Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education
Studies of Migration, Integration, Equity, and Cultural Survival
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hdim20
Role of community colleges and other TVET
institutions in advancing sustainable development
by supporting access, diversity, and inclusion for
nontraditional student populations
Rosalind Latiner Raby, Oleg Legusov, David Addae, Jonathan Martel, Leping
Mou & Dawn Wood
To cite this article: Rosalind Latiner Raby, Oleg Legusov, David Addae, Jonathan Martel, Leping
Mou & Dawn Wood (2022): Role of community colleges and other TVET institutions in advancing
sustainable development by supporting access, diversity, and inclusion for nontraditional student
populations, Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, DOI: 10.1080/15595692.2022.2157397
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DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 
https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2022.2157397
Role of community colleges and other TVET institutions in 
advancing sustainable development by supporting access, 
diversity, and inclusion for nontraditional student populations
Rosalind Latiner Raby a, Oleg Legusov b, David Addae c,d, Jonathan Martel e, 
Leping Mou f, and Dawn Wood g,h
aEducational Leadership and Policy Department, California State University, Northridge, California, USA; bInternational 
Student Services Department, Seneca College, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; cDepartment of Adult Education and Human 
Resource Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra; dDepartment of Adult Basic Education, University of South Africa, 
Pretoria, South Africa; eTechniques d’integration multimedia, Collège de Maisonneuve, a General and Vocational 
College (CEGEP), Québec, Canada; fHigher Education & Comparative International Development Education, OISE, 
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; gGlobal Learning, Kirkwood Community College, Iowa, United States; 
hCentre for Higher Education Internationalization, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Centre, Milan, Italy
ABSTRACT
The Sustainable Development Goals link access to higher education, parti-
cularly for non-traditional populations, as a way to fight poverty and ensure 
prosperity. This article examines the experiences of several under-researched 
categories of non-traditional students who attend Community Colleges and 
Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Colleges in multiple 
jurisdictions worldwide. The article begins to fill in the gap with comparative 
data on how these institutions advance equity, diversity, and inclusion 
through access to higher education. The implications of Community 
Colleges and TVET are analyzed using the lens of Neo-Liberalism and the 
Capabilities Narrative. The study extends the scope of the inquiry into the 
contributions these institutions make to sustainable development. The arti-
cle uses a comparative multi-case study approach to examine the 
Community Colleges and TVET Colleges in different jurisdictions worldwide.
Introduction
At a time of increasing political, economic, environmental, and humanitarian instability, the roles 
higher education institutions play in supporting sustainable development are paramount. The 
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs; United Nations, 2015) are a common international framework 
to fight poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity (IBID). Research shows that access to 
postsecondary education, particularly for non-traditional populations, is a viable strategy to fight 
poverty or gain higher economic status, thus building prosperity through education (Moodie et al.,  
2019; Raby & Valeau, 2018; Wheelahan, 2016).
SDGs acknowledge the importance of Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET; 
United Nations, 2015), and governmental NGO and national associations see the Community 
College (CC) and TVET sectors (aka Sector) as essential contributors to advancing access to higher 
education for non-traditional students Legusov et al. (2021). Nonetheless, the university sector 
dominates the discourse on access to tertiary education and largely ignores the CC/TVET Sector 
(Legusov et al., 2021).
CONTACT Rosalind Latiner Raby rabyrl@aol.com Educational Leadership and Policy Department, California State University, 
1811 Nordoff St, Northridge, CA 91330, USA
© 2022 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 
2 R. L. RABY ET AL.
Studies on non-traditional CC/TVET students (Legusov et al., 2021; On-Ting & Tiffany, 2021) 
mainly focus on specific issues that students encounter or on a particular group of students, such as 
indigenous, international, visible minority, or refugees. Furthermore, most studies on this Sector focus 
on Western institutions (Raby & Valeau, 2018). While such studies contribute to the literature on the 
topic, their findings may not generalize easily to institutions in countries with drastically different 
socioeconomic, cultural, and political environments. Few studies examine non-traditional students in 
this Sector comparatively. This study examines the experiences of several under-researched categories 
of non-traditional CC/TVET sector students in multiple jurisdictions around the world. The article 
provides comparative data on how the Sector advances equity, diversity, and inclusion for all. 
Comparative data are important as they a) contribute to the conceptualization of the non- 
traditional and underserved students; and b) compare how institutions in vastly different socio-
economic and cultural environments view such students and support them. In sum, the study widens 
the scope of the inquiry into the contributions that the CC/TVET sector makes to sustainable 
development. Three broad research questions guide the study:
What are the experiences of different groups of non-traditional CC and TVET students?
How do institutional policies and practices support the success of such students in terms of equity, 
diversity, and inclusion?
How does the Sector become a tool to build a justice-oriented and socially conscious society and 
meet some of the SDGs?
Literature review
This section is organized according to the study’s main themes: non-traditional student profiles, 
institutional policies and practices, and the Sector’s role in meeting SDGs. We choose the literature to 
represent the various themes and to include examples from community colleges, TVET institutions, 
and global counterparts (Sector) worldwide.
