International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and
Management
The effects of 2015 El Nino on smallholder maize production in the transitional
ecological zone of Ghana
Kwadwo Owusu, Ayisi Kofi Emmanuel, Issah Justice Musah-Surugu, Paul William Kojo Yankson,
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The effects of 2015 El Nino on Transitionalecological zone
smallholder maize production of Ghana
in the transitional ecological
zone of Ghana
Kwadwo Owusu Received 26 February 2018
Department of Geography and Resource Development, Revised 13 November 2018Accepted 14 January 2019
University of Ghana, Legon, Greater Accra, Ghana
Ayisi Kofi Emmanuel
University of Ghana Business School, Accra, Ghana
Issah Justice Musah-Surugu
Department of Public Administration, University of Ghana, Legon,
Greater Accra, Ghana, and
Paul William Kojo Yankson
Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, Legon,
Greater Accra, Ghana
Abstract
Purpose – This paper aims to provide empirical evidence on the El Nino and its effects on maize production
in three municipalities: Ejura, Techiman and Wenchi in the transitional zone of Ghana. Using a mixed
approach, the study details the effects of the El Nino on rainy season characteristics, particularly, rainfall
amounts and distribution, onset and cessation of rains, duration of the rainy season and total seasonal rainfall
and how it impacted smallholder maize production.
Design/methodology/approach – The study used a mixed method approach in collecting and analyzing
data. For stronger evidence building, (Creswell, 2013) the authors combined interviews and focus group
discussions (FGD) to collect the qualitative data. Semi-structured questionnaires were administered to extension
officers, management information system officers and other relevant personnel of the Ministry of Agriculture in
the threemunicipalities. Six FGD’s were held for maize farmers in six communities in all threemunicipalities.
Findings – The study shows that the 2015 El Nino had dire consequences on farm yields, subsequently
affecting farmer’s incomes and livelihoods. The study further finds that complex socio-cultural factors, some
unrelated to the El Nino, aggravated the effects on maize farmers. These include the lack of adequate climatic
information, predominance of rain-fed farming, a lack of capacity to adapt and existing levels of poverty.
© Kwadwo Owusu, Ayisi Kofi Emmanuel, Issah Justice Musah-Surugu and Paul William Kojo
Yankson. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create
derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full
attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at
http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
The authors would like to thank the Office of Research, Innovation and Development (ORID), International Journal of Climate
University of Ghana (UG) for o ering support [grant number UG-ORID/BSU/II/WP2/2015-2016/002] Change Strategies andff Management
through the BSU II initiative Building Stronger Universities project to support the fieldwork that EmeraldPublishingLimited
1756-8692
resulted in the production of this paper. DOI 10.1108/IJCCSM-02-2018-0014
Downloaded by University of Ghana At 02:34 23 May 2019 (PT)
IJCCSM Originality/value – The study recommends inter alia, appropriate use of seasonal rainfall forecasting to
enhance better farming decision-making and the development of elaborate climate variability interventions
by national and local agencies.
Keywords Ghana, Adaptation, Rainfall, Climate variability, El Nino
Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction
One of the topical issues in the world today is climate variability and its effect on crop
production. According to Rowhani et al. (2011), climate variability is expected to increase in
some regions, with significant consequences on food production beyond climate change
impacts. The issue attracts much attention because among other things, such changes have
implications for food security globally (Godfray et al., 2010; Frelat et al., 2016). For Africa in
particular, climate variability impact is pertinent because the continent receives the most
food aid, with some 30 million of its people requiring emergency food aid in any one single
year (Godfray et al., 2010; FAO, 2016). As indicated by the 2015 global food security index,
malnutrition, starvation and deaths still persist in Sub-Saharan Africa despite significant
food security improvements over the past decade. Although this situation is attributed to a
number of factors including distribution obstacles, (Godfray et al., 2010; FAO, 2016),
ineffective local agriculture (Antwi-Agyei et al., 2013) and poor governance (Clover, 2003), it
is the changes in climate and climate variability that seem to have a stronger explanatory
weight in the whole food security discourse (Sasson, 2012; Mawunya andAdiku, 2013).
