, 2015)). These factors have 

exacerbated the tendency of farmers to engage in negative farming practices such as 

deforestation, bush burning, soil tillage and monoculture (Adenle & Ifejika Speranza, 2020). 

With the rising concerns about the environmental risks associated with modern agricultural 

practices (Rezvanfar et al., 2009), there has been a call for government to come up with ways by 

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which fertility of farmlands and sustainability of the ecosystem can be achieved while 

concurrently ensuring increased crop yields (Raghu et al., 2014).  

While there has been an increase in governmental policies both at the national and regional 

levels to transform rural settings and promote food security through sustainable farming, the 

agenda has often been rendered ineffective owing to economic, social and environmental issues 

that persist in the region. For instance, the ratio of Agric Extension Agents (AEA) to farmers 

stands at a minimum of 1:5000, a value that is believed to be inadequate to ensure 

implementation of governmental policies on boosting community participation in best farming 

practices (Appiah-Twumasi et al., 2020). Furthermore, inadequate funds, late release of funds 

and poor roads make it even challenging for these officers to access the various communities 

(Banson et al., 2018). The end result is proliferation of policies, regulations and projects on 

paper, yet very little progress observed in pushing the green economy agenda (Sarpong & 

Anyidoho, 2012).  

Beyond proliferation of policies lies the need for stakeholder collaboration. By stakeholders, this 

implies governments, NGO’s, the local authorities, private institutions and most importantly the 

local community members and farmers. As far as collaboration among stakeholder group is 

concerned, there has been some form of progress made in Chereponi District. The Chereponi 

Farming Project (CFP) and the North-East Ghana Integrated Development Project (NGIDP) for 

example are on-going projects that seek to transform the rural communities through public 

participation and promotion of sustainable farming. Their collaboration with the government was 

apparent through their capitalizing on the planting for food and jobs projects in the region. These 

NGO-funded programmes aim at boosting community mobilisation in a way that sustainable 

farming practices will be easily understood by the indigenes. The CFP is committed to exploring 

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all indigenous ecological-friendly farming practices and in the process find ways of integrating 

them into existing policies with 2000 farmers having been recruited into the programme so far. 

The NGIDP aims at boosting the participation of women and young people in the farming sector 

as well as involving farmers in on-going research that seeks to evaluate the effectiveness of 

agricultural extension officers in the region.  

Unfortunately, the response to these policies and programmes on sustainability farming practices 

by farmers in the district has been negative (Abdul-Hanan et al., 2014). This is so, mainly 

because of the intensive cultivation of farmlands in the district due to the high demand for food 

(Abdul-Hanan et al., 2014). There are questions regarding local farmers’ knowledge and 

perception of sustainable farming practices and how these factors affect their intentions to adopt 

sustainable farming practices. There are also questions regarding how NGOs and government 

extension officers perceive sustainable farming and whether or not implementation of their 

strategies is perceived by the indigenes as feasible and effective. The purpose of this study is 

therefore to evaluate the perception, contribution and collaboration among the various 

stakeholders as it relates to the practice of sustainable farming.  

1.2 Objectives of the Study 

1.2.1 General Objective 

The main objective of the study is to examine how the various stakeholders collaborate to 

enhance sustainable farming practices in the Chereponi District.  

1.2.2 Specific Objectives 

 Determine the knowledge level and perception of stakeholders on sustainable farming 

practices. 

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 Determine whether or not the knowledge and perception of farmers on sustainable 

farming influences their intention to adopt sustainable farming practices. 

 Ascertain the reasons behind farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming strategies.  

 Examine how stakeholders collaborate with government extension officers for the 

training of farmers and the implementation of sustainable farming strategies in the 

Chereponi District. 

 Investigate barriers to the adoption and implementation of sustainable farming practices 

and how barriers influence farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming practices. 

1.3 Research Questions 

 What is the level of knowledge and perception of farmers on sustainable farming 

practices? 

 What effect does the knowledge and perception of farmers on sustainable farming have 

on farmers’ intention to adopt sustainable farming practices?  

 What are the reasons behind farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming practices? 

 How do stakeholders collaborate with government extension officers for the training of 

farmers and the implementation of sustainable farming strategies in the Chereponi 

District? 

 What are the barriers to the adoption and implementation of sustainable farming 

practices? 

 How do the barriers influence farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming practices? 

1.4 Significance of the Study  

When successful, the findings of this study will uncover diverse perspectives on sustainable 

farming among stakeholders specifically within the Chereponi District in the North-East Region 

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of Ghana. Identifying gaps in the implementation strategies of these stakeholders aims to foster 

collaboration, alleviating tensions and contributing to a comprehensive understanding of 

sustainable farming practices in the local context. The identification of shared sustainable 

farming practices among various NGOs could serve as a foundation for local government 

policies, potentially leading to the development of a national policy on sustainable farming, with 

a focus on the unique dynamics within the Chereponi District.  

 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter focuses on extant literature in the area of farmers’ knowledge on sustainable 

farming, sustainable farming strategies used by farmers, as well as the barriers to the adoption of 

sustainable farming have also been highlighted.  

2.1 Concept of Sustainable Farming 

Sustainable farming as a concept has been said to have three main components which comprises 

an environmental dimension, economic and social dimension (De Olde et al., 2016; Lichtfouse et 

al., 2009), popularly known as sustainable agriculture (Alshaal & El-Ramady, 2017). Out of the 

three most dominating dimensions of sustainable farming, the environmental aspect is the most 

focused on as this has a direct bearing on human life and to a large extent, the very survival of all 

living species (Kerekes et al., 2018).  

Lately, there has been a lot of debate on a clear and precise definition for sustainable farming 

that will help both researchers and farmers alike to have a clear and standardized way of 

measuring its effect on the environment (Velten et al., 2015). If one thing is certain, then it is that 

achieving such a result has proven to be very challenging. This is because the concept of 

sustainable farming in itself is very complex and replete with diverse dimensions that are also 

quite ambiguous to a large extent (Velten et al., 2015). Examination of information from extant 

literature shows two widely used definitions of sustainable farming. There are those who look at 

the concept as a philosophical way of thinking that is fuelled by a person’s consciousness of 

some agricultural activities and their adverse consequential effects on the environment 

(Thompson, 2007), and others who view it as a strategically oriented process that allows for 

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continuity and sustainability of the environment (Noble & Nwanekezie, 2017). Those who treat 

sustainable farming as a philosophy look at it as a set of ideologies that affects the farmers’ 

managerial approach to agriculture, while on the other hand, it is seen by those who look at it 

from a strategical point of view as a systematic way of implementing a set of strategies to 

enhance environmental sustainability (Morelli, 2011).  

The strategically oriented perspective of sustainable farming contends that sustainable farming 

should not be seen or treated as a system with a generic meaning or definition because doing so 

may limit farmers’ options. Instead, “sustainable farming should concentrate on how to sustain 

individual and case-specific innovations and processes” (Trigo et al., 2021, p. 3). A universally 

accepted definition and approach to sustainable farming will be impractical according to 

Valizadeh and Hayati (2021), because some techniques or farm equipment may not be suitable in 

areas with diverse conditions or problems. That notwithstanding, in order to be considered a 

meaningful system that farmers can incorporate in their farm management systems, sustainable 

farming has to be scientific, structural and quantifiable (Trigo et al., 2021).  

2.2 Knowledge and Perception of Farmers on Sustainable Farming Practices 

It goes without saying that knowledge of eco-friendly agricultural strategies is a necessary 

condition for farmers to embrace more sustainable farming methods. In general, accessibility to 

pertinent and trustworthy data is vital for farmers to implement agricultural technologies 

(Llewellyn, 2007). Farmers tend to adopt organic agriculture when data on the pros and cons of 

organic agriculture is made readily available to them by agricultural extension officers (Kallas et 

al., 2010). Attending development programmes organised by extension officers also encourages 

farmers to practice ploughing that is more conserved (D'Emden et al., 2008). 

