Hindawi
Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Volume 2017, Article ID 5938934, 11 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5938934
Research Article
Living with Bats: The Case of Ve Golokuati Township in
the Volta Region of Ghana
Jesse S. Ayivor,1 Fidelia Ohemeng,2 Elaine Tweneboah Lawson,1 LindaWaldman,3
Melissa Leach,3 and Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu4,5
1 Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies (IESS), College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana,
P.O. Box LG 209, Legon, Accra, Ghana
2Department of Sociology, School of Social Sciences, College of Humanities, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 72, Legon, Accra, Ghana
3Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RE, UK
4Department of Animal Biology and Conservation Science, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana,
Legon, Accra, Ghana
5Centre for African Wetlands, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 67, Legon, Accra, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Jesse S. Ayivor; jsayivor@staff.ug.edu.gh
Received 21 February 2017; Accepted 25 July 2017; Published 10 September 2017
Academic Editor: Tongzhang Zheng
Copyright © 2017 Jesse S. Ayivor et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Transmission of zoonotic pathogens from bats to humans through direct and indirect contact with bats raises public apprehension
about living close to bats. In the township of Ve Golokuati in Ghana, several “camps” of Epomophorus gambianus roost in fruit trees
that provide ecosystems services for residents. This study explored human-bat interaction in the township and the potential risks
of disease transmission from bats to humans. Data were derived through questionnaire administration and participatory appraisal
approach involving focus group discussions, participatory landscapemapping, and transect walk.The study found thatmost human
activities within the township, such as petty-trading, domestic chores, and children’s outdoor recreation, exposed people to bats.
Though there have been no reported cases of disease spillover from bats to humans from the perspective of residents and from
medical records, respondents whose activities brought them closer to bats within the township were found to be more likely to
experience fevers than those who do not interact with bats frequently. The study recommends education of community members
about the potential risks involved in human-bat interactions andmakes suggestions for reducing the frequent interactions with and
exposure to bats by humans.
1. Introduction CoV), filoviruses, henipaviruses, and other paramyxoviruses
[2, 8, 9]. Living in close proximity to bats enables people to
In both urban and rural Ghana, two species of frugivorous benefit from the ecosystem services that bats provide and
bats, the Gambian epauletted fruit bat (Epomophorus gam- may, simultaneously, put them at risk of disease spillover,
bianus) and the straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon helvum), whichmay be referred to as “ecosystems disservice.” Hunting
typically live close to humans [1, 2]. In the township of Ve and processing of bats for consumption potentially expose
Golokuati, the Afadzato South District capital in the Volta humans to zoonotic pathogens from bats through bites,
Region of Ghana, several “camps” of E. gambianus roost in scratches, and body fluids, as well as aerosolization of saliva,
mango and other fruit trees that provide shade and other faeces, and/or urine [10, 11].
ecosystems services for residents. Concerns have been raised Past research has documented evidence of devastating
about the closeness of bats to humans because of the ability spillover events of both lyssaviruses [12, 13] and filoviruses
of the former to spread zoonotic diseases [3–7]. Viruses iso- [14, 15] from bats to people in Africa. Filoviruses, such as
lated from bats include lyssaviruses, severe acute respiratory Lake Victoria Marburgvirus which recorded high fatalities
syndrome (SARS) and related coronaviruses (SARS-related between 1998 and 2000 in DRCongo [16] and the Ebolavirus,
2 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
have been most widespread in Africa [9]. Ebola outbreaks [28] changes to this ecosystem can lead to changes in disease
have been recurring since the first major case in DR Congo transmission potential.
