University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES DEPARTMENT OF FRENCH TERMINOLOGICAL EQUIVALENCE AND APPROPRIATENESS IN TECHNICAL TRANSLATION: A STUDY OF SELECTED TEXTS FROM PLAN NATIONAL DE DÉVELOPPEMENT (PND) 2018-2022, TOGO TRANSLATION PROJECT SUBMITTED BY AKUWA DZIGBODI SOGLO (10334860) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS IN TRANSLATION DEGREE OCTOBER 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Akuwa Dzigbodi Soglo, hereby declare that this thesis is a record of actual work done by me under the supervision of Dr. Stephen Syme, except for references to works by various authors I have duly acknowledged. The result of this research has not been submitted anywhere for an academic award. STUDENT Signature Date Akuwa Dzigbodi Soglo SUPERVISOR Signature Date Dr. Stephen Syme ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to Mr. and Mrs. Dobson for their unconditional love and support. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My utmost gratitude goes to the Almighty God for His sufficient grace and mercy upon my life. Indeed, the journey was tough but He gave me the strength to finish it. To my parents and my brothers, I say thank you for always being there for me in prayers and for all the morale support. I wish to extend my heartfelt gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Stephen SYME, for making time despite his busy schedules, to read my work and provide professional guidance. I extend my special thanks to Dr. Emmanuel KUTO who encouraged me to enroll in the MA Translation Program. I am equally grateful to all my lecturers: Prof. Robert YENNAH, Dr. Sewoenam CHACHU, Dr. Ulrich DOUO and Dr. Abdoulaye IMOROU for taking us through the course. I would like to thank Mr. Luke LIEBZIE for spending time to edit my work and provide useful comments, suggestions and corrections. I really cannot thank Harold enough, whose support and encouragement made a lot of difference in the timely completion of this study. Finally, I say thank you to all my course mates: Jennifer, Jonas, Gifty and Nadège. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Translators should be able to deliver the intended meaning of message conveyed in the source language to the target language without changing the purpose of the source text at all. This study aimed at exploring issues of equivalence and appropriateness in the translation of texts. The source text, Plan National De Développement (PND), 2018-2022, Togo or National Development Plan (2018-2022) of the Republic of Togo, was used as the primary source material in this study. The study adopted mainly an analytical and contrastive methodology. Translation theories and strategies provided a framework not just to clarify but also to overcome the translation challenges that were encountered, particularly as the text is replete with technical terms culled from the field of economics. The study concluded that Translation Unit, Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence are useful strategies in rendering meaning in the target language by overcoming issues of equivalence and appropriateness. A good cultural knowledge was also found to be crucial in surmounting the issue of equivalence and appropriateness, especially in the translation of acronyms and abbreviations. Keywords: equivalence, appropriateness, translation unit, formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh RÉSUMÉ Les traducteurs doivent être capables de transmettre par écrit le sens voulu dans la langue source à la langue cible sans modifier l'objectif du texte source. Cette étude vise à explorer les questions d'équivalence et de pertinence dans la traduction des textes. Le texte source, Plan National de Développement (PND), 2018-2022, Togo a été utilisé comme support principal de cette étude. L'étude a adopté principalement une méthodologie analytique et contrastive. Les théories et les stratégies de traduction nous ont permis d’avoir un cadre de travail visant non seulement à clarifier mais aussi à surmonter les difficultés de traduction rencontrées, du fait que le texte est rempli de termes techniques tirés du domaine de l'économie. L'étude a conclu que l'Unité de Traduction, l'Equivalence Formelle et l'Equivalence Dynamique sont des techniques utiles pour rendre le sens dans la langue cible enfin de résoudre les problèmes d'Équivalence et de Pertinence. Nous avons également constaté qu'une bonne connaissance culturelle est essentielle pour surmonter les problèmes d'équivalence et de pertinence, notamment en ce qui concerne la traduction des acronymes et des abréviations. Mots clés : équivalence, pertinence, unité de traduction, équivalence formelle et équivalence dynamique vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION………………………………………………………………………………..ii DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………..iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………….....iv ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………..v RESUMÉ………………………………………………………………………………………...vi TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………...…….vii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS……………………………………………………….ix CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………………...1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………..1 1.0 Background of Study…………………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Problem Statement……………………………………………………………………………3 1.2 Justification of Study…………………………………………………………………………4 1.3 Research Objectives………………………………………………………………..…………5 1.4 Research Questions………………………………………………………………………..…5 1.5 Literature review……………………………………………………………………...………6 1.5.1 The Concept of Translation……………………………………………….………………6 1.5.2 The General Concept of Equivalence……………………………………………….……7 1.5.3 Equivalence in Translation theory……………………………………………….……….7 1.5.4 Problems of Equivalence in Translation………………………………………………....10 1.5.5 The Concept of Appropriateness……………………………………………….………..11 1.5.6 Terminological Challenges in Translation……………………………………….……...12 1.5.7 Polysemy……………………………………….………………………………………..14 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Research Methodology……………………………………….……………………………..14 1.7 Organization of Study……………………………………….……………………………....15 CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………………16 2.1 Introduction of the source text………………………………………………………………16 2.2 Corpora Alignment: French-English……………………………………….……………….16 CHAPTER THREE……………………………………………………………………………75 STRUCTURED ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF TRANSLATION PROBLEMS………75 3.1 Translation Unit……………………………………….………………………………….....75 3.1.1 Contrastive analysis of the translation units in the source and target texts……………..75 3.2 Technical Terms…………………………………………………………………………...77 3.2.1 Reliance on cultural and general knowledge in translation of abbreviations and acronyms79 3.3 Formal Equivalence……………………………………….……………………………….82 3.4 Dynamic Equivalence……………………………………….……………………………..84 3.5 Polysemy……………………………………….………………………………………….86 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………...…90 REFERENCES……………………………………….………………………………………....92 GLOSSARY……………………………………….………………………………………...….98 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS French English AGRISEF: Accès des agriculteurs aux services AGRISEF: Farmers' Access to Financial Services financiers ANPGF: Agence nationale de promotion et de ANPGF: National Agency for the Promotion and garantie de financement des PME / PMI Financing of SMES APIEX: Agence de la promotion des APIEX: Agency for the Promotion of investissements et des exportations Investments and Exports API-ZF: Agence de promotion des API-ZF: Free Zone Agency for Promotion of investissements de la zone franche Investment BCEAO: Banque centrale des Etats de BCEAO: Central Bank of West African States l’Afrique de l’Ouest BTP: Bâtiment et travaux publics BTP: Construction and Public Works CECA: Coopérative d’épargne et de crédit aux CECA: Savings and Credit Cooperative for artisans Artisans CEDEAO: Communauté économique des Etats ECOWAS: Economic Community of West de l’Afrique de l’Ouest African States CFE: Centres des formalités des entreprises CFE: Center for Business Formalities CGA: Centre de gestion agréé CGA: Accredited Management Centre CRA: Centre de ressources pour l’artisanat CRA: Crafts Resource Centre ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DSRP-C: Document complet de stratégie de C-PRSP: Comprehensive Poverty Reduction réduction de la pauvreté Strategy Paper DSRP-I: Document Intérimaire de Stratégie de I-PRSP: Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy réduction de la pauvreté Paper FAIEJ: Fonds d’appui aux initiatives FAIEJ: Youth Economic Initiatives Support économiques des jeunes Fund FNFI: Fonds national de la finance inclusive FNFI: National Fund for Inclusive Finance GUCE: Guichet unique du commerce extérieur GUCE: Single Window External Trade System IDE: Investissement direct étranger FDI: Foreign Direct Investment MCA: Millennium Challenge Account MCA: Millennium Challenge Account ODD: Objectifs de développement durable SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals PAIPJA: Projet d’appui à l’insertion PAIPJA: The social and Occupational Integration professionnelle des jeunes artisans Project which seeks to support young artisans PASA: Projet d’appui au secteur agricole PASA: Agricultural Sector Support Program PIB: Produit intérieur brut GDP: Gross Domestic Product PME: Petite et moyenne entreprise SME: Small and Medium Enterprise PMI: Petite et moyenne industrie PMI: Small and Medium Industry PND: Plan national de développement NDP: National Development Plan PNIASA: Programme national d’investissement PNIASA: National Agricultural Investment and agricole et de sécurité alimentaire Food Security Program x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PNIASAN: Plan national d’investissement PNIASAN: National Investment Plan in agricole et de sécurité alimentaire et Agriculture, Food Security and Nutrition nutritionnelle PNPER: Projet national de promotion de PNPER: National Project for the Promotion l’entreprenariat rural et moyennes of Rural and Medium-Sized Enterprises PPBSE: Planification-Programmation- PPBES: Planning, Programming, Budgeting Budgétisation-Exécution-Suivi-Evaluation and Execution System QUIBB: Questionnaire unifié des QUIBB: Unified Questionnaire on Basic indicateurs de base du bien-être Indicators of Well-Being SCAPE: Stratégie de croissance accélérée et SCAPE: Strategy for Boosting Growth and de promotion de l’emploi Promoting Employment SFD: Systèmes financiers décentralisés SFD: Decentralized Financial Systems SISNA: Système d’information et de SISNA: National Information and Statistics statistique nationales de l’artisanat System for Handicraft TIC: Technologie de l’information et de la ICT: Information and Communication communication Technology UEMOA: Union économique et monétaire WAEMU: West African Economic and ouest africaine Monetary Union UTB: Union togolaise de banque UTB: Togolese Bank Union ZES: Zones économiques spécialisées Special Economic Zones (SEZs) xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background of Study Translation is undeniably a key language skill important to be learned by translators and students who dream of pursuing a career as professional translators. Translation is simply an activity carried out by a translator to convey meaning in a text from one language to another. The term can also be conceptualised as the means of mobilizing the meaning of a particular text from one language to its closest equivalent in the target language. Therefore, one can conclude that translation is simply the process of transferring ideas from one language to another language, without changing the purpose of the source text. It can be seen that translation carries with it a lot of promise in a world where so many languages are spoken and/or written. Indeed, translation is beneficial to the author and reader alike. This is because, thanks to translation techniques, an author’s work, for example, can be appreciated across linguistic boundaries, while readers can also tap into the ideas of an author regardless of the language of the original work. Translation as a process and a product has existed for many years and its importance cannot be overemphasized. According to Panou (2013), translation eases the process of linguistic and cultural transfer of knowledge. Krein-Kuhle (2003) similarly acknowledges that both scientific and technical translation plays a significant role in knowledge and information dissemination. Traditionally, translation is conceptually defined as the process of transferring a text from one language, referred to as the source language to another language referred to as the target language (Zarqani, 1995). At the centre of the translation process is the issue of equivalence. As Leonardi (2000) observes, the rendering of texts in different languages inevitably involves a theory of 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh equivalence. The concept of equivalence remains the central issue in translation despite the fact that there are divergent views on its definition, relevance and applicability. Indeed, the translation of texts inevitably has to do with the theory of equivalence. Yet, translation theories on equivalence are not uniform. Broadly speaking, there are scholars who only advocate the linguistic approach to translation. The premise of the arguments held by these theorists have been challenged by another group of scholars who argue that when translating a text, one deals with two different cultures concurrently. For this group of scholars, equivalence, must also involve the transfer of the message from a source culture to a target culture and a pragmatic/semantic or functionally oriented approach to translation—bringing the concept of appropriateness into sharp focus. More specific equivalence theories are cited in the translation literature. One of such theories which conform to the linguistic view of translation is the equivalence-oriented translation by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995). This perspective views translation as a procedure which ‘replicates the same situation as in the original, while using completely different wording.’ In a variant theory, Nida and Taber (1982) present their theory of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. According to the aforementioned authors, formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon the principle of comparable effect. Dynamic equivalence addresses the issue of appropriateness. In practice, formal correspondence works when a word that most closely serves as an equivalent in the target language is used to replace a word in the source language. Nida and Taber concede to the fact that it is not always feasible to get formal equivalents between language pairs and hence the use of dynamic equivalence. Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, describes a translation principle whereby the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact on the target language audience. The 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh authors in particular acknowledge that sometimes the form of the source text changes but inasmuch as the change goes by the rules of “back transformation” in the source language and achieves contextual consistency in the transfer, the translation is equally good message, is preserved and the translation is faithful. 1.1 Problem Statement The theoretical perspectives on equivalence and appropriateness suggest that the translator faces a plethora of choices when translating a text from a source language into a target language. According to Panou (2013), earlier theoretical paradigms in particular in the 1960s and 1970s on translation are meant to achieve some degree of sameness when translating from source text to a target text. Other scholars criticize this perspective on the assumption that it may practically be impossible to achieve exact equivalence when translating from source language to a target language. In the context of terminological challenges faced by translators in source texts, Cabré (1999) as cited in Matamala (2010), for example, notes that the translator may face such challenges as knowing or specifying the meaning of a term from the source text, confirming its specialized nature, knowing its denominative alternatives and the conditions in which they are used in texts. Similarly, pertaining to the target language, Cabré (1999) observes that the translator faces the likely challenges of knowing if there is an equivalent term in the target language and, if not, which resources must be utilized in order to adapt or create a reasonable denomination and how to indicate that it is a neologism; determining the most adequate equivalent unit by considering a focal topic and the approach; and deciphering whether a term has specific or restrictive grammatical usages. In the light of this, equivalence and appropriateness in translation, from a practical perspective, may require the translator to consider several domains of issues including meanings and messages that a source text carries, as no single theory accounts for these. As Alfaori 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2017) posits, the translation process should be construed as a sequence of decisions by which the translator chooses from the available alternatives, guided by definitional instructions that define the paradigm and selective instructions that narrow the number of choices. Alfaori (2017), in addition, notes that translation should not be perceived as just a substitution of texts among languages but must incorporate also the objectives and meanings conveyed in source texts. This brings to the fore the issue of appropriateness. Appropriateness describes the qualitative correspondence of a source text in a target text which, in the process, requires a comprehensive understanding of objective-logical appropriateness, stylistic appropriateness, and pragmatic appropriateness (Ili, 2014). These are critical to producing an accurate translation. Proceeding from this backdrop, this study seeks to examine the issue of equivalence and appropriateness in translating the terminologies of texts using the Plan National De Développement (PND), 2018- 2022, Togo or the National Development Plan (2018-2022) of the Togolese Republic as the source text, which will be translated into English. 