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Knowledge of volunteer programmes initiated by government policies is also a requirement for 

farm owners who want to embrace eco-friendly agricultural methods. In a survey conducted in 

some parts of Europe, farm owners frequently stated that their refusal to join in agricultural 

projects sponsored by the government or NGOs was due to their ignorance of the benefits 

offered by the projects (Pavlis et al., 2016). As per the reports of Ahnstrom et al. (2009), it is true 

that across many regions of the world, farm owners are not well-informed about some of these 

projects which tend to affect their decisions to implement eco-friendly agricultural methods. 

Personal characteristics, as shown by Skaalsveen and colleagues (2020), are crucial to 

understanding why farmers act in the way that they do. According to Skaalsveen et al. (2020), 

farmers' behaviour is influenced by a confluence of social, psychological, and environmental 

elements. A particular farm management approach may be regarded to have implications on the 

environment based on information that farmers possess (Nguyen et al., 2019). To what extent 

such implications are perceived as advantageous or detrimental depends on farmers' objectives 

and values (Lavoie & Wardropper, 2021). It's not uncommon for farmers to pursue multiple 

objectives, such as the goal to make profit or to achieve an independent means of production, 

which they may value differently depending on the situation they are in at the time (Leeuwis & 

Aarts, 2020) 

That said, there is also a good chance that a collaboration between stakeholders (farmers, 

government and NGOs) will likely impact the adoption of sustainable farming practices 

(Leeuwis & Aarts, 2020). “These interdependencies between stakeholders can be vertical 

(depending on the behaviour of other value chain actors), horizontal (depending on the behaviour 

of other farmers), temporal (depending on decisions made in the past or anticipated for the 

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future), or intra-individual (depending on the acceptance of social norms)” (Leeuwis and Aarts 

2020) as cited in (Kenfack Essougong et al., 2020, p. 710). 

2.3 Government Extension Officers and NGOs 

All over the world, agricultural extension services are used as a means to transfer agronomic 

expertise and knowledge to indigenous farmers (Taylor & Bhasme, 2018). Extension services 

include capacity building exercises which incorporates different farming techniques that can be 

adopted and implemented by local farmers on their farmlands (Taylor & Bhasme, 2018). The 

purpose behind these capacity building exercises is for indigenous farmers to be able to adapt 

their farming methods to suit different climatic and environmental conditions as and when the 

need arise without suffering to achieve high crop yields or sustain their farmlands (Zossou et al., 

2020). According to Gitau et al. (2008), in Sub Saharan Africa, peasant farmers who are 

typically found in the villages or remote areas of a country are usually the backbone of 

agronomic production and supply. These local farmers usually require the use of a holistic and 

diversified model that make use of different ways to convey information and transfer expertise 

about agricultural production (Sousa et al., 2016). In Ghana, agricultural extension officers fill 

the roles of experts in agronomic matters and act as the bridge that connect local farmers to 

modern innovations in the area of agriculture (Antwi-Agyei & Stringer, 2021).  

The Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA) has given agricultural extension officers in 

Ghana the responsibility to share substantiated and validated agro - based methods and strategies 

with farmers in an inclusive fashion (Okorley, 2007). These individuals reside among farmers in 

rural communities, as a result, in Ghana's remote villages, the agricultural extension officers 

have become the primary source of information of farming practices (Issahaku, 2014). 

Indigenous and peasant farmers are exposed to the right scientific agrarian information that 

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changes their perspective on the practices to adopt, equips them with the necessary skills needed, 

and shapes their behaviour to help them achieve higher crop yields and income (Azumah et al., 

2018). 

Due to the fact that extension officers in the agricultural sector are widely regarded by farmers as 

experts in the area of agricultural practices, they are careful not to give farmers erroneous data on 

the adoption of a method or strategy so they do not lose their credibility and level of trust among 

farmers (Azumah et al., 2018). The primary conduit connecting local farmers and stakeholders in 

the farming industry is hence agricultural extension officers. To boost production and increase 

crop yields (Emmanuel et al., 2016), fight income inequality, and ensure sustainable 

development, agricultural extension service is essential (Anyanwu & Anyanwu, 2017). Training 

of farmers by extension officers is also a critical factor in the adoption of sustainable farming 

practices (Agula et al., 2018). 

NGOs likewise employ comparable techniques to guarantee that farmers have the best assistance 

they require to produce crops with excellent yields. NGOs interact with farmers through a 

method that relies on consensual association and include mobilizing, enrolling, and educating 

specific farm owners in the designated enclaves (Guliyev et al., 2019). All local peasant farmers 

are normally welcome to join these associations. Farmers are able to decide whether to join the 

associations or not during the awareness phase of the capacity building exercise as it is usually 

during this stage that NGOs reveal their modus operandi to farmers (Bright et al., 2011).  

To strengthen their managerial abilities and practical expertise for effective material use and 

increased efficiency, the enrolled farm owners acquire training and capacity building assistance 

from extension officers recruited by NGOs on how to grow and sell their farm produce (Avea et 

al., 2016). Farmers are advised to start associations so that they can take full advantage of the 

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training offered by NGOs to improve their methods of production and sales after harvest (Bright 

et al., 2011). By training group members, assisting them to secure credit to procure farm inputs, 

and helping them sharpen their negotiation skills at the marketplace, NGOs and government 

extension officers are able to work together to enhance the capacity of farmers (Avea et al., 

2016). 

The NGOs also provide support to farmers in accessing production resources such as seeds, 

fertilizer, agro-chemicals and machinery either by supplying it themselves as credit or by linking 

farmers to financial institutions (Salifu et al., 2012). The need for the NGOs to link farmers to 

banks to access credit is necessitated by low trust between farmers and financial institutions 

(Sheperd, 2007) as well as farmer’s inability to provide collateral as required by the banks for 

credit or loans (Gramzow et al., 2018). With regards to marketing, NGOs are either involved in 

scouting for markets and linking farmers with the identified markets or marketers, or in 

establishing an aggregation company that buys produce from farmers and sells to processing 

companies (Danso-Abbeam et al., 2018). 

Additionally, NGOs by self-financing or credit sourcing from microfinance institutions and rural 

agricultural banks are able to assist farmers in gaining access to farm inputs like manure, 

seedlings, herbicides and pesticides, and equipment (Bright et al., 2011). NGOs serve as the 

conduit between financial institutions and farmers due to the lack of confidence that exist 

between farmers and banking firms which is mainly caused by the failure of farmers to offer 

securities for the loans they want. Furthermore, NGOs work to commercialize farm produce in 

one of two ways: either they identify buyers of the produce and connect them with farmers, or 

they create a company that acts as an intermediary to buy farm produce from farmers and sell to 

other companies that specialize in turning natural farm produce into finished goods. 

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2.4 Sustainable Agriculture in the North-East Region 

In the agricultural sector of the North-East Region of Ghana, particularly in the Chereponi 

District, several challenges hinder the achievement of increased productivity (Zeller, 2016). The 

region's agricultural landscape faces multifaceted obstacles that impact the livelihoods of local 

farmers and the overall food security of the area. Among these challenges are issues related to 

climate variability, inadequate infrastructure and socio-economic constraints (Botchway et al., 

2016; Mahama, 2019). 

The North-East Region experiences a semi-arid climate, characterized by irregular and 

insufficient rainfall. This climate variability poses a significant threat to crop production, leading 

to water scarcity and unreliable growing seasons (Jamaldeen, 2023). Consequently, farmers in 

the Chereponi District grapple with the challenge of selecting suitable crops that can withstand 

the prevailing climatic conditions while still meeting their economic needs. 

The lack of modern infrastructure, including reliable irrigation systems and transportation 

networks, further exacerbates the difficulties faced by farmers (Adongo, 2015). Insufficient 

access to water for irrigation limits the ability to cultivate crops throughout the year, contributing 

to low agricultural productivity (Dinye & Ayito, 2013). Additionally, challenges in 

transportation hinder the timely and efficient movement of agricultural produce to markets, 

affecting farmers' income and the overall economic development of the region. 

Socio-economic factors, including poverty and a lack of access to credit facilities, further 

constrain the agricultural sector. Farmers may struggle to invest in necessary inputs, such as 

quality seeds, fertilizers, and mechanized equipment, limiting their ability to adopt efficient and 

modern farming techniques (Anang & Asante, 2020). Addressing these socio-economic 

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challenges is integral to fostering a conducive environment for agricultural development and 

increased productivity. 

