UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY EXPLORING THE CAREER INTERESTS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN THE TAMALE METROPOLIS, GHANA BY BARNABAS ATANGONGO 10877103 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL PSYCHOLOGY (COUNSELING) DEGREE. JANUARY, 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research is conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Joana Larry- Afutu and Dr. Enoch Teye-Kwadjo. This work has never been submitted to any other institution by anyone for any award. All references cited in this work have been duly acknowledged and I take full responsibility of any shortcomings associated with this work. 31/01/2023 .......................................................... ............................................... Barnabas Atangongo Date (Student) 31/01/2023 ............................................................. ............................................... Dr. Joana Larry-Afutu Date (Principal Supervisor) ............................................................. .............................................. Dr. Enoch Teye-Kwadjo Date (Co-Supervisor) 31/01/23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my late father Mr. Dickson Richard Atangongo. You were the major motivator and supporter of my idea to start this academic journey despite the impediments we faced. Unfortunately, you could not live to see what the seed of support and motivation you sowed in me has achieved. Wherever you are, just know that your effort is making gains and I still keep the phrase; “be determined and if you make up your mind to do something, you can do it” you tell me every time very close to my heart. I say thank you Daddy. You have been missed. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Thank you, Jehovah, for providing me life, strength and knowledge to read this programme and also conduct this study. Many thanks to my supervisors; Dr. Joana Larry-Afutu and Dr. Enoch Teye-Kwadjo for the guidance they provided me to ensure I produce a good work. I also appreciate the assistance the Head teachers of Vitting Senior High/Technical and Anbariya Senior High School together with their school guidance counsellors; Md. Alice, Md. Irene and Mr. Majeed, provided me during my data collection. The effort of Miss Josephine Asare and Miss Justina Adusei towards this work is highly appreciated. May Yahweh replenish all that you lost for my sake. I ask Yahweh to bless you all and from the bottom of my heart I say, ‘npowoya’. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT Career interest is vital for students since it becomes the basis for future career choices. Adolescents (such as Senior High School [SHS] students) have career interests that are fluid over time. This indicates the dynamic nature of the career interests of young people that can be influenced by many factors. Therefore, this present study explored the career interests of high school students in the Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. This study was conducted in the Tamale metropolis and it employed a qualitative study design. The total number of SHS students who participated in this study were 31 students. Two participating schools were purposively selected, with a convenience sampling method used in selecting the student respondents. A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data in this study through interviewing. Thematic analysis of the data led to the development of the following themes (1. shared similarities of jobs in general and 2. shared similarity of aspects of jobs), (1. motivating influence, 2. agreeable influence, and 3. insistent influence), (1. self-fulfillment pathway and 2. self-efficacy pathway), (1. course(s) serving as a career pathway and 2. course(s) being a means of career insight), and (1. gender role favouring males, 2. job demand for females, 3. students’ persistence on their career interests and 4. family acceptance of career interest) to explain the influence between personal experience in jobs, parents or guardians, personal interest, courses (programme) pursued, gender roles, and students career interest respectively. It is worth noting that students' personal interest, personal experience in a job, parents or guardians, gender roles, and courses or programmes pursued greatly informed their career interests. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v Table of content DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................................. viii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the study ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Social and cultural life in the Tamale metropolis ........................................................................ 4 1.1.2 The senior high school system in Ghana and subject choices...................................................... 5 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................................... 7 1.3 Relevance of the study ........................................................................................................................ 9 1.4 Objectives of the study ........................................................................................................................ 9 1.4.1 General objective ......................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.2 Specific objectives ....................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 10 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................................... 10 2.1 Career interest and career choice ...................................................................................................... 10 2.2 Theoretical framework ...................................................................................................................... 11 2.2.1 General Theory of Occupational Choice.................................................................................... 11 2.2.2 Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory ........................................................................... 11 2.2.3 Holland’s Personality Theory of Vocational Choice ................................................................. 12 2.2.4 Social Cognitive Career Theory ................................................................................................. 13 2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES ................................................................................................ 13 2.3.1 School courses as drivers of career interest ............................................................................... 13 2.3.2 The relationship between the personal interest of students and their career interest ................. 16 2.3.3 Parental or guardian influence on young people’s career interests ............................................ 19 2.3.4 Gender roles and career interest development ........................................................................... 21 2.3.5 The link between career interest and job exposure .................................................................... 24 2.4 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 27 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 28 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................... 28 3.1 Study design ..................................................................................................................................... 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 3.2 Research Setting ................................................................................................................................ 28 3.3 Study population ............................................................................................................................. 29 3.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria ........................................................................................................ 29 3.5 Sample size ....................................................................................................................................... 30 3.6 Sampling method .............................................................................................................................. 30 3.7 Data collection tool .......................................................................................................................... 31 3.8 Data collection procedure ............................................................................................................... 33 3.10 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................................... 34 3.9 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................................... 34 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................................... 37 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 37 4.1 Sociodemographic characteristics of participants ............................................................................. 37 4.2 Organization of Themes .................................................................................................................... 40 4.3 Factors influencing career interests ................................................................................................... 42 4.3.1 Financial benefit ......................................................................................................................... 42 4.3.2 Perceived competence in job ...................................................................................................... 43 4.3.3 Inadequate professionals in a career .......................................................................................... 43 4.3.4 Nature of job .............................................................................................................................. 44 4.3.5 Resources and job availability ................................................................................................... 45 4.3.6 Personal benefit .......................................................................................................................... 46 4.3.7 Societal benefit ........................................................................................................................... 46 4.4 Personal interest and career interests of SHS students ...................................................................... 47 4.4.1 Self-efficacy pathway ................................................................................................................ 47 4.4.2 Self-fulfilment pathway (intrinsic motivation) .......................................................................... 48 4.5 Relationship between courses (programme) pursued and career interest of senior high school students ................................................................................................................................................... 49 4.5.1 Academic programme (course) as a career pathway .................................................................. 49 4.5.2 Academic programmes (courses) as a means of career insight .................................................. 51 4.6 Parental or guardian influence on the career interest of SHS students ............................................. 52 4.6.1 Motivating influence .................................................................................................................. 52 4.6.2 Agreeable influence ................................................................................................................... 