The El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), the largest known source of climate variability
in the tropics, has severe impacts particularly on agricultural activities (Goddard et al., 2001;
Woli et al., 2012). Although the phenomenon is pretty much predictable, sometimes a year or
more ahead (Chen and Cane, 2007; Adiku et al., 2007), its impacts are still devastating on
sectors that are climate sensitive such as smallholder agricultural and hydropower
production (Schaeffer et al., 2012; Boadi and Owusu, 2017). In Ghana and other developing
countries, vulnerability to El Nino event is exacerbated by the predominance of rain-fed
agricultural systems and the absence of reliable climatic information (Rockström et al., 2004;
Mongi et al., 2010). However, the risks associated with the El Nino cycles may be mitigated if
effective plans are instituted. Adaptation to within season or terminal drought could be
improved by irrigation efficiency and the timeous dissemination of information among
farmers as well as the use of seasonal rainfall forecasting to help in decision-making (Adiku
et al., 2007). Thomas et al. (2007), highlight the success of such strategies in Southern Africa
for example, where farmers cultivate lands closer to a water source during drought periods.
The effect of ENSO on rainfall in the Guinea Coast area of Ghana is evident in many
studies (Opoku-Ankomah and Cordery, 1994; Adiku et al., 2007 Owusu and Waylen,2009).
The 1982/83 ENSO season for instance is known to be associated with a severe drought that
caused general crop failure (Owusu and Waylen, 2009), resulting in Ghana receiving food
aid. Given the severity of the 2015 El Nino, it becomes imperative to assess how the
phenomenon impacted food production in Ghana. The main objective of the study is to
investigate the effect of the 2015 El Nino on maize production in three municipalities in the
transitional agro ecological zone of Ghana. We concentrate on maize in particular because of
the important socio-economic consequences it has on smallholder farmers. Maize is widely
produced by smallholder farmers and serves as the main staple food for most households
and livestock in Ghana (Asantewah, 2003; Braimoh and Vlek, 2006). However, because it is
mostly cultivated under rain-fed conditions, it becomes vulnerable to extreme climate events
like the El Nino. Among its specific objectives, the study details the extent to which the
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El Nino affected rainfall and its impacts on yields and livelihoods of smallholder maize Transitional
farmers. In addition, the coping strategies used by these farmers are explored, with the aim ecological zone
of contributing to the formulation of appropriate policies to reduce food insecurity
associated with ENSO events. of Ghana
The study is relevant in understanding how ENSO impacts agriculture and maize
production: an enterprise that could move the country closer to eliminating hunger and
meeting goal one of the Sustainable Development Goals.
2. El Nino andMaize production
The ENSO commonly referred to as “El Nino” has been the subject of scholarly efforts in the
last four decades (Babkina, 2003). Occurring every three to seven years and lasting between
9 to 24 months, it represents an irregular periodic variation in winds and sea surface
temperatures (Wang et al., 2004; Cane, 2005). El Nino is attributed to a weakening of the
trade winds which result in atmospheric modifications (Trenberth, 1997). Selvaraju (2003)
explains that heated surface water becomes concentrated near the equator of the eastern
Pacific where it then spreads up and down the coasts of North and South America. The
expanse of warm waters in the Pacific causes such a huge increase in evaporation from the
ocean resulting in a natural mode of oscillation from unstable interactions between
the tropical Pacific Ocean and the atmosphere leading to El Nino. The effects of El Nino have
global tele-connections resulting in pressure, temperature and rainfall variability with the
severest impacts in the tropics.
During El Nino years, the dry period separating the two rainy seasons gets longer
through a reduced occurrence of the rainy seasons in Equatorial Africa (Camberlin et al.,
2001). The dry periods of the 1980s and the associated crop failures inWest Africa is known
to have been caused by droughts resulting from the El Nino (Mohino et al., 2011). Drought
over West Africa is mostly characterized by the growth of positive SST anomalies in the
Eastern Pacific complimented by a negative SST anomaly in the Northern Atlantic
(Fontaine and Janicot, 1996), which according to Owusu and Waylen (2009) has been
accompanied by declining rainfall amounts and a decreasing agricultural productivity since
the 1970s. The occurrence of this phenomenon implies that economies largely dependent on
the agricultural sector which is climate sensitive become even more vulnerable. Different
economic sectors in different locations across the globe are affected differently by the
occurrence of an El Nino event (Davey et al., 2011).