2.4.1 Sustainable Agricultural Strategies used by Farmers 

Implementing sustainable practices at farms may reduce the environmental undesirable effects 

resulting from agricultural activities Gebska et al. (2020). In fact, different production methods 

can be used in plant production to ensure its sustainability (Pabi et al., 2019). They include, 

among others, precision production, conservation, organic agriculture, agroforestry, and 

integrated agro-farming systems. Sustainable practices may help to preserve the ecosystems, to 

promote economic stability for farms, and to improve farmers’ quality of life (Gebska et al., 

2020). For the purposes of this study, conservation agriculture and organic agriculture will be 

considered. This study chose conservation agriculture and organic agriculture as the key 

strategies to examine because “both dominate the most commonly used approaches/techniques 

employed by farmers who engage in sustainable farming practices in West Africa” (Garzon 

Delvaux et al., 2020, p. 10).  

In the North-East Region of Ghana, there exist noteworthy local innovations that can be 

characterized as sustainable farming practices. These innovative approaches are significant and 

merit discussion. Given the semi-arid climate in some parts of the North-East region, where 

rainfall is often irregular and insufficient for optimal crop growth (Golla, 2021), the adoption of 

water harvesting techniques becomes imperative for ensuring agricultural sustainability (Sharma 

et al., 2021). Local farmers in the region have innovatively embraced various approaches, 

ranging from traditional methods to modern rainwater harvesting systems, to mitigate the impact 

of water scarcity on their crops. One such traditional practice is the use of Zai pits. Farmers dig 

small planting pits and fill them with organic matter, creating micro-catchments that capture and 

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retain water during rainfall (Ehiakpor et al., 2019). This method helps enhance soil fertility, 

water infiltration, and moisture retention (Danquah et al., 2019). Recognizing the need for more 

scalable solutions, some farmers have adopted modern rainwater harvesting systems. In certain 

instances, farmers construct simple yet effective roof-top harvesting systems. By channelling 

rainwater from rooftops into storage containers, they create a sustainable water source for 

irrigation during dry periods (Asante, 2011). The combination of traditional methods, such as Zai 

pits, with contemporary innovations like rooftop water harvesting reflects the adaptive and 

forward-thinking nature of local farmers. By integrating both traditional wisdom and modern 

techniques, they demonstrate a resilience that ensures agricultural productivity in the face of 

climate variability. 

2.4.1.1 Conservation Agriculture 

Conservation agriculture is defined in several ways but the key components are to keep soil 

disturbance by ploughing or other soil tillage practices at a minimum, leave crop residue in the 

field and use crop rotation to control diseases (Hobbs et al., 2008). While these practices 

contribute to improved water retention and reduced soil erosion, the explicit focus is not always 

on water or soil moisture conservation. However, the holistic approach of conservation 

agriculture often results in indirect benefits for water and soil moisture retention (Palm et al., 

2014). 

The claimed benefits are better soil quality resulting in higher and stable yields. According to 

Brouder and Gomez-Macpherson (2014) however, there were some significant short-term yield 

losses recorded for Sub-Saharan Africa in annual crops: maize, rice, cowpea and sorghum. That 

said, conservation agriculture is recorded to have increased yields in dry climates when 

combined with appropriate agronomic management (Rusinamhodzi et al., 2011).  

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2.4.1.2 Organic Agriculture 

Organic agriculture is “a food production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and 

people. It relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, 

rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects” (Garzon Delvaux et al., 2020, p. 16). 

Although organic farming is not a perfect equivalent to sustainable farming, it has been shown to 

outperform conventional farming across many sustainability criteria (Ponisio et al., 2015). Some 

of the benefits of organic farming includes; higher crop yields, soil nutrient retention and soil-

water absorption capacity. In regions with mild temperatures however, these benefits may not be 

fully guaranteed (Tuomisto et al., 2012).  

2.5 Hindrances to the Implementation of Sustainable Agriculture 

The practice of sustainable agriculture (SA) is mostly challenged with a lot of barriers, especially 

if the farmer attempts to adopt SA or incorporate its methods fully into his or her farm 

management system (Roesch-McNally et al., 2018). Most of the barriers to the adoption of SA 

are geographically based, even though from time to time, may be seen to overlap with other 

barriers faced by farmers globally. According to Siebrecht et al. (2020) there are four types of 

barriers to the adoption of SA and they include methodological barriers, theoretical barriers, 

personal barriers and practical barriers.  

Theoretical barriers stem from the ambiguity of the concept of SA, which is coupled with the 

numerous interpretation that stakeholders give to SA and that makes it difficult for a one size fit 

all definition to be accepted and fully incorporated into farm management.  

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Methodological barriers are characterized by the difficulty in the practical measuring and 

assessment of the concept of SA.  

Personal barriers are the idiosyncratic character traits, attitudes, skills and knowledge of the 

adopter (farmer) that prevents him or her from practicing SA.  

Practical barriers are mostly external issues that makes it difficult for the farmer to either adapt 

and/or fully incorporate SA into his or her farm management. For the purposes of this study, 

personal barriers and practical barriers to the adoption of SA will be considered (Siebrecht et al., 

2020).  

2.5.1 Personal Barriers 

A lot of times people fail to utilize what they learn even when it is supposed to help them or 

improve their lives. There is always a contrariety between what is learned and what is 

implemented, a situation that is defined as the implementation gap (Peters et al., 2013). To know 

what to do is good, but to put to use what you know is much better. The adoption of sustainable 

farming is influenced by a farmer's knowledge, education, risk-taking mentality, or farm size 

(Nazeer & Fuggate, 2019). This means that the farmer can be hindered by what he or she does 

not know – knowledge gap, but most importantly, he or she is likely to also be affected by his or 

her behaviour towards the adoption of sustainable farming (Sumane et al., 2018). Even though 

there are many variables that may prompt the farmer to make adjustments or completely neglect 

his or her old farming systems to the adoption of a new one, he or she may still decide to do 

nothing at all and carry on with business as usual (Darnhofer et al., 2010). On a farm, it is all 

about the farmer, and what he or she decides to do. No matter the decision the farmer makes 

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however, it is sure to be controlled by his or her personal goals and values as well as any possible 

obstacles that may or may not arise (Milestad et al., 2012). 

According to Darnhofer et al. (2010), a farmer's land can be used in whatever way he or she 

chooses. More so, when he or she is the sole owner of the land. The problem with this is that, 

some people may react negatively to this scenario of free-choice and may consequently decide 

not to engage in the adoption of sustainable farming, especially when faced with uncertainty 

about cost, feasibility and profitability. Olbrich et al. (2014) argued that in order for farmers to 

be motivated to engage in new farming systems (sustainable farming), there should be an 

incorporation of social norms into the personal norms of the farmers. They intimated that, social 

norm which acts as a moral obligation on the farmer should be activated through the awareness 

of agricultural situations that have negative (unsustainable) impacts on the environment, and the 

steps to take to avert such effects (Olbrich et al., 2014). Van Poeck and Ostman (2021) opined 

that a farmer should be made to understand that there are shortfalls, i.e. unsustainable conditions 

or situations that can be created through unsustainable farming practices, and know how to 

correct them. This they believed will be ideal for the daily decision making and management of 

the farm (Van Poeck & Ostman, 2021).  

2.5.2 Practical Barriers 

When we consider a successful farm, one that is both financially and socially successful, the 

question of why the farmer should make modifications or adaptations emerges. What benefits 

can a farmer expect from improving the farms sustainability, why should he or she be driven to 

do so, and what possibility will impact decisions and behaviour? All these are questions that 

farmers seek answers to in their bid to adopt sustainable farming. In Ghana, information apparent 

in extant literature (Adolwa et al., 2017; Kotu et al., 2017; Issahaku & Abdulai, 2020; Mahama 

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et al., 2020; Zakaria et al., 2020) shows that factors such as extension services, distance to input, 

education of farmer, farmer perception of agricultural innovation, availability and non-

availability of farm input, membership of farmer associations, etc. are all influential in the 

adoption of agricultural innovations.  