54 4.6.3 Insistent influence (given career interests) ................................................................................. 55 4.7 Gender roles and career interest of SHS students ............................................................................. 56 4.7.1 Gender role favouring males (patriarchal norms) ...................................................................... 58 4.7.2 Students’ persistence on their career interest ............................................................................. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 4.7.3 Family acceptance of career interests ........................................................................................ 60 4.7.4 Job demand for females ............................................................................................................. 60 4.8 Personal experience in a job and its link on the career interest of SHS students .............................. 60 4.8.1 Shared similarity of aspects of jobs ........................................................................................... 61 4.8.2 Shared similarities of the jobs in general ................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 64 SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSION ........ 64 5.1 Summary of results ........................................................................................................................... 64 5.2 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................... 65 5.2.1 Personal interest and career interests of SHS students ............................................................... 65 5.2.2 Courses (programmes) pursued and career interest of senior high school students ................... 68 5.2.3 Parental or guardian influence on the career interest of SHS students ...................................... 70 5.2.4 Gender roles and career interest of SHS students ...................................................................... 72 5.2.5 Personal experience in a job and its link on the career interest of SHS students ....................... 75 5.3 Implications of the study ................................................................................................................... 77 5.3.1 Implications for career counselling ............................................................................................ 77 5.3.2 Implications for career research ................................................................................................. 78 5.3.3 Policy Implications .................................................................................................................... 78 5.4 Limitations of study .......................................................................................................................... 80 5.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................................................. 80 5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 81 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 83 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................................ 90 Appendix I: Consent form ...................................................................................................................... 90 Appendix II: Interview guide .................................................................................................................. 93 Appendix III: Ethical clearance certificate ............................................................................................. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii LIST OF ACRONYMS CSSPS - Computerized School Selection and Placement System ECH – Ethical Committee for Humanities HEED - Health care, Elementary Education, and the Domestic spheres ICT – Information Communication Technology JHS – Junior High School MMDAs – Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies PREP – Pre-clerkship Residency Exploration Program SCCT – Social Cognitive Career Theory SES – Socioeconomic status SHS – Senior High School STEM – Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Demographic characteristics and career interests of participants ……………………...36 Table 2: Organization of Themes ……………………………………………………….………38 Table 3: Career interest of students ……………………………………………………………..39 Table 4: Career interest of males and females ……………………………………………..……55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the study A career is very important in today’s world due to the money and the feeling of accomplishment it brings to people. Since a career is important in a person’s working life, it requires planning and management from an individual (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2011). Moreover, an individual needs to develop an interest in a particular career field before he or she can plan about acquiring the career and subsequently managing himself or herself within the work environment. Career interest may be defined as a person’s desire to pursue a job (Wahi, 2022). Career interest is important due to it becoming the basis for future career choices. Adolescents (such as Senior High School [SHS] students) have career interests that are fluid over time. This indicates the dynamic nature of the career interest of young people. Whilst the personal goals for older individuals, closer to entering into a career, may be aligned with their actual career choices, the early life of a student such as those in SHS may be characterized by much broader and abstracted career interests (Wiebe et al., 2018). This indicates the undecidedness, the fluidity of career interest in young people and the possible difficulty in sustaining a career interest that can be witnessed among SHS students due to the numerous factors influencing their career interests. Despite the difficulties adolescents may face in relation to developing their career identity, the adolescent period, specifically the early years of high school, serves as a transition period in their career development where they tend to examine their interests and aptitudes, and also construct their career related aspirations and goals whiles testing their capabilities with work opportunities available (Hartung et al., 2005). Many factors have been linked to the development University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 of career interests and vocational choices of students. For instance, Chinyamurindi et al. (2021) reported that academic experiences, self-efficacy, parents, teachers, and peers had an influence on the career decisions of high school students in South Africa. These findings highlight much of the role our social environment plays in the interest we develop for a career relative to our personal factors. In addition, a personal factor such as personal interest has been found to influence career choice that students make. To illustrate, among a sample of final year real estate students in universities within Southwestern Nigeria, their personal interest in a career was found to influence their choice of a career (Ayodele, 2019). Personal interest encompasses activities that a person enjoys to engage in (Severt, 2022) and with reference to a career, describes the inner desire for a career which is influence by the joy, perceived capabilities and self-motivation an individual has for a career. Also, even in our social environment, some specific players in relation to career interest and choice tend to exert much influence on students’ career interests as compared to others. For example, Mtemeri (2017) found that both nuclear and extended family members had an influence on high school students’ choice of careers within the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe and, mothers’ and fathers’ influence was rated highly as compared to other individuals within the family. While some students’ career interests are influenced by their social environment, others are influenced by the self-development opportunities a career will present to them. An example of this is recorded in Edwards and Quinter’s (2011) study where career choice was identified to be influenced by the availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences among high school students at Kisumu, Kenya. Research in the field of career interest has not gained much prominence in the Ghanaian context. There are some researchers who have conducted studies on career interest and choice University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 among senior high school students and university students. Among Ashesi University students, intrinsic value and employability or financial prospect were valued more in career choice decisions as compared to factors such as prestige and desired working conditions (Owusu et al., 2018). At the University of Ghana, intrinsic factors, extrinsic factors, and interpersonal factors were identified to affect students’ career choices (Woasey, 2015). Comparably, extrinsic factors (societal perceptions, availability of further training, and occupational security) and interpersonal factors (perception of colleague/peer pressure and teachers’ influence) were also found to be the factors influencing the career choice among students at a technical high school in Wa (Ampofo, 2020), whereas among senior high school students in Berekum, peers, and parents were identified to be the main influencers on students’ career aspirations (Owusu, 2020). Also, a study conducted among university students investigated the psychometric properties of the African Career Interest Inventory in measuring the career interest of individuals in Ghana (Morgan et al., 2021). The available studies in Ghana attempt to measure career interest and have also identified some factors that influence career interest or choice. Considering the different sociocultural nature of the Tamale metropolis as compared to the other settings of the studies which predominantly happen to be at the southern sector of Ghana, it is, therefore, important to understand what factors influence SHS students’ career interests and how these factors affect the career interest of SHS students in Tamale. Moreover, youth from collectivist cultures have been identified to be influenced by family expectations, whiles personal interest is noted to influence career choice in individualistic cultures (Akosah-Twumasi et al., 2018). With reference to the collectivist cultural orientation in Ghana, it would be useful to examine what factors are influencing the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Metropolis. This present study explored the career interests of high school students in the Tamale Metropolis, Ghana. 