The literature on El Nino is replete with empirical evidence on how it impacts crop
production generally across the globe (Hansen et al., 2009; Subash et al., 2014; Kellner and
Niyogi, 2015). These and other studies discuss the impact of El Nino on food production,
value and prices and highlight how ENSO’s intensification of climatic variations and shifts
in climatic conditions has major implications for crop production. With particular regards to
its effects on maize production, there are useful descriptions of associations between ENSO
and maize yields in different environments (Hall et al., 1992; Carlson et al., 1996; Iizumi et al.,
2014; Shuai et al., 2016). Hall et al. (1992), for example, present a description of the climate,
soils and crop production systems in the Pampas of Argentina and establish a clear
relationship between maize yields and ENSO-related climate variability in one of the major
maize producing areas of the world. They conclude that low yields are more likely during El
Nino years than in normal ones. Similarly, Ferreyra et al. (2001) developed a risk assessment
framework for the characterization of maize vulnerability to ENSO and found less
precipitation, a common feature of the El Nino as the one variable that influences maize
yields in rain-fed production systems. Amissah-Arthur et al. (2002) also explore the link
between El Nino-related variability in rainfall at annual and seasonal scales and national-
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IJCCSM level maize yield in Kenya and report of a fall although spatial and regional differences were
also recorded. Beyond these, ENSO has been found to have a negative socio-economic
impact by decreasing farm income, employment and adversely affecting prices, trade, and
market access (Iizumi et al., 2014).
3. Methodology
3.1 Study area
The research was conducted in the transitional agro-ecological zone of Mid-Ghana which
coincides with Ghana Meteorological Agency’s (GMet) Zone C agro-climatological
classification. The specific municipalities studied were Techiman, and Wenchi in the Brong
Ahafo region and Ejura in the Ashanti region all of which are noted for maize production in
Ghana.The zone has a mean annual rainfall totals ranging between 1,200 to a peak of
1,500 mm which decreases from south to north in accordance with the general rainfall
pattern of Ghana. The migrating inter-tropical convergence zone and monsoons flows
produce peak rains in May/June and September/October, with a long dry season (harmattan)
lasting from November through March (Owusu and Waylen, 2013) which is associated with
high inter-annual and multi decadal variability. The major rainy season begins in late
March/early April and runs until mid-July. The bi-modal rainfall pattern allows for two
crops per season under rain-fed agriculture. The regime however presents variability in the
time of the onset of each rainy season and the beginning of the short dry spell (Adiku and
Stone, 1995; Yorke and Omotosho, 2010). The study area is a major agricultural region of
Ghana characterized by a highly diversified agricultural production of both tuber crops of
the forest region of the South and the grains and cereals of the North (Cudjoe et al., 2010).
The study area has been described as the bread basket of Ghana (Egyir et al., 2014; Owusu
and Waylen, 2013), even though production here like all parts of the country is almost
entirely rain-fed. According to Owusu andWaylen (2013), rainfall variability in the area has
a significant impact on crop yields and general food security in Ghana.
3.2 Data and methods
The study used a mixed method approach in collecting and analyzing data. For stronger
evidence building (Creswell, 2013), we combined interviews and focus group discussions
(FGD) to collect the qualitative data. The purposive sampling technique was used to select
key informants in the Municipal offices of the Ministry of Agriculture who were deemed to
possess relevant information to answer the study’s research questions. These included
Directors of Agriculture, management information system officers and Extension officers
who were purposively selected and interviewed (Table I). Interviews took a semi-structured
format to make it possible for interviews to be steered along the research objectives while
allowing respondents adequate room to explain issues in depth. The projected sample was
12, but saturation was reached after 11 interviews overall.
Six FGD’s were held for maize farmers in six communities in all three municipalities.
Whereas the interviews offered in-depth understanding of the climatic conditions that
accompanied the El Nino and its impact on overall maize production, the FGD approach on
the other hand generated rich insights on farmer’s perceptions and experiences on rainfall
patterns over the years, maize cultivation practices, community relations and relationships
with extension officers as well as the overall impact of the El Nino on farmers livelihoods.