Non-traditional student profiles
Many designations exist for non-traditional students in the United States (Ross-Gordon, 2011) and in 
Canada (Tamtik & Guenter, 2019), including part-time, differently-abled, first-generation, indigen-
ous, low-income, older, second-career, single parent, and other (dis)empowered and marginalized 
groups. These populations are highly represented in Sector institutions globally. Thus, similar non- 
traditional descriptors are found in the majority of students in TVETs in Chile (Ovalle-Ramirez,  
2019), Colombia (Mendoza et al., 2016), India (Gross, 2017), and the United Kingdom (Gallacher & 
Reeve, 2019). A deficit narrative assumes low expectations for non-traditional students. Yet, lack of 
their success often results from institutional stratification across racial, class, gender, and age distinc-
tions, as well as racism, discrimination, and marginalization by inequalities in a curriculum and 
a hostile campus environment (Raby, 2019). Counter-deficit narratives show non-traditional students 
possess numerous social and cultural forms of capital, some of which are unique to racial, ethnic, and 
gendered groups. Some non-traditional college students use a high level of motivation and resilience to 
succeed. Thus, as On-Ting and Tiffany (2021) found in Hong Kong, low socioeconomic students 
adjust well to community colleges because they see their education as a second chance to gain entrance 
to the university.
Adult students
Adult students are commonly defined as those 23 and older (Ross-Gordon, 2011). The average age of 
TVET students in Iceland, Ireland, New Zealand, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland is 35 (Dawborn- 
Gundlach & Margetts, 2018). Adults are 89% of students in community colleges in Ontario (Collis & 
Reed, 2016) and 59% in the United States (AACC. American Association of Community Colleges,  
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 3
2022). Adult students may find CC/TVET education attractive because of low tuition fees, convenient 
locations, and flexible schedule options.
Working students
Even though working students have a limited amount of time, they often show a high level of 
dedication to their college studies. Wladis and Mesa (2022) point out that the time that working 
students dedicate to education can be seen as a valuable asset or capital, which they can later use to 
enhance their careers. Gipson et al. (2017) found that to achieve their goals, working students must 
balance competing demands such as family, friends, school, and a desire to be a role models to siblings, 
children, and grandchildren.
Racial, ethnic, indigenous, female students, and other non-traditional designations
Colleges and TVETs worldwide serve students from rural and poor urban communities with large 
racial, ethnic, and indigenous populations. For example, the study conducted by Brown (2018) 
revealed that 70% of indigenous and 30% of non-English speaking students attend technical and 
further education (TAFE) colleges in Australia. Israel Academic Regional Colleges students are 32% 
Eastern Jews and 8.7% Arabs (Davidovitch et al., 2018). Kenya has four TVET institutions exclusively 
for blind and deaf students (Ministry of Education, Kenya, 2018). Examples of institutions that serve 
students in rural areas include Cursos Técnicos Superiores Profissionais in Portugal (European 
Commission, 2019) and Bangladesh Polytechnics (Rahman et al., 2019).
Institutional policies and practices
CCs and TVETs provide various services to improve equity, diversity, and inclusion on campus. Non- 
traditional students have all the stressors that their more traditional counterparts do, as well as 
stressors related to their particular circumstances. Some Sector institutions provide support that 
builds on students’ capabilities to enable them to achieve equitable levels of success (McGrath et al.,  
2020). However, not all, Sector institutions provide equitable services to all their non-traditional 
students (Legusov et al., 2021).
Institutional programs
A wide range of various support programs in Sector institutions offer designated assistance for adult 
students in Canada (Dawborn-Gundlach & Margetts, 2018), international students in Canada 
(Legusov et al., 2021), and other non-traditional students in Hong Kong (On-Ting & Tiffany, 2021). 
As McGrath et al., 2020) point out, institutional programs seek to enable the critical capabilities of 
learners an ability to identify the many decision points in their academic studies.
Sector’s role in meeting SDGS
The CC/TVET Sector addresses global challenges of access, poverty, and inequality in three ways. The 
open-access policy in institutions around the world makes postsecondary education available to many 
students (R. L. Raby & Valeau, 2009). The pathway/transfer programs, found globally, facilitate access to 
universities upon completion of their college studies (Skolnik, 2020). Finally, providing relevant 
education and training to college students helps to reduce poverty and inequality, increase the socio-
economic development of local communities, and contribute to social mobility (Wheelahan, 2016).
Literature is showing that the rapidly changing world accelerated by COVID-19 is profoundly 
affecting how people live and work (Ghosh & DeMartin, 2022). Some jobs will become obsolete, and 
new ones will be created. Education and upskilling offered in the CC/TVET sector are critical in 
4 R. L. RABY ET AL.
preparing students for the world that emerges post-pandemic (Raby & Valeau, 2022). A central tenet 
of CC/TVET policy is the belief that education contributes to social mobility and enables non- 
traditional populations to gain social and economic advancements (McGrath et al., 2020). 
Furthermore, McGrath et al. (2020) claimed that the CC/TVET Sector is an effective tool for creating 
a justice-oriented and socially conscious society.
Theoretical construct
The implications of the CC/TVET sector are analyzed using the lens of the Neo-Liberalism and 
Capabilities Narrative.