1.1.1 Social and cultural life in the Tamale metropolis The tamale metropolis which forms part of the northern region, finds itself within the northern territory of Ghana. The metropolis is a cosmopolitan city but Dagomba’s are the dominant ethnic group in the metropolis (Ghana Statistical Services, 2014). There are other inhabitants who are from ethnic groups like Gonjas, Mamprusi, Akan, Dagaabas, other groups from the Upper East Region and other nationals from Africa and outside Africa (Ghana Statistical Services, 2014). Despite the cosmopolitan nature of the Tamale metropolis, many activities performed by its inhabitants reflect the Dagomba cultural practice. Periodically activities like naming ceremonies, marriage ceremonies and festivals are performed. The Dagomba culture is described to be heavily influenced by Islamic religion (Youth Home Cultural Group, n.d.) which happens to be the dominant religion in the metropolis with Christians, Spiritualists and Traditionalists reported as the minor religion (Ghana Statistical Services, 2014). In the dominant ethnic group of the Tamale metropolis, it is reported that the Dagomba’s hold strong views about males and females’ difference, and due to these views and beliefs different roles and statuses are assigned to males and females (Salifu, 2014). Salifu (2014) added that, the Dagomba people believe that the differences between males and females moves beyond the anatomy of the body to differences in their psychological state, mental abilities and the value of their roles in society. Moreover, it is reported that women in the metropolis may be discriminated against, denied employment opportunities with their services been undervalued on the basis of cultural norms (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2022). Also, individuals have been observed to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 oppose females occupying positions of leadership of authority in most societies, associations and groups within the Tamale metropolis, and this is strongly influenced by traditional and cultural practices (Segkulu & Gyimah, 2016). The metropolis was once reported to have majority of its employed population working as service and sales workers, whiles others were craft and related trade workers, professionals, skilled and unskilled agricultural, forestry and fishery workers (Ghana Statistical Services, 2014). As observed, parenting within the metropolis and other places in Ghana is mostly provided to children by both the father and mother but it could be said that mothers do much more parenting than fathers due to the frequent proximity of children to their mothers. Moreover, fathers are regarded as the superior power in the family and as a result of this, fathers tend to have the final say in matters related to the family (Salifu, 2014). This superior power of the father in the family tends to be heavily influenced by the traditions and religion of people in the metropolis. 1.1.2 The senior high school system in Ghana and subject choices The education system in Ghana has three sections which include the basic education, secondary cycle and tertiary education (Learn in Ghana, n.d.). The basic education is made up of the kindergarten, primary school and junior high school, whiles the secondary cycle consists of the Senior High School or vocational schools (includes technical Senior High School, Technical and vocational Institutes) and tertiary education which is made up of the universities, training colleges and polytechnics (Learn in Ghana, n.d.). Mostly, programmes read at the SHS level are selected at the junior high school level, currently after writing the final exams (Basic Education Certificate Examination [BECE]) at the junior high school stage. The students at that level are made to choose their SHS programmes together with the possible schools in which they will prefer at the SHS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 level. Each student has the opportunity to select a maximum of five senior high schools likewise five programmes they wish to read at the selected schools. The students are also required to make their school selection from a list of senior high schools categorized from A to D based on the academic performance and academic resources. The selection of both the schools and their corresponding programmes are all done using a system known as the Computerized School Selection and Placement System (CSSPS). The CSSPS is an automated merit-based computerized system which helps qualified BECE candidates select and get placed into second cycle (Senior High Schools and Technical/Vocational) institutions in Ghana (Babah et al., 2020). Babah et al. (2020) also added that the selection is based on scores of six subjects; taught at the junior high school level. A total of six subjects are used for the selection purposes; this comprises of four core subjects (English, Mathematics, Science and Social Studies) and two other best subjects (ICT, religious and moral education, basic design and technology, home economics, Ghanaian language, French and Pre-Technical Skills). In senior high schools, all students take core subjects or courses that include English language, social studies, integrated science and mathematics (RocApply, n.d.). Moreover, there are elective subjects that students take based on their chosen progamme that include, technical, home economics, visual arts, general arts, general science, agriculture and business. At the end of senior high school which last for three years, students receive certificates; like West African Secondary School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) which qualifies them for university. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.2 Statement of the Problem Staying in a satisfying job could promote mental well-being and increase productivity. Nyamwange (2016) argued that one could lead a rewarding life, become motivated at their jobs and attain high productivity when a right career is chosen. An individual’s career journey is possibly tied to his or her wellbeing. Therefore, it is always vital for people to develop healthy career interests in a field that will be compatible with their well-being right from adolescents to adulthood. Adolescents have been shown to have difficulty identifying their career interests (Joseph, 2012), and with SHS students who are mostly adolescents, they could be undecided in career interests. Considering SHS students who are now also exploring their career interests, they are likely to be overwhelmed with many factors in developing self-befitting career interests. Many young people like students in SHS are prone to developing varying career interests which is expected, but this could lead them into choosing wrong vocations based on factors they do not properly understand. Such students are likely to be changing their career interests from one vocation to the other. Also, this development may create a future workforce that is not enthused in their vocation causing reduced productivity and deteriorating mental wellbeing. It, becomes necessary to properly understand what is shaping the career interests of SHS students in Ghana. Interests and choices made during the high school period are said to often become the basis upon which subsequent career-related decisions will depend (Low et al., 2005). Specifically, Rottinghaus et al. (2007) found that career interest in high school predicts an individual’s vocation up to 30 years later in the individual’s life. With this, high school students are expected to align their career interests with sound evidence that can enable them to make good career choices in the future. In the process of settling on a career, students are said to have many difficulties in relation to their self-awareness and self-evaluation, finding information about their majors, training units, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 and others (Hoa, 2018). These difficulties could provide an avenue for certain factors to easily persuade or modify the career interests of students. Moreover, other individuals within the social network of these students are likely to influence their career interests and their subsequent career choices. In the Tamale metropolis, the factors that inform the career interest of SHS students are not clear and well understood. For instance, it is not clear whether the career interests of SHS students within the Tamale metropolis are influenced by the academic programme they read in school, since they are directly or indirectly exposed to certain careers when reading the programme. Even though, there has been a change in the perception of gender-specific occupations worldwide, a considerable good number of individuals within the Tamale metropolis seem to strongly hold their gender-structured (the belief that there are activities that males could engage in whiles females also have some set of activities that they participate in) views of society (Salifu, 2014). This makes it unclear to establish whether the career interests of students within the Tamale metropolis are significantly affected by the gender-specific activities (example; females are required to learn how to cook and always cook for other relatives, tasks that require the use of strength is reserve for males and others) ascribed by their society. It is therefore imperative to understand the various factors that influence high school students’ career interests in the Tamale metropolis. It is necessary to understand students’ views on career interests in order to provide them with appropriate career counselling education and to match their interests to the appropriate courses of study at the high school level. To my knowledge, there is no study that has been conducted to explore the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis. Thus, this study will add to knowledge in this regard. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1.3 Relevance of the study The findings from this study will inform and educate students and their parents or guardians on specific factors that determine the career interests of students in senior high schools. The result of this study could guide school authorities to create a career interest and choice policy or an intervention to help students develop good career interests and also match their interests to academic programmes that align with their career interests. The results would also help to improve career counselling in Ghana. 1.4 Objectives of the study 1.4.1 General objective To explore the factors that influence career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis. 1.4.2 Specific objectives 1. To explore how personal interest of students shape their career interests. 2. To explore the influence courses pursued have on the career interests of SHS students. 3. To explore the parents’ or guardians’ influence on career interests of the students. 4. To explore career interests of SHS students and gender role norms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Career interest and career choice Career interest and career choice are sometimes used interchangeably, but, there are differences between them. Spacey (2021) explained career interest as a person’s desire to develop professional talents. According to Sam (2013), career choice is the selection of a particular vocation or path in relation to one’s career. Since career interest is an expressed desire, there is a tendency that an individual’s career interest could become his or her career choice or vice versa. It is imperative to note that career interest and career choice could be stages where an individual could ascend from career interest to choice in a particular vocation or could first make a career choice before developing an interest for that vocation. With reference to the Ghanaian educational system where mostly SHS students are expected to embark on another educational step to the tertiary level before making career choices, SHS students could be said to be harbouring just a career interest. Since it is also expected that SHS students will develop their career interest from selected academic programmes or courses they read at secondary school, then these students may be thought of as being at the stage of developing career interests. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 2.2 Theoretical framework Situating career interest of SHS students in Ghana into various developed career related theories, the General Theory of Occupational Choice, Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory, Holland’s Personality Theory of Vocational Choice and the Social Cognitive Career Theory are the theories that could guide the current study. 