In a study by Zakaria et al. (2020) where farmers’ involvement in programmes designed to train 

them on sustainable farming practices was assessed to determine the adoption of sustainable 

farming practices, it was found that adoption of sustainable farming practices was impacted by 

the educational background of farmers, access to extension services and membership of farm 

associations. For farmers who took what was taught them serious and were drastic in their 

practice of sustainable farming, the findings revealed that availability of labour by reason of 

family size and active involvement in training programmes were crucial explanatory factors.  

According to Adolwa et al. (2017), some farmers refused to adopt sustainable farming practices 

because they do not have the means to acquire for example additional labour and not necessarily 

because they do not subscribe to the ideologies of sustainable farming systems. Mahama et al. 

(2020) carried out a study on the sustainability of the production of soybean in Ghana, the north-

east region to be precise. Their findings revealed that farmers’ knowledge and perception of 

sustainable farming, farmers’ educational level and age, as well as access to extension officers 

influenced their decision to adopt sustainable ways of producing soybean in the north-east part of 

Ghana.  

In other areas like Kenya, Nyaga et al. (2015) reported that farmers with temporary possession of 

lands favoured the use of artificial-chemical fertilizers over the practice of mixed cropping in 

order to produce more. Nyaga and colleagues’ findings were supported by findings of Nkomoki 

et al. (2018) which stated that in Zambia, temporary land tenure and ownership of lands by 

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farmers influenced their adoption of sustainable farming practices. According to Fabe and Grote 

(2013) and Kassie et al. (2013), farmers’ years of experience in farming tend to impact the 

choice to practice crop rotation by farmers in Tanzania.  

Other factors like gender, age, marital status, years of farming, and family size were also 

recorded to have an effect on the adoption of agricultural innovations (Tiamiyu et al., 2009; 

Matata et al., 2010; Simtowe et al., 2016; Djokoto et al., 2016; Ali et al., 2018). In a study by 

Matata et al. (2010) on the adoption of modern-day agricultural practices by farmers, male 

farmers compared to their female counterparts were found to be more inclined to the use of 

artificial-chemical fertilizers. Tiamiyu et al. (2009) revealed in their study that farmers who were 

far ahead in years favoured the use of conservation agriculture over their younger counterparts 

who favoured modern-day agricultural practices. The foregone result was however refuted by 

findings of Simtowe et al. (2016) which showed that modern-day agricultural practices like the 

use of chemical fertilizers were more likely to be adopted by the elderly due to the fact that they 

tend to have more experience compared to their younger counterparts on what works and what 

does not. According to findings of Ali et al. (2018) on factors responsible for the use of chemical 

fertilizer by farmers in cocoa production in Ghana, marriage and family size was seen to be 

statistically significant to the drastic use of fertilizer by farmers. Number of years farming by 

farmers was also recorded to be significant, with a positive relationship seen between farmers’ 

years of experience and the use of chemical fertilizer. That said, changes are typically done when 

they improve the farmers’ profitability or sustainability of farm (Agula et al., 2018). In the view 

of Darnhofer (2014), economic and financial difficulties are important drivers of decisions in 

farm management and are required for long term viability. Thus, if a production system is not 

profitable, it cannot be perpetuated overtime (Gliessman & Rosemeyer, 2009). Hence, economic 

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concerns and interest might almost always operate as a roadblock to sustainable farming long 

term viability (Rodriguez et al., 2009). As a result, farmers tend to create more sustainable 

production systems when current systems are no longer economically viable or when financial 

incentives are provided, and this applies to farming systems all around the world, (Bowman & 

Zilberman, 2013). The foregone is corroborated by Suhardiman et al. (2016), who revealed in 

their study that farmers prefer to maximize their revenue by growing high value cash crops rather 

than producing more food, such as rice, to feed their families.  

According to Siebrecht (2020), sustainability-related adaptations can have a wide range of 

financial consequences for a farm. Simply by deciding to adapt ones farming methods to 

correspond with sustainable farming methods can generate cost, to begin with. To increase soil 

fertility and increase the farms yield level the sustainable farming way for example may prompt 

the adoption of new technology or a complete modification of old ways of doing things. Then 

there is also the issue of transition cost which must also be taken into account whenever the 

farmer decides to modify his or her management approach for example or completely adopt a 

new approach entirely (Siebrecht, 2020). In the opinion of Komarek (2018), farmers are most 

likely to assess the prospective risk of whatever farming practices or strategy they wish to adopt. 

If the likelihood of an adaptation from an old farming system to a new one is costlier and risky 

than it is profitable, then farmers will be more inclined to maintain their old way of doing things 

(Komarek, 2018). Agricultural risk aversion differs among farmers and thus may or may not 

always be a factor that prevents the adoption of a new farming system or the adaptation from an 

old one (Lapple & Van Rensburg, 2011).  

 

 

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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

3.0 Introduction  

This chapter focuses on the theoretical framework underpinning the research study and seeks to 

explain how it helps provide a framework for examining and understanding the phenomenon 

(Farmers’ knowledge and adoption of sustainable farming practices) under study. The theory of 

planned behaviour and the conceptualised model of behavioural factors by Dessart et al. (2019) 

were the two theories considered in this study. 

3.1 Theory of Planned Behaviour 

According to Aizen (1991), the Theory of Planned Behaviour is concerned with how an 

individual’s decision to engage in a particular behaviour is primarily driven by their intentions, 

which are in turn affected by three independent constructs: attitude, subjective norm (social 

pressure) and perceived behavioural control (ease/difficulty).  

According to the Theory of Planned Behaviour, intention is the most important predictor of 

behaviour, which relates to an individual’s motivation or willingness to invest effort in 

performing the behaviour (Bamberg et al., 2007). The greater the intention, the more likely an 

individual is to enact the behaviour. Intention, in turn, is determined by three socio-psychological 

constructs: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control (Ajzen, 1991). 

In line with the Theory of Planned Behaviour, attitude is defined as a positive or negative 

evaluation of performing a given behaviour (McEachan et al., 2016). Thus, the intention of 

farmers to practice sustainable farming will increase if they perceive that using this practice is 

useful and beneficial and will lead to positive results for them. Subjective norm encapsulates the 

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level of social pressure or expectations felt by an individual from significant reference persons to 

engage or not to engage in a particular behaviour (ibid). It is argued that people tend to conform 

to subjective norms due to a fear of social exclusion (Bamberg & Möser, 2007). Thus, if farmers 

feel that people whose opinion they value confirm a given behaviour (sustainable farming) then 

their own intention to perform the behaviour should increase (Rezaei et al., 2018). Schaak and 

Mubhoff (2018) found that subjective norms positively influenced farmers’ intentions to adopt 

grazing practices that were ecologically friendly in Germany. Finally, perceived behavioural 

control is an individual’s perception of the ease or difficulty related to their performing a given 

behaviour, which is also related to the presence of facilitating conditions, sometimes referred to 

as situational constraints (Bamberg & Möser, 2007). This construct reflects the extent to which 

an individual perceives that the behaviour in question is under his/her volitional control (Hyland 

et al., 2018). Therefore, farmers’ intentions to sustainable farming should increase as the degree 

of their perceived control over performing this behaviour becomes greater (Adnan et al., 2017). 

As a general rule of thumb, the more positive the attitude, subjective norm and perceived 

behavioural control, the greater the likelihood of adopting the behaviour in question (herein, 

sustainable farming) (Wang et al., 2019). 

Previous research has shown that attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control are 

positively associated with farmers’ intentions to adopt riparian zone management in Australia 

(Fielding et al., 2005), improved grassland management in Brazil (Borges et al., 2014) and on 

farm food safety management in Iran (Rezaei et al., 2018). However, Wauters et al. (2010) only 

found attitude to be an important factor determining farmers’ intentions to adopt soil 

management practices in Belgium. Elsewhere, Hyland et al. (2018) confirmed the importance of 

attitude and perceived behavioural control, but did not find subjective norm to be a significant 

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determinant of farmers’ intentions to adopt grazing management practices in Ireland. Typically, 

the influence of the Theory of Planned Behaviour constructs on intentions varies depending on 

the behaviour of the farmer and context under study (Adnan et al., 2017). On this backdrop, this 

study employed the Theory of Planned Behaviour to help determine the knowledge and 

perception of farmers in the Chereponi District on sustainable farming. 