Neo-Liberalism narrative
The Neo-Liberalism Narrative frames education in the context of skills needed for employability to 
support the global economy. In this context, the Sector’s purpose is to teach basic skills (Bonvin, 2018), 
governed by the worldwide market economy (Skolnik, 2020). The Neo-Liberalism Narrative stipulates 
that quality education leads to employment in quality jobs, that in turn, provide higher income and 
help the individual achieve social mobility, which benefits society (Slaughter & Rhoades, 2004). In this 
way, equity and the SDGs are served (McGrath et al., 2020).
Capabilities narrative
The Capabilities Narrative (Nussbaum, 2000; Sen, 1999) frames education in human welfare contexts in 
which learners have the agency to choose pathways and achieve outcomes that they value. The 
Capabilities Narrative critiques neo-liberalism, which is seen as a perpetrator of colonialism, persistent 
poverty, institutional racism, and skills training that limits equitable work and social mobility (McGrath 
et al., 2020). Philosophically, the Capabilities Narrative links education to obtaining productive lives, 
building strong communities, and supporting social justice outcomes (Moodie et al., 2019).
Even though these two narratives represent two diametrically opposite philosophies, they both play 
concurrent and important roles in the CC/TVET Sector’s policies and practices. Thus, they provide 
a robust construct in which the study is situated.
Methodology
This article uses a comparative multi-case study approach to examine the CC/TVET sector worldwide. 
Comparative methodology studies interactions between trends and responses at global, local, and regional 
levels. It does this by “providing generalizable propositions and useful insights into the forces shaping the 
origins, workings, and outcomes of education systems (Arnove et al., 2020, p. 7) and seeks to understand 
how similar social issues are addressed in different political, economic, and social environments (Phillips & 
Schweisfurth, 2006). Such an approach can measure the quality and efficiency of educational systems 
(Nóvoa & Tali, 2003) and can generate new ideas, counter stereotypes, and lead to improvements in 
practice (Bray et al., 2007). Even though differences exist among various CCs and TVETs, fundamental 
similarities permit valid comparisons (Raby & Valeau, 2018). We use the comparative multiple-case study 
method (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2016) to focus on a particular phenomenon in a given period (Creswell & Poth,  
2018).
Selection of case studies
The selection of the case studies is purposeful to include a variety of institutions, locations, and 
categories of non-traditional students. Table 1 details the selected five intuitions.
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 5
Table 1. Comparative Multi-Case Study Profiles.
Institutions Location Urban Rural Type of non-traditional students
CAAT Ontario √ International
TVET Taiwan √ Low SES
CEGEP Quebec √ Adult
CC United States √ Career Technical/Rural
TVET Ghana √ Women
Table 2. Individual Case Study Research Focus.
Institutions Type of Research Methods Research Focus
CAAT Qualitative Interviews International students as 
Ontario skilled immigrants
TVET Qualitative Interviews Social Justice
Taiwan
CEGEP Mixed Database statistics Interviews Continuing Education 
Quebec Methods section of CEGEP
CC Mixed Database statistics, Survey, Interviews Global learning 
United States Methods experiences
TVET Mixed Interviews; Focus Groups Women inequality
Ghana Methods
Data analysis
Each case study is based on an independent research project whose research methods are seen in 
Table 2. The article itself uses the Bartlett and Vavrus (2016) vertical case study methodology to “trace 
a transversal process or set of relations” (p. 131) across each case study’s contextual units. The 
parameters for comparison are a) institutional type, b) non-traditional students, c) institutional 
policies toward non-traditional students, and d) examples of equity, diversity, and inclusion. Each 
case study was analyzed to identify emerging codes (Yin, 2016), and then codes were compared 
vertically to identify emergent themes (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2016).
Trustworthiness
The trustworthiness of qualitative research includes multiple components. We examined the data 
individually and then compared it to build a shared consensus on coding to ensure rigor. Credibility as 
the “truth” of the funding comes from the research methods employed in each case study. 
Transferability is met by finding commonalities between and among the multiple case studies. 
Dependability is consistent with findings that are consistent and repeatable.
Positionality
Our positionality as CC/TVET scholars provided us with an insider’s view of the institutional culture 
of the CC/TVET Sector and heightened awareness of the key tenets embedded in the mission and 
vision. We used reflexivity to ensure that our claims were linked to the evidence presented in the text 
(Yin, 2016).
Limitations
Our study has three limitations. First, while the findings are generalizable, the case studies are 
grounded in particular time and space. Second, within each country are multiple forms of CC/ 
TVETs, and thus institutions in this study may not speak for the entire country. Third, purposeful 
selection may preclude other and more unique cases.
6 R. L. RABY ET AL.
Case study of an Ontario colleges of applied arts and technology
Introduction
Governments in many developed countries are determined to attract more international students, 
hoping that many will remain after graduation as skilled immigrants. Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts 
and Technology (CAATs) provides a wide range of vocational certificate, diploma, and applied-degree 
programs that give international students an expeditious way to immigrate. CAATs have 
a longstanding commitment to open access and equal educational opportunities, but this does not 
automatically translate into desirable outcomes for all. Visible-minority, female, racialized, differently- 
abled, and other disadvantaged students often experience more precarious employment and higher 
poverty rates than their mainstream counterparts (Michalski et al., 2017). In response to these 
inequities, community colleges across Canada are implementing comprehensive equity, diversity, 
and inclusion (EDI) policies to ameliorate the prevailing institutional cultures and help marginalized 
and underrepresented groups succeed (Tamtik & Guenter, 2019). A missing element is that the 
CAATs EDI policies do not acknowledge the specific circumstances of international students whose 
intersectionality makes their experiences complex (Crenshaw, 1991). This case study explores how 
international students at a CAAT in Toronto, Ontario perceives the concepts of equity, diversity, and 
inclusion. Three research questions guide the study:
1. What experiences related to equity, diversity, and inclusion did such international students have 
while pursuing a college education?