in 1995, which affected more than 260 humans and caused The Epomophorus gambianus are generally found in
186 deaths, was reported [14]. The most recent outbreak woodland and savannah areas, mostly in the tropical regions
of Ebola in West Africa in 2014 infecting about 27,898 of Africa and Asia [29]. According to Fenton [30], they roost
people and causing 11,296 reported deaths [17] raised public in large hollow trees, thick foliage, and tree canopies along
apprehension about human-bat interactions. This is because stream banks and below the thatch of open sheds. They roost
the outbreak has been traced back to a single incident of a low in trees during the day and are not disturbed by the
young child playing in the vicinity of a hollow tree frequented presence of people [30]. Apart from the nuisance created
by bats [18], now identified as a potential source of spillover from noise [1], not much has been documented on how their
of the EBV [11, 14, 19]. The ability of bats to spread zoonotic proximity affects humans and, until recently, this was not
diseases and the fact they live close to humans heighten the considered to be a problem. In addition, there have been
potential threat of disease spillover. no records of any disease spillover from bats to humans in
Notwithstanding these negative perceptions, bats play Ghana or in the study area. The Ebola outbreak in parts of
vital roles in providing ecosystems services. They are well West Africa in 2014, as well as its link to bats as a potential
known for their roles in seed dispersal, pollination, main- source of contagion [31], has heightened people’s concern [18]
taining soil fertility, and aiding in nutrient distribution about bat-human interactions and their sense of risk. Thus
[6, 20, 21]. Muscarella and Fleming [20] noted that bats better understandings of the cohabitation of humans andwild
facilitate seed dispersal in clear-cut strips as a result of how animals and the potential implications for human well-being
they defaecate and spit out seeds during flight. They also are required urgently.
observed that many fruit bats use one or more feeding The “host-parasite continuum” framework [28], which
roosts each night and tend to deposit the vast majority suggests that wildlife and domestic animals and human
of seeds ingested far away from fruiting plants. Through populations coexist and that disease spillover occurs within
this habit, bats help to maintain species diversity by intro- a finely balanced host-agent continuum, provides the basis
ducing seeds from outside disturbed areas. Bats in gen- for exploring bat-human interactions in this paper. The
eral have further been identified as bioindicators through framework highlights the ways in which underlying factors
their sensitivity to climate change, environmental degrada- such as agricultural intensification, translocation, and human
tion, and contamination by agrochemicals and other toxins encroachment are responsible for emerging infectious dis-
[22, 23]. eases (EID).
Considering the ecological importance of bats, vis-à-
vis their role as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens, a social 2. Study Area
management dilemma arises as to whether to encourage
cohabitation of humans with bats or to eradicate bats living The study was carried out in Ve Golokuati, the district
close to humans. According to Somphou et al. [24], the capital of Afadzato South District (Figure 1) between May
lack of information regarding the patterns of cohabitation 2013 and April 2015. The district lies in the wet semiequa-
with animals in urban areas hampers the design of effective torial climatic zone of Ghana, with annual rainfall val-
measures of disease prevention.The residents of VeGolokuati ues ranging between 1,016mm and 1,210mm. The bimodal
find themselves under this circumstance, which prompted rainfall regime which used to start in April, with two
this study. peaks in June and September, appears to be changing to
The genesis of cohabitation of bats and humans in Ve a unimodal regime starting from late April and ending in
Golokuati and the complexities of this relationship in the October.
township have not been documented, neither has there been The area experiences an average of four to five months
any disease surveillance in the area. This study explored the of dry season. Temperatures are high throughout the year,
various ways people come into contact with E. gambianus ranging from 26∘C in the coolest months to about 32∘C in
in Ve Golokuati and the residents’ perceptions of disease the hottest months.Meanmonthly temperature is about 29∘C
transmission risks from bats to humans. [32].The town is located in the forest-savannah ecotone dom-
In general, the effects of settlement expansion on bats’ inated by Guinea Savannah Woodlands. However, anthro-
habitats are not well understood particularly on a landscape pogenic drivers, notably land conversion through rotational
scale. Gehrt and Chelsvig [25] suggested that heterogeneous farming, lumbering, fuelwood extraction, and bush burning,
urban areas represent islands of habitat for bats within larger have degraded the forest cover considerably. The town has
landscapes. While some earlier studies indicated that urban- a population of about 6,000 people, dominated by the Ewe-
ization results in decreases in diversity and abundance of bats speaking ethnic group of the Volta Region. It is a “nucleated”
[26], others believe that the prevailing conditions and the settlement with houses built closely together without any
patterns of development in the urban periphery encourage clear layout. Apart from the major roads that pass through
bats to concentrate in those areas [25, 27]. Urbanization can the town from east to west and north to south (see Figure 1),
thus support bat-related activities and enhance ecosystem a few streets exist. Houses and compounds are separated by
services for humans. Ultimately, as most emerging diseases winding footpaths. Residents share facilities such as public
exist within an intricately balanced host-agent continuum places of convenience, water sources, and the open spaces
among wildlife, domestic animals and human populations such as recreational fields.