3.2 Behavioural Factors (Conceptualized Model of Dessart et al.) 

According to Dessart et al. (2019), there are three types of behavioural factors that have a 

bearing on decision-making: dispositional, social and cognitive. Dispositional aspects, which 

relate to a specific person include things like attitude, ideals, convictions and preferences (Malle, 

2011). Social norms that may encourage farmers to adopt a specific practice or more sustainable 

practices generally are among the social factors that impact farmers’ decision. Cognitive factors 

denote farmers' judgments of the merits, expenses, and dangers connected with adopting certain 

sustainable strategies and the belief that they have the competence to incorporate sustainable 

farming practices in their day to day activities. For purposes of this study, only the cognitive 

factor of Dessart et al.’s conceptualized model of behavioural factors was considered. The reason 

being that, the other two aspects of their behavioural factors, namely, dispositional and social 

had already been covered in the Theory of Planned Behaviour.  

3.2.1 Cognitive Factors  

The learning curve of farmers, coupled with their ability to assess the expenses, advantages, and 

risks associated with the adoption of sustainable farming practices has been proven to have a 

strong impact on farmers' decision to practice sustainable farming. Farmers' personal sense of 

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mastery in implementing sustainable farming practices on their farmlands has also been proven 

to have an effect on farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming practices. 

3.2.1.1 Farmers' Personal Sense of Mastery 

Farmers' opinion of their capacity to manage their behaviour is related to their assessments of 

having or not having the necessary knowledge and span of years to carry out a task. The 

inclination of farmers to indulge in tasks or projects that will expedite the assimilation of the 

concept of sustainable farming and simplify the process of adopting sustainable farming 

strategies will be greatly enhanced provided farmers hold the strong belief that they possess the 

requisite skill needed to achieve that goal (Defrancesco et al., 2008; Issahaku & Abdulai, 2020). 

Information apparent in extant literature showed that conversion to the production of vegan food 

and organic products was especially resisted by farm owners who felt they had insufficient time 

or resources to do so (Grabowski, 2014; Lapple & Kelley, 2013). Additionally, acting reluctant 

towards the adoption of sustainable agricultural activities was very characteristic of farmers who 

had problems with the use of farm equipment/tools (Kuhfuss et al., 2016b). Farmers were also 

less susceptible to the idea of incorporating sustainable farming methods into their daily 

activities once they felt it was hard to implement for example, soil sustainability strategies such 

as limiting ploughing on farmlands (Wauters et al., 2010). On this backdrop, the null hypothesis 

is formulated: 

H0: There is no significant relationship between farmers' perception of experiencing technical 

difficulties when implementing sustainable farming practices and their subsequent decision to 

adopt sustainable farming practices. 

 

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3.2.1.2 Farmers' Assessment of the Expenses and Advantages Associated with Adopting 

Sustainable Farming Practices  

Farmers' decision to incorporate sustainable agricultural practices into their everyday activities 

may be dependent upon their assessment of the possible expenses they may incur and the profits 

they are likely to gain (Michel-Guillou & Moser, 2006). Farmers are more likely to adopt 

sustainable agriculture practices, per Trujillo Barrera et al. (2016), provided farmers anticipate 

receiving state assistance, such as tax breaks, agricultural extension, and equipment subsidies. 

According to Uematsu and Mishra (2012), farmers decide against the practice of traditional 

farming especially the adoption of organic methods because it elevates labour expenses even 

though it lowers input expenses. Kallas et al. (2010) followed by Läpple and Kelley (2013) on 

the other hand intimated that farmers are more likely to switch to organic farming if they 

estimate improved prices for their produce and appreciate the reduced costs of production that 

comes with it. In the opinion of Schulz et al. (2014), farmers who believe in the ecological 

benefits associated with the practice of sustainable agricultural methods are more likely to adopt 

sustainable farming practices than those who do not share the same beliefs. Consequently, 

farmers' decision to practice sustainable farming may vary based on their perception of the costs 

and profits associated with it (Marcillo & Miguez, 2017).  

Time is also a factor when considering the adoption of sustainable farming practices. According 

to Bocquého et al. (2014), because there is an inverse relationship between the immediate cost 

and benefit of sustainable farming practices to farmers when they attempt to engage in it, 

deciding to implement sustainable farming sometimes becomes a challenge. Implementing 

sustainable methods frequently may sometimes result in short-term added expenses like spending 

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extra capital on equipment or loss caused by the reduction in harvest, while the advantages such 

as increased fertility of the soil and sustainability of the environment usually come later 

(Bocquého et al., 2014). So amongst the group of people that are engaged in farming, some do so 

for personal financial gains, whereas others prioritize profits that go hand in hand with 

environmental benefits. The latter is usually a consequence of sustainable farming even though it 

is usually costlier for farmers to apply. On this backdrop, the following null hypothesis (H0) are 

formulated: 

1. There is no significant relationship between farmers' assessments of expenses and profits 

and their adoption of sustainable agricultural practices. 

2. Farmers' anticipation of state assistance, such as tax breaks, agricultural extension, and 

equipment subsidies, does not significantly influence the adoption of sustainable 

agriculture practices. 

3.2.1.3 Farmers' Perception of Risk 

Farmers' conceptions of economic burden are reported to trigger a variety of actions, including 

the use of new equipment and adoption of new agricultural practices (Marra et al., 2003; Ghadim 

et al., 2005). Given the significant economic risk farmers typically experience in their work, it is 

possible they may decide against the implementation of sustainable farming strategies if they 

perceive it to be non-economically viable (European Commission, 2017b). According to Serra et 

al. (2008), certain sustainable methods carry a little bit more economic threat than modern 

methods. Using organic agricultural strategies in farming for example increases the chance of 

yield loss compared to the use of modern day agricultural methods as it frowns upon the use of 

fertilizers or herbicides on farms (Gardebroek, 2006). Monetary benefits from practicing 

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mechanical ploughing is also less guaranteed compared to the practice of standard ploughing 

(Kurkalova et al., 2006). 

According to Colen et al. (2016) when the farmer deems the adoption of sustainable farming to 

be riskier in terms of losses to be incurred compared to the profits he or she may enjoy by 

practicing sustainable system of farming, then there is a high possibility of a decision against the 

adoption of sustainable farming practices. Practically speaking, this asserts that potential income 

surges resulting from lower prices of fertilisers and greater market values of their crops will have 

less of an impact on farmers' judgment calls than the dangers of crop yields caused by the 

implementation of sustainable farming methods (Colen et al., 2016). Based on the foregoing, the 

following alternative hypothesis are formulated: 

H1: There is a significant relationship between farmers’ perception of sustainable farming 

practices increasing the risk of crop failure and their decision to adopt sustainable farming 

practices.  

H2: Farmers who perceive sustainable farming practices as economically burdensome will be 

less likely to adopt them compared to those who perceive them as economically viable. 

The various cognitive aspects namely, farmers' personal sense of mastery, farmers' perception of 

the expenses and profits, and their perception of the risk associated with adopting sustainable 

farming were used in examining the barriers to the adoption of sustainable farming practices in 

this study. 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER FOUR 

METHODOLOGY 

Study Area 

Chereponi district forms part of the many districts in the Eastern part of the North-East Region of 

Ghana. The capital of Chereponi District is Chereponi and the district is part of other five 

Metropolitan Municipal District Assemblies in the Region. The climate condition prevalent in 

Chereponi is that of continuous dry seasons and only limited months of rain. The main 

occupation of the people in the area is that of farming and an occasional rearing of livestock 

(Atinga, 2019).  

The Chereponi District has a population of over 53,000 residents, with a near-balanced 

distribution between males and females (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2014). The majority of 

the population, approximately 85 percent, resides in rural areas (Mahama, 2019). The households 

in the district number over 7,100, with an average size of about 8 persons per household (GSS, 

2014). Various dwelling units, including compound houses, separate houses, and huts, contribute 

to the diverse housing landscape. A significant majority of these units are owned by members of 

the households (Adu-Okoree, 2016). 