2. How do they explain and make sense of their experiences?
3. To what extent did the college’s structure, policies, and practices contribute to its success?
Methodology
Participants were 35 international college students (19 women and 16 men) ranging in age from 19 to 
35 at an urban CAAT. Students reflected on their college experience during semi-structured inter-
views. Responses were examined through the lens of critical theory, which served as the theoretical 
foundation for this study.
Findings
Equity
Many participants said they were not aware of various college resources available to them, such as 
mentoring and tutoring services. Some found that college employees had a poor grasp of immigration 
laws and regulations governing international students, which restricted their ability to work. All 
pointed out that as international students, they pay much higher tuition fees than their domestic 
peers but are ineligible for tuition-assistance bursaries. Some said they were obliged to anglicize their 
names to improve their chances of employment.
Diversity
Diversity is often discussed in terms of what makes people different. However, this study explores 
diversity in understanding, accepting, and valuing differences (Ideal., 2021). Many participants shared 
that international students tend to gravitate toward their ethnic groups. Thus, the interaction between 
the different groups is limited. Many complained that, in some programs, the overwhelming majority 
of the students were from the same culture.
Inclusion
Several participants said their instructors favored domestic students, causing them to be less engaged 
in classroom discussions and other activities. They also had difficulty engaging with their instructors 
on a personal level. As one commented, “Some teachers don’t even try to learn international students’ 
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 7
names.” Several said they were not taken seriously by their peers on campus because of their accent 
and appearance. Many felt they were often victims of stereotyping, citing comments such as, “You 
must be good at math” or “It’s easy for you; all you people do is work.” As a result, they tended to 
gravitate to the safe space of their own ethnic and racial groups.
Analysis and conclusion
The case study shows that international college students face numerous challenges related to race, 
ethnicity, and income that their domestic peers do not face. Important to equity is that the students 
interviewed were reluctant to address such challenges because of their precarious immigration status. 
CAATs were created with an open access mission, and yet their structures, policies, and services do not 
adequately support international students; thus, their experiences are not always satisfactory. This case 
study demonstrates that, in developing EDI policies, community colleges need to reevaluate student 
support services, which are heavily geared to domestic students. It also illustrates the urgent need to 
reexamine Canadian immigration policy concerning international students, given that current regula-
tion makes it difficult for many international students to succeed.
Case study of Quebec general and vocational colleges’ role in social integration of adult 
students
Introduction
In the Canadian French-speaking province of Quebec, technical public postsecondary education is 
provided by general and vocational colleges (referred to as CEGEPs, their French acronym). CEGEPs 
offer three-year technical training leading to a diploma of college studies (DCS). They also offer two- 
year pre-university programs and continuing education explicitly designed for adults. Twenty-five 
percent of all CEGEP technical education enrollments are continuing education adult students, i.e., 
those who have a postsecondary degree or diploma or who reached the age of majority and have 
interrupted their studies for at least two terms. Despite their numbers, adult students are 
a marginalized category (Legusov et al., 2021). Studies show the precarious status of adults returning 
to training is central to understanding their successful pathway (Barkoglou & Gravani, 2022). Adult 
students often enroll in CEGEPs’ continuing education programs to update their qualifications and 
skills to return to the labor market (Markowitsch & Hefler, 2019). These programs, however, do not 
always consider various adult learner characteristics (Doray & Simoneau, 2019). For example, West 
(2022) claimed the goal for adult migrants is to gain inclusion and recognition in the society. This case 
study examines the CEGEP Continuing Education sector that targets adult students. Three research 
questions guide the study:
1) What are the characteristics of adult students?
2) What are institutional constraints to equity?
3) How is equity achieved for these students?
Methodology
The mix-methods data come from qualitative document analysis and interviews with students and the 
quantitative use of an institutional statistical database.
Findings
This study identifies several significant challenges that adult students face and institutional responses 
to equity, diversity, and inclusion in targeted programs for this population.
8 R. L. RABY ET AL.
Diversity
Adult students face numerous inequities. Geographic disparities influence the composition of services 
and the profile of enrolled students. More than 60% of adult students are found in the large, 
cosmopolitan metropolitan area, and most are migrants. In this case study, 64.4% were born outside 
the province, 31.6% did not have French as their first language, and 60.3% did not graduate from 
a Quebec high school. The characteristics of adult CEGEP continuing education students are different 
from traditional students as they have more experience, come from diverse cultures, and have 
heterogeneous educational backgrounds.
Equity
Even though CEGEP continuing education is dedicated to the needs of adult students, institutional 
barriers in the political framework and regulations of the programs do not always meet those needs. 
This study concurs that skill-based programs are funded and structured around full-time attendance, 
which does not enable enrollment in individual courses (Bélanger & Robitaille, 2008). This is an 
obstacle for adults with jobs, family constraints, or for those who want to go back to school at a pace 
adapted to their situation. Unequal funding is given for part-time studies, which led to a loss of 80% of 
adults between 1992 and 2005. Since 2005, mainly limited budget in ACS programs has stabilized 
enrollment.