2.2.1 General Theory of Occupational Choice Ginzberg et al. (1951) developed the General Theory of Occupational Choice. Ginzberg et al. (1951) identified that occupational choice is influenced by four factors; namely the (a) emotional factor, (b) reality factor, (c) individual values, and the (d) influence of the educational process. The theory is based on the idea that occupational choice is a developmental process which occurs over a period of decades or more years and it is not just making a single decision (Ireh, 1999). This theory clearly focuses much on the period of childhood and adolescence as the period of career interest development. This implies that students could develop their career interests at the SHS level. This theory is significant to help us better understand whether SHS students’ career interests are developed from their emotional perspective, their current environment, individual values, or their educational journey. Again, in this study, this theory provides an understanding about the development of SHS students’ career interests from their childhood to their present age (adolescence). 2.2.2 Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory This theory assumes that psychological aspects (such as genetic predisposition), along with geographical aspects (such as country of origin) have an impact on other aspects of career development (like the development of psychological characteristics and the social-economic structure of the environment) and these are all found in a person’s self-concept (Super, 1963). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Here, the self-concept denotes individuals’ subjective views of themselves and their society (Ireh, 1999). SHS students can be considered in the domains of this theory, because at this stage (exploration stage) SHS students are assessing themselves, looking at their innate abilities alongside their environment to develop an interest in a career. It should be noted that, from Super’s perspective the students self-concept enabled them to go through this assessment. Specifically, this theory guides in exploring the influence of SHS students’ environment and personal nature on their career interest development. 2.2.3 Holland’s Personality Theory of Vocational Choice The Personality Theory of Vocational Choice posits that making a career choice stems from the interaction between an individual’s specific heredity with various cultural and personal factors such as culture, parents and significant adults, social class, peers, and the physical environment of which the individual is a product (Holland, 1959; Nauta, 2013; Sheldon et al., 2020). This implies that a person prefers an environment that suits his or her capabilities and when this instance occurs then an individual’s behaviour is controlled by the environment. Even though, the assumption of this theory lays much emphasis on career choice, the identification of an individual’s specific heredity, personality and the interplay of other factors in career choice signify the development of an individual’s career interest at the outset of this interaction between the factors. It is therefore not surprising that all the personality types proposed by Holland are explained based on an individuals’ interest. If a person has no interest for a vocation then he would not exhibit a personality type for that vocation. SHS students could be observed in the context of this theory since the students at that point have developed some career-related personality, and they see themselves functioning well in an environment that correspond to their career personality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 2.2.4 Social Cognitive Career Theory The social cognitive career theory was developed by Lent, Brown, and Hackett (2002). It was inspired by Albert Bandura’s general social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). From the general social cognitive theory, Bandura believed that there is no absolute control of people by their environments, and that individuals do not also exercise complete free will, therefore, individuals are shaped by their environments, and also impacted by their environment at the same time with behaviour and personal factors interacting (Bandura, 1986). The social cognitive career theory (SCCT) seeks to address issues of genetic endowment, social context, culture, gender and unexpected life events that could interact with and overwrite the effects of career-related choices (Savickas & Lent, 1994). Putting SHS students in the context of interest development within this theory describes how the career interest of SHS students develops from their beliefs in their capabilities and expected benefits from a particular career. This theory aids in understanding SHS students’ career interest development through their self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations whiles also considering their environments. 2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES 2.3.1 School courses as drivers of career interest It is important to note that school courses or subjects pursued in school could determine the career interest SHS students consider. Since courses studied in high school are mostly structured towards a particular career field, a student’s career interests may be influenced by his or her exposure to these courses while at school. Other students may also veer from the field of certain subjects they study in school which also can cast doubt on the relationship between pursued courses in school and career interests. To illustrate this, various studies have been conducted to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 establish this relationship. According to Wang’s (2012) study conducted among 3,048 sixth-grade students from 12 public schools located in the working and middle-class communities in south- eastern Michigan, United States of America (USA), the researcher aimed at examining the longitudinal associations between classroom characteristics, expectancies-values, high school course enrolment, and career interest in the field of mathematics. The study found that students' math classroom experiences were predictive of their expectancies and values, which, in turn, predicted the number of high school math courses taken and student’s career aspirations in mathematics. The data was obtained from a large-scale longitudinal study. The maths experience signifies a pursued subject and its link to career interest. Wang’s (2012) study used data from a relatively large number of students which impacts on the reliability of the study’s result. Pianosi et al. (2016) reported undergraduate experience characterized by the curriculum that a sample of medical students used to influence their career decision. The study was aimed at exploring and describing factors in students’ decision-making, regardless of their specialty. The study was a qualitative study that recruited 70 fourth year students in the period of 2003, 2006, 2007 and 2008 in a university in Canada. Pianosi et al. (2016) adopted a focus group discussion to attain data from its participants. The above reported study sample seems to be enough for a qualitative study, but much time was spent in conducting the study since data for the study was collected in four different years. Also, among 1,167 individuals from the eastern Galilee region in northern Israel, their high school major read was found as a significant correlate to their chosen career (Sasson, 2020). The participants of the study included twelfth grade students, young adults within the ages of 21–35 years, and adults above the age of 35 years. Sasson, (2020) study was focused on examining the factors that informed STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics) career choice. Sasson, (2020) study involved varying individuals within different University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 age groups which is good to represent a general view about peoples’ career interest at their study settings. Similarly, among grade 12 STEM students, it was noted that the students enrolled into STEM-related fields due to their alignment with their preferred courses in college (Rafanan et al., 2020). Rafanan and his colleagues study also indicates how the exposure to a previous course can later influence student’s preference for STEM careers. This previous study was a qualitative descriptive research which was conducted among 20 grade 12 senior high school students in a public secondary school in Zambales, Philippines. The study sought to explore senior high school students’ perspectives on pursuing STEM careers and it used convenience and purposive sampling to select its participants. Rafanan et al.’s (2020) study provides a subjective understanding into the reasons making the students develop aspirations for STEM careers. In a sample of 1,228 Nigerian university students, a study was conducted to investigate the influence of age, gender, subject background and predisposing factors on the admission choice of undergraduates (Issa & Nwalo, 2008). The results of this study identified a significant relationship between undergraduate’s subject background and their career choice (Issa & Nwalo, 2008). This study also adds to the evidence that an individual’s pursued subject (courses studied) influence their career interests and choice. Comparably, Quansah et al. (2020) reported similar results in their study that was aimed at assessing school-related factors, home-related factors, and person- related factors and their influence on female SHS students’ choice of STEM programmes during their tertiary education in Ghana. They found that the course of study among the female students influenced their interest to select STEM programmes during their tertiary education. Quansah et al.’s (2020) study was a descriptive cross-sectional study that used a multi-stage sampling procedure to obtain data from 1,938 final-year female students in fifteen SHS’s in three regions, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Central, Greater Accra, and Ashanti. It is worth noting that previous studies are reporting courses of study as key factors that determine the career interests of SHS students. 