Economically, about 77.3 percent of the population aged 15 and older are economically active, 

engaging in various occupations (Ministry of Local Government Rural Development and 

Environment, 2018-2021). Among the employed population, a substantial percentage is involved 

in skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery work, followed by service and sales, craft, and 

managerial or professional occupations ((MLGRD, 2018-2021). These economic activities form 

the backbone of the local economy in the Chereponi District. 

 

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Satellite Map of Chereponi District 

 

Source: (Mapcarta). https://mapcarta.com/27640956  

4.0 Introduction 

This chapter highlights the sources of data collected, the research design, data collections 

instruments, the sampling and procedures techniques of data analysis and the problems 

encountered during the research. 

4.1 Research Design  

Blanche et al. (2006, p. 36) define research design as a “strategic framework, a plan that guides 

research activity to ensure that sound conclusions are reached.” This involves plans for data 

collection, the instrument for gathering information, how information gathered would be 

processed and analyzed to give meaning to the research findings.  

The study used the mixed method involving both qualitative and quantitative in the research. 

This was to enhance flexibility in data acquisition and to ensure that the researcher collects 

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sufficient and detailed information for the study (Wimmer & Dominick, 2013). Creswell et al. 

(2003) advances the view that using the mixed method in a study helps limit the weaknesses 

inherent in any single method.  

4.2 Quantitative Approach  

Quantitative research involves the collection of data through numbers, statistical diagrams and 

figures (Babbie, 2020). This research approach involves much larger number of subjects, and 

allows the researcher to explain, predict and control a phenomenon, (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005). 

The results of quantitative studies are generalizable to the population of the study. This makes 

data from quantitative studies more objective because it reduces researcher’s biases substantially, 

(Babbie, 2020). 

The specific quantitative approach used for this study was questionnaire administration among 

selected sample of respondents. Goodwin (2002) defines a survey as a method which describes, 

explains and predicts the behaviour, perception and attitude of respondents after posing a series 

of questions about a particular topic. Although the survey method can be used for both 

quantitative and qualitative studies (Jansen, 2010), this study adopted the survey method for the 

collection of quantitative data. According to Creswell et al. (2003), surveys enable researchers to 

examine relationships between individual’s view and their socio-economic characteristics. In 

addition, surveys are easy to administer, relatively quick and convenient to analyze, (Wimmer & 

Dominick, 2013).  

4.3 Qualitative Approach  

The qualitative research method used for this study was the in-depth interview. An interview is 

“a purposive conversation to elicit response, information or answers to an issue” (Wimmer & 

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Dominick, 2006, p. 135). Interviews help unearth undisclosed information and provide rich 

research material for understanding the phenomenon being studied. The researcher also used the 

interview technique to investigate issues regarding sustainable farming strategies implemented 

by the local farmers and the challenges they faced in doing so. 

4.4 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Technique 

Bryman (2011), identifies the population as the focus group of any social or scientific enquiry. It 

can also be defined as a complete set of elements that possess the characteristics defined by the 

sampling criteria of a research work (Bryman, 2011). The population of this research involved 

NGO’s, government extension officers and local farmers who are actively involved in the 

promotion of sustainable farming practices at the Chereponi district. The distribution of the 

population is that of a clumped dispersion where all stakeholders are clustered together in the 

district (see Map of Chereponi District). The choice of the district was informed by the 

considerable progress that has been made by NGOs (Chereponi Farming Project (CFP) and the 

North-east Ghana Integrated Development Project (NGIDP)) to ensure that majority of the 

indigenes, predominantly farmers, practice sustainable farming.  

Creswell (2009) defines a sample as a small part of something intended as the representative of a 

whole. A sample of a population is very vital in scientific research, especially in the social 

sciences, because it is practically impossible for the researcher to engage all individual units in 

the population (Creswell, 2009). It is therefore important for a researcher to always have a size of 

the population to work with, and this must be done having in mind the credibility of the entire 

research. This study considered a sample size of one hundred and fifty-five (155) respondents 

(local farmers) for the survey questions and two interviewees – one (1) NGO and one (1) 

government extension officer. By using the Slovin formula that “normally works for simple 

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random sampling” (Wulandari & Kurniasih, 2019, p. 117) (n = N / (1+N (e)*) with n denoting 

the actual sample size, N referring to the size of the population, e represents the margin of error 

and finally (*) denoting the squared root of the margin of error. The following figures were 

substituted into the formula as follows:  

n = 249 (1 + 249 (0.05×0.05)) 

n = 249 (250 (0.0025)) 

n = 249 × 0.625 = 155 

The convenient sampling technique was used in selecting the one hundred and fifty-five (155) 

local farmers and the two interviewees – one (1) NGO and one (1) government extension officer 

in Chereponi because it allowed the researcher to choose respondents base on their accessibility, 

readiness and availability as opined by (Somekh & Lewin, 2005).  

4.5 Data Collection Instrument  

Structured questionnaires were used to gather information from the one hundred and fifty-five 

(155) sampled local farmers. The questionnaires captured the demographic characteristics of the 

farmers, their knowledge and awareness level about sustainable farming practices as well as their 

perception on what sustainable farming is. The questionnaires further elicited information about 

the farming strategies these local farmers employed to ascertain if they were in line with the 

strategies noted to promote sustainable farming.  

The questionnaires were close ended to allow for easy statistical analysis and also to complement 

the open-ended questions on the interview guide deployed during the qualitative phase of the 

study. Administration of the questionnaires was not self-made by the respondents (local farmers) 

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considering the fact that almost all of them could not read in the English language. This means 

that each respondent was assisted by the researcher and other field agents in the process of 

answering the survey questions. Further elucidation and clarification was also provided for those 

who did not understand the content of some of the questions they read. This made it possible for 

them to make the right choices. Additionally, some of the texts were translated for those who did 

not speak English and spoke only the Dagbane, Konkomba, and/or Anufo language to make it 

easier for them to answer the questions appropriately. 

Conducting interviews on the other hand involved utilizing distinct interview guides tailored for 

each participant, consisting of two key stakeholders: a representative from a Non-Governmental 

Organisation (NGO) and a government extension officer. The interviews commenced with a 

comprehensive briefing, ensuring that both participants were well-versed in the study's 

objectives. This approach aimed to foster voluntary and informed responses from the 

interviewees. 

The gathered information was meticulously documented and subjected to analysis through 

content analysis principles. Content analysis involves deriving meaningful insights from the 

content of written or verbal communication. In this context, it provided a structured framework 

to interpret and draw inferences from the information shared during the interviews. 

To maintain anonymity and clarity in reference, each interviewee was identified with specific 

descriptors: 'NGO Person' for the representative from the Non-Governmental Organisation and 

'Gov’t Ext Officer' for the government extension officer. These identifiers helped organise the 

findings and contributed to a cohesive understanding of the perspectives shared by these critical 

stakeholders in the area of sustainable farming practices. 

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4.6 Data Analysis  

The Statistical Package for the Social Scientist (SPSS) software was used to analyse data 

obtained from the survey. Frequency tables, bar graphs and charts were employed to illustrate 

findings and answers from respondents. Some of the research questions and objectives were 

answered using the Chi-Square and Regression statistical method, particularly those within the 

conducted survey. The multiple regression analysis and the chi-square analysis were used to test 

relationships between variables. Other research questions, particularly those that fell within the 

interviews conducted, were answered with the help of the content analysis approach. “Content 

analysis in simple terms is the analysis of what is being said, written or recorded (Parveen & 

Showkat, 2017, p. 2). Content analysis was used in this study because it allowed for the 

researcher to make inferences within the context of what was said and what was written (Zhang 

& Wildemuth, 2009).  

4.7 Ethical Issues and Considerations  

Ethical issues are very essential in research because they guide the researcher on what is 

sensitive, permissible and what is not (Resnik, 2018). These conditions were mandatory for the 

researcher to observe. Prior to the collection of data, ethical clearance was first and foremost 

obtained from the Ethics Committee of the College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of 

Ghana with the Ref. No: IESS/AC/13. After this, the ethical issues observed during the data 

collection process included informed consent, confidentiality of information, privacy and 

anonymity of respondents. 