Inclusion
The study found that inclusion for CEGEP adult students is constrained by the study regime, which is 
intensive and differs from the types of education they previously had. The programs offered have 
a continuous academic calendar, with no breaks between sessions to achieve rapid graduation. The 
continuous academic calendar is a key concern as testimonies from students claim that the intensive 
program with back-to-back classes makes it more difficult for them to return to school.
Analysis and conclusion
The accessibility of CEGEPs, virtually free of charge and widely distributed geographically (Thériault,  
2018), allows many adult learners to take requalification programs to regain an active social role. This 
training is in high demand with the aims to return to the labor market quickly. Through this pathway, 
CEGEPs help reduce adult marginalization. CEGEPs also help build social consciousness through 
networks based on intercultural relationships in this case study. Other research supports similar 
observations (Barkoglou & Gravani, 2022). By giving adults a sense of competence, self-esteem, and 
a place in society, the success of the academic pathway enables social reintegration (Fleming, 2016).
Case study of Taiwan’s TVET: supporting students from disadvantaged backgrounds
Introduction
The key role of Taiwan’s TVET sector is to cultivate competent workers for the labor market 
(International Affairs Office, 2016). The Sector attaches much importance to links between academic 
research and industrial needs (Wu & Liu, 2014). However, as Wu (2012) illustrated, Taiwan’s TVETs 
also pay close attention to whole-person education. The country’s education system consists of two 
parallel streams, general and vocational (International Affairs Office, 2016), with TVET education 
existing at high school, undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral levels. Such an approach allows students 
in TVET tracks to switch to the general education track. This case study is part of a large, multi- 
national research project supported by Education International (Moodie et al., 2019). Using the 
capabilities approach (Nussbaum, 2000; Sen, 1999) as a theoretical framework, this research examined 
the role of Taiwan’s TVET institutions in helping disadvantaged students acquire knowledge and skills 
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 9
for a productive and fulfilling life. The research question guiding this study is how Taiwan’s TVET 
sector promotes principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion to support disadvantaged students.
Methods
The study of a Taiwan TVET uses a mixed-method approach that includes qualitative methodology 
for document analysis, semi-structured interviews with TVET teachers and policymakers, and quan-
titative methodology for an online survey of students, alumni, and faculty members.
Findings
The findings show that Taiwan’s TVET institutions do help disadvantaged students in acquiring 
knowledge and skills for a productive and fulfilling life
Equity and diversity
In Taiwan, disadvantaged groups consist primarily of lower socioeconomic students. Such students 
often have lower academic achievement in their early years due to a lack of family support and 
resources. Many are enrolled in the TVET stream in high school and continue in college. One faculty 
participant explained that their institution worked hard to accommodate students from disadvantaged 
families, many of whom take night classes, because they need to work to support themselves and their 
families. This faculty provides an example of a student from a single-parent family in poverty, stating, 
“the school offered him a free lunch box and educational resources such as a computer from the lab. 
Also, with some scholarship and stipend, he could have an opportunity to learn some skills and move 
to professional work, which is a shift-turn in his life.” The access to education thus presents 
opportunities for students to change their jobs and their lives.
Inclusion
Taiwanese TVET college education is tuition-free, which is beneficial to lower socioeconomic stu-
dents. Also, because of Taiwanese education’s two-stream nature, students from disadvantaged back-
grounds who might be guided to TVET because of poor academic performance, may move into an 
academic stream at any point. Several interviewees emphasized the benefits of such approach, which 
allows students to obtain professional and academic credentials. As Zhao (2021) pointed out, some 
TVET graduates obtained offers from Ivy League universities in the United States to pursue master’s 
and doctoral research studies. Another example of inclusion is the flexible class schedule in the 
continuing studies department, offering shifts of day class and night class that enable adult students 
from lower socioeconomic backgrounds who need to work during the daytime to pursue college study 
and technical training to advance their career/life.
Analysis and conclusion
Despite many positive aspects, some challenges exist. Such challenges include social bias, lack of 
adequate funding, and loss of distinctive features by upgrading into universities. Taiwan’s education 
and social values are influenced by the Confucian tradition (Marginson, 2013) in which scholarly work 
is valued higher than other professions (Fwu & Wang, 2002). Thus, parents expect their children to 
enter comprehensive universities rather than TVET institutions, regarded as a second choice. Second, 
funding for research in TVET universities is much less than in comprehensive universities. Third, 
TVET colleges are upgrading into universities, eroding their strong professional preparation and skill- 
training features. In conclusion, it is the special design and policy support of TVET in Taiwan that 
helps to advance sustainable development by offering students training for professional work and 
opportunities for higher education, although TVET still needs to overcome the current challenges 
from various aspects of the society
10 R. L. RABY ET AL.
Case study of technical institutes in Ghana: access, equity, and institutional support for 
females
Introduction
Historically, TVET in Ghana supported gender disparity in which men had access to education in 
specific professions and those professions financially favored males. Anchored on age-old gender- 
specific norms and role expectations, stereotypes about women continue to result in prejudices that 
define what professions women can and cannot enter. This results in TVET institutions offering so- 
called “female” professions. Gender disparity extends to institutional offerings in which technical 
education has traditionally been predominated by men, whereas women dominated vocational 
programs. While gender exists on a continuum, terms like “cis-gender,” LGBTQ+ terminology is 
beyond the scope of the current study.