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 3
∘   ∘   ∘   ∘   ∘   ∘  
0 22 30 E 0 24 0 E 0 25 30 E 0 27 0 E 0 28 30 E 0 30 0 E
Insert map of Ghana N
Ve Kolenu
Tekrom
Gbefi ToKpando
Ve Golokuati
To
Leklebi
Daor
Abgonyira
To
Accra
(km)
0 0.75 1.5 3
∘  E ∘   ∘   ∘   ∘   ∘  0 22 30 0 24 0 E 0 25 30 E 0 27 0 E 0 28 30 E 0 30 0 E
Study area Road
Settlement River/stream
Figure 1: Map of the study area.
Epomophorus gambianus was the most dominant bat and provide shade as well as other ecosystems services to
species in the study area, but, in a few cases, small numbers residents.Themost common trees in this category, which also
of other species such as the straw-coloured fruit bat (Eidolon hosted colonies of bats, were mango (Mangifera indica) and
helvum) and Peter’s dwarf epauletted bat (Micropteropus neem (Azadirachta indica). The fruits of these trees served
pusillus) were observed. The M. pusillus and E. gambianus as important sources of food for E. gambianus, although the
both occur in the township and are distinguished mainly by bats are known to feed on fruits such as guava (Psidium gua-
their facial looks and size, withM. pusillus being smaller. Also java), soursop fruit (Annona muricata), whistling pine fruit
M. pusillus roost mostly in the lower parts of the same trees (Casuarina equisetifolia), cashew (Anacardium occidentale),
as E. gambianus. Residents believed that the two species were and pawpaw (Carica papaya) [33].
the same and that the separation was by age, but ecological
studies carried out as part of our general studies on bats, 3. Methods
which involved capturing of the bats, confirmed that indeed
they were two different species. According to the residents, Both quantitative and qualitative data were used for the
the batsmigrated toVeGolokuati inmid-to-late 1990s. It was, study. Quantitative data were derived from questionnaire
however, not clear where the bats came from. Whereas some administration among 150 residents of the study commu-
believed that the bats migrated from Wli Water Fall area, a nity through purposive sampling. Respondents targeted for
Wildlife Sanctuary located about 25 km from Ve Golokuati, interview included those in households located close to bats’
others were of the view that the bats came fromnearby bushes roosts and individuals who through their daily activities
which were no longer habitable because of disturbances, such as farming, trading, recreation, and relaxation get
notably incessant bush fires and agricultural conversion. exposed to bats either directly or indirectly. Most of these
The congregation of bats in the township, according to individuals were identified through snowball sampling where
the residents, has been enhanced by the presence of trees, study subjects helped in the identification of other subjects.
particularly fruit trees, most of which have large crowns Respondents ranged in age between 18 and 75; 59% were
∘  N ∘  N ∘  6 58 30 7 0 0 7 1 30 N
To
Hohoe
To Wli Afegame
∘  N ∘  6 58 30 7 0 0 N ∘  7 1 30 N
4 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
FS FS FS
FS
RC Prep. FSFS FS
Schools School
FS FS FS FS FS
Comm. Clinic FS
Police HFS FSH FS HRS
Station RSH RS
RS RS H
District H H H
Assembly RSH RS RS RS
EP Chief RS RS
Church Palace RS HRS H
R.C H H H
Parish H RS
RS H H H djat
o
H FS a
H FS t. A
f
To Kpando RS
H  M
RS RS H ToH
H FS To Liati
Police FS H
Barrier H FS River Aflabo
Tree Road
H House River
FS Feeding site Transect line
RS Roosting site
Figure 2: A sketch map of parts of Ve Golokuati showing the transect line.
females and 41% males. The questions posed to respondents Figure 2 shows the pattern of cohabitation of bats and humans
centred mostly on activities that brought residents close to in Ve Golokuati.
bats and whether or not respondents experience fevers and In addition, three focus group discussions were con-
other strange diseases as a result of this exposure. ducted separately for men, women, and opinion leaders of
Participatory appraisal approach [34] was employed to the town. Focus group discussions are a specific technique
solicit information on community perceptions of human-bat that uses the services of a facilitator to moderate a small
interactions and whether or not there were any health related group discussion. Each focus group discussion involved
issues as a result of such interactions. The approach involved between eight (8) to 12 participants. A total of 35 people
participatory mapping, interviews, a transect walk, and focus comprising 15 men and 20 women participated in the focus
group discussions (FGDs). A total of 13 elders and opinion group discussions. The selection of participants followed a
leaders, ranging in age from 35 to 75 years, participated in similar process as what was used in participatory mapping.