1.2 Justification of Study The research has immense practical and theoretical relevance. From a practical standpoint, this study seeks to provide useful insights into how various theories on equivalence as perceived in the field of translation can be applied in context-specific terminologies. The findings of the study will help improve the understanding of translators in the applicability of various theories to translating source texts to target texts. As Nida (2001) avers, knowledge of contexts in translation potentially helps translators to comprehend the varieties of contexts and their importance for understanding a text and reproducing the meaning in another language. Also, the research is justified on the grounds that it builds on the existing literature on the subject of equivalence in the field of translation. In the future, researchers who may share a similar research interest may find the study useful as it 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh can be used as a source of reference material and guide. Furthermore, the study provides a foundation upon which other studies may be undertaken. Given the general iterative nature of research, the proposed study may bring to the fore interesting findings. These findings may motivate other researchers to study the research problem from diverse perspectives, which may further enhance the translation of technical texts. 1.3 Research Objectives The study seeks to achieve the following objectives: 1. To identify problems of terminology. 2. To use the theories of equivalence and appropriateness to address translation from a source text into a target text. 3. To explore how to improve upon the theories of equivalence and appropriateness in the translation of a source text into a target text. 1.4 Research Questions In accordance with the stated objectives, the study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What terminological problems are encountered in the translation of a source text into a target text? 2. How best can the theories of equivalence and appropriateness be used to address translation from a source text into a target text. 3. How can the theories of equivalence and appropriateness be improved to address translation of a source text into a target text. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Literature review 1.5.1 The Concept of Translation Various scholars have provided several definitions of translation. According to McArthur (1992), translation is the “restatement of the forms of one language in another: the chief means of exchanging information between different language communities.” The Collier’s Encyclopedia (1960) conceptualizes translation as “… the art of converting written or spoken communication from one language into another.” According to the Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, translation is “the process or result of converting information from one language or language variety into another.” The aim of translating a written or recorded material of natural languages, is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features of the source language original by finding equivalents in the target language (Hartman, 1972). Catford (1996), on his part, defines translation as “an operation performed on language: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another,” or, “… the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).” Though these are some differences in all the definitions of translation cited above, the definitions nonetheless underscore a common aim and that is the idea that translation implies the process of transferring a message from one language to another, taking into account all the dimensions within the Source Language Text (SLT), linguistic organization, culture, style, time, intentions, feelings etc. and reproducing the whole text smoothly, naturally and as closely to the original text as possible in the Target Language Text (TLT). Translation differs in terms of form. Jakobson (1960) makes a differentiation among three types of translation, all of which are dependent on the codes involved in translation. These are (a) intralingual translation, in which the message is transferred 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh within the same linguistic medium, (b) interlingual translation which deals with two different languages, and (c) intersemiotic translation or transmutation, which includes nonlinguistic media. This could be an interpretation of verbal signs by means of non-verbal signs system, (Jakobson, cited in Steiner, (1975: 260) and in Bassnett, (1980). Newmark (1985), on his part, identifies three types of translation using the nature of texts involved. These are: (a) scientific-technological, which are usually handled by the translation department of public corporations, multinationals and government departments; (b) institutional-cultural texts (culture, social sciences, commerce) handled in particular by international organizations, and (c) literary texts, normally handled by freelance translation companies and freelance translators. From this sense, one may come out with three types of translation: technical, cultural and literary and, which are all of equal relevance. The current study reflects interlingual translation. 1.5.2 The General Concept of Equivalence Viewing it from the perspective of everyday usage, equivalence refers to the state of being “equal or interchangeable in value, quantity, significance, etc” or of “having the same or a similar effect or meaning” (Collins English Dictionary, 2003). Therefore, the meaning of equivalence from a generic sense implies the existence of two or more entities that are related and comparable to each other, the relationship being one of equality, sameness or similarity (Halverson, 1997). 1.5.3 Equivalence in Translation theory Equivalence refers to the relationship between a source text and a target text that allows the target text to be viewed as a translation of the source text (Kenny, 1998). As in the case of text theory, however, this equivalence relationship does not denote absolute identity or sameness (Chesterman, 1998), but, at best, approximate, optimal, or maximal similarity (Newmark, 1991). Most 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh equivalence theorists would also agree that equivalence is not a unitary concept Yallop, 2001). Rather, equivalence carries a variety of types. One of the best typologies is presented by Koller (1989): a. Denotative equivalence, which refers to equivalence of content or semantic equivalence; b. Connotative equivalence, which focuses on connotations and implies equivalence of style and register; c. Text-normative equivalence, which relates to text type usage norms; d. Pragmatic equivalence, which concentrates on the reader and refers to equivalence of effect; and e. Formal equivalence, which has to do with the formal-aesthetic features of the text and implies expressive or artistic-aesthetic equivalence. Other scholars have also provided other classifications of equivalence. Catford (1965) is one of such scholars who came out with textual equivalence and formal correspondence types of equivalence. Textual translation equivalence is “that portion of a TL text which is changed when and only when a given portion of SL text is changed. Sometimes, it happens that there is no TL equivalent of a given SL item. A formal correspondence is “any TL category which may be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the “same” place in the “economy” of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the TL”. According to Nida (1975), it is not possible to come out with absolute communication and in that situation, Nida suggests that there should be very close approximation to the standard of natural equivalence may be obtained but it is important to make sure that such translations reflect a high degree of sensitivity to different syntactic structures and result from clear insight into cultural diversities”. Nida further distinguishes between between two 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh types of equivalence, formal and dynamic. The formal focuses on the message in both form and content, while the dynamic equivalence is based on the relationship between the receiver and the message in both SL and TL text. According to Bassnett (1980), equivalence is a very popular concept. Newmark (1982) also points out that the equivalence response principle is mentalistic and needs further definition”. Moreover, it is not easy to achieve similar effect when the readership is different. Besides, similar response where the function is expressive is difficult to analyse. Zlateva (in Bassnett and Lefevere, 1990), raises another point in this respect. According to her, the criteria for judging adequacy of language use in translation are much more complex than those by which we evaluate the use of language in an original work. To her, the translation is a maximally close analogue of the original if the translator has managed adequately to render the original’s overall content, both aesthetic and conceptual. She opines that translators should not be blamed when failing to elicit an effect on their readers. The reason is that this effect is the result of something very much not part of the actual text the translators had to deal with (p. 30) (see also, Reiss and Vermeer (1984), Straight, in Rose, (1981), and Schogt, (1988). Following Holmes (1987), Bassnett (1980: 29), says that TE (translation equivalence) “should not be approached as a search for sameness, since sameness cannot even exist between two TL versions of the same text, let alone between SL and TL versions.” Wilss (1982: 45-7), like Nida, holds that anything that can be said in one language can be said in another with reasonable accuracy. He says: “… in principle, any SLT can be replaced by a TLT having a comparable communication function (with the exception of certain lyrical production”. He maintains that TE cannot be integrated in a general translation theory, but must be looked upon as part of specific translation theories which are single-text-oriented. To him, that is why a translation practitioner “prefers to rely on his translational intuition, his individual translational 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh range of experience and his TE norms, if he has to make a statement as to whether in his opinion a translation is equivalent, less equivalent or non- equivalent”. In accordance with this point of view, Shveitser (1993), remarks that translators themselves try to devise all kinds of ways round the equivalence, whereas translation scholars who do not actually translate themselves, like Catford, cling to some notion of equivalence as the only yardstick by which the activity of translation can be measured. 1.5.4 Problems of Equivalence in Translation One of the often-cited problems on equivalence in translation pertains to variations in culture (Arffman, 2002; Artelt & Baumert, 2004). It has been documented by Hamilton and Barton (2000) that texts used have mostly been drawn from Western and Anglo-Saxon cultures. The problem faced is that contents of such works are less relevant and familiar in non-Western and non-Anglo- Saxon cultures (Sireci & Allalouf, 2003). It has moreover been found out that an attempt to address these biases in the form of doing away with texts may prove unsuccessful, as such an exercise leads to the texts being culturally neutral (Hamilton & Barton, 2000). The quality of the text has also been a source of problem. This is particularly so when the source text is being flawed, or ambiguous (Van de Vijver & Poortinga, 2005). Behaviour of translators also presents problems. This happens when translators translate too literally, or when they translate too freely and explicitly, or when they make mistakes (Manesse, 2000). Lack of time and the use of unqualified translators have been cited as precursors to this development. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5.5 The Concept of Appropriateness According to Ptashkin (2013a) as cited in Kobenko and Ptashkin (2014), one can describe equivalence and appropriateness as the linguistic expression of dialectical categories of quantity and quality. Appropriateness refers to the qualitative correspondence of a source text which the translator utilizes in a target text. The reality is that the translator in search of quantitative correspondence may have to resort to adequate translation to make a proper representation. Viewed in this context, appropriateness broadly refers to the relatively free reconstruction of contents in accord with the norms of target language (TL). This is true as the translator may not be able to reproduce same quantity of text units as is the case of equivalence (Kobenko & Ptashkin, 2014). In more specific terms, this brings into discussion the concept of functional appropriateness. Functionalist approach to translation generally highlights that it is important in translation to ensure that the quality of the purpose of the source text is maintained in the target text. This approach sees quality in translation as not an objective measurement but quality rather depends on the text users and their criteria for assessing how appropriately and efficiently a text fulfils its ‘function’ in a specific situation. The use of function in such contexts reflects sense of the function that the TT fulfils in the specific communicative setting of the target culture. In this sense, ‘function’ is synonymous with ‘purpose’. In accordance with this view, when establishing functional equivalence between the ST and the TT, one has to analyse and compare the ST to the TT in terms of more specific situational dimensions. In support of this view, House (1977) proposes these criteria for functional equivalence: The situational dimensions and their linguistic correlates are considered to be the means by which the text’s function is realized. The basic criterion of functional match for translation equivalence can now be refined: a translation text should not only match its source text in function, but employ equivalent situational dimensional 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh means to achieve that function. That is, for a translation of optimal quality it is desirable to have a match between source and translation texts along the dimensions which are found--in the course of the analysis--to contribute in a particular way to the two components of the text’s function. (House 1977:) The underlying logic is that translation is not about words or grammatical structures but they are texts as communicative occurrences, i.e. one in the context of translation deals with texts in varied situations and culture and are supposed to accomplish certain functions. Currently, functional appropriateness has been increasingly used as a measure of the quality of a translation. Therefore, the text producer should not be seen as just a producer but must demonstrate high confidence and should be keenly aware of what happens in the process of translation. What is required most importantly in such context is that the translator must know to whom he/she translates and what users may generally do with the text. It is only with awareness and possession of this knowledge the translator can produce a TT that is appropriately structured and formulated in order to effectively fulfil its intended purpose for its addressees. 1.5.6 Terminological Challenges in Translation Terminology is described as the inventory of terms usually identified with a field or a certain domain. Generally, terminology is not in itself a type of speech act, but serves as an instrument utilized in specialized communication. Translation from a general sense fundamentally focuses on the communication process, whereas terminology is given a secondary focus. The translator should be interested in terminology simply because it is part of the message conveyed by a specialized text. It has been said that the association between terminology and translation is asymmetrical since terminology has no intrinsic need to recur in translation (Velasquez, 2002). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It can be inferred from the preceding analysis that the quality of a translation could be dependent on the adequacy of the terminology in a text as well as its suitability for the level of specialization. This also implies that the translator must always address terminological problems during the analysis of the source text and the production of the target text. Challenges which the translator faces with terminology arise from such factors as unfamiliarity with the terminological units, their meaning in discourse, and their possible correspondences in the target language (Rodríguez Camacho 2002; Cabré et al. 2002: 168, 9). Pavel (2011) similarly contends that when specialized knowledge is transferred between language communities, the delimitation of concepts is not always identical in a given pair of languages. In the field of comparative terminology, the process of term identification reveals any discrepancies, as proper designations may not be found in one of the languages. In such instances, the role expected of the terminologist is to describe the gaps and propose designations to fill them. The validity of such terms may also be conditioned by these factors: based on sound knowledge of the target language’s rules of lexical formation, must be harmoniously integrated into the existing terminology, and must be clearly presented as the terminologist’s proposal (Pavel, 2011). In the context of terminological challenges faced by translators in source texts, Cabré (1999) as cited in Matamala (2010), for example, notes that the translator may face such challenges as knowing or specifying the meaning of a terminology from the source text, confirming its specialised nature, knowing its denominative alternatives and the conditions in which they are used in texts. Similarly, pertaining to the target language, Cabré (1999) observes that the translator faces the likely challenges of knowing if there is an equivalent terminology in the target language and, if so, which resources must be utilized in order to adapt or create a reasonable denomination and how to indicate that it is a neologism; determining the most adequate equivalent unit by 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh considering a focal topic, and deciphering whether a term has specific or restrictive grammatical usages. 1.5.7 Polysemy According to Ullman (1962), language is ambiguous in itself and words often have more than one meaning and so it is up to the language user to decide which meaning to choose based on the context of utterances. And the way people understand words whether spoken or written by others is simply a reflection of their understanding of the meaning expressed by these words. Ullman’s view is that foreign influence can give rise to polysemy. Polysemy is affirmed by Falkhum (2018) who stated that polysemy has been traditionally regarded as a matter of different meanings listed under a single lexical entry and the extraction of the meaning of a polysemous word involves selecting the contextually appropriate meaning from among the meanings listed. It goes without saying that polysemy poses a translation problem since translation is concerned about rendering the equivalents of words, phrases and other expressions used in the source text. 1.6 Research Methodology The translation process in the study first involves identification of specific terminologies as captured in the focal document, specifically, the NDP of Togo. Subsequent to this, all identified terms are translated utilizing various translation theories. The rationale for doing this is to find out if one or perhaps a mix of theories can best provide the best possible explanation of technical terms. This methodology conforms to the methodology adopted by Krein-Kuhle (2013) in a previous study. One of the salient pillars of this equivalence-relevant methodology is a theoretically well-founded translation comparison. Such a methodological framework also allows for equivalence-relevant features which `are at the syntactic, lexical-semantic, terminological- 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh phraseological and overall textual levels in general but, in the context of this study, at the terminological-phraseological level. 