This vocational fallacy, or what the author terms a silent normative trend, persists and influences 
female participation in “soft” TVET programs, which provide lower remuneration than the “hard” 
technical courses, resulting in gender inequities in training and the labor market (Nganda et al., 2021). 
Consequently, enrollment rates for women in technical education programs in the country’s technical 
institutes are poor. The Ghanaian government has recently implemented a “Free TVET for All” 
program to address this problem. This case study explores institutional initiatives to ensure gender 
parity access in Ghanaian TVET.
Methods
The study examined the experiences of 10 non-traditional female students attending two technical 
institutes in Greater Accra. The participants were between 22 and 25 years old. In each institution, 
a focus group of five students was convened for 35-minute discussions. The data were analyzed using 
thematic analysis to establish the main patterns of meanings within the dataset.
Findings
Access
Even though most participants acknowledged relatively fair admission practices, they highlighted 
institutional and societal factors hindering women’s technical education participation. Such factors 
helped maintain and produce new forms of inequalities in technical education access. The participants 
particularly stressed that their decisions about choosing specific technical pathways were informed by 
“advice” from teachers, peers, and family members, mainly based on gender-entrenched expectations 
and gender-based normative beliefs and perceptions. The following comment encapsulates general 
sentiment from the participants, “the teachers, friends, and even some of our family members 
discouraged us from enrolling in purely technical programs because it is the male sector, and we 
would be seen within the society as “obaa-barima” (literally translated as ‘woman-man’ or preferably 
‘Tomboy’).” Such attitudes substantially limit women’s abilities to access Ghanaian technical 
education.
Equity
In this study, an examination of equity was focused on how gender social constructions are treated 
within the selected institutions in terms of program channels and whether students had access to high- 
quality opportunities and support to achieve equally high outcomes, regardless of circumstances 
(Gioiosa, 2014). While participants acknowledged the availability of teaching and learning resources 
for all students (relating to the fairness component of equity), they perceived a sense of bias regarding 
being assigned specific tasks generally classified as male-oriented. This, to a large extent, affected the 
inclusivity of technical education programs, which may create achievement gaps between male and 
female students.
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 11
Institutional support to foster equity, diversity, and inclusion
The study revealed no institutional support structures to foster gender equity, diversity, and inclusion 
in the selected technical institutes. The participants identified several institutional challenges such as 
lack of information to prospective students (both traditional and non-traditional students), eligibility 
criteria that may affect access, and other institutional issues that discourage female participation in 
technical education. Also, the participants mentioned the lack of counseling services as an institutional 
deficiency affecting completion rates.
Analysis & conclusion
While this paper would not attempt to describe as mere rhetoric the mantra “Technical education for 
all,” the author contends that not enough has been done to change the stigma associated with women’s 
participation in “hardcore” technical education programs in Ghana. More needs to be done to promote 
gender equity, diversity, and inclusion at the institutional and, more importantly, national levels. It is 
essential for technical institutes and government agencies responsible for TVET in Ghana to realize that 
access to technical education does not begin at enrollment. Instead, it starts with the messages and 
outreach used to attract diverse and underrepresented students (Gioiosa, 2014). Therefore, institutions 
should intensify initiatives to encourage women’s participation in technical education programs.
Case study: United States community colleges: impact of global learning experiences 
on career-technical and rural students
Introduction
This case study explores how Career Technical Education (CTE) students at a community college in the 
United States participate in global learning experiences and the impact that these experiences have on 
them personally and professionally. CTE students are often considered non-traditional and identified 
with underrepresented populations, such as low-income, rural, and immigrant students. This research 
aims to examine and compare the experiences of CTE and rural students and explore how the Sector 
helps them in terms of access, support, completion, employability, and the communal impact.
Methodology
The study uses a mixed-methods, explanatory sequential design to collect data. The quantitative 
portion explored the overall college enrollment data relative to intercultural experience by subgroup. 
Descriptive statistics and regression analysis provide a deeper understanding of the make-up and 
profile of enrollment vis-a-vis intercultural experience participation. The qualitative portion delves 
into students’ experiences to hear their unheard voices related to access to experiences, motivations, 
challenges, and impact on their subsequent personal, educational, and professional lives.
Findings
Diversity
In this study, CTE students originated from non-traditional populations, including those identified as 
low-income, minority, first-generation, single parents, part-time, working-class, over age 25, and 
rural. Twenty-one percent of students are rural, 31% of CTE, 23% nonwhite, 25% first-generation, 
and 21% older than 25.
Equity
Non-traditional TVET students tend to struggle in some ways, whether economic or physical, due to 
discrimination or other means. McGrath et al. (2020) created the new term “critical capabilities 
12 R. L. RABY ET AL.
account of vocational education and training” or CCA-VET. Central to CCA-VET are the concepts of 
VET learners’ experiences of multidimensional poverty, a broad conceptualization of work, a focus on 
flourishing, the importance of aspirations, and an understanding of the many decision points for 
vocational learners. Thus, while the majority of the students in the CTE case study were from low- 
socio-economic status, the remaining components of CCA-VET tell the story of the experiences of 
VET students, including their aspirations and understandings of work and how it fulfills them or 
makes possible social mobility, or personal integrity and respect.