2.3.2 The relationship between the personal interest of students and their career interest The personal interest of an individual is also relevant in developing an interest in a career and finally making a career choice. Severt (2022) explained personal interest to be the activities an individual enjoys in his or her free time and, these activities include leisure activities, learning pursuits, volunteering, sports, hobbies, artistic expression, personal development cultural activities, spiritual practices, and traditional activities. Furthermore, personal interest in relation to one’s career can also be described as the inner desire for a career which is sharpened by the joy, perceived capabilities and self-motivation an individual has for a career. Identifying one’s interest is very important because it can lead to selecting certain educational and professional options that help an individual for a future career (Vasilescu et al., 2015). Since personal interest relates with a persons’ pleasure for a career, it cannot be overlooked when the influencers of career interests are considered. For instance, Kang et al. (2018) conducted a study among 401 grade 7 Finnish students between the ages of 13 to 15 years. They aimed at understanding the extent to which the relationships between factors of career perspectives (outcome, personal time, and innovation orientations) and students’ science interests (personal value, enjoyment, and cognitive aspect) differed between male and female students. The researchers identified that among the girls, factors of career perspectives in science were significantly related to personal value, whereas, among the boys, only the personal time-oriented factors of career perspectives recorded a significant relationship with the personal value of science. Also, the girls’ enjoyment of science was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 significantly related to career perspectives, and, career perspectives and enjoyment recorded no significant relationship among the boys in their study. Kang and his colleagues’ (2018) study identified the association between the teenagers’ career aspirations and their personal interest. The significant relationship identified among the girls as compared to the non-significant relationships identified among the boys when comparing the factors could be due to relatively higher number of girls (208) as compared to the number of boys (193) included in this study. In northern California of the United States of America, Robnett and Leaper (2013) assessed the influence of friendship group characteristics, motivation, and gender on adolescents’ STEM career interests using a quantitative study approach. Their study used a sample of 468 high school students recruited from five high schools. Among these high school students, it was found that science motivation (science expectancy and science value) was a significant predictor of high school students’ STEM career interests. The study of Robnett and Leaper (2013) shows the influence science motivation which could be derived from a person’s interest plays on their career interests. Robnett and Leaper (2013) study included students from five senior high schools which would help with the generalization of their results but, majority of these students were from only two schools (74%) and were Asian American/Pacific Islander (66%), which also impacts the potential to generalize the results of the study. In addition, another study was conducted among 350 undergraduate students from four higher educational institutions in Vehari, Pakistan (Humayon et al., 2018). The study examined the effect of family influence, personal interest, and economic considerations on career choice amongst undergraduate students. The study also employed a cross-sectional study design and used a simple random sampling technique for its data collection through a structured questionnaire. The results of the study indicated that personal interest and career choice were positively correlated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 and it was also found that students who knew their own personal interests well were able to decide on their choice of career (Humayon et al., 2018). Even though this previous study assessed personal interest, it did not explicitly assess the various constructs that makes up their personal interest variable nor did it provide the exact scale used to measure personal interest. This makes it quite difficult to engage in proper comparison of the study’s findings. Similarly, in a study to examine the career preferences of real estate students and the predisposing factors influencing their choice of career, Ayodele (2019) identified personal career interest to influence the career choice of real estate students. This previous study was conducted among 206 final year real estate students in three federal universities in Southwestern Nigeria among whom a questionnaire was self-administered. Again, Umar (2014) also conducted a study among 88 accounting students at Yobe State Univesity in Nigeria. The study employed a survey method and it was aimed at examining the factors that influence career choices among accounting students. The study found that students’ self – desire significantly influenced the choice of accounting among the participants. This study had a small sample size and this could affect the generalization of the study’s results. Focusing on a study conducted in Ghana to assess the influence of job-related and personality factors on the intentions to pursue careers in accounting among Ghanaian accounting students, Mbawuni and Nimako (2015) the researchers employed a descriptive cross-sectional study design among 516 final-year accounting students in a Ghanaian public university. The students’ feeling about the accounting profession was found to greatly influence their career intentions about pursuing careers in accounting (Mbawuni & Nimako, 2015). Also, the mathematics interest of 1,263 senior high school students in the Ashanti region, Ghana, was found to be influenced by students’ self-motivation in another Ghanaian study (Arthur et al., 2017). The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 Ghanaian studies reported above depict the influence personal interest has on the career interests of students in the form of their feelings about a career and self-motivation. It is therefore appropriate to say that these previous studies establish that there are certain intrinsic factors such as personal interest that can influence students’ career interests, which, in turn, may influence their choice of a career. 2.3.3 Parental or guardian influence on young people’s career interests Parental or guardian influence is seen in many aspects of young people’s life with the area of career interest of young people having no exception. In a study conducted among 21,444 ninth- grade students from the District of Columbia, USA, Mau and Li (2018) examined the factors influencing STEM career aspirations of a nationally representative sample. The researchers for this study employed a stratified, two-stage random sample design for their data collection and a bivariate analysis. The study found that, students who had an interest in STEM careers reported a significant higher socioeconomic status and parental involvement in their career aspirations, compared with students who had interest in non-STEM careers (Mau & Li, 2018). Comparatively, Roach (2010) identified perceived parental influences to be positively correlated with reported career self-efficacy among 60 undergraduate students within a college in the northeast region of the USA. Roach (2010) also added that as parent supportive behaviour increase, then there was also an increase in students’ confidence in assessing and determining their strengths and weaknesses, as well as their confidence in setting career goals. The study of Roach was aimed at aiding a better understanding of the role that parents play in the career development of undergraduate college students. It can be noticed that, the number of participants used in the above University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 study is very low and Roach also discloses that the sample used in this study was not representative sample in terms of the gender of the students when the setting of the study is considered. After conducting a study to determine the factors that affect the choice of career among students at two public universities at Lahore, Pakistan, it was identified that parents influenced the career choices of the students (Kazi & Akhlaq, 2017). Kazi and his colleague’s used a mixed- methods approach in their study where they used both interviews and questionnaires to collect their data. They employed a purposive sampling method in their study which was conducted among 432 (quantitative) and 12 (qualitative) participants, respectively. Kazi and Akhlaq’s (2017) study is imperative in establishing the influence of parents on the career choice and interests of their children. Moreover, among 1,342 university students in three cities in China (Beijing, Wuhan, and Hong Kong), perceived parental expectations were found to be predictive of career decision- making difficulties (Leung et al., 2011). This study was quantitative in nature and it assessed the effects of cultural-values conflict and parental expectations on the career decision-making difficulties of university students. The larger sample number of this study is very significant in achieving results that are representative of the study population. Leung et al.’s (2011) study used a convenience sampling method which could introduce bias in the characteristics of the study population. Additionally, Shumba and Naong (2012) conducted a study to determine the factors influencing career choice and aspirations among South African university students. Their study was quantitative in nature and it adopted a purposive sampling technique among its total sample of 133 students. Shumba and Naong’s (2012) study identified that family was a significant factor that influenced the career aspirations and choice of students. Also, Mudhovozi and Chireshe (2012) found parents to influence the choice of psychology as a career among psychology students at the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 University of Venda in South Africa. Mudhovozi and Chireshe (2012) study employed an Ex post facto research design among 200 students comprising 100 females and 100 males. In Ghana, Arthur et al. (2017) conducted a study among senior high school students within the Ashanti region. Their study was aimed at exploring the effect of parent’s level of education, parent’s mathematics interest, and the role parental motivation plays in students’ mathematics interest development. The study was a quantitative study that enrolled 1,263 students and it employed 10 senior high schools using the simple random sampling. The results of the study identified that students’ interest in mathematics was influenced by parents’ educational backgrounds and parents’ interest in mathematics. The results of the study could be much reliable and can be generalised among SHS students within the Ashanti region due to the use of ten different schools and the larger sample size. Considering the possibility that an interest in a subject in school may influence the development of student’s career interests, Arthur et al. (2017) study provided good evidence between parental influence and subject of interest which could transcend to the development of career interest. 2.3.4 Gender roles and career interest development Stemming from societal roles that are allocated to individuals in relation to their gender, gender may influence the career interests of an individual. For example, Rossler et al. (2020) investigated the degree to which female and male students differ in their perceptions of barriers to entering a police patrol career. The researchers assessed 640 undergraduate students enrolled in criminal justice programmes in five universities within the USA. The results of their study showed that, female students were less likely to express an interest in a police patrol career as compared to others who did not identify as female. In another study conducted in the USA, the cross-sectional and longitudinal disparities in STEM career interest with reference to gender, race/ethnicity, and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 socioeconomic status (SES) were investigated among a sample of 20,242 high school students. The data of the students were collected from an existing High School Longitudinal Study in which the students were assessed at 9th and 11th grade in high school. The findings of the study depicted that at 9th grade, 14.5% of boys and 8.4% of girls were interested in pursuing a STEM career whiles, at the end of 11th grade, 14.7% of boys and 5.3% of girls were interested in STEM careers which relatively showed that boys had more interest in STEM careers as compared to girls (Saw et al., 2018). These two studies conducted in the USA showed the gender variation in favour of males in developing an interest for STEM careers and policing which could be fueled by society’s perception about the gender role norms regarding these jobs. With reference to a Swedish study in which two surveys were conducted among students in 12 municipalities. A total of 1,188 students who were in their fnal year preparing to move to high school participated in the first survey and 451 students who were later in high school also participated in the second survey. Tellhed et al. (2018) revealed that girls were more interested in communal careers (careers related to helping others) than the boys, while they observed no gender differences in aspirations relating to agentic careers (careers related to status attainment). The results affirmed gender role impacting on the careers students are interested in pursuing in the area of communal careers, whiles at the same time signifying a change in the perception of society towards agentic careers which was idealized for males. Kazi and Akhlaq (2017) assessed the factors influencing career choice of students at the master’s level in Lahore, Pakistan. They used a mixed methods approach among a sample of 432 students from a public university. They identified that gender had a significant impact on student’s career interests. The use of both qualitative and quantitative methods was appropriate to provide an in-depth understanding of the factors considered. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 De Vries et al. (2010) conducted a study among 876 final-year medical students at all eight South African medical schools They were interested in assessing the career plans and the factors influencing the plans. In establishing the future career interest of the students’, it was observed that internal medicine was the leading field of interest for women, surgery was the leading field for men and the second-selected field for women whilst pediatrics, obstetrics and gynecology were significantly preferred by women over men. The difference in career interests among the participants in De Vries et al. (2010) study is possibly due to most female participants moving towards a career that matches their gender role. Also, Nwoye and Okeke (2019) found that the majority of females (51%), as compared to males (9%) showed interest in a career in teaching/ education with 34%, 31%, and 22% of males having career aspirations in engineering and technology, applied sciences, and medical sciences, respectively. Nwoye and Okeke (2019) conducted the study among 150 second year mathematics students at a federal college of education in Oyo, Nigeria. The disparity witnessed in Nwoye and Okeke’s (2019) study with regards to STEM career interests is understandable, however, the difference seen in teaching or education career interests needs further exploration since one could believe that both genders will share similar interest in that regard. Moreover, Opoku, (2021) conducted a qualitative study among 48 SHS students at Kumasi, Ghana. He identified that both males and females had a similar interest in geography areas like physical, and human and regional geography but gender difference was recorded in the student’s interest in practical geography with males having more interest in practical geography. This similarity and disparity in geography interest possibly could transcend into a difference and similarity in career interests. The various similarity and differences gender bring to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 development of students’ career interests make it relevant to explore the role gender plays in SHS students’ career interests. 2.3.5 The link between career interest and job exposure It is believed that students’ career interests and choices could be influenced by the various jobs at their area of residence and their exposure to particular jobs. This idea is supported by studies conducted across different fields. Considering medical students, Haupt et al. (2020) assessed how Pre-clerkship Residency Exploration Program [PREP] (a two-week intensive elective programme developed to provide exposure to twelve specialties, including Radiation Oncology) affected students’ self-reported interests in radiation oncology. This study was conducted at Dalhousie University in Canada among medical students with participants 36 and 37 responding to the pre and post-PREP assessment, respectively. After the pre and post-PREP assessment of the students, the students reported increasing interest in radiation oncology (Haupt et al., 2020). This study helps in understanding how exposure to a career field influences an individual’s career interest, especially in a specialization career. Ayar (2015) explored students’ experiences, interest in engineering, and their personal narratives while they participated in a robotics summer camp in a metropolitan city in Turkey, using a qualitative study design to collect data through interviews, field notes, and observations in a 12-day camp period. The participants were 27 high school students from both public and private schools. The student’s exposure to engineering prior to and after the camp was assessed. The students were then provided various resources during their robotics camp to further expose them to the engineering career. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Ayar (2015) later tracked 18 participants and found that 16 of the students later chose engineering-related degrees in tertiary school with only two choosing medical science degrees. Among all the 18 students tracked, all were identified to have gained informal engineering experience (clubs, technical service, summer camp, games) and close relationships with engineering professionals during the robotics camp. Ayar (2015) argued that robot design experience and close relationships with various engineering professionals at the camp were factors that nurtured and maintained the students’ interest in engineering. Even though Ayar’s study cannot be generalized due to its qualitative nature, it is vital to note that the students’ first-hand exposure to the engineering career sustained their career interests to the tertiary level. Individuals’ prior healthcare exposure was reported to shape students’ choice of career in Singapore, where prior healthcare exposure was seen as a motivator for career choice (Liaw et al., 2016). The respondents of this study were first-year full-time students reading either nursing or health science-related programmes in three tertiary institutions in Singapore. To identify the various factors influencing Singaporean healthcare students career choice and determine their barriers in choosing nursing as a career, Liaw et al. (2016) adopted a qualitative study design. They recruited fifty-nine students through purposively sampling. The study used an interview method to acquire the data of its respondents. Liaw et al. (2016) study provides evidence that, students that venture into health-related careers have experienced the health career themselves to some degree. Comparably, career exposure has been identified to influence the choice of a career path among accounting students (Ng et al., 2017). Ng and colleagues’ study was aimed at investigating factors that influence accounting students’ preference toward their career paths. This previous study was quantitative in nature and it used a sample of 306 undergraduate accounting students from a private university in Malaysia. As opined by the researchers, their study cannot be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 generalized among accounting students in Malaysia since it was only conducted in one private university but their results are enough to reflect the link between accounting students’ career interests and career exposure in that private university. To continue, another quantitative study was aimed at assessing the low preference for library and information science as a first-choice course of study by undergraduates of Nigerian library schools. The study adopted a quantitative study design among 1,228 students pursuing librarian studies in eight Nigerian universities. It was found that the majority 38.4% of students in the librarian studies course were influenced by their previous library work experience (Issa & Nwalo, 2008). Also, to assess the factors that influence female SHS students’ aspirations in pursuing a career in accounting, a study was conducted among final-year female SHS students offering business as a programme across five schools in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis. The study used a sample of 132 students and it was a descriptive study. The findings of this quantitative study revealed that students’ exposure to other accounting jobs was the second highest job-related factor that influenced female student’s interests to pursue a career in accounting (Annan-Kittoe, 2019). The study showed the vital role career exposure can play in the development of career interests and choice of SHS students. Based on the literature reviewed, the current study aims to answer the following research questions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.4 Research Questions 1. What are the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis? 2. What factors influence the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis? 3. How do the academic programmes (courses) pursued at the senior high school in the Tamale metropolis shape the career interests of the students? 4. How do parents or guardians influence the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study design This study employed a qualitative study design. A qualitative study is explained to be the study of individuals within their natural setting where a researcher conducts systematic enquiry into meanings or a phenomenon, interprets and understands the phenomenon, and the attributed meanings people ascribe to the phenomena (Polit & Beck, 2010). The processes of a qualitative study provide an in-depth knowledge about a subject area or phenomenon. Considering that this study aims to explore the various factors that influence career interests of SHS students in the Tamale metropolis, then a qualitative study was deemed appropriate to help provide students much opportunity to express their views on their career interests and also to afford the researcher an in- depth understanding about the career interests of SHS students in the Tamale Metropolis. 3.2 Research Setting The study was conducted in the Tamale metropolis. The Tamale metropolis is located at the northern part of Ghana and it can be found in the northern region. The Tamale metropolis forms part of the sixteen Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in the Northern Region. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census the population of the metropolis is 374,744 with 185,051 males and 189,693 females. A total of eight government senior high schools are in the metropolis, among which two are single sex schools. The study was conducted in Anbariya Senior High School and Vitting Senior High/Technical School which are all mixed sex schools. At the time of conducting this study, the Vitting Senior High/Technical school was running a shift system and as a result only Form 1 students were present in school whiles, Anbariya University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Senior High School was not running a shift system and all Form 1 and 2 students were in school. The senior level (Form 3) students had completed at the time of this study and were out of school. The programmes offered in Vitting Senior High/Technical included; general agriculture, home economics, general arts, visual arts and technical courses. In Anbariya Senior High School, the programmes offered included; general science, general agriculture, home economics, general arts and business. 3.3 Study population The study’s participants were senior high school students within the Tamale metropolis. The participants were made up of both males and females, with participants from each programme offered in the school. At Anbariya Senior High School the participants were from both Form 1 and 2 whiles at Vitting Senior High/Technical the participants were from only Form 1. The Form 2 students at Vitting Senior High/Technical were on vacations at time of the data collection for this study, hence they were excluded. 