the mapping exercise. The selection was done with the help Participants were between the ages of 25 and 76 and were
of the Assemblyman for the area, who had a fair knowledge made up of residents who had lived in the town formore than
of individual competences. The exercise was informative and 15 years. The discussions were led by a facilitator and centred
served also as a guide in determining the proximity of bats’ on the occurrence of bats in the town, local perceptions and
roosts to residential areas and the selection of households attitudes towards bats, and perceived risk of disease spillover
for questionnaire administration. It also helped the research from bats to humans.
team to design a transect line to facilitate the transect walk On-site observation took the form of visits to
that was undertaken following the mapping exercise. (i) bats’ roosting sites to ascertain the means by which
A six-member team including one principal investigator human and bats interact;
undertook a transect walk from one end of town to the other
(Figure 2). The walk was to identify the roosting and feeding (ii) the outskirts of town to determine the occurrence
sites of bats, the proximity of residential areas to these sites, of bats outside households where there was less
and whether or not residents were exposed directly or indi- protection;
rectly to bats. During the walk, major landmarks ca. 50–75m (iii) local market centre to investigate whether or not bat
astride the transect line were noted. The exercise presented a meat was sold;
further opportunity for the selection of households and other (iv) public places including the chief ’s compound and
target groups for interview. A total of 18 E. gambianus roosts premises of basic schools where trees colonized by
and 19 feeding sites were observed along the transect line. bats provided shade.
To Accra
To Hohoe
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 5
In all the places visited, informal interviews were held burning which precedes the farming season in the area,
randomly with residents to understand human-bats inter- coupled with agricultural expansion that had taken over bat’s
action. On-site observation involved also the identification habitats, had also contributed to the migration of the bats
of trees in which bats roost and fruit trees that they feed into the township. Respondents believed that the population
on within the township. The researchers’ own experience of bats present in Ve Golokuati normally increased during
and local people’s knowledge of native trees helped in the the dry season (November to January), which coincided
identification of the trees. with the fruiting of plants, and decreased in the planting
The study also solicited information from health facilities season (April to June). In spite of these seasonal fluctua-
on types of common disease prevalent in the area. The tions, there has been net decrease in total bat population
research team had access to information on the top 20 cases in the town over the past decade from the perspective of
that accounted for out-patient morbidity for the Afadjato respondents.
North District and monthly out-patients morbidity returns The results from the fieldwork showed that residents of
for selected months from 2012 to 2014 from the District the township came into contactwith bats directly or indirectly
Health Directorate and the Ve Golokuati Health Centre, in various ways. These included living in households with
respectively. trees where bats roost, carrying out various vocations under
There was a follow-up visit to the study area in April trees, hunting of bats, and eating bat bushmeat. With regard
2015, after the outbreak of Ebola virus in parts of West to households, it was revealed that several of the residents
Africa. During this visit, 27 community members including carried out their daily chores outdoors under trees colonized
the chief and elders of the town were engaged in a village by E. gambianus (Figures 5 and 6). Household chores that
square discussion [35] to find out about their perceptions and are noteworthy in relation to exposure to bats included food
relationship with bats after the Ebola outbreak. preparation, dish washing and manual laundry activities,
Data analysis used descriptive statistical tools such as and serving and eating food under trees. Participants in the
statistical tables, graphs, and percentages to describe how focus group discussions revealed that when fruits on mango
the various variables relate. Multivariate logistic regression and guava trees ripe, household members may collect the
analysis was carried out to determine the association between partially eaten fruits discarded by bats as waste with their
experience of fevers and closeness of respondent’s activity to bare hands. It was further revealed that several households
bats. had installed rain harvesting facilities in the buildings to
collect water for domestic uses such as washing and cleaning.