Inclusion
The global economy demands that students of all backgrounds and academic disciplines, including 
those attending TVET, obtain the global skills that intercultural experiences provide. Institutional 
policies and practices from this case study’s community college support the success of TVET students 
through the Guided Pathways model implementation that asserts TVET students and all community 
college students require structure, individual coaching, and defined pathways to ensure success (Bailey 
et al., 2015). Structural barriers to success need to be re-visited and addressed through proactive 
advising and coaching students, meeting them where they are and acknowledging their stories and 
struggles.
Analysis and conclusion
This study contributes to SDG4 Quality Education by exploring the impact of offering equal access to 
global learning opportunities in the United States community colleges in CTE programs. SDG4.7 
indicates all learners should acquire knowledge and skills needed to promote global citizenship and 
appreciate cultural diversity. This study looks at how one college provided opportunities for global 
learning to CTE students comprised often of low-income and underrepresented student populations 
and how this SDG is furthered as a result. With the current focus on social justice for marginalized 
groups in society and the assertion that international education is a possible means for the betterment 
of society (Brandenburg et al., 2019), it is possible to see the advantages of offering TVET students 
intercultural experiences. TVET institutions impact students by helping them obtain gainful careers 
and, as a result, contribute to building a more equitable and just society. For the students in this study, 
post-graduation pathways expand social networks and open new career pathways. These students have 
a greater potential for social mobility because of their international experience (Raby & Valeau, 2022).
Discussion
Even though the five case studies described in this paper were conducted by different researchers in 
different geographic locations, and settings, they all examine experiences of non-traditional CC and 
TVET students and the role their institutions play in advancing social justice and and building 
a socially conscious society. This is done by providing equitable opportunities that flip the purpose 
of CC/TVET from a structure defined by economic needs to a system’s goals defined by students and 
represent a more human-centered, capabilities approach (McGrath et al., 2020). The comparison is 
grounded in the three research questions.
Research question 1: what are the experiences of different groups of non-traditional CC and 
TVET students?
Each case study examines a sector of non-traditional students. Some students experience serious 
challenges navigating college structures. Others use college structures for success. Table 3 summarizes 
entities that complicate student experiences, such as life expectations and institutional regulations. 
Table 4 summarizes entities that support student experiences, such as family and peer support. All 
cases note that a lack of financial assistance is a deterrent to access and completing studies. Students in 
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 13
Ontario, Quebec, and the United States note working full time is a constraint, while in Taiwan, 
Quebec, Ghana, and the United States, the constraint is family obligations. Institutional regulations 
that impact programs and program development are a constraint in Ontario, Quebec, and the United 
States., while political frameworks are a deterrent in Taiwan and Ghana. In all cases, peers and family 
are support systems in Canada and Taiwan.
Research question 2: how do institutional policies and practices support the success of such 
students in terms of equity, diversity, and inclusion
Each case study defined institutional policies and practices that support students in equity, diversity, 
and inclusion, as summarized in Table 5. The open-door policy makes access easier in Taiwan, 
Quebec, Ghana, and the United States. Services in Taiwan and the United States mirror one another. 
Specific services for non-traditional students are being developed in Ontario, Taiwan, Ghana, Quebec, 
and the United States. These are policies and practices common to most institutions in the Sector 
(Raby & Valeau, 2018).
Research question 3: how can the CC and TVET sectors contribute to building a just, socially 
conscious society?
Both theoretical constructs support the idea that the CC/TVET Sector contributes to society. Neo- 
Liberalism targets skill-based training whose jobs provide higher income to help students achieve 
mobility and benefit society (McGrath et al., 2020) as shown in Table 6. Educational gains include jobs 
for skilled international students in Canada, low-income in Taiwan, and women in Ghana. 
Capabilities target students’ ability to choose pathways resulting in productive lives, strong 
Table 3. Entities that complicate experiences of Non-traditional Students.
CEGEP, TVET, CC, 
CAAT, Ontario TVET, Taiwan Quebec Ghana United States
International Low-Income adults Rural students; CTE students, rural 
Students students women students
Working full or part-time Yes N/A Yes N/Y Yes
Family obligations No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Faculty No Yes N/A No Yes
Counselors Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A
Political framework & Yes No Yes Yes N/A
regulations
Institutional regulations Yes No Yes Yes Yes
Financial Assistance Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Table 4. Entities that support experiences of Non-traditional Students.
CEGEP, TVET, CC, 
CAAT, Ontario TVET, Taiwan Quebec Ghana United States
International Low-Income Adults Rural students CTE students, rural 
Students students women students
Family Support Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A
Peer Support Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Faculty No Yes N/A No Yes
Political Framework & No Yes No Yes N/A
Regulations
Institutional Regulations No Yes No No Yes
14 R. L. RABY ET AL.
Table 5. Institutional Policies and Practices Supporting Non-traditional Students.