The group interactions among farmers provided a better appreciation of common issues, the
people’s socio-cultural views and how these inform decision-making.
With the benefit of using multiple sources and methods of data collection, the qualitative
data were effectively validated and triangulated. Interviews were recorded and then
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Transitional
Target groups Data collection tool Location ecological zone
Directors of the ministry of Agriculture in Key informant interviews TechimanWenchi and Ejura of Ghana
municipalities (3), Extension officers (3), Municipal offices
Management Information system officers (3)
and meteorological officers (2) the Ministry of
Agriculture in the three municipalities.
N = 11
Smallholder farmers in the communities FGDs, Composition – Techiman – Bonsu, Forikrom
N = 6 (Female only, male only) Wenchi – Nkonsia, Akrobi
8 participants on average Ejura – Dromankuma and
Ejura Sekyere Dumase Table I.
Breakdown of
Source: Fieldwork data interviews and FGDs
transcribed verbatim. This transcribed data were not coded but systematically analyzed
according to themes initially developed from the literature and those that emerged from
fieldwork.
In addition, the study drew on quantitative rainfall data for Wenchi and Ejura from the
GMet to contextualize the reduction in rainfall for the 2015 season associated with El Nino.
Yield data for the three study areas obtained from the District Agricultural offices were
compared between El Nino and normal years to corroborate the results obtained from the
FGD’s and key informant interviews.
4. Results
4.1 Effects of El Nino on rainfall
Given that El Nino is associated with a reduction in rainfall in the study area (Owusu and
Waylen, 2013; Adiku and Stone, 1995), the study among other things sought to examine the
severity of rainfall reduction in the transitional zone during the 2015 El Nino year. As shown
in Figure 1, the 2014 normal and (2015) El Nino years rainfall recorded in the study area was
approximately 1,200 (698) mm 1,400 (843) mm and 1,300 (1,264) mm for Techiman, Wenchi
and Ejura respectively. Ejura had an appreciable amount of rainfall, but that goes to
buttress the spatial component of El Nino effect and the strong variability associated with
rainfall in West Africa in general (Owusu, 2017). Even though the farmers did not record the
rainfall, they recounted that the amount received in 2015 was not near the previous years as
revealed in the FGDs as follows:
Although rainfall has been reducing by the years, the 2015 season was exceptional. The rains
were just inadequate and it was clear something went wrong [Male FGD Akrobi].
In addition to the reduction in the rainfall totals, it was also found that there was a reduction
in the number of rainy days, thus, the average number of days when a measurable amount
(defined as 1 mm) of rain falls. As shown in Figure 2, the number of rainfall days reduced
considerably during the 2015 El Nino year as opposed to the previous year. While farmers
report of a late onset of the rainy season, they also experienced dry spells over most parts of
the zone aroundmid-May instead of the normal cessation at the end of June. The usual major
farming season which begins in March-April, delayed during the 2015 farming season and
started in May. A farmer intimated:
I usually begin planting at the end of March through to April for the main season and August for
the minor season. This year, I planted in anticipation of rains that took forever to come and I had
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IJCCSM 1,600
2014
1,400
2015
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
Figure 1.
Rainfall amount for 0
2014/15 in the study Techiman Wenchi Ejura
districts Source: Data provided by District Agricultural Office
35,000
2014
30,000
2015
25,000
Deficit
20,000
15,000
10,000
Figure 2.
Maize production in 5,000
municipalities (in
metric tons) normal 0
year versus Techiman Wenchi Ejura
El Nino year Source: Yield Data from Municipal Department of Agriculture (2016)
to plant and re-plant several times. Because there was no rainfall, the seeds could not germinate
[Male FGD, Wenchi].
Farmers generally decried their helplessness in terms of having no prior information on
weather changes and for which reason they were caught off-guard. The few farmers who
acknowledged getting some weather information from the meteorological agency, mainly
through local media, pointed out that, it did not inform their farming decisions as the
forecasts tended to be largely unreliable. They therefore depended on their own experience
and indigenous knowledge acquired over time.