1.7 Organization of Study The presentation consists of three chapters. Chapter One introduces the research context by providing the background of the study, research problem identification, research objectives, research questions, hypotheses, literature review, and research methodology. Chapter Two focuses on the translation of the content of the source text into the target text. Chapter Three presents the analysis and conclusion emerging from the study in accordance with the objectives of the study. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.1 Introduction of the Source Text Our source text is an extract from the official document PLAN NATIONAL DE DÉVELOPPEMENT (PND) 2018-2022, TOGO released in 2018. The document presents the main challenges that Togo must address in order to position itself for the structural transformation of its economy. It also sets out important pillars for a strong, sustainable, and inclusive growth that would create decent jobs and lead to improved social welfare. In addition, the document seeks to further contribute to private sector development in the coming years and make Lomé a first-class business centre in the Sub-region. The National Development Plan 2018-2020 is derived from the SCAPE review, the Agenda 2063 of the African Union and the Vision 2020 of the ECOWAS. 2.2 Corpora Alignment: French-English INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Après les années de crise sociopolitique qui ont After years of socio-political crisis which mis à mal l’économie nationale, le Togo a mis have marred the national economy, Togo has en œuvre des réformes de grande envergure à implemented major reforms through travers des stratégies de réduction de la successive poverty reduction strategies such pauvreté successives (DSRP-I, DSRP-C, as the Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy SCAPE) permettant d’inverser la tendance à la Paper (I-PRSP), Comprehensive Poverty détérioration des indicateurs Reduction Strategy Paper (C-PRSP) and the macroéconomiques et sociaux et de retrouver Strategy for Boosting Growth and Promoting le chemin d’une croissance positive et de plus employment (SCAPE) in order to turn 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh en plus forte. Entre 2006-2015, le taux moyen around the deterioration of the de croissance du PIB réel dépasse 5%, macroeconomic and social indicators leading l’incidence de la pauvreté a diminué de 6,6 to a positive and stronger economy. Between points de pourcentage, l’emploi a connu des 2006-2015, the average real GDP growth rate progrès notables et l’indice de développement exceeded 5%, the incidence of poverty fell by humain s’est amélioré. 6.6 percentage points, employment experienced significant progress and the Human Development Index improved. En dépit des progrès notables, des défis Despite this significant progress, challenges importants persistent en termes d’inégalités such as social and spatial inequalities, poor sociales et spatiales, de faiblesse du système national, human and governance systems productif national, de ressources humaines et continue to persist. As SCAPE came to an de gouvernance. La mise en œuvre de la end, the Togolese authorities decided to SCAPE arrivant à son terme, les autorités implement a National Development Plan togolaises ont décidé de doter le pays d’un Plan (NDP) for the 2018-2022 period. As a new national de développement (PND) pour la framework of reference for development, the période 2018-2022. Nouveau cadre de NDP aims to consolidate the idea of référence en matière de développement, le emergence and sustainable development PND entend concilier et traduire les ambitions through a structural economic d’émergence et de développement durable à transformation, training of different sectors travers la transformation structurelle de of the value chain, growth acceleration, l’économie et la professionnalisation des reduction of poverty and inequalities while différents secteurs des chaînes de valeurs, preserving the environment. This exercise is 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l’accélération de la croissance, la réduction de carried out within a specific context, and has la pauvreté et des inégalités et la préservation certainly been faced by major challenges. de l’environnement. Cet exercice se déroule However, there have been some dans un contexte marqué, certes, par des défis opportunities which, when wisely exploited, majeurs, mais également par des opportunités can bring about a long-term economic dont l’exploitation judicieuse peut permettre emergence. l’émergence économique à long terme. Sur le plan international, les perspectives sont Internationally, there are favourable favorables à un regain de croissance prospects for renewed economic growth for économique pour les trois prochaines années. the next three years. Sur le plan sous-régional, l’engagement de plus At the sub-regional level, the strong en plus affirmé par les dirigeants de la commitment demonstrated by the ECOWAS CEDEAO pour une plus forte convergence des leaders for a stronger consolidation of économies est plutôt favorable à une meilleure economies encourages better economic intégration économique, un marché estimé à integration, a market growth estimated at 380 380 millions de personnes qui représente la million people who represent the greatest plus grande opportunité pour la croissance de opportunity for the growth of the Togolese l’économie togolaise. Cependant, on note que economy. We however note that several plusieurs pays de la sous-région investissent countries in the sub-region are investing massivement dans les domaines dans lesquels massively in the areas in which Togo has le Togo a des avantages comparatifs, ce qui comparative advantage. This therefore 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nécessite des efforts supplémentaires pour requires additional efforts to increase the accroître la compétitivité de l’économie competitiveness of the national economy, nationale et surtout du corridor de transit. En particularly in the transit corridor. Moreover, outre, la sous-région est toujours en proie à des the sub-region still falls prey to security menaces sur le plan sécuritaire qui nécessitent threats which require concerted efforts to des actions concertées pour maintenir la paix et maintain peace and stability, which are two la stabilité, conditions indispensables pour le indispensable conditions for the success of succès de toute stratégie de développement. any development strategy. Sur le plan national, la période de croissance At the national level, the relatively strong relativement forte est ternie depuis août 2017 growth period has been marred since August par des tensions socio-politiques qui ont 2017 by socio-political tensions that have entraîné un certain attentisme dans les milieux resulted in certain wait-and-see policies in des affaires. Fort heureusement, le climat de business circles. Fortunately, the political dialogue politique instauré présage des climate has created a more promising perspectives plus sereines. prospect. Au regard de ce qui précède, il devient donc In the light of the foregoing, it is therefore impératif de repenser le développement par un imperative to rethink development through a changement de paradigme dans la chaîne paradigm shift in the planning, planification, programmation, budgétisation et programming, budgeting and monitoring- suivi-évaluation pour espérer réaliser les evaluation chain in the hope to realise Togo’s ambitions du Togo. dreams. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh La nouvelle approche imprimée au PND est The new NDP approach is driven by a vision conduite par une vision ancrée dans la réalité rooted in the Togolese ambition and centred togolaise et centrée autour de quatre (4) lignes around four (4) key guidelines: directrices clés : - A strategic positioning centred around a - un positionnement stratégique autour small number of integrated inter-sectoral d’un nombre très restreint de moteurs forces for each objective (international and intersectoriels intégrés pour chaque national); focus (international et national); - The involvement of public and private - une implication des secteurs public et sectors in achieving the targeted projects to privé pour réaliser les projets ciblés foster the strategic positioning and pour le positionnement stratégique et la constitution of a public/private partnership constitution de binôme public/privé to carry out flagship projects; pour mener les projets phares; - A limited number of integrated flagship - un nombre limité de projets phares projects are agents of growth and well- intégrés porteurs de croissance et de being; bien-être; - une articulation du PND autour d’un - An articulation of the NDP centred on a nombre restreint de messages forts et limited number of strong and precise clairs qui définissent le Togo. messages that define Togo. Le PND est donc fondé sur cette nouvelle The NDP is founded on this new approach approche tout en étant encadré par le Projet de and managed by the project division of the société du Chef de l’Etat décliné dans la Head of State offered in the general policy 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh déclaration de politique générale du statement of the government. It is also gouvernement. Il s’inspire aussi de l’agenda inspired by AGENDA 2030’s Sustainable 2030 de développement durable, de l’agenda Development, Agenda 2063 of the African 2063 de l’Union Africaine et de la Vision 2020 Union and Vision 2020 of the Economic de la Communauté Economique des Etats de Community of West African States l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO). (ECOWAS). Le processus d’élaboration du PND a impliqué The development process of the NDP has activement toutes les catégories d’acteurs de actively involved all the categories of développement (administration publique, stakeholders of development (public institutions de la République, secteur privé, administration and government institutions, société civile dans toutes ses composantes et the private sector, civil societies as well as partenaires techniques et financiers). technical and financial partners). Dès le lancement du processus le From the onset of the processes, the gouvernement a défini une note conceptuelle Government has defined a conceptual ainsi qu’une feuille de route précisant les message as well as a roadmap outlining the grandes étapes et le chronogramme du major steps and schedule. The participation processus. Celles-ci font de la participation des of stakeholders serves as a guarantee for the parties prenantes le gage du succès du Plan success of the National Development Plan, as national de développement, tant dans sa regards its design and implementation. conception que dans sa mise en œuvre. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Une réunion d’identification des parties A meeting which assembled several prenantes rassemblant les acteurs de stakeholders in public administration, civil l’administration publique, de la société civile, society, private, technical and financial du secteur privé, et des partenaires techniques sectors was organized. It helped to produce a et financiers a été organisée. Elle a permis de mapping of stakeholders, thus throwing light produire une cartographie des parties prenantes on the centres of interest, areas of concern, donnant ainsi une indication sur les and intentions of the various partners in spécialisations, les centres d’intérêts et les Togo. The objective of this exercise is to intentions des différents partenaires enable the best support of public policies intervenant au Togo. L’objectif de cet exercice implemented in order to ensure that the est de permettre un meilleur accompagnement Vision 2030 sustainable development des politiques publiques mises en œuvre afin objectives are achieved. d’assurer l’atteinte des objectifs de développement durable à l’horizon 2030. Afin d’impliquer suffisamment l’ensemble des In order to ensure adequate participation of parties prenantes à la base, il s’est tenu une all stakeholders, it has held a series of série de consultations sur les priorités locales meetings on the local priorities of de développement dans les chefs-lieux des cinq development in the major towns of the régions du pays. Celles-ci ont regroupé des country’s five regions. These meetings acteurs locaux issus des administrations assembled local decentralised administrative déconcentrées et décentralisées ainsi que de la stakeholders as well as stakeholders from the société civile, y compris les représentations civil society, including peasant and paysannes et traditionnelles. traditional representatives. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pour soutenir ce processus participatif, il s’est To support this participatory process, a series tenu une série de rencontres regroupant les of meetings, which assembled the main principales parties prenantes techniques du technical stakeholders involved in the NDP, processus PND, en vue du renforcement de were held to strengthen their capabilities in leurs capacités dans les domaines ci-après: la the following areas: prioritization of the priorisation des cibles et des objectifs de targets and objectives of sustainable développement durable; la théorie du development; the theory of change and the changement et l’analyse du cadre logique au analysis of the logical framework as regards regard des cibles des ODD. the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Les hautes autorités du pays ont également The high-ranking authorities of the country donné leurs orientations stratégiques visant à have also given their strategic guidelines renforcer la dimension économique du PND et which aim at strengthening the economic à accroitre la synergie et le focus dans sa dimension of the NDP, building synergies conception et sa formulation. Ces nouvelles and focusing on its design and formulation. orientations ont été partagées avec les acteurs These new guidelines have been shared with de développement du secteur public, du secteur the development stakeholders of the public privé, de la société civile et les partenaires and private sectors, civil society as well as techniques et financiers. the technical and financial partners. Le présent document comporte quatre This document contains four chapters. chapitres. Le chapitre 1 analyse les Chapter 1 analyses the economic, social and performances économiques, sociales et environmental performance. It also identifies environnementales. Il en dégage les forces et the strengths and weaknesses, and provides a 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh les faiblesses, et fait la synthèse des défis synthesis of the major challenges to serve as majeurs à relever pour mieux orienter les a guide to the strategic options. Chapter 2 options stratégiques. Le chapitre 2 présente la presents the vision of development, the vision de développement, les orientations et les guidelines and the strategic axis. Chapter 3 axes stratégiques. Le chapitre 3 traite du identifies the macroeconomic framework and cadrage macroéconomique et budgétaire. budget. The latter aims at projecting and Celui-ci a pour but de projeter et d’organiser organizing the main macroeconomic and dans un cadre cohérent les principales budgetary developments derived from the évolutions macroéconomiques et budgétaires à objectives and choice of economic and social partir des objectifs et choix de politiques policies set by the Government in a coherent économiques et sociales décidés par le manner. Chapter 4 presents the gouvernement. Le chapitre 4 présente le implementation, monitoring and evaluation mécanisme de mise en œuvre et de suivi- mechanism of NDP. évaluation du PND. CHAPITRE 1: DIAGNOSTIC DE LA CHAPTER 1: DIAGNOSIS OF THE SITUATION ECONOMIQUE, SOCIALE ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND ET ENVIRONNEMENTALE ENVIRONMENTAL SITUATION 1.1 PERFORMANCES 1.1 MACROECONOMIC MACROECONOMIQUES PERFORMANCE Cette section passe en revue les performances This section reviews the macroeconomic macroéconomiques du Togo à la lumière des performance of Togo in the light of the grands choix qui ont marqué les politiques de significant decisions that have marked its 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh développement sur la période 2008 à 2017. Il development policies from 2008 to 2017. ressort de cette analyse trois constats majeurs. Three major findings result from this Premièrement, le Togo a atteint une certaine analysis. Firstly, Togo has reached a certain stabilité macroéconomique, au prix d’un level of macroeconomic stability, at the dynamisme modéré en termes de création expense of a moderate dynamism in terms of d’emplois, de croissance et de productivité. job creation, growth and productivity. Deuxièmement, son déficit extérieur à peiner à Secondly, its external deficit is still se résorber malgré le succès en termes de significant despite its success in terms of croissance économique. Troisièmement, la economic growth. Thirdly, the economy has structure de l’économie n’a évolué que evolved slowly. Despite the structural lentement. Par ailleurs, des limites subsistent transformation objectives, these limits still au regard des objectifs de transformation persist. Capital accumulation, which happens structurelle. L’accumulation de capital, to be the main growth engine, is faced with principal moteur de la croissance, se heurte à inadequate funding. Several resources which des limites de financement. Plusieurs des outils support both domestic and foreign demand de soutien à la demande intérieure et extérieure create shortcomings which limit long-term génèrent des distorsions qui limitent la productivity growth. croissance de la productivité à long terme. La mise en œuvre des différentes politiques de By implementing diverse developmental développement a permis au Togo d’obtenir des policies, Togo has been able to rebuild its avancées dans la relance de l’économie par une economy by a 5.0% annual average steady growth rate in real GDP from 2013-2017. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh croissance régulière du PIB réel de 5,0% en Macroeconomic stability has also improved, moyenne annuelle sur la période 2013-2017. after a period of accruing debt and an La stabilité macroéconomique s’est améliorée, infrastructure upgrade. The debt rate which après une phase d’endettement dus au was 79.4% of GDP in 2016 reduced to 70% rattrapage et à la mise à niveau des in 2017 in line with the ECOWAS infrastructures structurantes. Le taux requirement. d’endettement qui était de 79,4% du PIB en 2016 connait une baisse tendancielle pour être en 2017 au niveau de la norme communautaire de 70%. L’incidence de la pauvreté a baissé de 3,6 Poverty has fallen by 3.6 percent between points de pourcentage entre 2011 et 2015, 2011 and 2015, from 58.7% to 55.1% passant respectivement de 58,7% à 55,1%. La respectively. This decline can be attributed to baisse est imputable à deux facteurs: la two factors: economic growth (2.2 points) croissance économique (pour 2,2 points) et les and redistributive policies (1.4 points). politiques redistributives (pour 1,4 point). However, a lot remains to be done in order to Toutefois, il y a encore des efforts à poursuivre achieve a more robust and sustainable growth pour rendre la croissance encore plus robuste et as well as increase the impact of pro-poor durable ainsi que pour accroitre l’impact des policies in order to accelerate the social politiques pro-pauvres afin d’accélérer inclusion. l’inclusion sociale. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh L’emploi a progressé comme l’atteste la Employment has increased as shown by réduction du chômage de 3,1 points de the reduction of unemployment to 3.1 pourcentage, passant de 6,5% en 2011 à 3,4% percent, from 6.5% in 2011 to 3.4% in en 2015. Mais le taux de sous-emploi demeure 2015. However, the rate of under- élevé et en hausse, passant de 22,8% en 2011 à employment is still high and continues to 25,8% en 2015. Le secteur informel domine increase, thus, from 22.8% in 2011 to l’offre d’emploi et il est largement caractérisé 25.8% in 2015. Many people are par une faible productivité, posant ainsi un employed in the informal sector which is problème de qualité de l’emploi. largely characterized by low productivity, therefore posing a problem of employment quality. 1.1.1 Evolution du Produit Intérieur Brut 1.1.1 Increase in Gross Domestic (PIB) Product (GDP) La croissance du PIB réel a été positive et Real GDP growth has remained positive and soutenue depuis 2008, passant de 3,9% en sustained since 2008, from an average of moyenne sur la période 2008-2012 à 5,2% sur 3.9% over the 2008-2012 period to 5.2% over la période 2013-2016, avec un pic de 6,1% en the 2013-2016 period, with a 6.1% peak in 2014. Ces performances s’expliquent par 2014. This performance is due to the l’amélioration de la productivité agricole, la improvement of agricultural productivity, the relance de la production des industries revival of mining activities (phosphate and extractives (phosphate et clinker), et clinker), and an increase in public l’accroissement des investissements publics, investment, particularly transport. They are 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh notamment dans les infrastructures de however still lower than the scenarios of transports. Toutefois, elles restent inférieures reference and accelerated growth. The GDP aux scenarios de référence ainsi qu’aux per capita (in terms of purchasing power scénarios de croissance accélérée. Le PIB par parity) remained relatively low in 2013 habitant (en termes de parité de pouvoir ($1390) as compared to some West African d’achat) reste relativement faible en 2013 Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) (1390$) comparé à certains pays de l’UEMOA countries such as Mali (1493), Burkina Faso comme le Mali (1493), le Burkina Faso (1638), (1638), Benin (1793), Senegal (2243) or the le Bénin (1793), le Sénégal (2243) ou la Côte Ivory Coast (2710) - Source IMF (2017). d’Ivoire (2710) - Source FMI (2017). 1.1.2 Contribution des différents secteurs à 1.1.2 Contribution of different la formation du PIB sectors to GDP growth Les croissances sectorielles sont positives, Sectoral growth is positive, but below the mais restent également en-deçà des prévisions. forecasts. From 2013-2016, GDP growth was Sur la période 2013-2016, la croissance du PIB driven by a progressive growth of the est tirée par une bonne progression du secteur primary sector at a 5.5% average rate, despite primaire à un taux moyen de 5,5%, en dépit de its vulnerability to exogenous shocks sa vulnérabilité aux chocs exogènes (aléas (climate change and world prices of climatiques, cours mondiaux des produits agricultural products). The growth rate of the agricoles). Le taux de croissance du secteur secondary sector has been below the average secondaire a été en dessous du taux moyen du GDP rate of 5.1%. In effect, the growth of the PIB de 5,1%. En effet, le taux de croissance du secondary sector has increased to 4.1%, due 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh secteur secondaire est ressorti à 4,1%, to a significant growth of 12.2%, 5.9% and consécutif à une bonne progression des BTP de 0.4% in the construction, mining and 12,2% et des industries extractives de 5,9% et manufacturing industries respectively. The manufacturière (0,4%). Le secteur tertiaire market sector recorded a 4.3% increase, marchand enregistre une progression de 4,3%, following a 5.7% increase in transport suite à un regain d’activités dans la chaîne de activities, and a 6.0% increase in the field of transport (5,7%), et dans le domaine des banking and insurance. Banques et des Assurances (6,0%). La part relative des secteurs économiques au From 2007-2016, the relative share of PIB n'a pas beaucoup changé sur la période economic sectors to GDP has not changed 2007-2016. Le système productif reste marqué much. Production is still massively par une prépondérance du secteur primaire dominated by primary sector prominence of dont la part est de 40,8%, dénotant, 40.8%, which indicates, particularly, notamment, d’une faible transformation des inadequate processing of agricultural raw matières premières agricoles. Le poids du materials. The secondary and tertiary market secteur secondaire est de 17,5% et celui du sectors are characterized by 17.5% and secteur tertiaire marchand de 22,4%. Cette 22.4% shares respectively. This change in évolution des parts sectorielles à la formation sectoral shares as regards GDP growth shows du PIB traduit le fait qu'il n'y a pas eu de that there has not been a major transformation majeure de la structure de la transformation in production. production. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh La faible productivité du secteur agro-sylvo- The low productivity level of the economy, pastoral, le faible développement des stifled growth and extreme poverty are compétences, les coûts élevés des facteurs de largely as a result of the low-level production, la faiblesse de la croissance dans productivity of the agro-sylvo-pastoral les secteurs manufacturier et sector, inadequate expertise, the high costs of touristique/hôtellerie tous les deux en déclin the factors of production, low level of growth (1% par an entre 2007 et 2015) expliquent, en in the manufacturing and tourism/hospitality grande partie, la faible productivité globale de sectors (1% per year between 2007 and 2015) l’économie, le plafonnement de la croissance et la persistance de l’extrême pauvreté. Relever le défi de la transformation structurelle In order to meet the expectations of the nécessite donc un changement de paradigme de Togolese people, this structural développement, pour répondre aux attentes des transformation challenge will require a Togolais, notamment (i) le positionnement paradigm shift in the area of development, stratégique autour de moteurs intersectoriels particularly: (i) the strategic positioning of intégrés (chaînes de valeur) présentant de intersectoral engines (integrated value grands avantages comparatifs pour améliorer la chains) which promise great comparative productivité et la compétitivité, faire face aux advantages to improve productivity and risques et saisir les opportunités dans un competitiveness, mitigate risks and seize nouveau contexte international et régional ; (ii) opportunities in a new international and la nécessité de se concentrer sur des projets regional context; (ii) the need to concentrate phares intégrés porteurs de croissance et y on integrated flagship projects which foster consacrer les ressources nécessaires pour leur growth and to allocate the necessary 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mise en œuvre; (iii) le développement d’un resources for their implementation; (iii) the marketing sur les ambitions et les efforts de development of a marketing strategy to développement du Togo ; et (iv) realise the ambitions and developmental l’approfondissement des interactions entre le efforts of Togo; and (iv) strengthening the secteur public et le secteur privé pour réaliser relationship between the public and the les projets ciblés. private sectors to complete the targeted projects. 1.1.3 Croissance inclusive 1.1.3 Inclusive growth Dans la mesure où la pauvreté est plus visible Since poverty is more common in the rural dans le monde rural où 68,7% de la population world, where 68.7% of the population is poor est pauvre (QUIBB 2015), la croissance ne sera (QUIBB 2015), growth will only be inclusive inclusive que si une attention particulière est if special attention is given more generally to accordée au développement agro-sylvo- agro-sylvo-pastoral development and pastoral en général et à l’agriculture en particularly, agriculture. The data analysis on particulier. L’analyse des données sur la poverty shows that the reduction of pauvreté montre que la réduction des inégalités inequalities (as measured by the Gini index) (mesurée par l’indice de Gini) demeure faible was low between 2011 and 2015 in the rural entre 2011 et 2015 dans le monde rural. world. Pour prendre en charge cette question, le To address this issue, the Government will gouvernement va identifier les principaux identify the main bottlenecks and take goulots d’étranglement et y apporter des corrective measures with the aim of making mesures correctives en vue de faire du the National Investment Plan in Agriculture, 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PNIASAN un levier pour une croissance Food Security and Nutrition (PNIASAN) a favorable à la réduction de la pauvreté rurale. pivot for a favourable growth to the reduction of rural poverty. 1.1.4 Evolution des autres indicateurs 1.1.4 Changes in other macroéconomiques macroeconomic indicators Les autres indicateurs macroéconomiques The other macroeconomic indicators contenus dans le pacte de convergence des contained in the convergence agreement of pays membres de l’UEMOA indiquent, en the WAEMU member states mainly indicate, majorité, une bonne performance sur la période a good performance over the 2013-2016 2013-2016. En effet, l’inflation a été maîtrisée period. In fact, inflation has been brought (1,2% en moyenne), en raison notamment du under control (an average of 1.2%). This is repli des prix des denrées alimentaires qui ont mainly as a result of a decrease in the prices bénéficié globalement de bonnes conditions of foodstuff which can be attributed to météorologiques sur la période et de l’effet de overall good weather conditions over the la baisse des prix des produits pétroliers. period and the effect of the decline in the prices of petroleum products. Le déficit budgétaire (dons compris) est The budget deficit (including grants) ressorti à 5,7% du PIB au cours de la période increased to 5.7% of GDP during the considérée, avec une mobilisation accrue des specified period, with an increased recettes fiscales, dont la moyenne sur la mobilization of tax revenues, of which there période s’est située à 21,1% du PIB contre was an average of 21.1% of GDP against 16,6% en 2012. 16.6% in 2012. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh La masse salariale sur recettes fiscales a été Income tax was maintained below 35%, maîtrisée en-deçà de 35%, tandis que while investment in internal resources (in l’investissement sur ressources internes relation to tax revenue) was above 23%. (rapporté aux recettes fiscales) est resté au-delà de 23%. Au niveau des comptes extérieurs, la balance As regards external accounts, the balance of des paiements est caractérisée par un déficit payments was characterized by a structural structurel du compte des transactions courantes deficit of the current account (-13.9% of (-13,9% du PIB en 2013 et - 9,9% en 2016). GDP in 2013 and - 9.9% in 2016). However, Par contre, après trois années consécutives after three consecutive years of surplus in the d’excédent du solde global de la balance des total balance of payments, (2009 to 2011), paiements, (de 2009 à 2011), le solde global there has been an alternation of deficits and affiche une alternance de déficits et surpluses since 2011. This total balance d'excédents depuis 2011. Ce solde global s’est amounted to 115 billion CFA francs in 2015, chiffré à 115 milliards FCFA en 2015, 82,5 82.5 billion in 2016 against -76.5 billion in milliards en 2016 contre -76,5 milliards en 2014. 2014. Le Gouvernement togolais est conscient que The Togolese Government was aware that l’endettement public en forte hausse (79,4% du public debt was increasing (79.4% of GDP in PIB en 2016 contre 59,5% en 2013) et les 2016 against 59.5% in 2013), and these déficits publics, pourraient compromettre sa public deficits could compromise its ability capacité à remplir correctement et durablement to properly and sustainably achieve its core 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sa mission régalienne de fourniture de services mission of providing essential public publics essentiels aux Togolaises et Togolais. services to Togo. Hence the reason for the C’est pourquoi des réflexions sont entamées creation of think-tanks to establish a positive pour établir une bonne corrélation entre correlation between the debt, investment and l’endettement, l’investissement et la growth. Other challenges include (i) the croissance. D’autres défis à relever portent sur continuity of efforts made as part of (i) la poursuite des efforts accomplis dans le rationalizing public expenditure; (ii) the cadre de la rationalisation des dépenses reinforcement of the selection criteria, the publiques; (ii) le renforcement des critères de prioritization, preparation, implementation sélection, la hiérarchisation, la préparation, and monitoring of public investment projects l’exécution, et le suivi des projets in order to reduce leakages and waste while d’investissements publics afin de réduire les improving their effectiveness and efficiency; déperditions et gaspillages et améliorer leur (iii) the analysis of the effects of public efficacité et efficience; (iii) l’analyse des effets investment on the rest of the economy; (iv) d’entraînement des investissements publics sur adequate preparation for all investment le reste de l’économie; (iv) la bonne projects. préparation de tous les projets d’investissement. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.5 Contribution des investissements 1.1.5 Contribution of public publics à la croissance sur la période 2013- investment to growth over the 2013-2016 2016 period 2013-2016 Le Togo a vu sa croissance augmenter With the implementation of SCAPE, Togo fortement au cours de la mise en œuvre de la has experienced an increase in growth in SCAPE sous l’impulsion de l’investissement the areas of infrastructure, agriculture and public dans les domaines des infrastructures, transport under the public investment de l’agriculture et des transports. Au cours de reform. From 2013-2016, there has been a la période 2013 -2016, la contribution à la significant contribution to the growth in the croissance de l’accumulation du capital accumulation of physical capital. In physique (l’investissement) a été très particular, public investment has increased importante. En particulier, c’est significantly from less than 3.5% of GDP l’investissement public qui a fortement in 2008 to 12.9% in 2016, in line with the progressé, passant de moins de 3,5% du PIB en objective of closing up the infrastructure 2008 à 12,9% en 2016, en ligne avec l’objectif deficit. This public investment policy is de rattrapage du déficit en infrastructures. accompanied by high public debt ratios as Cette politique d’investissement public s’est indicated above. accompagnée d’un endettement public élevé comme annoncé ci-dessus. Les flux des investissements directs étrangers The inflow of foreign direct investment (IDE) entrant au Togo ont été caractérisés par (FDI) to Togo has been characterized by a les épisodes d'accélération et de series of acceleration and slowdown. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ralentissement. Partant d'un niveau modeste en Starting from a modest level in 2009, these 2009, ces flux ont atteint 711,1 millions de $US inflows reached 711.1 million USD in en 2011, avant de baisser à 52,7 millions de 2011, before declining to 52.7 million USD $US en 2015 (cf. tableau 2). Le stock des IDE in 2015 (see Table 2). The FDI stock was s'est établi à 1,4 milliard de $US en 2015 contre 1.4 billion USD in 2015 as against 0.5 0,5 milliard de $US en 2009. billion USD in 2009. Les principaux secteurs bénéficiaires des IDE The manufacturing, mining, infrastructure, sont les industries manufacturières et trade telecommunication and financial extractives, les infrastructures, le commerce, sectors are the main beneficiaries of FDI. les télécommunications et le secteur financier. The investment project includes the Les projets d'investissements ont porté construction of a third wharf, a container notamment sur la construction d'un troisième terminal and a new harbour at Port quai, d'un terminal à conteneurs et d'une Autonome de Lomé; the construction of a nouvelle darse au Port Autonome de Lomé; la 100 MW power plant ; the extension of the construction d'une centrale électrique d'une Gnassingbé Eyadéma International Airport capacité de 100 MW; l'extension de l'Aéroport in Lomé; various works for the International Gnassingbé Eyadéma de Lomé; development and improvement of the divers travaux d'aménagement et national road network; the construction of d'amélioration du réseau routier national; la a clinker factory at Tabligbo to produce 1.5 construction d’une usine de clinker à Tabligbo million tonnes per year, the construction of de 1.5 million de tonnes par an, la construction the cement factory at Kara to produce 250 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh de la cimenterie de Kara de 250 mille tonnes thousand tonnes per year and the par an et la rénovation d'hôtels. renovation of hotels. 