3.4 Inclusion and exclusion criteria A student was included in this study if he or she; attended either Anbariya Senior High School or Vitting Senior High/Technical SHS in the Tamale metropolis, was present at the time of data collection and also assented or consented to participate in this study. On the other hand, students below age 15 were all exempted from participating in this study. Students below the age of 15 were excluded because, they fell below the average age of 15 years (Ministry of Education, 2018) for completing a junior high school in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 3.5 Sample size The sample size for this study was 31 students with 10 from Vitting Senior High/Technical School and 11 from Anbariya Senior High School. The number of students for this study was reached based on saturation of data where the information provided by the students became repetitive. 3.6 Sampling method Data for this study were collected from only Vitting Senior High/Technical and Anbariya Senior High School. These two schools were selected from a list of six schools excluding two single sex schools within the Tamale Metropolis based on the diversity and characteristics of the student population. The two schools used in this study were purposively selected due to availability of adequate students on campus at the period of data collection and willingness of school authorities to grant entry into these two schools. Moreover, only two schools were used because, they were enough to provide the study with diverse students characteristic and students from these two schools were also adequate to provide data saturation in the study. At Vitting Senior High/Technical school, the participants were included based on their programmes. All programmes offered in the school among the students (Form 1) were included in the study. A list of all the classes in the school was obtained. Programmes with only one class in the school which included general agriculture were automatically included. Focussing on the rest of the programmes with two or more classes, one class each was used to represent the programme. In each of the included class, students seated within the third column arrangement in the class third class were targeted. Among them, a minimum of two students (a male and a female) who were willing to participate in the study were given the opportunity to do so. At Vitting Senior University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 High/Technical school, a total of 10 students were included (thus two students each from these programmes; Agricultural science, General arts, Home economics, General science, Technical and Visual arts) in the study. Within the Anbariya Senior High School all programmes offered in the school among the students (Form 2 and Form 1) were included in the study. The list of all the classes in the school were obtained and a class each was selected to represent a programme among the Form 1 and Form 2. To select these classes, programmes with more than one class was subjected to balloting to use only one whiles programmes which had only one class available like the visual arts class, business and agricultural science class were automatically selected because they had only class each. Students seated within the third column seat arrangement of each class were considered. Among the students who found themselves within the third column per their class arrangement, a minimum of two students; a male and a female who opted to participate in the study were included. At Anbariya Senior High School, a total of 11 students from these programmes; Agricultural science, Business, General arts, Home economics and General science were involved. 3.7 Data collection tool A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data in this study. The interview guide was developed by the researcher and guided by supervisors to reflect the research questions of this study. The interview guide was developed to contain sentences that will be appropriate, understandable and easy for students at the SHS level to respond to. The researcher pilot-tested the interview guide among two students attending a senior high school in both schools, where the data would be collected, and the feedback from the pilot study was used in amending the interview University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 guide before the start of the main study. After the pilot study, the following questions were modified due to the difficulty it presented the students in understanding the question; ‘‘How does your personal interest fit into your career interest?’’ was changed to ‘‘How does your personal interest match with your career interest?’’, ‘‘How do the courses you are pursuing currently fit into your career interest?’’ was changed to ‘‘How do the courses you are pursuing currently match with your career interest?’’, ‘‘How have perceived gender roles in your community affected the determination of your career interest?’’ was modified to ‘‘How do you think gender roles in your community affected the determination of your career interest?’’ and ‘‘What are some of the challenges you perceive to face in attaining your career interest?’’ was modified to ‘‘What are some of the challenges you foresee to prevent you from attaining your career interest?’’. The interview guide contained opened ended questions that obtained information on students’ demographics like; ‘Can you please tell me about yourself?’ “probes; gender, age, ethnicity, religion education level”, ‘Could you give me some details about your family?’ “Probes; number in the family, nature of family, living conditions of the family”, ‘How would you describe your family in terms of their financial status?’ and others. Whiles being guided by likely areas to derived questions from in previous studies on career, the interview guide had questions that elicited response on the influence of personal interest, courses pursued, parents’ or guardians’, gender role norms and students’ career interest respectively. Sample questions that assessed the various areas were, personal interest; (How does your personal interest match with your career interest? “Probes; if there is no link, find out why’’), courses pursued; (How do the courses you are pursuing currently match with your career interest?), parents’ or guardians’; (To what extent do your parents give you University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 some freedom to make decisions on your career interest? “Probes; if parents/guardian are forcing it on you, why’’) and, gender role norms; (How do you think gender roles in your community affected the determination of your career interest?). 3.8 Data collection procedure On engaging a student, the aim of this study was explained to them and, they were afforded the opportunity to deny participation, consent or assent in this study. All students who agreed to participate in this study provided written consent or assent. A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect data in this study. The data from participants were collected through in-depth interviewing. The student researcher conducted all the interviews among participants in this current study. Every interview with a participant was recorded using a phone. The various questions found in the semi-structured interview guide were inquired from the participants and they also responded. At a period where the student researcher required much understanding from participants with regard to their responses during the interview, the student researcher asked follow-up questions for clarity. All the interviews were conducted in the English language. The interviews conducted among the participants ranged between 18 to 35 minutes. In each school, the interviewing of the participants continued as the students were sharing new information. The interviews continued until the student researcher realized that, the students were no more sharing new information or perspective (data saturation) about the idea of interest. This marked the period where the researcher ended the interviews. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 3.10 Ethical Considerations Ethical clearance for this study was sought and obtained from the Ethics Committee for the Humanities of the University of Ghana (Protocol reference Number: ECH 029/ 22-23). The Ghana Education Services authorities for Tamale Metropolis and the Head Teachers for each selected school granted permission for this study. The participants were educated on what the study entailed, the relevance of this study and what the results of the study would be used for. A written informed consent and assent was sought from participants. Due to practical reasons, the head teachers of both schools, acting in loco parentis, provided Parental Consent for participants under 18 years of age. The anticipated risk of this study was the time participants spent to partake in this study. There was no compensation for participants in this study. Anonymity of data obtained from participants was ensured by assigning codes and numbers to study subjects instead of using their names. Respondents were made aware that, participation in this research was completely voluntary. Data obtained from participants were stored electronically and only the principal investigator had access to it. 3.9 Data Analysis This study’s analysis was informed by the realist paradigm of epistemology. Realists have the notion that, what you see is what you get (Saunders et al., 2012). This implies that the analysis focused on what the students experienced without being guided by a phenomenon or an idea. The reflexive thematic analysis method (Braun & Clarke, 2006) used in this study is compatible with the realist paradigm. Moreover, the study also adopted the inductive thematic analysis approach, which Patton (1990) explained that, the themes used in inductive approach are strongly linked to the data obtained. The inductive thematic analysis approach was used to enable the researcher University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 obtain results that are solely related to the data the students provided. To make meaning of the data provided by the students, the semantic approach was used to identify themes in the analysis. The semantic approach demands that themes are identified based on the explicit or surface meanings of the data, without looking for anything beyond what your respondents said or wrote (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Specifically, the data collected from the students was analyzed in Nvivo 12 using the thematic analysis described by Braun and Clarke (2006). According to Braun and Clarke (2006), the thematic analysis focuses on identifying, analysing and noting patterns referred to as themes within data, and it can be conducted in six phases; familiarizing yourself with your data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the report. After obtaining data from the participants which were all recorded, the researcher transcribed all the recordings. Each transcript was again examined for accuracy by listening to the recordings and comparing them to the transcripts. The student researcher and a colleague all with a background in psychology read the transcripts of the students thoroughly to ensure they had good knowledge about what the students reported. The student researcher and his colleague independently generated codes for this study. A code here was a statement, sentence or a phrase on a transcript that described an idea related to the