4.2 Effects of El Nino-Southern Oscillation on maize production
Data from our fieldwork shows a significant reduction in maize production in all the three
municipalities in 2016 compared to the previous year (see Figure 3). According to the data
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30 Transitional
ecological zone
25 of Ghana
20
15 2015
2016
10
5
Figure 3.
0 Maize price per 100
Techiman Wenchi Ejura kg bag for 2015 and
Source: Field data 2016 in dollars
provided by the District Agricultural offices, all the three study districts recorded a deficit in
production over the previous year. Techiman had a deficit of 7,708 tons, Wenchi 6,434 tons
and Ejura 2,452 tons. The reduction in yield is consistent with the reduction in rainfall totals
as shown in Figure 1. Farmers in the communities recounted the seriousness of low yields
for the same pieces of land cultivated in previous years. They attributed their losses to the
reduction in rainfall that characterized the El Nino year. One distraught farmer observed:
I cultivated four (4) acres with a yield of 40 bags in 2015 [. . .]. but in 2016, I had only 15bags for
the same piece of land because the rains failed me [Ejura FGD].
Although the data showed a general reduction in yield, a few farmers reported minimal
reduction in yields that was attributed to sheer luck and not planning based on weather
information. Such experiences could also be as a result of localized factors like soils and
rainfall variability in addition to the variety of maize planted. Farmers attributed the general
low yields to inadequate rains, indicating that fertilizer application delayed and in some
cases was simply not possible because of the unavailability of adequate moisture in the soil.
In addition to inadequate rainfall and lack of weather information, the farmers also lamented
the fact that they did not get any technical or financial assistance. Weather index insurance
that could have helped the farmers is nonexistent in the study area.
The respondents reported that the poor harvest resulting from the El Nino induced
drought also resulted in price inflation across the zone. Checks from themarkets for prices of
maize revealed increases over the past year as depicted in Figure 3. In Techiman, a 100 kg
bag of maize which sold for $14 in May 2015 was reported to be $24 around the same month
in 2016. Similar increases were recorded for Wenchi and Ejura which went for $17 and $23
and $15 and $22 in 2015 and 2016 respectively. With production slashed by about 15
per cent, as shown in Figure 3, these increases were to be expected. However, while the
increases were quite significant in all the study areas, it still remained unclear whether the
maize price inflation experienced was as a result of the fall in maize production due to the El
Nino droughts as price could be influenced by production and demand outside the study
area. However, the study established that prices could have gone up further but for inflows
from the Northern parts of the country particularly Hamile and Tumu as well as
neighboring Burkina Faso as reported by maize traders in the Techiman market. These
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IJCCSM inflows augment the local supply and keep prices from soaring beyond normal. Therefore,
the effects of the El Nino and its associated impacts on food availability also depend on
external factors including trade policies such as open borders.
4.3 Effects of 2015 El Nino on farmer’s livelihood
With about 60 per cent of people in the study area deriving their livelihood from maize
cultivation and other related farming activities, the El Nino and its associated reduction in
rainfall had a number of local effects. The implications were dire and ranged from less food
for subsistence to loss of investments and increased household poverty. As has been
indicated earlier, the reduction in rainfall had a serious toll on farming activities, delaying
preparation of land, planting, fertilizer application and harvesting. Stalled farming activities
resulted in crop failure and poor harvest at best. One director of agriculture in Wenchi noted
that “more than 50 per cent of farmers lost everything because of inadequate rainfall last
year”.
The fall in maize production as a result of the El Nino negatively affected the farmers by
way of unavailability of food and income for subsistence. Farmers struggled to make ends
meet with some having virtually nothing to subsist on. One woman lamented:
The cheapest foods in this area are those prepared from maize including, porridge (koko), ‘kenkey’
and ‘banku’. But with poor harvests from our maize farms, we cannot even have these foods to eat
and that makes life very difficult [Ejura FGD].
The expectations of these farmers, in terms of incomes from the sale of their produce were
cut short. For most of the people in the study area, agriculture provides the main source of
income from which household responsibilities are catered for. The lack of income due to
poor harvest was reported to have brought untold hardship to households. The effects are
captured by one farmer who lamented the impact on her children’s education.
My expectations regarding my maize farm were cut short. I am now struggling to pay my
children’s school fees and meeting other needs like books and transport [Akrobi FGD].