1.1.6 Investissements publics et chaine 1.1.6 Public Investment and the PPBSE Planning, Programming, Budgeting and De 1990 à 2006, du fait des crises socio- Execution System (PPBES) chain politiques et de leur impact sur les finances From 1990-2006, Togo has recorded a publiques, le Togo a enregistré une importante significant degradation of its basic dégradation de ses infrastructures de base, le infrastructure, making it lag behind countries plaçant à la traine des pays de la sous-région. within the sub-region due to the social- Durant la même période, le ratio dépenses political crises and their impact on public d’investissement public/PIB était de l’ordre de finances. During this same period, the ratio 2,5 %, contre une moyenne de 6 % en Afrique of public investment to GDP was about 2.5%, subsaharienne. against an average of 6% in sub-Saharan Africa. A la faveur de la reprise formelle de la Public investment has increased sharply, as a coopération au développement en 2008, result of the formal resumption of l’investissement public a fortement progressé, cooperative development in 2008, averaging s’établissant en moyenne à 8,2 % du PIB entre 8.2% of GDP between 2010 and 2015, a level 2010 et 2015, soit un niveau comparable à celui comparable to that of the countries in South des pays de l’Afrique au sud du Sahara. Sub-Saharan Africa. However, despite these Toutefois, malgré ces efforts considérables, considerable efforts, Togo is still faced with l’infrastructure au Togo est demeurée the problem of inadequate infrastructure. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh insuffisante. L’accès aux services des Access to good road networks, education, infrastructures routières, d’éducation, de santé health and safe drinking water is averagely et d’eau potable est inférieur à la moyenne des lower than that of the countries in sub- pays d’Afrique subsaharienne. Saharan Africa. Des évaluations et études conduites en 2016 et Assessments and studies conducted in 2016 2017 ont révélé que les problèmes d’efficience and 2017 revealed that the challenges of des investissements publics ont sensiblement public investment performance significantly affecté les efforts consentis en termes affected the efforts made to improve d’allocations budgétaires en faveur des infrastructure in terms of budgetary infrastructures. La perte d’efficience est allocations. The efficiency loss is estimated évaluée à 70 % en moyenne au Togo contre at an average of 70% in Togo against 57% in 57% en Afrique subsaharienne. Elle est sub-Saharan Africa. This is as a result of the notamment liée au déficit des capacités en deficit in planning and budgeting, design, planification-budgétisation, en conception, implementation and monitoring of projects, mise en œuvre et suivi des projets, ainsi qu’à as well as some failures in the acquisition certaines défaillances du processus des process. acquisitions. Les résultats des efforts consentis par le Togo The efforts made by Togo since 2009, with depuis 2009, avec l’appui des partenaires, pour the support of partners, to improve public améliorer la chaine de la dépense publique se expenditure and rise beyond the average sont avérés insuffisants pour l’amener au-delà African performance have proven to be de la moyenne africaine en termes d’efficience. inadequate. In the light of the new guideline 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A l’aune de la nouvelle orientation impulsée recommended by the Head of State, and in par le Chef de l’Etat, et dans la perspective de line with the generalization of budgetary la généralisation des budgets programmes programmes in accordance with ECOWAS conformément aux directives communautaires, directives, key emphasis will be placed on un accent particulier sera mis sur le strengthening public administration capacity. renforcement des capacités de l’administration publique. 1.2 DEVELOPPEMENT DU SYSTEME 1.2 PRODUCTIVITY DEVELOPMENT PRODUCTIF Cette section analyse les contraintes dans les This section analyses the constraints in domaines liés à l’agriculture, les industries agriculture, mining, tourism and crafts as extractives, le tourisme et l’artisanat et qui well as factors that slow down the ralentissent la productivité de l’économie productivity of Togolese economy. togolaise. 1.2.1 Situation du système agro-sylvo- 1.2.1 Status of the agro-sylvo- pastoral pastoral system Le secteur de l’agriculture est composé de The agricultural sector is made up of several plusieurs types d’organisations paysannes. Il peasant organisations. Particularly, small- s’agit notamment de petits producteurs, des scale producers, groups and pre-co- groupements et des pré-coopératives. Cela operatives. This therefore constitutes a major constitue un grand défi en termes challenge in terms of the organization of the d’organisation du secteur. sector. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le système agro-sylvo-pastoral au Togo est The Togolese agro-sylvo-pastoral system is confronté à plusieurs contraintes qui confronted with several constraints which expliquent la faible productivité économique. can be associated with its low economic Il s’agit notamment de: productivity. These challenges include: - la faible professionnalisation des - Poor professionalism of the sector acteurs du secteur ; stakeholders; - la faible structuration des chaînes de - Poor structuring of value chains and valeur et celle de la valorisation des production development; productions; - la faible qualité des produits agricoles - Poor quality of agricultural products as relativement aux exigences de regards export and processing requirements; l’exportation et de la transformation; - la forte dépendance du secteur des - The sector’s strong dependence on weather conditions climatiques ; conditions; - l’absence de mécanismes de facilitation - Lack of value chain facilitation and financing et de financement de la chaîne de mechanisms; valeur; - la faible qualité de l’investissement - Low level of quality investment in the sector dans le secteur en termes de débouchés in terms of a ready market and job creation; et d’emplois; - la faible implication des acteurs privés - Low level of participation of private dans le secteur; stakeholders in the sector; 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - l’absence d’une stratégie claire de - Lack of a clear development strategy of the développement du potentiel economy in the medium/long term to économique à moyen/long terme pour enhance strong, integrated and competitive constituer des pôles de croissance forts, growth, which would be the building blocks intégrés et compétitifs autour desquels for accelerated growth, divestiture and pourrait être structurée pour les années economic inclusion in the years to come; à venir une croissance accélérée, diversifiée et inclusive; - la faible disponibilité des compétences - Low availability of domestic technical techniques nationales nécessaires à la expertise necessary for economic transformation du potentiel transformation, is as a result of the poor économique, ce qui amène à ability of the educational and vocational questionner la capacité actuelle du training system to provide the skills système d’éducation et de formation necessary to promote competitiveness; professionnelle à fournir les compétences pour promouvoir la compétitivité; - des problèmes d’identification des - The problem of identifying beneficiaries vis- bénéficiaires et de comptabilisation des a-vis the number of jobs (impact analysis); emplois (analyse des impacts); - The problem of farmers’ cooperatives: only - un manque d’organisation des 8% of them form part of the 2500 co- agriculteurs: seuls 8% d’entre eux sont operatives; regroupés dans 2500 coopératives; 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - un faible accès des femmes aux - Low access of women to the factors of facteurs de production (terre, production (land, funding, technology) financement, technologie) au sein de la within the agricultural population population Agricole. D’autres éléments expliquent la faible Other factors include lack of water for productivité du secteur agricole notamment la irrigation, inadequate technology, difficult non maitrise de l’eau, l’insuffisance de access to land, inadequate infrastructure and technologies, difficultés d’accès au foncier, le equipment, landlocked areas of productions faible encadrement et l’insuffisance des with no accessible roads, low funding of the infrastructures et équipements, l’enclavement sector as well as the effects of climate des zones de productions (pistes, routes), le change. faible financement du secteur ainsi que les effets du changement climatique. Au regard de ce qui précède, le développement In the light of the foregoing, an agricultural d’un pôle de transformation agricole transformation centre (agropoles) was (agropoles) ciblé sur la productivité pour created for subsistence, a balance of trade in atteindre l’autosuffisance alimentaire, agriculture since an influx of agricultural l’équilibre de la balance commerciale agricole jobs remain a major challenge in Togo. et la création massive d’emplois agricoles Similarly, as regards governance, the restent un grand défi à relever au Togo. De challenge is to make the institutional reform même, sur le plan de la gouvernance, le défi est of the sector successful. de réussir la réforme institutionnelle du secteur. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh En termes de résultats, dans le sous-secteur de As regards the performance of the Plant la production végétale, le gouvernement pour Production sub-sector, government has set améliorer sa gestion institutionnelle, a mis en up a renovated office with modern tools, an place un dispositif rénové, avec des outils AGRI-swap agenda; the integration of ICT modernes, un agenda Agri-SWAP; via the SME Agri project to improve l’intégration des TIC via le projet Agri PME; institutional management which includes; l’établissement de la carte de fertilité des sols, mapping out areas of fertile soil, occupied d’occupation des terres et de potentialités lands and lands for farming as part of agricoles, des cadres de concertations pour strengthening coordination and renforcer la coordination et le système accountability system. d’imputabilité. Les résultats obtenus en matière de production The results obtained in cereal production are céréalière sont positifs, avec un taux de positive. This met about 113% and 111% of couverture des besoins nationaux de l’ordre de domestic demand, in 2011 and 2015 113 % et 111 %, respectivement en 2011 et respectively. Hence, it has been able to meet 2015. Il a ainsi pu couvrir ses besoins its food needs and develop clusters for cereal alimentaires et commencer à développer des export to the sub-region, thus contributing to filières d’exportation de céréales vers la sous- the reduction of trade imbalances. These food région, contribuant ainsi à réduire le surpluses were estimated at 836,433 tonnes déséquilibre de la balance commerciale. Ces of food products in 2015 and 902,130 tonnes excédents alimentaires se sont maintenus et ont in 2016. été évalués en 2015 à 836433 tonnes de produits vivriers et à 902 130 tonnes en 2016. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pour les productions de rente, on observe une There was sustained growth from 2012 in croissance soutenue à partir de 2012, année de cash crop production. In this same year démarrage des appuis des filières de rente. Le support channels were created for cash crops. coton a connu une croissance de 305% entre Cotton recorded a growth of 305% between 2010 et 2016 (27 906 tonnes en 2010 et 113 2010 and 2016 (27,906 tonnes in 2010 and 000 tonnes en 2016). Le café et le cacao ont 113,000 tonnes in 2016). Coffee and cocoa connu un accroissement de 18 % et 14 % recorded an increase of 18% and 14%, respectivement, sur la même période. respectively, over the same period. Sur la période 2010-2015, les appuis pour la 15,000 jobs were created from 2010-2015 as promotion des filières porteuses et la a result of support for the promotion of the valorisation des produits agricoles, ont permis transport sector and the agricultural products de créer 15 000 emplois (source: rapports de (source: PNIASA performance reports). performances du PNIASA). Sur le plan des échanges, le secteur agricole The agricultural sector contributes more than fournit plus de 20% des recettes d’exportation. 20% of export revenues as regards foreign A part le café, le cacao et le coton qui sont exchange. Examples of other agri-food souvent exportés à l’état brut, les autres products mainly exported apart from coffee, produits agro-alimentaires exportés sont cocoa and cotton, which are often exported in principalement les produits laitiers, la noix de the raw state, are dairy products, cashew cajou, l’huile de palme, les graines de sésame, nuts, palm oil, sesame seeds, and solid les tourteaux de résidus solides de l’extraction residues from oil extraction. des huiles. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Les agriculteurs bénéficient d’importantes Farmers receive major fertilizer grants from subventions de l’État pour les engrais. Le Togo the State. Togo can boast of 22 structured compte 22 entreprises agro-industrielles agro-industrial enterprises, many of which structurées et de nombreuses petites unités are small crafts and semi-industrial units. artisanales et semi-industrielles. Ensemble, These represent less than 5% of the local elles représentent moins de 5% du marché market, while the rest are imports. local, le reste étant couvert par des importations. Le secteur ne bénéficie pas suffisamment de The sector does not receive enough private financement privé. Cependant, de nombreuses funding. However, many flagship initiatives initiatives phares sont entreprises par l’Etat aimed at supporting the sector have been pour soutenir le secteur à savoir l’octroi de undertaken by the government. These fonds compétitifs aux porteurs de projets initiatives include granting competitive rentables, la mise en place des fonds de funding to project leaders, establishing garantie (démarrage du fonds Koweitien guarantee funds (Launch of the Kuwaiti Fund adoubé par le Fonds de garantie de PASA/UTB knighted by the PASA/UTB Guarantee Fund en 2015), et le lancement du projet PNPER. Il in 2015), and launching the National Project convient également de mentionner plusieurs for the Promotion of Rural and Medium- formes d’appui telles que les financements Sized Enterprises project (PNPER). Mention inclusifs (AGRISEF dans le cadre du FNFI), should also be made of the several forms of les appuis du FAIEJ, et les appuis aux sous- support such as inclusive funding (AGRISEF projets innovants ou de valorisation des within the framework of the FNFI), support produits en cours au Togo. from FAIEJ and support to sub-innovative 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh projects as well as the promotion of Togolese products. Dans le sous-secteur de l’élevage, des appuis Regarding the livestock sub-sector, accompagnements du gouvernement dans le government has shown its support in the area domaine de la protection zoo sanitaire et of animal health protection and this has vétérinaire ont permis: (i) l’élimination de enabled: (i) the elimination of certain certaines zoonoses comme la maladie de zoonosis such as Newcastle Disease in Newcastle au niveau des volailles, la peste des poultry, plague in small ruminants, African petits ruminants, la peste porcine africaine, le swine fever, anthrax, animal trypanosomiasis charbon bactéridien, la trypanosomose animale in cattle; (ii) the improvement of the genetic pour la filière bovine; (ii) l’amélioration du make-up of cattle and small ruminants patrimoine génétique, de l’élevage des bovins through the introduction of gene enhancers in et des petits ruminants en introduisant des the traditional rearing system; (iii) the géniteurs améliorateurs dans le système popularization of improved shelters as well traditionnel; (iii) la vulgarisation des abris as (iv) the implementation of a transhumance améliorés ainsi que (iv) la mise en œuvre d’un management plan plan de gestion de la transhumance. Malgré ces efforts qui ont permis d’accroître However, the meat products of large l’effectif des volailles, des petits ruminants livestock such as cattle and pigs are in (ovins/caprins), du gros bétail (bovins) et des structural deficit despite the above- porcins, le pays reste structurellement mentioned measures which have helped to déficitaire en produits carnés. La production increase the number of poultry and small 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nationale couvre moins de 50% des besoins ruminants (sheep/goats) in the country. nationaux. Domestic production meets less than 50% of the country’s needs. Les problèmes majeurs à résoudre portent sur: Below are the major areas of concern: (i) (i) l’amélioration de la productivité et de la improving productivity and competitiveness compétitivité des productions animales à in animal production through the promotion travers la promotion de pôles agro-pastoraux et of agro-pastoral centres and (ii) (ii) le renforcement de la résilience du sous- strengthening the sub-sector’s resilience to secteur aux risques d'élevage, notamment les the risk of livestock rearing such as zoonosis, chocs zoo-sanitaires, climatiques et les conflits climate conditions, and migration conflicts. liés à la transhumance. Dans le sous-secteur des pêches et de Regarding the fisheries and aquaculture l’aquaculture, la production totale incluant sub-sector; total production including all tous les segments du sous-secteur (pêche segments of the sub-sector (sea and maritime, pêche continentale et pisciculture) continental fishing and fish farming) is est d’environ 25.000 tonnes par an alors que la approximately 25,000 tonnes per year while consommation est d’environ 80.000 tonnes par consumption is approximately 80,000 tonnes an, avec une consommation annuelle moyenne per year, with an average annual fish en poisson estimée à 13kg par personne. Ainsi, consumption estimated at 13kg per ce déficit en approvisionnement de poissons consumer. This fish supply deficit exists fait qu’une part importante des produits de la because, a significant portion of more than 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh pêche consommée au Togo est importée (plus 40,000 tonnes of fish products consumed in de 40.000 tonnes) pour satisfaire la Togo is imported in order to meet domestic consommation nationale. consumption. En dépit de sa faible performance, ce sous- Despite its low performance, this sub-sector secteur demeure important pour le is key to the development of a blue economy, développement d’une économie bleue, par due to its socio-economic importance l’importance de son rôle socioéconomique (economic security for the vulnerable), its (filet de sécurité pour les groupes vulnérables), role in food safety (affordable meat products) son rôle dans la sécurité alimentaire (protéines and its economic development opportunities animales bon marché) y compris pour les (income and job creation) for both small and populations éloignées du littoral et des cours large scale projects. d’eau, et pour ses opportunités de développement économiques (rentes et création d’emplois diversifiés) tant pour les petites exploitations extensives que pour les projets à plus grande échelle et intensifs. Au regard de ce qui précède, le gouvernement In the light of the foregoing, the government entend relever le défi de la diversification des intends to address the issue of diversification activités économiques dans le secteur de la of economic activities in the fishing sector, by pêche, notamment développer des activités le developing fishing activities so as to create long des filières de pêche pour valoriser les value added products and jobs, which will go 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh produits et créer de la valeur ajoutée et des a long way to promote the activities of local emplois, promouvoir la capacité des artisans de fishermen and enable them to exploit pêche pour exploiter les ressources qui sont resources in new fishing areas where there is moins menacées et exploiter les ressources less pressure. dans de nouvelles zones de pêche où la pression est moins forte. 