4. Results The discussants indicated that the harvested rainwater was
sometimes discoloured as a result of bat droppings, yet they
4.1. Demographic Information and Human-Bat Interaction. found nothing wrong with the water.
The findings showed that about 48% of the residents were Other daily activities that brought people into contact
migrants from over 40 different towns and villages in the with bats were economic activities including farming and
Volta Region of Ghana. Among the respondents, 8% had petty-trading at the market centre. On petty-trading, apart
tertiary education, 31% secondary education, 42% junior from a few traders who had their wares displayed in stalls,
secondary/middle school education, and 19% little or no most of the traders plied their trade undermango trees, which
education.With regard to occupation, 75%of the respondents incidentally also hosted large colonies of bats. Foodstuffswere
were farmers, while the rest were engaged in petty-trading sold in their raw state on the bare ground. All these activities
(8%), fashion designing (3%), and other artisanal activities invariably exposed both traders and buyers constantly to bats’
(2%). About 12%, mainly those above 65 years and those urine and faecal matter, as well as to irritating bat behaviours
below 20, claimed that they were unemployed. such as dropping of foliage as they move from one branch to
The focus group discussions backed by on-site observa- the other.
tion through transect walk confirmed that human-bat inter- During focus group discussion, one petty trader who
action in the townshipwas underpinned by the solid greenery operated under one of the trees at the market reported the
that characterised the landscape by virtue of assortment of following:
trees, which provided ecosystem services for humans and
habitat and food for bats. Ecosystems services provided by the The bats are a real nuisance to us. I was once
trees to residents in the township included food, medicine, eating under a mango tree at the market when I
shade, wind breaks, aesthetic beauty, and enhancement of felt a substance dropping onmy lower lip. It turned
microclimate. Moreover, the fact that the bats were hardly out to be a bat’s dropping which compelled me to
disturbed by residents made the township a protected niche abandon my food even though I was hungry.
for peaceful coexistence of bats and humans.
Though the exact number of the Epomophorus gambianus In some of the local school premises, school pupils,
in Ve Golokuati is not known, it was estimated that over according to participants at FGD, engaged in outdoor
5,000 of these bats lived with the people in the township. recreational activities under trees that harbored several bat
The occurrence of the bats, according to some participants colonies. Another vantage location of exposure to bats and
at the focus group discussion, was the result of habitat to bats’ activities was the chief ’s palace, where mango trees
disturbance, particularly wild bush fires and prolonged providing shade for public gathering are colonized by E.
droughts in the mid-1980s. Additionally, the annual bush gambianus.
6 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Table 1: Relationship between age and hunting/eating of bats meat. 4.3. Other Forms of Human Exposure to Bats. Another way
in which people came into contact indirectly with bats was
Age range of Percentage of those Percentage of those through the aerial movements of bats between feeding and
respondents engaged in bats who used bats as foodhunting roosting sites. The bats reportedly moved on a daily basis(𝑛 = 29) (𝑛 = 29) between 5:30 pm and 6:00 pm and again between 4:30 am
15–25 0 0 and 5:00 am. During these times when thousands of bats are
26–35 0.9% 4.6% in flight, the risk of contaminating water harvesting systems
36–45 1.0% 5.9% by bat through aerosolization of bat droppings is very high.
46–55 1.8% 14.4% The focus group discussion further revealed that domes-
55 and above 0.8% 2.3% tic stock (e.g., sheep, goats, and poultry) also interacted both
directly and indirectly with the bats. Most of these animals
were sheltered in pens and coops within the households but
4.2. The Use of Bats as Food. The use of bats as food brought were allowed to roam in search of food during certain times
people more directly into contact with bats than any other of the day when they fed on foliage and fruits dropped by
activity. The sequence of events involved in preparing bat bats (also see [36]). Pets, notably cats and dogs, live within
meat as food, according to the findings, includes hunting, households but are also left to roam about freely within
handling, butchering, dressing, smoking, and cooking. In the the township to hunt and scavenge for food. The threat
process, people come into contact with the blood of bats of exposure to disease, through human-bat interactions, is
in addition to eating of the meat itself. With regard to the reinforced by the predatory behaviour of the pied crow
use of bats as food, a multivariate logistic regression analysis (Corvus albus) which targets the young E. gambianus just
showed that there was 98% chance of more men eating bat as they are being weaned. According the respondents, the
bushmeat than women. This is statistically significant and crows often left bat carcasses which were often scavenged
may be attributed to some cultural prohibitions on bat con- by dogs. This is noteworthy because, in the event of any
sumption by pregnant women. For instance, the focus group disease spillover, transmission via domestic animals cannot
participants believed that bats have no rectum and, therefore, be discounted.