The El Nino adversely affected the poorest and most vulnerable people in the study area,
further worsening their poverty situations. The interviews revealed that the impact varied,
severely affecting some districts like Wenchi, but much less in Ejura. The study also found
out that the outcomes and responses to the effects of the El Nino have been dependent on the
safety-net structures available in a particular municipality, as well as the general food
security policies in Ghana. One widespread effect of the El Nino on farmers is the loss of
investments. Farmers, particularly those in the rural communities noted that low
productivity in 2016 had negative consequences on their productivity and future
investments. One farmer illustrated this point as follows:
Maize cultivation has become capital intensive in modern times. From preparation of the land,
through planting, application of fertilizers and spraying of farms, to harvesting, so much money
and time is invested. Yet, for this year in particular, these investments proved not to be worth our
while as the farms did not do well [Ejura FGD].
The farmers’ losses were compounded by the absence of farm insurance in the study area.
For those who invested their own capital but lost out, they had no money to reinvest in the
new season. Farmers expressed a lot of apprehension for the post El Nino year, as the
drought that caused so much damage to their farms in 2015 had protracted into the new
2016 farming season.
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4.4 Famers’ coping strategies Transitional
Confronted with the debilitating effects of the 2015 El Nino, smallholder farmers devised a ecological zone
number of strategies, mostly upon the advice of extension officers to manage the unexpected
situation. Extension officers visited farms especially after sensing delays in the onset of of Ghana
rains and advised farmers to plant early maturing and drought resistant breeds like
“opeburow” and “Omankwa”. One municipal director of agriculture at Techiman noted that
“it is the planting of early maturing varieties like Dodi and Omankwa which mature in 70
days that saved some farmers from recording total losses”.
Even then, they note that some farmers planted old breeds because of the high costs of
the new ones. Farmers were also directed to plant and replant deep in anticipation of rains.
They were advised to use folia to conserve moisture and protect their seeds. However, most
of the seeds could not even germinate, with those surviving neither tasseling nor reaching
full maturity before the rains ceased. This affected production and yields. Farmers also
managed the El Nino induced droughts by diversification where they mixed crops and
varieties in the same field, staggered planting times and scattered crops in different soils
and locations. Some farmers mixed their maize with other crops like beans and okra. This
was found to be useful when the maize failed although the other crops did not do too well
either.
Trading and other non-farm incomes such as remittances served as alternatives in
assisting households meet their needs and to survive the post 2015 El Nino season. We
found that while some of the male farmers had moved into other ventures like driving and
working as laborers in poultry farms to earn a living, most of the women engaged in petty
trading to help support their families. One woman noted”:
Because the rains disappointed us, there was not much to be done on our farm. I got a loan which
I invested in selling used clothing at Techiman market. That is how I managed to support my
family [Female FGD, Bonsu].
However, the low production of maize as a result of the El Nino had made local trading and
non-farm activities less profitable because the local people had lost their purchasing power.
The loss of incomes and investments from maize farms affected patronage of commodities
like used clothing. With the decline in household incomes, the already alarming poverty
situation hadworsened especially amongst the lower income earners.
5. Discussion
This study found evidence on the El Nino and its linkage with reduced rainfall in the
transitional zone of Ghana. The findings presented indicate that rainfall was significantly
reduced in terms of amounts and distribution during the 2015 El Nino year with some
spatial variability. The reduction in rainfall as a result of the El Nino is consistent with
findings of other studies which report of such rainfall patterns associated with the
phenomenon in other parts of the world and the study area as well (Adiku et al., 2007;
Owusu and Waylen, 2009; Collins et al., 2010; Davey et al., 2011). In other jurisdictions like
the Philippines, Indonesia and Australia, El Nino events have been found to cause similar
rainfall deficits (Davey et al., 2011). There was a reduction in the number of rainy days
which could have more severe impact on crop production. The reduction in rainfall had
negative consequences for maize production by smallholder farmers. Given that maize is
largely cultivated under rain-fed conditions, farmers suffered the worst of crop failure with
low yields recorded across the towns and villages. These observations also resonate with
other studies in Ghana and elsewhere (Akpalu et al., 2008; Hansen et al., 2009; Acquah and
Kyei, 2012; Adamgbe and Ujoh, 2013; John and Olanrewaju, 2014; Huang et al., 2015), which
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IJCCSM report of a significant relationship between maize yield and climate variability. A study by
Araújo et al. (2015) for instance, found the occurrence of El Nino to cause about 50 per cent of
productivity losses for corn and beans in northeast Brazil.