1.2.2 Situation du secteur des industries 1.2.2 Condition of the food processing, agroalimentaire, manufacturière, artisanale manufacturing, crafts and mining et extractive industries Caractérisé par une faible articulation entre ses The various sub-sectors, that is, food différents sous-secteurs (agroalimentaire, processing, manufacturing, crafts and mining manufacturière, artisanale et extractive), are poorly structured; as a result, the industry l’industrie est confrontée à de multiples défis: is faced with multiple challenges. Examples (i) problèmes de la gouvernance, of these challenges are as follows: (i) issues d’investissement et d’intégration au reste de of governance, investment and integration l’économie; (ii) absence d’une stratégie claire with the rest of the economy; (ii) lack of a de développement du potentiel économique à clear medium/long-term strategy for moyen/long termes pour constituer des pôles economic development, growth, integrated de croissance forts, intégrés et compétitifs and competitive centres around which could autour desquels pourrait être structurée pour les be further developed into accelerated growth, années à venir une croissance accélérée, divestiture and inclusiveness in the years to diversifiée et inclusive; (iii) faible disponibilité come; (iii) low availability of domestic 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh des compétences techniques nationales technical expertise necessary for economic nécessaires à la transformation du potentiel transformation; and (iv) relegating social and économique; et (iv) faible prise en compte des environmental concerns to the background. préoccupations environnementales et sociales. Cette situation ne favorise pas le This situation does not favour value développement de chaînes de valeur et de development and transformation. The energy filières de transformation. Le déficit deficit and inadequate infrastructure and énergétique et l’insuffisance des plateformes funding compromise the competitiveness of infrastructurelles et financières plombent la industries by bringing about non negligible compétitivité des industries en occasionnant additional costs. des surcoûts non négligeables. Le pays reste confronté au défi de l’émergence The country is still experiencing challenges de pôles industriels (création de parcs with regard to the emergence of industrial industriels) et miniers (développement de la (creation of industrial parks) and mining transformation du phosphate et du calcaire en centres (transformation of phosphate and particulier) et au développement de la filière limestone) and the development of the crafts artisanale en tant que source de création sector as an avenue for job creation. d’emplois. L’industrie agro-alimentaire est faiblement The food processing industry is poorly développée. Elle est caractérisée par la petite developed. It is characterized by a small scale transformation des produits agricoles qui est processing of agricultural products by small 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh assurée par de petites unités avec des capacités units with limited resources. Mention should limitées. On note également le non-respect des also be made of the issue of non-compliance normes de qualité rendant les produits non with quality standards, which makes the compétitifs. Le Togo a une forme d’insertion products non-competitive. Togo can boast of primaire au sein du commerce international en a basic participation in international trade in ce sens que des produits agricoles sont exportés the sense that it exports its agricultural à l’état brut. Cette insertion limite la capacité products in their raw state. As a result of this de création de richesses et d’emplois dans le low participation, it is unable to maximise secteur agricole. wealth and job creation in the agricultural sector. En ce qui concerne les grandes unités de Large scale industries that transform these transformations, elles sont très peu nombreuses raw materials, are very few in number and et sont confrontées à la non disponibilité des are also faced with the non-availability of matières premières de bonne qualité et en good quality raw materials in sufficient quantité suffisante. quantities. Le défi majeur à relever est de pouvoir intégrer For the sector, the integration of these large- ces grandes industries au secteur de la scale industries in the agricultural sector is a production agricole. major challenge. L’analyse de la situation de l’industrie Again, an analysis of the manufacturing manufacturière montre que ce sous-secteur industry’s situation reveals that it is est caractérisé par des coûts élevés de characterized by high costs of production that 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh production qui ne permettent pas le do not promote the development of the développement d’une industrie de processing industry to enhance the value of transformation d’envergure afin de valoriser the products and achieve economies of scale, les produits et réaliser des économies d’échelle hence the importation of water, electricity (eau, électricité, matières premières importés). and raw materials. It also lacks funding from Elle subit également les restrictions du secteur the banking sector, and is faced with constant bancaire qui entravent l’accès au capital, ainsi competition from foreign products, which que la concurrence assidue des produits affects its competitiveness locally and étrangers, qui affectent la compétitivité du internationally. The legal, regulatory, secteur au niveau local et international. Le institutional and organizational framework is cadre légal, réglementaire, institutionnel et inadequate because of the low presence of organisationnel est inadéquat, du fait de la intermediation, marketing and support faible présence des structures d’intermédiation, structures. de marketing et d’accompagnement. Par ailleurs, le faible niveau d’investissement In addition, the country cannot be classified ne permet pas de placer le pays sur la voie de as an industrialised country because of the l’industrialisation. Ce déficit s’explique par les low level of investments. Difficulties in difficultés d’accès au crédit et la faiblesse de accessing credit facilities, poorly developed sites industriels aménagés et la faible industrial sites and the low level of intégration du secteur industriel aux autres integration of the industrial sector with other secteurs de l’économie. sectors of the economy are the causes of his deficit. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pour lever les contraintes qui freinent le A participatory reference framework for développement du secteur industriel, un cadre Togo’s industrial development has been de référence participatif pour le développement created to address the challenges which industriel du Togo à l’horizon 2020 a été hamper its industrial sector development. élaboré. Des réformes ont aussi été initiées en Certain reforms have also been initiated to vue de restructurer les entreprises en difficulté restructure firms that are faced with et d'améliorer l'environnement des affaires. Il difficulties and to improve the business s’agit notamment de: (i) la mise en place du environment. These include: (I) the guichet unique du commerce extérieur, (ii) implementation of a single window external l’opérationnalisation du centre de gestion agréé trade system, (ii) the operationalization of the pilote, (iii) la poursuite des réformes au Centre registered management centre, (iii) the des formalités d’entreprises, (iv) l’élaboration continuation of the reforms at the Centre des et l’adoption du nouveau code des Formalités d’entreprises, (iv) the investissements et de la nouvelle loi sur la zone development and the adoption of the new franche, (v) la sécurisation des sites investment code and the new free zones law, d’Adétikopé et de Kpomé et la réalisation de (v) ensuring security and safety at Adétikopé leur schéma directeur, et (vi) la mise en place and Kpomé as well as completing their de l’Agence nationale de promotion et de blueprints, and (vi) the establishment of a garantie de financement des PME / PMI National Agency for the promotion and (ANPGF). Par ailleurs une étude sur la refonte financing of SMEs (ANPGF). Furthermore, de l’Agence de Promotion des Investissements a study has been carried out on the redesign et de la Zone franche (API-ZF) en une Agence of the Free Zone Agency for Promotion of Investment (API-ZF) by an Agency for the 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh de la promotion des investissements et des Promotion of Investments and Exports exportations (APIEX) a été réalisée. (APIEX) Toutefois, en vue de renforcer les pôles ou However, in order to strengthen the industrial parcs industriels, des défis restent à relever, centres, it is imperative to address the notamment: (i) l’amélioration du cadre d’accès following: (i) improvement in the access to au foncier et la mise à disposition de terrains land and the allocation of land for the pour le développement des parcs; (ii) development of parks; (ii) increase in l'augmentation de l'offre d'électricité à un coût electricity supply and affordability; (iii) plus compétitif; (iii) l'amélioration de la improvement of the quality, cost and qualité, du coût et de la fiabilité des services de reliability of ICT services; (iv) strengthening TIC; (iv) l'approfondissement du système of the financial system; (v) improvement of financier; (v) l'amélioration de la qualité des the quality of human resources to meet the ressources humaines en adéquation avec les needs of the private sector; (vi) creation of besoins du secteur privé; (vi) la mise en place Special Economic Zones (SEZS); (vii) de Zones Economiques Spéciales (ZES); (vii) industrial property rights promotion; (viii) la promotion de la qualité et des droits de providing a solution to environmental and propriété industrielle; (viii) l’accompagnement social concerns; as well as (ix) the fight dans la démarche d’intégration des against corruption, fraud, forgery and préoccupations environnementales et sociales; counterfeiting. ainsi que (ix) la lutte contre la corruption, la fraude, le faux et la contrefaçon. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh En ce qui concerne l’artisanat, le Togo As regards crafts, Togo has a significant dispose d’un important patrimoine qui intègre heritage made up of the following; arts and les composantes suivantes: artisanat d’art, crafts, vehicle production and services. utilitaire ou de production et de services. On y Mention is made of eight branches of rencontre huit branches d’activités notamment: activities namely: (i) Food-processing, food (i) agroalimentaire, alimentation, restauration; supply, food service industry; (ii) mines and (ii) mines et carrières, construction et bâtiment; quarries, building and construction; (iii) (iii) métaux, constructions métalliques, metals, metal construction, mechanical, mécanique, électromécanique, électricité, electro-mechanical, electrical, and small électronique et petites activités de transport; scale transport activities; (iv) wood and (iv) bois et assimilés, mobilier et ameublement; analogous material, office furniture and (v) textile, habillement, cuirs et peaux; (vi) fittings; (v) textiles, clothing, hides and audiovisuel et communication (vii) hygiène et skins; (vi) Audiovisual and Communication; soins corporels et (viii) artisanat d’art et de (vii) Personal care and hygiene and (viii) Arts décoration. and crafts industry. L’analyse des effets produits par les nouvelles From the analysis of the results produced by possibilités offertes par le secteur en matière de the new options offered by the sector in the production et d’exportation montre que area of production and export, we observe l’artisanat, d’une manière générale, est entré that the Crafts industry has entered into a new dans sa phase de croissance. Les résultats growth phase. And the results are very enregistrés sont très significatifs. En effet, près significant. As a matter of fact, government de 8 milliards ont été investis par le has invested nearly 8 billion into the sector of 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh gouvernement dans le secteur dont 2,916 which 2,916 billion loans have been granted, milliards de crédits octroyés, 965 millions 965 million has been invested in the investis dans la réalisation des projets et 3,900 completion of projects and 3,900 billion tool milliards de kits d’outillage offerts aux jeunes kits have been given to young artisans. The artisans. Le Projet d’appui à l’insertion social and occupational integration project socioprofessionnelle des jeunes artisans which seeks to support young artisans (PAIPJA) a permis de renforcer les capacités (PAIPJA) has helped to strengthen the entrepreneuriales et matérielles de 5000 jeunes entrepreneurial capabilities of 5000 young artisans en vue de faciliter leur insertion artisans as well as provide them with the professionnelle pour lutter contre le chômage needed equipment to support them in their et le sous-emploi. En vue de faciliter l’accès various professions and to fight against des bénéficiaires du PAIPJA au micro crédit, unemployment and under-employment. A un partenariat avec la Coopérative d’épargne et partnership with the Savings and Credit de crédit aux artisans (CECA) a été noué à cooperative for artisans (ECSC) has been travers la mise en place d’un fonds de garantie created through the establishment of a 100 d’un montant de 100 millions de FCFA. million CFA francs guarantee fund in order to facilitate PAIPJA beneficiaries’ access to micro credit. Dans le domaine de la promotion commerciale Regarding the commercial promotion of the du secteur, des facilités sont négociées pour sector, some negotiations have been done to permettre la participation massive des artisans enable the massive participation of artisans in aux foires et expositions nationales et fairs as well as national and international 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh internationales et donner une visibilité à leurs exhibitions and to give visibility to their produits. products. Afin de disposer de données fiables sur le The Togolese Government has put in place a secteur, le gouvernement togolais a mis en database project to enable access to reliable place un projet de banque de données: le information on the sector: Systeme Système d’information et de statistique d’information et de Statisque nationales de nationales de l’artisanat (SISNA). L’objectif l’artisanat (SISNA). The objective of the du SISNA est d’avoir un dispositif de collecte, SISNA is to have a plan for the collection, d’analyse, de stockage et de diffusion de analysis, storage and dissemination of l’information qualitative et quantitative du qualitative and quantitative information on secteur et de son environnement. A terme, il the sector and its environment. Finally, it will permettra de disposer des informations enable access to updated information on the actualisées portant, entre autres, sur les métiers crafts sector, its stakeholders (artisans, du secteur de l’artisanat, ses acteurs (artisans, promotion, partners), laws that govern it as structures de promotion, partenaires), les textes well as training and technology. qui le régissent, les formations et les technologies sur les métiers artisanaux. Par ailleurs, le gouvernement a mis en place le Furthermore, government has set up the Centre de ressources pour l’artisanat (CRA) Crafts Resource Centre (CRA), where qui est un espace dédié aux artisans où ces artisans can have access to equipment and a derniers peuvent disposer des équipements et pool of resources that they could otherwise des ressources mutualisées que la petite not acquire individually as small businesses. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh entreprise ne peut acquérir individuellement. The CRA which is already operational in Déjà opérationnels dans une vingtaine de about twenty administrative centres will be préfectures, les CRA seront implantés dans established in every major administrative tous les chefs-lieux de préfecture sur town across the country. The CRA trains and l’ensemble du territoire togolais. Le CRA provides services and equipment to artisans. fournit des prestations de services aux artisans, In addition to the initial training or œuvre pour la formation initiale ou formation vocational training, it completes the training par apprentissage et complète la formation des of the artisans by upgrading the equipment artisans par le perfectionnement sur les used. About 850 million FCFA has been équipements mis en place. Le montant investi invested in the promotion of the CRAs. pour la promotion des CRA s’élève à 850 millions de FCFA. En termes de défis, il s’agira de: (i) poursuivre In order to overcome the challenges, we le renforcement du cadre juridique et must: (i) continue to strengthen the legal and institutionnel du secteur; (ii) poursuivre la mise institutional framework of the sector; (ii) en place des CRA pour couvrir toutes les continue to plant CRAs in all the préfectures; (iii) proposer d’autres mécanismes administrative centres; (iii) propose other de financement adaptés au secteur; (iv) mettre appropriate funding mechanisms for the en place un mécanisme de protection sociale sector; (iv) put in place a social protection des artisans; (v) promouvoir l’artisanat à scheme for artisans; (v) promote crafts travers l’organisation et la participation des through the organization of fairs and acteurs à des évènements forains ainsi stakeholder participation as well as qu’encourager la consommation des produits encourage the consumption of craft products; 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh artisanaux; (vi) renforcer le système (vi)strengthen the vocational training system d’apprentissage et de formation of artisans; and (vii) promote the creation of professionnelle des artisans; et (vii) favoriser la craft enterprises. création des entreprises artisanales. Concernant les mines, la poursuite des efforts As regards the mines, continuous mining de recherche minière et géologique a permis and geological research has helped unearth d’envisager diverses potentialités pour the various exploration and exploitation l’exploration et l’exploitation. possibilities. Pour l’exploration, sur une superficie de 56 600 As regards exploration of a 56,600 km2 area, km2, environ 40 000 km2 ont été couverts par about 40,000 km2 has been covered through la prospection géochimique stratégique, strategic geochemical prospecting which donnant la situation suivante : 150 sites pour gave rise to the following: 150 sites for gold l’or,70 sites pour les polymétalliques (zinc, mining, 70 sites for mining polymetals (zinc, plomb, cuivre, étain, tungstène, molybdène), 5 lead, copper, tin, tungsten, molybdenum), 5 sites pour le phosphate, 2 sites pour le rutile, 2 sites for phosphate mining, 2 sites for rutile, sites pour la chromite, 2 sites pour le platine, 1 2 sites for chromite, 2 sites for platinum, 1 site pour le diamant, 1 site pour les terres rares site for diamond, 1 site for mining rare earth (Ce, La, Y). En dehors de ces indices signalés (EC, the, Y). Apart from these indices par la géochimie, il y a lieu d’en mentionner reported by the geochemical sector, it is d’autres, dont les études devront être reprises, necessary to mention the other elements comme le fer de Lalamila au sud-ouest du whose research may have to be re-conducted village de Pagala, l’ilménite et le rutile à such as iron from Lalamila located at the 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bagbé, à Konda (Kloto) et à Akoura près de south-west of Pagala village, ilmenite and Pagala-Village, l’uranium, la chromite du rutile from Bagbé, Konda (Kloto) and Mont Ahito, le corindon du massif de Akoura near Pagala-Village, uranium, Sotouboua, les matériaux de construction dans chromite from Mount Ahito, corundum from le bassin côtier (sable, gravier). Sotouboua, construction materials from the coastal basin such as sand and gravels. En ce qui concerne les potentialités pour Concerning exploitation, the diagnostic l’exploitation, l’analyse diagnostique révèle analysis reveals the existence of metal and l’existence des ressources métallifères et non non-metallic resources. métallifères. Pour les ressources métallifères, on distingue le Under metal resources, we can make mention fer de Bandjéli estimé à 1 milliard de tonnes, le of the iron from Bandjéli estimated at 1 manganèse à 13 millions de tonnes, la chromite billion tonnes, manganese at 13 million à 40 000 tonnes et la bauxite à 1 million de tonnes, chromite at 40,000 tonnes and tonnes. bauxite at 1 million tonnes. Pour les ressources non métallifères, on a le Under non-metal resources, we can make phosphate (50 millions de tonnes), les mention of phosphate which is estimated at dolomies (plus de 100 millions de tonnes) et 50 million tonnes, dolomites at over a 100 calcaire (200 millions de tonnes), les argiles million tonnes, limestone at 200 million industrielles (environ 500 millions de tonnes), tonnes, industrial clays at approximately 500 la tourbe (5 millions de tonnes) et les pierres million tonnes, peat and ornamental stones at 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ornementales. Le minerai radioactif est 5 million tonnes. Uranium which can be constitué de l’uranium (environ 900 tonnes). estimated at about 900 tonnes falls under radioactive rocks. Cependant, depuis 2008 à ce jour, dans le However, 113 research permits have been domaine de l’exploration, 113 permis de issued to several exploration companies, recherche ont été délivrés à plusieurs sociétés. from 2008 till today. Aussi des équipements de prospection ont été Also, exploration equipment to facilitate a acquis depuis 2013, afin d’étendre gradual and progressive nationwide progressivement la couverture sur l’ensemble coverage of mining activities has been du territoire national. acquired since 2013. S’agissant de l’’exploitation minière, plusieurs As regards mining, several operation permits permis d’exploitation à grande échelle ont été have been issued out on a large scale to attribués à des sociétés et d’autres sont en cours companies and others are under d’étude. Il s’agit notamment des substances consideration. This includes the mining of minérales et pierres marbrières, du phosphate mineral substances, marble stones, meuble, du calcaire, des matériaux de phosphate carbonate, limestone, construction construction pour le BTP, de l’ilménite, du materials for the construction industry, manganèse et de l’or. ilmenite, manganese and gold. Pour ce qui concerne le laboratoire minier, The Mining Laboratory, irrespective of its malgré ses faibles capacités, il permet de low capacity, enables expert examination of 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh réaliser des expertises sur les produits exploités the products and issues shipping certificates et de délivrer des certificats d’expédition pour for export. l’exportation. Toutefois, le secteur est confronté à de grands However, the sector is faced with major défis qui sont: (i) la définition et la mise en challenges which include: (i) The definition place d’une approche globale incluant les and implementation of a comprehensive éléments clés et les bonnes pratiques approach including the key elements and best nécessaires à l’attraction des acteurs et practices required to attract the necessary investisseurs requis; (ii) la définition et la mise stakeholders and investors; (ii) the definition en place d’une approche intégrée and implementation of an integrated d’exploitation des phosphates; (iii) une approach for mining phosphates; (iii) a attractivité juridique et fiscale à optimiser dans robust legal and tax system to attract l’intérêt du pays et des investisseurs; (iv) investors; (iv) a thorough environmental and l’intégration effective des évaluations social assessment in the licensing process for environnementales et sociales dans le exploration and mining; (v) the removal of processus de délivrance des permis procedural difficulties to enable a simple, d’exploration et d’exploitation minière; (v) la quick, fair and transparent system in the levée des freins procéduraux supposant la mise issuance of permits; and (vi) the compliance en place des procédures de permis simples et of companies to mining regulations. rapides, équitables et transparentes; et (vi) le respect par les entreprises de leurs responsabilités sociétales dans l’exploitation des minerais. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2.4 Situation du secteur du commerce 1.2.4 Condition of the trade sector Sur la période 2009-2015, on note une From 2009-2015, there was a change in the modification de la structure des exportations structure of exports with a decrease (in avec le recul (en termes de part) des produits relation to quantity) in traditional cement and traditionnels que sont les ciments et les phosphate products, against an increase in phosphates, et un regain d'importance du coton cotton and gold. There has also been an et de l'or. On note également une hausse de la increase in the quantity of agricultural part des produits agricoles. Cette tendance n'est products. However, there is an un-uniform cependant pas homogène au sein de ces trend as regards these groups of products. groupes de produits. Ainsi, la part des ciments Also, there has been an increase in the hydrauliques dans les exportations totales est quantity of hydraulic cement from 23.7% in passée de 23,7% en 2009 à 7,3% en 2015 tandis 2009 to 7.3% in 2015 while that of consumer que celle des biens de consommation a goods has increased from 12.8% to 20.5%. augmenté de 12,8% à 20,5%. Les pays de l'UEMOA et de la CEDEAO Although Togolese exports have been restent le principal débouché pour les diversified to other international markets exportations togolaises, même si une such as Asia, Togo mainly trades with the diversification vers les autres marchés est neighbouring WAEMU and ECOWAS observée, notamment ceux de l'Asie. Entre states. Between 2009 and 2015, the quantity 2009 et 2015, la part des exportations vers les of exports to WAEMU countries increased pays de l'UEMOA a progressé (passant de from 42.7% to 51.3% while the quantity of 42,7% à 51,3%) tandis que la part des exports to other African countries mainly 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exportations à destination des autres pays Nigeria and Ghana, which form part of the africains (essentiellement le Nigeria et le ECOWAS member states has declined. Ghana, membres de la CEDEAO) a baissé. Les importations togolaises ont fluctué entre Between 2009 and 2015, Togolese imports 621 et 1113 milliards de FCFA entre 2009 et fluctuated between 621 and 1,113 billion 2015. La structure des importations est restée CFA francs. The imports structure remained relativement stable: elles sont composées relatively stable: they constitute about two- approximativement aux deux-tiers de produits thirds of manufactured products and one- manufacturés et au tiers de produits primaires. third of primary products. In 2015, imports En 2015, les importations sont composées de comprised of 18.7% of chemical products, 18,7% de produits chimiques, 16,4% de 16.4% of agricultural products, and 16.1% of produits agricoles, et 16,1% de matériels electrical and non-electrical equipment. électriques et non-électriques. Partant d'un niveau déficitaire en 2009, la From a deficit level in 2009, there was a balance des services s'est améliorée surplus of 42.5 billion CFA francs in 2015 progressivement pour atteindre un excédent de and this surplus is as a result of a progressive 42,5 milliards de FCFA en 2015. Cette improvement in the balance of payment on évolution est imputable essentiellement à une services. This change can be first of all amélioration des exportations de services de attributed to an improvement in the export of transport aérien dans un premier temps, et à un air transport services, and secondly, a change infléchissement des importations de services in the import of transport services in recent 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh de transport au cours des récentes années. En years. In 2011, an increase in the activities of effet, en 2011, les exportations de services ont ASKY Airlines brought about a 51% augmenté de 51% pour s'établir à 240,1 increase of an amount of 240.1 billion CFA milliards de FCFA, reflétant une hausse des francs, reflecting an increase in air transport services de transport aérien liée aux activités de services. Exports of services remained la compagnie régionale ASKY Airlines. Les relatively stable thereafter, but declined exportations de services sont restées slightly to 228 billion CFA francs in 2015. relativement stables par la suite, quoiqu'ayant Due to a decline in the demand for marine marqué un léger repli à 228 milliards de FCFA cargo services, import of services, largely en 2015. Les importations de services, dominated by transport services, which dominées par les services de transport, ont recorded an increase of 232.9 billion CFA progressé graduellement pour atteindre 232,9 francs in 2013, had a decline of 185.5 billion milliards de FCFA en 2013, mais se sont CFA francs in 2015. repliées à 185,5 milliards FCFA en 2015 du fait d'une baisse de la demande en services de fret maritime. Au total, le ratio des exportations et The total ratio of exports and imports of importations de biens et services au PIB a goods and services to GDP increased to culminé à 76,3% en 2013 avant de revenir à 76.3% in 2013 before dropping to 53.9% in 53,9% en 2015. Cette situation reflète la 2015. This situation reflects the trend of tendance des importations liées aux imports associated with infrastructural investissements en infrastructures. La balance investments. The trade balance, which 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh commerciale, structurellement déficitaire, a happens to be in a structural deficit, recorded affiché un déficit de 333,4 milliards FCFA en a deficit of 333.4 billion CFA francs in 2015 2015 contre 422,8 milliards CFA en 2013. against 422.8 billion CFA francs in 2013. Plusieurs contraintes freinent le The development of the Togolese trade sector développement du secteur du commerce au is hampered by several constraints. This Togo. Il s’agit notamment des perturbations includes disruptions in the domestic market dans l’approvisionnement du marché intérieur, supply and a low level of exports de la faible diversification et compétitivité des diversification and competitiveness. These exportations. Ces contraintes se matérialisent à challenges constitute: inadequate marketing; travers: un déficit des supports de mise en inadequate supervision of distribution marché; l’insuffisance des moyens centres; inadequate trade infrastructure; d’intervention et de surveillance des circuits de inadequate quantitative and qualitative distribution; l’insuffisance des infrastructures supply of goods and services for both internal commerciales; l’insuffisance quantitative et and external markets; and congested market qualitative de l’offre de biens et services tant centres. pour le marché intérieur que pour le marché extérieur; et un engorgement des circuits de commercialisation. 1.2.5 Evolution du système financier 1.2.5 Trends in the financial system Lomé est la troisième place financière de Lomé which is the third financial hub of the l’UEMOA (13 banques implantées dont le WAEMU can boast of 13 banks among siège de deux banques panafricaines: EcoBank which two are the headquarters of Pan- 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et Orabank) et accueille un petit nombre African banks (EcoBank and Orabank); and d’entreprises multinationales. hosts a small number of multinational companies. Cependant, le financement de l’économie Although the finance structure of the togolaise, bien qu’à un niveau favorable Togolese economy is at a favourable level as comparé aux autres pays de l’UEMOA, reste compared to other WAEMU countries, it is loin de la contribution apportée par ce système still far from the contributions made by dans les économies émergentes. Le problème emerging economies. This problem is not ne se trouve pas uniquement au niveau de only characterized by the difficult access to l’accès au financement mais aussi à celui du funding but also the exorbitant cost of credit. coût exorbitant du crédit. Les statistiques The available statistics reveal that the output disponibles indiquent que les taux de sortie rates are between 9 and 13% for bank credits sont entre 9% et 13 % pour les crédits bancaires and sometimes about 18% or even 20% for et avoisinent parfois 18% voire 20% pour la micro finance. In an environment microfinance. Dans un environnement characterized by a low inflation rate, the real caractérisé par un faible taux d’inflation, les rates seem to be very high and are an taux réels semblent très élevés et constituent un impediment to entrepreneurship, particularly véritable frein à l’entreprenariat en général et to the development of the agricultural, en particulier au développement des secteurs industrial and crafts sectors. The credit agricole, industriel et artisanal. Les statistiques distribution statistics revealed that the sur la distribution du crédit indiquent aussi que agricultural sector among other sectors les secteurs comme l’agriculture reçoivent peu receive little funding. Less than 1% of bank de financement. Moins d’1% de crédits credits are allocated to the agricultural sector 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bancaires vont au secteur agricole qui occupe which is made up of 60% of the active 60% de la population active et dont la part population and a relative GDP share of about relative dans le PIB oscille autour de 40%. 40%. En dépit des efforts louables du gouvernement In recent years, despite the government’s au cours de ces dernières années en matière de laudable efforts in the area of the inclusive la finance inclusive (les différents produits ont finance (the different products have allowed permis de toucher plus de 700.000 personnes us to reach over 700,000 people with low or sans revenus ou à faibles revenus), beaucoup no income), a lot still has to be done with reste à faire pour assurer le financement du respect to private sector funding. The secteur privé. Dans ce sens, l’enjeu est de faire challenge, however, is to ensure that the en sorte que le FNFI soit solidement intégré FNFI is strongly integrated to make funds comme l'institution par excellence de la accessible to all, especially for the poor, the promotion de la finance accessible à tous, youth and women through strong surtout pour les plus pauvres, les jeunes et les partnerships and diversified financial service femmes à travers de solides partenaires et providers as well as innovative and prestataires de services financiers diversifiés et appropriate financial products. pérennes et surtout à travers de produits financiers innovants et adaptés. L’analyse des indicateurs de performance du An analysis of the performance indicators of système bancaire montre que certaines banques the banking system in 2012-2013 reveals that semblent toujours faire face à de sérieux some banks are faced with serious solvency problèmes de solvabilité car la situation problems because of a weak financial financière de ces dernières a été affaiblie structure, with a degradation of the solvency, 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh depuis 2012-2013, avec une dégradation des asset quality, profitability and liquidity indicateurs de solvabilité, de la qualité des indicators. Consequently, the average capital actifs, de la rentabilité et de la liquidité. En adequacy ratios are low while the ratio of conséquence, les ratios de suffisance du capital non-performing loans is higher than the moyens sont plus bas et le ratio des prêts non WAEMU average. Hence, there are high productifs plus élevé que la moyenne de risks of non-repayment and therefore the l’UEMOA. Ce qui indique que les risques de average guarantee requirement is remboursement sont élevés et par conséquent approximately 235%. As a remedy to this les exigences moyennes en matière de garantie situation, government will continue to s’élèvent à environ 235%. Pour remédier à restructure the banking system and take the cette situation, le gouvernement poursuivra la necessary measures in order to maintain its restructuration du système bancaire et prendra financial comparative advantage in the sub- les dispositions nécessaires pour maintenir son region. avantage comparatif comme place financière de la sous-région avec la présence de sièges de banques africaines. A côté du système bancaire, la microfinance Microfinance plays a very important role in joue un rôle de plus en plus important dans la the mobilization of individual savings as well mobilisation de l’épargne des ménages et dans as the promotion of financial inclusion. From la promotion de l’inclusion financière. Sur la 1995-2013, deposits increased from $5.5 période 1995-2013, l’encours des dépôts est billion FCFA to over 128 billion FCFA, and passé de 5,5 milliards FCFA à plus de 128 credits increased from 3.8 billion to 109.3 milliards FCFA, et l’encours des crédits de 3,8 billion CFA francs. In 2012, the rate of 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh milliards à 109,3 milliards FCFA. Il s’agit de banking outside decentralized financial ressources qui restent en-dehors du secteur accounts and postal services was only 9.60% bancaire, le taux de bancarisation hors les (BCEAO, 2013). Many institutions, comptes financiers décentralisés et les services however, are not compliant with the postaux en 2012 était seulement de 9,60% prudential ratios. As a matter of fact, in 2016, (BCEAO, 2013). Mais de nombreuses among the 190 active microfinance institutions ne respectent pas les ratios institutions, only 20 are in compliance with prudentiels. En effet, sur les 190 institutions de the prudential ratios while among the 16 microfinance en activité en 2016, seules 20 supervised by the Banking Commission, only respectent l’ensemble des ratios prudentiels 4 are in full compliance. The bad debts rate tandis que sur les 16 supervisées par la exceeds 8% and remains above the 3% Commission bancaire, seules 4 sont en totale Prudential Standard set for the 90-day conformité. Le taux des créances douteuses portfolio risk. Finally, there are about 140 excède 8% et continue à être supérieur à la unlicensed institutions in operation. norme prudentielle qui est de 3% pour le portefeuille à risque à 90 jours. Enfin, le secteur compte environ 140 institutions qui fonctionnent sans autorisation. Un certain nombre de faiblesses The Banks and decentralized financial institutionnelles existent au niveau des banques systems (SFD) are faced with some et des Systèmes financiers décentralisés (SFD), challenges, which include: (i) high levels of notamment: (i) des niveaux élevés de créances non-performing debts, inadequate equity douteuses, l’insuffisance de capitaux en fonds capital and the associated risks (for 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh propres et les risques (pour les clients); ainsi customers); (ii) fragmentation of the banking que (ii) la fragmentation des secteurs bancaires sectors and SFDs and poor integration et des SFD et l’intégration insuffisante entre les between the institutions. institutions. Des défis importants demeurent dans le secteur Some significant challenges in the financial financier et portent sur: (i) l’insuffisance de la sector are: (i) limited use of mobile money as commodité et l’utilisation limitée des moyens a means of payment; (ii) poor savings culture de paiements en particulier le mobile money; in the formal institutions; (iii) inadequate (ii) la faiblesse de l'épargne dans les funding for the agricultural sector; (iv) poor établissements formels; (iii) l’insuffisance de risk management for reliable clients; (v) financement pour le secteur agricole; (iv) la difficult access to credit, especially for gestion des risques pour les clients fiables; (v) SMEs, women and young entrepreneurs; and la difficulté d’accès au crédit en particulier (vi) high cost of credit. pour les PME, les femmes et les jeunes entrepreneurs; et (vi) le coût élevé du crédit. 