research questions. After they generated initial codes for the study, they met to compare and discuss the codes they had both generated. In an instance where the two individuals that coded the transcripts had varying views about the suitability of a code, the two thoroughly discussed that code until they arrived at a consensus about dropping such code or maintaining it. For example, codes found to be associated to the career interest and gender role relationship were; no gender controversy, supporting males, not affecting males, unconcerned, decision not affected, ladies needed and family acceptance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 The student researcher and his colleague then re-organised the codes generated into sub- themes. A theme is a word or words that captures vital information about the data which is related to the research question and also shows some level of patterned response or meaning within the data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). The sub-themes were then also categorised into main themes for each research question. In the process of categorising the codes into sub-themes and sub-themes into themes, any disagreement that rose about a particular code, sub-theme or theme was noted and the research supervisors who have a background in qualitative research in psychology were informed of the disagreements. The student researcher, his colleague and supervisors discuss the disagreements about the code, sub-theme or theme to resolve it either by arriving at a consensus later or adhering to what has been advised by the supervisors. At the end of the thematic analysis, seven main themes were identified for the aspect of factors influencing career interest, two main themes for the aspect of personal interest influencing career interest, two main themes again for how courses or programmed pursued shape career interest, three main themes for how parents or guardian influence career interest, four main themes for the aspect of gender roles influencing career interest and two main themes identified for how previous job exposed to shapes career interest. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.1 Sociodemographic characteristics of participants A total of thirty (31) participants were involved in this study. The ages of the respondents ranged from 15 to 23 years (see Table 1). Among the respondents sixteen (16) were females and fifteen (15) were males. Out of the 31 participants, twenty-one (21) were in year 1 (form 1) and ten were in year two (form 2). Only six (6) of the participants described themselves as Christians with the rest being Muslims. The programmes studied by the participants included, agricultural science, general science, general arts, visual arts, home economics, technical and business courses with at least two of the participants reading a technical or business programme. Most of the respondents (22) described their area of residence as an urban area (see Table 1). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Table 1 Demographic characteristics and career interests of participants Participants Sex Age Ethnicity Religion Level in school Programme Nature of residence area Career interest/s Student 1 Male 17 Dagomba Muslim Form1 Agricultural science Urban Agricultural extension officer, poultry farmer Student 2 Male 18 Dagomba Muslim Form1 Business Rural Business owner, accountant Student 3 Female 18 Dagomba Muslim Form1 General arts Urban Journalist, pilot Student 4 Female 17 Baasare Muslim Form1 Agricultural science Urban Poultry farmer, nurse Student 5 Female 19 Ewe Christian Form1 Business Urban Chartered accountant, bank manager Student 6 Female 17 Dagomba Muslim Form1 Home economics Urban Journalist, nurse, teacher Student 7 Female 17 Dagomba Muslim Form1 General science Rural Doctor, pharmacist, nurse Student 8 Female 17 Gonja Muslim Form1 Business Urban Chartered accountant, bank manager Student 9 Male 22 Dagomba Muslim Form1 General arts Rural Nurse, teacher Student 10 Male 19 Dagomba Muslim Form1 Business Rural Accountant, auditor Student 11 Male 18 Kusasi Muslim Form1 General science Urban Medical doctor, laboratory technician, nurse Student 12 Male 20 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 Business Urban Bank/business manager, accountant, soldier Student 13 Male 20 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 Home economics Urban Medical doctor, nurse, teacher Student 14 Female 20 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 Agricultural science Rural Agricultural extension officer Student 15 Female 18 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 Business Urban Bank manager, accountant University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Student 16 Female 18 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 General science Urban Medical doctor Student 17 Female 19 Gonja Muslim Form 2 General arts Urban Nurse Student 18 Female 17 Asante Muslim Form 2 Home economics Urban Teacher, football team manager Student 19 Male 23 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 General arts Urban Pilot, politician Student 20 Male 19 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 Agricultural science Rural Farmer (crop and animal), agricultural extension officer Student 21 Male 19 Dagomba Muslim Form 2 General science Urban Medical doctor Student 22 Male 16 Fante Christian Form 1 General arts Urban Musician Student 23 Male 16 Chorkorsi Christian Form 1 Agricultural science Urban Veterinary officer, nurse, extension officer, farmer Student 24 Male 15 Gonja Muslim Form 1 Home economics Urban Medical doctor, business man, nurse Student 25 Male 17 Gonja Muslim Form 1 Technical Rural Soldier, building contractor, architect Student 26 Male 19 Ewe Christian Form 1 Visual arts Urban Interior designer, architect, movie editor, musician Student 27 Female 18 Chumbru Christian Form 1 General arts Urban Nurse, police Student 28 Female 18 Dagomba Muslim Form 1 Agricultural science Rural Soldier Student 29 Female 17 Gurune Christian Form 1 Home economics Rural Fashion designer, nutritionist Student 30 Female 18 Dagomba Muslim Form 1 Technical Urban Engineer Student 31 Female 17 Dagomba Muslim Form 1 Visual arts Urban Artist (drawing), teacher Source: Data from fieldwork (2022) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 4.2 Organization of Themes The themes from the data analysis per each objective of focus have been organized below (see Table 2). The students also reported varying career interests which fall within a broad category of careers including; health profession, business and finance profession, educational profession, construction and engineering profession, agricultural profession, security profession, media profession, profession in creative arts, political job and transport sector job (see Table 3). Table 2 Organization of Themes Research objectives Themes Sub-themes Reasons informing interest in careers Financial benefit Personal monetary gain Making easy income Perceived competence in job Capable to perform job Inadequate professionals in a career Professionals’ insufficiency Nature of job Job prestige Job demand Resources and job availability Job availability Pathway to other jobs Resource availability Personal benefit Self-development Likeness of job Societal benefit Helping people Personal interest and career interests of SHS students Self-fulfilment pathway Self-affinity for job Job providing joy Self-efficacy pathway Capability in job Personal development Relationship between courses (programme) pursued and career interest of senior Course as a career pathway Career attainment opportunity Courses or programme likeness to career Career route Course as a means of career insight Acquisition of career related information and knowledge Acquisition of career skills University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 high school students Parental or guardian influence on the career interest of SHS students Motivating influence Advise from parents or guardians Pushed to do more Receiving motivating words Agreeable influence Direct guardian or parent acceptance of career Indirect guardian or parent acceptance of career Insistent influence Guardian or parent insisting on a career Gender roles and career interest of SHS students Gender role favouring males Supported by gender related ideas Career interest free from gender controversies Students’ persistence on their career interest Unconcerned of opinions Standing by career interest Family acceptance of career interest Career accepted by relatives Job demand for females Job for females Personal experience in a job and its link on the career interest of SHS students Shared similarity of aspects of jobs Skills enhancement facet Help provision facet Across jobs knowledge transfer facet Shared similarities of the jobs in general Jobs requiring similar activities Ability to practice job of interest Jobs being similar Table 3 Career interest of students Theme Sub-theme Career interest Health profession Business and finance profession Educational profession Construction and engineering profession Agricultural profession Security profession Media profession Profession in creative arts Political job Transport sector job University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 4.3 Factors influencing career interests The students’ interest in various careers was based on varying factors. From the various interviews, the following themes were derived; financial benefit, perceived competence in job, inadequate professionals in a career, nature of job, resources and job availability, personal benefit and societal benefit, which all explain the students’ reasons with regard to their career interests. 4.3.1 Financial benefit Financial benefit was one of the issues students considered in developing their interests in a particular career. Financial benefit theme here referred to students focusing on the income or money they will gain from a particular their career before determining their interest in a career. Some participants’ career interests focused on the possibility of deriving quick income from a job. For instance, one respondent stated that “ … You easily make income from it (fashion designing) unlike the nutritionist where you have to work under somebody and you wait for a month’s salary” (Student #29). Acquiring money to solve one’s financial problem in future was also a motivation for respondents’ interest in careers. The students hope for a financial remedy through their career interests was also associated with the desire to help their families with the finances. One student who had an interest in journalism had this to say; “…So when I become a journalist my salary will be huge so that I will be able to help my siblings and maybe even help my parents” (Student #3). Similarly, for another student, financial gain from her future career influenced her; “…It can help me in terms of financial problem because in my family I’m the only one who is in SHS and my sisters are in primary and I can help them in terms of their education and help my family too” (Student #21). Moreover, a student’s interest in one career was sustained by the idea of obtaining University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 money from that career and also aiding him to do other works; “ …If you become the agricultural extension officer you can just get small money and start your poultry farm small, small”(Student #1). It can be noted that some students’ interest in careers were mainly focused on the income that they will attain from that specific career of interest. 4.3.2 Perceived competence in job Perceived competence in job denotes students assessing their subjective capability in a career and making their c