 

 

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4.8 Summary 

Chapter three discussed issues related with the data gathering aspect of the study. The chapter 

further examined the research design, population and sampling, and data analysis. It also 

discussed the instruments and procedures for data collection, and touched on ethical 

considerations and quality assurance. The next chapter presents the findings of the interviews 

and the survey as obtained during the field collection of data. 

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CHAPTER FIVE 

RESULTS  

5.0 Introduction  

This chapter focuses on the presentation of results obtained from the analysis that was carried 

out. The chapter is divided into six sections based on the objectives of the study. It begins with 

the personal data of the respondents followed by the presentation of the interview results and 

from the survey results.  

5.1 Demographic characteristics of respondents  

Table 5.1 presents the demographic characteristics of the respondents in the study. From the 

results it is evident that males dominated (102 representing 65.8%) while females were 53 

representing 34.2%. Majority of the farmers sampled (68 %) were aged 30 - 39, 48 (%) 40 – 49, 

28 (%) 19 – 29 and 11 (%) above 50s. The results showed that the active population of adults 

below 60 years dominated farming (Table 5.1). In addition, only 5.2% of the respondents had 

higher education (Tertiary), with majority, (43.9%) without any education. There were however 

9.7% who had Junior High school education and another 9.7% had senior high education. 

Further, it was observed that 83.9% of the respondents were married, 3.9% divorced, 3.9% 

widowed, and 8.4% single (Table 5.1). This explained why majority (91.6 percent) had children 

and only 13 (8.4 percent) did not. It was further observed that more than 70% (83.9 percent) of 

the farmers had farming as their primary occupation, while 16.1% indicated that farming was 

their secondary occupation.  

 

 

 

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Table 5.1 Demographic characteristics of farmers in the study area 

 

Variables Frequency Percentage (%) 

Gender 

Female 53 34.2 

Male  102 65.8 

Age 

19 – 29 28 18.1 

30 – 39 68 43.9 

40 – 49 48 31.0 

50 – 59 7 4.5 

Over 60 years 4 2.6 

Educational Background 

None 68 43.9 

Primary 49 31.6 

JHS 15 9.7 

SHS 15 9.7 

Tertiary 8 5.2 

Marital Status 

Married 130 83.9 

Divorced 6 3.9 

Widowed 6 3.9 

Single 13 8.4 

Number of Children 

None 13 8.4 

one – five 120 77.4 

six – ten 15 9.7 

eleven – fifteen 5 3.2 

sixteen – twenty 2 1.3 

Secondary Occupation 

Yes 25 16.1 

No 130 83.9 

Total 155 100.0 
Computed survey data (2022) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 5.2 present summary of other or secondary occupation of respondents (23 respondents). 

These were traders, and the rest were either tailors, plumbers, carpenters, among others. Majority 

of the respondents 151 (97 percent) operated crop farms and only few 4 (3.0 percent) reared 

animals. Crops planted were usually cereals, legumes and soybeans. Of the 155 sampled 

respondents only 15 (9.7 percent) were members of farm associations, 91 (58.7 percent) had 

received training from NGOs and government extension officers on sustainable farming 

practices, and just 3 (1.9 percent) had migrated to Chereponi District. This showed that majority 

of the sampled respondents 152 (98.1 percent) were natives of Chereponi District. Another 

observation that was made had to do with respondents’ years of farming. It was seen that more 

than 70 percent of the 155 sampled 128 (80.4 percent) were experienced farmers. This was 

apparent in 82 respondents (52.9 percent), 24 (15.5 percent) and 22 (14.2 percent) respectively 

indicating that they had been farming for more than 5 years, between 11 to 20 years, and greater 

than 20 years.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 5.2 Other occupation of respondents in the study area 

 

Variables Frequency Percent 

Other Occupation 

Trader 10 43.0 

Tailor 4 17 

Teacher 2 9 

Mechanic 2 9 

Welder 2 9 

Plumber 1 4 

Carpenter 2 9 

Total 23 100 

Farm type 

All crops (maize, yam, 

soybean, rice, groundnut, 

sorghum, millet, cowpea, 

cassava)  

86 55.0 

Cereals and legumes  36 23.0 

Soyabeans  29 19.0 

Animal husbandry  4 3.0 

Membership of Farmer Associations   

Yes 15 9.7 

No 140 90.3 

Training by NGOs or Government Extension officers about Sustainable Farming 

Practices 

Yes 91 58.7 

No 64 41.3 

Number of Years Farming 

less than 5 years 27 17.4 

5 to 10 years 82 52.9 

11 to 20 years 24 15.5 

greater than 20 years 22 14.2 

Migration Status 

Yes 3 1.9 

No 152 98.1 

Total  155 100.0 
Computed survey data (2022) 

 

 

 

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5.2 Knowledge and Perception on Sustainable Farming Practices (SFPs) by Farmers 

working in the Chereponi District  

Table 5.3 showed the knowledge and perception of the respondents on sustainable farming 

practices. It was evident from the result in Table 5.3 that majority of the respondents had 

relatively high knowledge/positive perception of sustainable farming practices. This was evident 

in their responses to the question(s) of whether or not they thought sustainable farming practices 

increased crop yields, 113 (73.0 percent) (strongly agree), increased farm incomes 110 (71.0 

percent) (strongly agree), improved farmer’s reputation in the community, 111 (72.0 percent) 

(strongly agree), and improved the fertility of the soil, 88 (56.8 percent) (strongly agree) 

respectively.  

 

Table 5.3 

 Knowledge and Perception on SFPs  

Variables  Frequency Percentage  

 

SFPs increases crop 

yields 

Strongly Agree 113 73.0 Relatively high 
knowledge/positive 

perception 

Strongly Disagree 36 23.0 Relatively low 
knowledge/negative 

perception 
Neither Agree nor 

Disagree 

6 4.0 

 

SFPs increases farm 

incomes 

Strongly Agree 110 71.0 Relatively high 
knowledge/positive 

perception 

Strongly Disagree 34 22.0 Relatively low 
knowledge/negative 

perception 
Neither Agree nor 

Disagree 

11 7.0 

 

SFPs improves 

farmer’s reputation in 

community 

Strongly Agree 111 72.0 Relatively high 
knowledge/positive 

perception 

Strongly Disagree 27 17.0 Relatively low 
knowledge/negative 

perception 
Neither Agree nor 

Disagree 

17 11.0 

 

SFPs improves 

fertility of soil 

Strongly Agree 88 56.8 Relatively high 
knowledge/positive 

perception 

Strongly Disagree 37 23.9 Relatively low 
knowledge/negative 

perception 
Neither Agree nor 

Disagree 

30 19.3 

Total  155 100.0  

Computed survey data (2022) 

 

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5.2.1 Influence of Knowledge and Perception of Farmers on Farmers’ Intention to Adopt 

Sustainable Farming Practices (SFPs) 

As per the objectives of this study, the relationship between farmers’ knowledge/perception of 

sustainable farming practices and their intention to adopt sustainable farming practices was 

examined. Testing the relationship between the selected variables was carried out with the help 

of the multiple regression analysis. Three latent variables namely ‘Attitude,’ ‘Subjective Norm,’ 

and Perceived behavioural control,’ were used as the independent variables to test the effect of 

farmers’ knowledge/perception of sustainable farming practices on their intention to adopt 

sustainable farming practices. Preliminary analysis however considered testing the selected 

scales for reliability. This was done using the alpha value of Cronbach.  

Table 5.4 

Reliability Test of Scale 

Overall Cronbach Value = .924 

Variables Alpha Value if Item Deleted 

SFPs increases  crop yields .912 

SFPs increases farm incomes .911 

SFPs improves farmer’s reputation in 

community 

.912 

SFPs improves fertility of soil .914 

SFPs is applied by other farmers on their 

farms 

.916 

Practicing SFPs is seen to be a good idea by 

others 

.915 

Expectation by most farmers to use SFPs on 

farm 

.925 

Be like other farmers when choosing farming 

practices 

.912 

Ability to practice at least one of the SFPs .915 

Possess resource to implement SFPs .926 

Possess the knowledge to try out or practice 

SFPs 

.924 

Intention to adopt SFPs .923 

Computed survey data (2022) 

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Table 5.4 showed that the selected scale for the regression analysis was reliable with an overall 

alpha value of .924 which was greater than the required value of .7. ‘Alpha value if item deleted’ 

further revealed that deleting any of the variables in question will not have an impact on the 

overall alpha value, hence, all the variables were retained.  