vomit their excreta. For this reason, pregnant women were According to the findings, while most residents of Ve
not allowed to eat bats; else they risked transmitting the Golokuati appreciated the ecological role of bats and were
“vomiting habit” to their babies after birth. Among the willing to live with bats, others viewed them as awful animals
women respondents who claimed that they ate bat bushmeat, whose activities, such as noise-making and contamination
none of them had done so when they were pregnant because of harvested rain water through defaecation and littering,
of this belief, yet this did not prevent women in general from caused a lot of nuisance. Some of the residents only tolerated
eating bat bushmeat, as one middle aged woman disclosed: the presence of the bats because of the hope that the bats
would bring some benefits such as ecotourism or research
I have always enjoyed bat meat because it is more programmes to the community in the future and create
delicious compared to other types of meat. employment opportunities in the township. Figure 3 is a
schematic model that demonstrates the human-bat interac-
Participants at FGD indicated that no bat meat was tion in Ve Golokuati. The figure illustrates the ecosystems
offered for sale at the local market, though one could services used by humans, activities of bats that bring them
occasionally come across smoked Eidolon helvum bushmeat into contact with humans, human actions and activities that
in other markets such as Kpando, about 15 km away. expose them to bats, and the potential dangers, as well as
Investigation into the ages of people who hunted and benefits of these interactions.
ate bat bushmeat revealed that it was mainly the adults that
were involved (Table 1).The people of Ve Golokuati, however, 4.4. PossibleHealth Effects andDisease Spillover. Surprisingly,
would hardly eat E. gambianus but rather E. helvum which given their past experiences, the constant exposure to bats,
used to be abundant in the area in the past but has become and the media coverage of bats and Ebola, the residents of Ve
rare locally. This would explain why most of the younger Golokuati were strongly convinced that bats do not harbor
people did not eat bat bushmeat, since the E. gambianus any diseases and that there has not been any disease spillover
which were abundant at the time of the study in the area are frombats to humans.Their conviction came from the fact that
not appealing to most people because of their smaller size. there had not been any strange disease outbreaks in the town
The results show further that only a small number of since the arrival of the bats.
people across all the ages hunted for bats in the area.However, Our investigations into disease prevalence and common
with regard to eating of bat bushmeat, people of age 45 and causes of human deaths in the area during focus group
above, representing 16.7% of the total number of respondents, discussions showed that malaria, locally known as “Nd}gbe,”
were involved. This was followed by those between 36 and was the most common (note that there is a possibility of
45 years representing 5.9%. However, none of the younger wrong diagnoses as this assessment is based only on local
people (ages 15–25) interviewed ate bat bushmeat. An analysis perceptions).
of the relationship between eating of bat bushmeat and age The medical records obtained from the Out-Patient
was statistically insignificant (Chi square = 11.835, df = 12, and Department (OPD) of Ve Golokuati Health Centre corrob-
𝑃 = 0.459). orate the finding from the focus group discussions. The most
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 7
Human exposure to bats
Indirect human exposure Ecosystems services shared 
(i) Rain water harvesting by bats and humans 
(ii) Outdoor recreational (i) Alley trees
activities (ii) Fruit trees 
(iii) Household chores (iii) Shade trees
(iv) Commercial activities (iv) Wind breakers
(v) Humans handling or 
eating fruits discarded 
by bats
(vi) Livestock feeding on 
fruits discarded by Bats behaviour 
bats (i) Feeding habits
(ii) Flying
Humans-bat (iii) Urinating/defaecating
Direct human exposure interaction (iv) Aerosolization of saliva
(i) Hunting of bats
(ii) Butchering of bats
(iii) Handling of bats
(iv) Eating of bat bushmeat 
Potential dangers/benets
(i) Zoonotic disease spillover
(ii) Tourism
(iii) Scientic studies 
(iv) Seed dispersal
(v) Insect control
Figure 3: Schematic model showing human-bat interactions in the study area.
common morbidity cases handled by the health centre were Table 2: A year trend top 10 diseases seen at OPD 2013 (Afadzato
malaria, anaemia, intestinal worms, acute respiratory tract South District).