Low productivity of maize resulting from El Nino induced cuts in rainfall had
implications for farmers’ livelihoods and incomes. With maize serving as the main staple
food and source of income for these farmers, low yields resulted in shortages of maize stock
for food and income for other needs like health and education. This worsened the poverty
situations of smallholder farmers most of whom live from “hand to mouth”. As earlier
observed by Akpalu et al. (2008), reduced rainfall as a result of climate variability has
detrimental effects on crop yield, food security and livelihoods.
The severity of the rainfall reduction on maize yields was mainly because of the fact that
smallholder farmers did not receive adequate information on the impending El Nino and
therefore, were unable to adjust and adapt their initial farming decisions to the situation.
The extension service intensified their contact with farmers after the rainfall had delayed
and the early crops had been destroyed by late onset. The fact that the farmers who yielded
to the information provided by the extension service and used drought resistant maize
varieties sustained lower losses confirms observations of earlier works by Amegnaglo and
Mensah-Bonsu (1999); Adesina and Elasha (2007); Fosu-Mensah et al. (2012) and Jiri et al.
(2016), that the application and use of forecast information, science and technology is still
limited among poor rural farmers, thereby affecting their productivity. This also implies
that to build resilience against climate variability and climate change, smallholder farmers
would have to embrace the use of climate information and technology as well as careful crop
selection, as proposed by Owusu (2017). Like this study, we also found that farmers
depended on their own indigenous knowledge and experience to cope with the El Nino and
that affected their ability to make appropriate responses.
6. Conclusion and recommendation
It was established that like other severe El Nino’s, there were significant reductions in
rainfall and increased variability with the within season characteristics. The number of
rainy days was found to be fewer than normal years. Productivity of smallholder farmers
was found to be low and in the Techiman Municipality in particular, production was
reduced by as much as 15 per cent. In the Ejura Municipality, however, the impact was not
that severe indicating that there is a spatial component to the El Nino induced rainfall
variability in mid-Ghana.
The major impacts of the El Nino induced rainfall failure and yield reduction were
household food insecurity, loss of income, indebtedness and deepening poverty. These were
exacerbated by the lack of institutional support; save for the agronomic services of
extension officers. Households survived mainly through income and crop diversification,
and off-farm practices like petty trading and remittances. Some of the adaptation strategies
were found not to be effective due to households’ total dependence on agriculture for
employment and income generation and the general lack of application of climate
information and technology in smallholder farming in Ghana.
Based on our findings, we make the following recommendations. First, although El Nino
cycles are a natural occurrence, we note that they may have a less devastating impact on
food production and livelihoods of communities if effective plans are put in place. Based on
what we know about the effect of El Nino on rainfall and the fact that the IPCC (2017) has
projected an increase in the frequency and intensity of El Nino due to global warming, we
recommend that provision and conservation of water for agriculture in the study area
should be improved. If El Nino becomes frequent and severe, the current smallholder
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practice which is almost entirely rain-fed will not be resilient enough to ensure food security. Transitional
Therefore, local government units and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture should work ecological zone
together to develop community irrigation to help smallholders improve maize and other food
crop production. of Ghana
Against the backdrop that most farmers did not get sufficient information on the El Nino
and were therefore left to their own devices, we recommend a close collaboration between
the meteorological agency and the Ministries of Agriculture on the application of climatic
information and relaying same to farmers in a timely manner. In peripheral communities,
such information could be circulated through text messages, local radio and television
networks to ensure effectiveness. In developing country contexts like Ghana where poverty
is at biting levels especially among rural farmers, subsidies on drought-resistant breeds
must be provided during unusual periods like the El Nino to make them affordable for
farmers.
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Corresponding author
Issah Justice Musah-Surugu can be contacted at: musah123@gmail.com
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