CAATs TVETs TVETs CCs 
Ontario Taiwan CEGEPs Quebec Ghana United States
International Low-Income Students Adults Rural CTE 
students Women Rural
Open-door policy √ √ √ √
Prep (remedial) courses √ √ √ √
Services for non-traditional students √ √ √ √
Financial assistance √ √
Pathway to a university √ √ √
Lifelong learning √ √ √ √
Student Cohorts √ √
Equity, diversity & inclusion policies √ √ √ √ √
Poor Infrastructure √ √ √
Table 6. Support for Non-traditional Students as a Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals.
CAATs TVETs CCs 
Ontario TVETs Taiwan CEGEPs Quebec Ghana United States
Intern. Low-Income Adults Rural CTE 
students Women Rural
GOAL 1: No Poverty √ √ √ √ √
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger √ √
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being √ √ √ √ √
GOAL 4: Quality Education √ √ √ √ √
GOAL 5: Gender Equality √ √
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth √ √ √ √ √
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure √ √
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality √ √ √ √ √
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities √ √ √
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption & Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions √ √ √
GOAL 17: Partnerships to Achieve the Goal √
communities, and equity that supports socially just outcomes and advances social justice (Moodie 
et al., 2019). This is seen in Canada by providing opportunities for migrants in Taiwan through an 
emphasis on lifelong learning, in Ghana for opening jobs for women, and in the United States for the 
opportunity to change careers based on new knowledge.
Conclusion
The SDGs are widely represented in this article’s case studies. Comparatively, the various institutions 
created a context that minimizes poverty through decent jobs and addresses hunger, poverty, and 
societal and economic conditions. The multiple institutions also perpetuate capabilities by using 
tertiary education to gain good health and well-being, non-traditional equality, and secure the 
foundation for peace and justice-focused societies.
This article highlights the role of the CC/TVET Sector in advancing sustainable development by 
enabling access to tertiary higher education and the way institutions support diversity and inclusion for 
non-traditional student populations. This comparative case study examines the experiences of several 
under-researched categories of non-traditional students in CC/TVETs and their issues. In Canadian 
CAATs, the institutions serve the unique needs of international students with EDI strategies that integrate 
them into Canadian society and transition to the labor market. In Taiwan, the TVETs support students 
DIASPORA, INDIGENOUS, AND MINORITY EDUCATION 15
from low socioeconomic backgrounds by concentrating on whole-person education and providing them 
with opportunities to move between the two parallel streams, academic and technical/vocational. In 
Quebec, Canada, CEGEPs offer comprehensive preparation for reentry for adult students to upgrade 
their skills. In Ghana, TVET initiatives target gender parity through access to all TVET programs. Finally, 
in the United States CCs, programs help CTE and rural students in completion, employability, global 
learning, and community impact.
Access is central to these comparative case studies in advancing sustainability when viewed through 
the neo-liberal and capabilities narratives. Through neo-liberalist perspectives, education enables gainful 
employment, allowing graduates to earn more money, gain socioeconomic mobility, and serve local 
communities. Aligned with capabilities, education empowers students to choose pathways that enable 
them to be happy with their choices and to become socially conscious of their roles in society.
This study contributes to the dialogue regarding CC/TVET’s contribution to SDGs as it demon-
strates that owing to their diverse but distinctive characteristics, CCs and TVETs are uniquely 
positioned to support non-traditional and underserved student populations. Many of the institutional 
support programs that benefit non-traditional students described in this study may be successfully 
adopted and/or extended by other Sector institutions in other locations.
Future research can include variations of this study in other geographic locations and/or those that 
focus on different non-traditional student populations. This study is intended to encourage more 
comparative research on non-traditional students within the CC/TVET sector.
Widespread economic, cultural, and social changes rapidly transform how we live and work. These 
changes have been so aggravated by the COVID-19 pandemic that our lives may never be the same 
again, which offers new possibilities for the future. This new reality challenges educational institutions 
to provide students with relevant knowledge for our future world and address sustainability’s 
centrality. Community colleges and other TVET institutions have a vital role in achieving this goal.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes on contributor
Rosalind Latiner Raby, Ph.D. is a Senior Lecturer at California State University, Northridge in the Educational 
Leadership and Policy Studies Department of the College of Education and is an affiliate faculty for the ELPS Ed.D. 
Community College program. She serves as the Director of California Colleges for International Education, a nonprofit 
consortium of California community colleges. She is also on the Academic Board of the Centre for Higher Education 
Internationalisation (CHEI), Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano. She is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of 
Comparative and International Higher Education and Associate Editor of the Journal of Further and Higher Education. 
Dr. Raby received her Ph.D. in the field of Comparative and International Education from University of California at Los 
Angeles. Dr. Raby has been publishing in the field of community college internationalization since 1985. Her latest 
publications are Catalysts of Change: Entrepreneurial Problem-Solving for Unscripted Futures (AIEA White Paper, co- 
editor), Study abroad opportunities for community college students and strategies for global learning (IGI-Global, 2019, 
co-editor); Handbook on Comparative Issues of Community Colleges and Global Counterparts (Springer, 2018, co- 
editor) and International Education at Community Colleges: Themes, Practices, and Case Studies (Palgrave, 2016, co- 
editor).
ORCID
Rosalind Latiner Raby http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8980-8991
Oleg Legusov http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3960-769X
David Addae http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9479-6991
Jonathan Martel http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6808-670X
Leping Mou http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7144-0458
Dawn Wood http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8588-8931
16 R. L. RABY ET AL.
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