infections, diarrhoea, and skin diseases (Figure 4).The results
indicated that, in all cases, the frequency of disease was Disease Cases %
higher in the rainy season (June) than in the dry season Malaria 20761 41.8
(December). Acute respiratory infection 9046 18.2
A further investigation into disease records from the Anaemia 4819 9.7
District Health Directorate of the Afadzato South District Rheumatism & other joint pains 4283 8.6
showed that there were no records of any health condition Diarrhoea diseases 3304 6.7
specifically associated with bats in the district (Table 2). Intestinal worms 3043 6.1
Among the top 10 diseases recorded by the District Direc- Skin diseases & ulcers 2420 4.9
torate in 2013, malaria accounted for about 42% followed Home accidents and injuries 799 1.6
by acute respiratory infection (18%) and anaemia (9.7%). Pneumonia 744 1.5
Though the medical records from health facilities in the
area might not have recorded any zoonotic diseases, one Typhoid fever 420 0.9
cannot discount misdiagnosis since state-of-the-art equip-
ment for diagnosing zoonoses may not be available in these
facilities. to contracting fevers than those who do not encounter bats
We assessed the experience of fevers among respondents (odds ratio of 6.826 and coefficient of 1.921).
in relation to the closeness of their economic activities to E. gambianus in the study area faced several threats, such
bats. The analysis showed that the various activities of the as habitat destruction, predation, and occasional hunting
respondents were significantly associated with the experi- by humans for bushmeat. The threats identified in this
ence of fevers (𝑃 < 0.05). From a multivariate logistic study confirm what the literature summarizes as human
regression output (Table 3), respondents whose activities disturbance and habitat destruction [37, 38]. These threats
brought them close to bats were more likely to experience were rooted in misinformation and incitement of people
fevers than individuals whose activity were not close to against the existence of bats. The outbreak of Ebola in parts
bats. of West Africa and the ensuing negative reportage about bats
Also farmers in the community who encountered activ- had led to the destruction of several trees to get rid of bats in
ities of bats such as feeding on their farms were more likely the township.
8 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
Table 3: Multivariate logistic regression analysis on experience of fevers associated with closeness of economic activity to bats.
Characteristics Closeness of activity to bats 95% CI 𝑃 value Odds ratio
Farming Experience of fevers 1.921 (1.333, 34.950) 0.000∗ 6.826
Trading Experience of fevers 0.001 (0.968, 1.035) 0.000∗ 1.001
Tailoring/dress making Experience of fevers 0.001 (0.936, 1.071) ∗0.000 1.001
Artisanal Experience of fevers 0.001 (0.936, 1.071) ∗0.000 1.001
∗Significant P values (P < 0.05).
Simple malaria (lab conrmed)
Anaemia
Intestinal worms
Simple malaria (non-lab conrmed)
Acute respiratory tract infections
Diarrhoea diseases
Skin diseases and ulcers
Rheumatism and other joint pains
Acute eye infection
Home accidents and injuries
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Frequency of cases
June 13th
December 1st
Figure 4: Top 10 OPD morbidity cases, Ve Golokuati Health Centre.
Figure 6: Scores of E. gambianus roosting in a mango tree over the
market place J. S. Ayivor©.
Figure 5: Petty traders operating under a mango tree used as roost dynamics as portrayed by the medical records. Indeed,
by E. gambianus, Kofi Amposah©. the genesis of occurrence of bats in the study area is not
very certain, but research has shown that, generally, bats
relocate in response to a range of environmental factors
5. Discussions [39, 40]. According to Rebelo et al. [41], climate change
has the potential to reduce the suitability of bat roosting
5.1. Human-Bat Interactions. The fundamental question sites, particularly tree roosts. This corroborates the claims by
underpinning the presence of E. gambianus in the township respondents that habitat disturbance caused by annual bush
of Ve Golokuati is whether or not it is safe for people to burning and agricultural conversion was the prime cause of
live in close proximity to bats. The question as to how long relocation of bats into the township.
humans have been interacting with bats in the township is Cohabitation of humans and bats, as was the case in Ve
also important as this may help in understanding the disease Golokuati, was possible because the township contained trees
OPD morbility cases
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 9
that provided ecosystem services enjoyed by both humans far, there had been no suspected cases of disease spillover
and bats and because the bats provided vital ecosystem ser- from bats to human. However, the documented potential
vices to humans. Furthermore, the bats within the township epidemiological impacts of close human-bat interaction,
were protected from threats and other disturbances better particularly the recent outbreak of Ebola virus in parts of
than in the wild. In a number of locations in Ghana where West African, give cause for concern. While getting rid of
bats occur, they are under some form of protection for the bats by destroying the trees in Ve Golokuati may not be
various reasons such as traditional taboos, military presence, environmentally and ecological prudent, the question of how
or deliberate protection [42]. Human-bat interaction occurs to reduce bat-human interaction to minimize the risk of any
for a number of reasons. Hayman et al. [7] observed that potential future disease spillover still remains.