5.2.2 Results from Regression 

 

Table 5.5 presents the multicollinearity results of the variables used in the regression analysis.  

With VIF values less than 10 and Tolerance values greater than .10, the absence of 

multicollinearity in the regression result was established. The examination proceeds to scrutinize 

the information contained in the Model Summary and ANOVA table. 

 

Table 5.5 
Regression Results on Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Sustainable Farming Practices 

Coefficients 

Model  Unstandardized  
Coefficients 

Standardized 
Coefficients 

 
 

T 

 
 

Sig 

Collinearity 
Statistics 

 B Std. 
Error 

Beta Toleran
ce 

VIF 

1 (Constant) -.216 .188  -1.150 .252   

     P = <.05   

Attitude 
SFPs increases  crop yields .596 .111 .497 5.367 .000 .111 9.001 

SFPs improves farmer’s 
reputation in community 

-.243 .112 -.189 -2.176 .031 .127 7.881 

SFPs improves fertility of 
soil 

.102 .099 .086 1.027 .306 .136 7.348 

Subjective Norm 
SFPs is applied by other 
farmers on their farms 

-.242 .114 -.188 -2.126 .035 .122 8.183 

Practicing SFPs is seen to 
be a good idea by others 

-.151 .119 -.118 -1.272 .206 .111 9.028 

Expectation by most 
farmers to use SFPs on farm 

.308 .080 .290 3.869 .000 .169 5.904 

Be like other farmers when 
choosing farming practices 

-.006 .103 -.005 -.058 .954 .146 6.850 

Perceived Behavioural Control 

Ability to practice at least 
one of the SFPs 

.017 .102 .014 .168 .867 .137 7.286 

Possess resource to 
implement SFPs 

.361 .087 .294 4.168 .000 .192 5.197 

Possess the knowledge to 
try out or practice SFPs 

.383 .102 .330 3.743 .000 .123 8.129 

 

a. Dependent Variable: I am planning to adopt SFPs   

Computed survey data (2022) 

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With an Adjusted R Square figure of .853 as seen in Table 5.6, it was revealed that the model 

explained 85.3% of the variance in farmers’ intention to adopt sustainability farming with a 

statistically significant value of .000. This showed that there was a greater association between 

the independent variables (knowledge/perception of sustainable farming practices) and the 

dependent variable (intention to adopt sustainable farming practices). Singular contributions 

made by each of the observed independent variables in predicting the dependent variable was 

assessed with the help of Standardized Coefficient Beta values. From Table 5.5 it was observed 

that farmers’ perception about the likelihood to increase crop yields with the practice of 

sustainable farming practices (.497 Beta p = .000), their perception about whether or not they had 

the requisite knowledge to practice sustainable farming practices (.330 Beta p = .000), and their 

perception about whether or not they possessed the resources needed to implement sustainable 

farming practices (.294 Beta p = .000) had a significant effect on their intentions to adopt 

sustainable farming practices. Same could be said for farmers’ perception about what other 

farmers in the community expected from them as far as sustainable farming practice was 

concerned (.290 Beta p = .000). Farmers’ perception of sustainable farming practices improving 

farmers’ reputation, although significant (-.189 Beta p = .031), did not show a greater influence 

on farmers’ intention to adopt sustainable farming practices. There was no significant 

relationship on the other hand between perception of sustainable farming practices improving 

fertility of the soil (.086 Beta p = .306), perception about the ability to practice at least one of the 

sustainable farming methods (.014 Beta p = .867) and farmers’ intention to adopt sustainable 

farming practices. The foregone result showed that perceived behavioural control, attitude of 

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farmers and subjective norms, were all influential on farmers’ intention to adopt sustainable 

farming practices.  

 

Table 5.6 

Model Summary 

Model R R Square Adjusted R 

Square 

Std. Error of the 

Estimate 

 

1 .929  .863 .853 .668  

ANOVA 

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 

Regression 403.374 10 40.337 90.386                     .000 

Residual 64.265 144 .446   

Total 467.639 154    

a. Dependent Variable: Intention to adopt SFPs       

b. Predictors: (Constant), Possess the knowledge to try out or practice SFPs, Ability to practice at 

least one of the SFPs, SFPs improves farmer’s reputation in community, Practicing SFPs is seen to 

be a good idea by others, Expectation by most farmers to use SFPs on farm, Possess resource to 

implement SFPs, SFPs improves fertility of soil, Be like other farmers when choosing farming 

practices, SFPs is applied by other farmers on their farms, SFPs increases crop yields 

           

           

    

Computed survey data (2022) 

 

 

 

5.3 Farming Strategies Used by Farmers 

Evidence shown in Table 5.7 revealed ‘Gender,’ ‘Age,’ and ‘Educational Background’ not to be 

statistically significant to the adoption and practice of conservation farming and organic farming  

strategies by farmers. The result suggests that deciding to or not to adopt conservation farming 

and/or organic farming has nothing to do with farmers’ gender, age or educational background. 

This means that both young and old farmers in Chereponi District at any point in time may 

decide for or against the adoption of conservation farming and/or organic farming, and the same 

can be said for male or female farmers, educated or non-educated farmers. It is true that farmers 

who are not educated for instance may not be able to properly comprehend the importance of 

practicing these sustainable farming strategies and as such may decide against its adoption and 

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implementation. But that is just one side of the argument: it is also possible that non-educated 

farmers may be well experienced with lot of years in farming and as such, may be privy to what 

practices really work or does not work, which may inform their decision to adopt these 

sustainable farming strategies. That is to say that whatever they lack as a result of no formal 

education, they can surely make up for with their farming experience. Evidence in the literature 

is inconclusive on the impact of age on farmers’ decision to adopt sustainable farming strategies. 

Tiamiyu et al. (2009) for example on one hand argues that younger farmers tend to favour the 

use of modern-day agricultural practices over conservative agriculture, while Simtowe et al. 

(2016) on the other hand reports that the opposite is rather true. That said, judging by the result, 

it is possible that both young and old farmers may have other factors such as years of farming 

and training by NGOs/government extension officers (which have been proven to be statistically 

significant - see Table 5.8 and Table 5.9) influencing their decision to adopt or not to adopt 

sustainable farming strategies. Thus, farmers’ age is really inconsequential as far as the adoption 

of sustainable farming strategies is concerned, even more so when other factors can have greater 

influence on their choices.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Table 5.7  

Computed survey data (2022) 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 Chi-Square Tests on Farming Strategies used by Farmers 

Sustainable 

Farm 

Strategies 

Variables Personal Data of Farmers Chi Square/p-Value 

(Yates Continuity Correction) 

 

 

Conservation 

Farming 

 

little use of hand hoe and hand 

trowel for soil tillage 

Gender 

Age 

Educational Background 

.338                      .561 
.079                     .779 

.099                     .753 

Maintenance of organic cover 

through crop residues and cover 

crops to minimize erosion loss by 

wind or water 

Gender 

Age 

Educational Background 

1.100                    .294 

2.277                    .131 

  .000                      1.000 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Organic 

Farming 

 

Use of organic input such as 

manure, slurry and green compost 

Gender 

Age 
Educational Background 

.052                     .819 

  .000                      1.000 

.099                      .753 

limit the use of artificial fertilizers 

on farm 

Gender 

Age 

Educational Background 

2.323                    .127 

1.411                    .235 

  .000                      1.000 

Non-use of plant growth 

regulators (chemicals like auxin, 

ethylene, and abscisic acid that 

alter fruit maturity period) to 

modify plant growth on farm 

Gender 

Age 

Educational Background 

1.104                    .293 

1.469                    .226 

.256                      .613 

Non-use of antibiotics (drugs that 
enhance weight gain and/or high 

number of procreation in animals) 

on farm  

Gender 
Age 

Educational Background 

.357                      .550 

.213