such interaction occurs because humans are encroaching on A well-designed agenda for the relocation of the bats to
bats’ habitats, just as bats are utilizing human structures as surrounding forested areas with the help of experts from the
roosts.The interactions may be indirect, in the form of odour Ghana Wildlife Division may offer a long term solution to
from faecal droppings, urine, aerosolization of saliva, and curtail the regular interactions and exposure of humans to
glandular body secretions [43]. It may also be direct through bats. Yet, relocating bats is not always easy, as demonstrated
hunting and processing of bat bushmeat for consumption by the attempts at 37 Military Hospital in the capital city
[2, 10]. In Ve Golokuati, the findings showed that human of Accra, where thousands of bats congregate (see [47]).
interaction with bats is both direct and indirect, which Nonetheless, establishment of a forest grove close to the
suggests that the residents may be at risk to disease spillover. town, as a protected area, should be an option to facilitate a
The “host-parasite continuum” framework [28], suggests that possible relocation. This would provide a protected space for
wildlife, domestic animals, and human populations coexist the bat population andwill, hopefully, decrease their frequent
and that disease spillover occurs within a finely balanced interaction with humans. The initiative would also help to
host-agent continuum.The framework highlights the ways in promote ecotourism and meet the aspirations of the people.
which underlying factors such as agricultural intensification, In the short term, the contamination of harvested rain-
translocation, and human encroachment are responsible for water by bat urine and faeces can be minimized by delaying
emerging infectious diseases. rainwater harvesting after long spells of absence of rains.
Though only a few people ate bat bushmeat in the By doing so, bats droppings on roof tops would be washed
study area, this form of direct interaction could easily away before water harvesting starts. Residents also need
spread disease pathogens among the people. Shakespeare to be educated on the need to avoid drinking untreated
[44] discounted risk of disease transmission through eating harvested rainwater. In order to reduce human exposures to
of bat bushmeat since the meat is normally well cooked but bats, traditional leaders including the chief and elders may
indicated that the risk of transmission may occur during have to enforce prohibitions on hunting of bats to minimize
capture and slaughtering of bats, during which time infection disturbance and to create a safe haven for the bats. In the
could occur through blood and body fluids or bites and long term, improved diagnostics and systematic surveillance
scratches. of zoonotic disease are required, coupled with regular health
Currently there are no suspected cases of spillover of dis- screening of the residents of Ve Golokuati, as well as other
ease from bats to humans in VeGolokuati.Though this might communities inGhanawhere bats live in close proximitywith
be good news to the residents, spillover of diseases cannot humans.
be completely ruled out since no systematic surveillance has Finally, the Health Directorate together with the District
been done in the Ve Golokuati Health Centre, which lacks Assembly should sensitize the residents and, in the future,
the capacity in terms of personnel and equipment to do so. possibly tourists coming to see the bats, on the potential
Furthermore, most suspected cases of fevers are treated as dangers of handling of bats, both dead and alive, and on
“malaria” and there is a possibility of misdiagnosis. In real appropriate ways to promote hygienic and good health
terms, the official figures and respondents’ perceptions may practices such as regular hand washing, reporting all strange
overdiagnose malaria, while overlooking and underestimat- ailments promptly to medical centres and minimizing direct
ing the endemic zoonotic disease burden [45, 46]. While contact with bats through hunting, handling, and eating.
attention is currently focused on bats and their potential to We recommend future research on water quality of both
infect humans with Ebola and other zoonotic diseases such harvested rain water in the township and the nearby stream,
as henipaviruses, the limitations and difficulty to properly which is the main source of potable water for the township.
diagnose these diseases appear to be off the public health
radar. This therefore calls for great caution as humans live
with wildlife. Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest
6. Conclusions regarding the publication of this paper.
The presence of bats in the Ve Golokuati Township and their
potential danger to humans in the face of emerging infectious Acknowledgments
disease pose a serious conservation dilemma. The findings
suggest that residents of the township had been living with This research was carried out under the Dynamic Drivers
about 5000 E. gambianus over the past two decades, and so of Disease in Africa project with financial support from
10 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
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