1.2.6 Amélioration du climat des affaires 1.2.6 Improvement of the business climate Les chantiers relatifs à l’amélioration du climat The business climate has improved over the des affaires se sont intensifiés ces cinq past five years. As part of the first reforms, dernières années. Au premier rang des we can make mention of a full réformes, l’opérationnalisation complète du operationalization of Centre de Formalités Centre de formalités des entreprises (CFE) qui des Entreprises (CFE), which has helped to 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a permis de réduire considérablement le coût significantly reduce the cost of creating de création des entreprises de plus de 900% companies by more than 900% (From (252 250 à 29.250 FCFA), le capital minimum 252,250 to 29,250 FCFA), reduced the des SARL de 1.000.000 FCFA à 100.000 minimum capital of public limited FCFA et le délai de création à 24 heures contre companies from 1,000,000 FCFA to 100,000 85 jours en 2012. Il faut également noter FCFA and finally, reduced the period for the l’exonération de la taxe professionnelle unique registration of companies to 24 hours against à la première année de création ainsi que des 85 days in 2012. Also, the single business tax exonérations en faveur des entreprises inscrites for the first year of operation has been au Centre de gestion agréé (CGA). exempted and exemptions are also given to companies registered under the Accredited Management Centre (CGA). Les procédures et délais relatifs au règlement Procedural structures and schedules for des litiges commerciaux ont été améliorés avec commercial dispute settlement have been (i) la création et l’automatisation des chambres reduced through (i) the creation and the commerciales et (ii) l’adoption d’un protocole automation of commercial chambers and (ii) de procédure entre l’ordre des avocats et le the adoption of a protocol for lawyers and the tribunal de Lomé fixant d’un commun accord Court of Lomé; this protocol specifies the le nombre des renvois et le délai moyen de number of references and the average time règlement des contentieux. Cette disposition a for settling a litigation. According to the permis de réduire le délai moyen de cent (100) World Bank’s 2016 Doing Business report, this provision has helped to reduce the 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh jours pour se situer à 388 jours selon le rapport average settlement time from 388 days to one Doing Business 2016 de la Banque Mondiale. hundred (100) days. Le commerce transfrontalier pour sa part a The cross-border trade, however, has connu une refonte totale avec la mise en place undergone a complete overhaul with the d’un Guichet unique du commerce extérieur establishment of a single window external (GUCE) en vue d’assurer la facilitation des trade system (GUCE) to ensure trade échanges, lutter contre la corruption et facilitation, fight against corruption and supprimer les faux frais. Cette nouvelle vision incidental expense removal. According to the qui a conduit à l’augmentation de plus de 19% Doing Business reports, this new vision des recettes de l’Etat, explique à suffisance which has led to an increase of over 19% of l’amélioration des classements du pays (2ème government revenue, is the reason for the pays de l’UEMOA) dans le rapport Doing improvement in the country’s ranking (2nd Business, avec un bon de quarante-sept places place within the WAEMU) with forty-seven (47 places) dans le rapport de l’indice de la seats (47 seats) and the 92nd position performance logistique pour se hisser à la according to the Logistics Performance 92ème place. Index. L’accès au crédit, le permis de construire, There has been an improvement in access to l’automatisation de chambres commerciale, la credit, building permit, automation of lutte contre la fraude et la corruption dans la commercial chambers, fight against fraud collecte des impôts et taxes; la protection des and corruption as regards payment of duties investisseurs ont connu une amélioration. Ces and taxes and protection of investors. These 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh réformes structurelles ont permis au Togo de structural reforms have enabled Togo to gagner quelques places dans le classement place in the “Doing Business" ranking (154th «Doing Business» (154ième rang en 2016 position in 2016 against 165th in 2010 among contre 165ième en 2010 sur 189 pays) et de 189 countries) and comply with certain respecter certains critères devant contribuer à eligibility criteria in the Millennium l’éligibilité au Millennium Challenge Account Challenge Account (MCA). (MCA). Cependant, le climat des affaires reste moins However, as regards the ease of doing favorable que dans les pays pairs pour ce qui business, its business environment remains concerne les indicateurs de facilité à faire des less favourable as compared to peer affaires et constitue, de ce fait, une barrière à countries. This therefore hinders creativity l’éclosion de la créativité et de and entrepreneurship in Togo, hence making l’entrepreneuriat des Togolais, limitant leur it difficult to seize opportunities. The capacité à saisir des opportunités. requirements of global investors make the L’environnement des affaires s’étant érigé en business environment very competitive. compétition au regard des exigences des Nevertheless, accelerating the investisseurs mondiaux, l’accélération dans la implementation of the reforms is not a major mise en œuvre des réformes reste pour le Togo challenge for Togo. un défi non moins important. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE STRUCTURED ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF TRANSLATION PROBLEMS The objective of this chapter is to discuss the challenges or difficulties encountered in the translation of the source text and how these difficulties were overcome by the use of a number of translation theories and strategies. The Plan National De Développement is a document taken from the domain of economics full of terminologies, acronyms and abbreviations. The translation of this text into English presented many challenges while we were trying to render the meaning in the target language by finding the exact equivalence and also remaining faithful to the source text. Therefore, translating this text required some level of knowledge in the field of economics which we were able to do through a thoughtful research. In view of this we have used many translation theories such as Translation Unit, Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence, in translating the technical terms as well as finding the appropriate equivalent of the polysemous words by placing them within the context. In the paragraphs that follow, we will present the said theories and strategies and demonstrate how their adoption in our translation process enabled us to overcome the challenges that we encountered, while we focussed on addressing the issue of appropriateness and equivalence, the subject matter of this work. 3.1 Translation Unit 3.1.1 Contrastive analysis of the translation units in the source and target texts. Peter Newmark (1989) defined translation unit as “the smallest segment of [source language] text which can be translated, as a whole, in isolation from other segments.” This analysis will be done by breaking down selected sentences from the source and target texts. We will do this analysis 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh using the classification proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1958): functional units whose elements participate in the same grammatical function. Then we will show how syntactic structures and punctuations especially comma can change from one language to the other but may not affect the meaning of the sentence. (i) French: La mise en œuvre /des différentes politiques de développement/ a permis /au Togo /d’obtenir /des avancées /dans /la relance de /l’économie /par /une croissance /régulière du PIB réel de 5,0% /en moyenne annuelle /sur la période 2013-2017. (Page 25) English: By implementing /diverse developmental policies, /Togo /has been able to rebuild /its economy / by /a 5.0% annual average steady growth rate /in real GDP /from 2013-2017. (Page 25) Here we decided not to follow the French structure which begins with a noun but rather we decided to choose a more appropriate structure in English, while introducing a comma (,) which wasn’t part of the original text. This new structure has made the English sentence shorter than the French. The breakdown of the French sentence gave us 14 units while the English is 9 units. Also this syntactic structure makes the English sentence sound more natural than it would have been if we had followed the structure in French. (ii) French: Le Togo a des avantages comparatifs, /ce qui nécessite des efforts supplémentaires pour accroître la compétitivité de l’économie nationale/ et /surtout du corridor de transit. (Page 18) English: Togo has comparative advantage. / This therefore requires additional efforts to increase the competitiveness of the national economy, particularly the transit corridor. (Page 18) 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In this translation, a full stop (.) was introduced in English while the French used a comma (,) after the first set of units. We also chose to introduce a comma (,) in place of “et” in French because translating “et” as “and” in this context would not give us the same meaning as “et” here is not giving additional information, and as such if it is dropped it will not affect the meaning of the sentence. French: Cet exercice se déroule dans un contexte marqué, /certes, /par des défis majeurs, mais également par des opportunités dont l’exploitation judicieuse peut permettre l’émergence économique à long terme. (Page 18) English: This exercise is carried out within a specific context, /and has certainly been faced by major challenges. /However, /there have been some opportunities which, when wisely exploited/, can bring about a long-term economic emergence. (Page 18) The French sentence is just a one long sentence constructed with conjunctions and commas but we decided to break down the English sentence into two during our translation process without distorting the meaning. Also, while the French version can be organized into three translation units, the English rendering utilizes five units as trying to keep the long structure in English as in French may make the sentence too complex for the target reader to understand. 3.2 Technical Terms Many technical terms in French occur with prepositions and articles which are not required in the English language and hence can be done away with. Examples: 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh French English CGA: Centre de gestion agréé CGA: Accredited Management Centre DSRP-C: Document complet de stratégie de C-PRSP: Comprehensive Poverty Reduction réduction de la pauvreté Strategy Paper DSRP-I: Document Intérimaire de Stratégie I-PRSP: Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy de réduction de la pauvreté Paper FAIEJ: Fonds d’appui aux initiatives FAIEJ: Youth Economic Initiatives Support économiques des jeunes Fund Le Projet d’appui au secteur agricole Agricultural Sector Support Program L’endettement public Public debt In the above examples, the following prepositions were dropped: De, d’, de la, des, au, aux Aside from prepositions, the following articles were also dropped in these cases: Le, L’ 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.1 Reliance on cultural and general knowledge in translation of abbreviations and acronyms While translating these technical terms, one of the challenges we encountered was the translation of abbreviations and acronyms. Many of these acronyms are substantially recognized and already have their equivalents in the English language, so we relied on our background knowledge in the field to translate them. Here are a few examples: French English CEDEAO: Communauté économique des ECOWAS: Economic Community of West Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest African States IDE: Investissement direct étranger FDI: Foreign Direct Investment PIB: Produit intérieur brut GDP: Gross Domestic Product TIC: Technologie de l’information et de la ICT: Information and Communication communication Technology UEMOA: Union économique et monétaire WAEMU: West African Economic and ouest africaine Monetary Union PME: Petite et moyenne entreprise SME: Small and Medium Enterprise 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PND: Plan national de développement NDP: National Development Plan PMI: Petite et moyenne industrie PMI: Small and Medium Industry DSRP-C: Document complet de stratégie de C-PRSP: Comprehensive Poverty Reduction réduction de la pauvreté Strategy Paper DSRP-I: Document Intérimaire de Stratégie I-PRSP: Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy de réduction de la pauvreté Paper Moreover, some of the acronyms do not have their direct equivalents in the target language so during our translation, we made a thoughtful choice to offer a translation that is as faithful as possible by conveying the intended meaning in the target language. Therefore, it was necessary for us to do a careful research to find a corresponding translation which allows the target reader to get the meaning. In some cases, we maintained the acronyms in their original forms in the source language to retain their authenticity. We have illustrated a few examples of such cases in the table below: 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh French English UTB: Union togolaise de banque UTB: Togolese Bank Union SCAPE: Stratégie de croissance accélérée et SCAPE: Strategy for Boosting Growth and de promotion de l’emploi Promoting Employment QUIBB: Questionnaire unifié des indicateurs QUIBB: Unified Questionnaire on Basic de base du bien-être Indicators of Well-Being PNIASAN: Plan national d’investissement PNIASAN: National Investment Plan in agricole et de sécurité alimentaire et Agriculture, Food Security and Nutrition nutritionnelle BCEAO: Banque centrale des Etats de BCEAO: Central Bank of West African l’Afrique de l’Ouest States AGRISEF: Accès des agriculteurs aux AGRISEF: Farmers' Access to Financial services financiers Services 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Formal Equivalence Formal equivalence also known as word-for-word translation, is translating the meaning of words and phrases in a more literal way. This form of equivalence was presented by Eugene Nida. According to Nida (1964), formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and content without distorting the message. It required that the message in the target language should be constantly close to the message in the source language to determine the standard of accuracy and correctness. In support of this view, Vinay, J.P. and J. Darbelnet (1995) contend that the literal translation method (word-for-word) transfers the source language grammar, word order and the meanings of all source language words to the target language. The authors also argue that literal translation can only apply to languages which are extremely close in cultural terms. It is acceptable only if the translated text retains the same syntax, the same meaning and the same style as the original text. Our source text being a multidisciplinary development plan, we translated most of the technical words and many sentences using the principle of formal equivalence. Few examples are illustrated in the table below. Source Text Target Text En dépit des progrès notables, des défis Despite this significant progress, challenges importants persistent en termes d’inégalités such as social and spatial inequalities, poor sociales et spatiales, de faiblesse du système national, human and governance systems productif national, de ressources humaines continue to persist. (Page 17) et de gouvernance. (Page 17) 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Il s’inspire aussi de l’agenda 2030 de It is also inspired by AGENDA 2030’s développement durable, de l’agenda 2063 Sustainable Development, Agenda 2063 of de l’Union Africaine et de la Vision 2020 de the African Union and Vision 2020 of the la Communauté Economique des Etats de Economic Community of West African l’Afrique de l’Ouest (CEDEAO). (Page 21) States (ECOWAS). (Page 21) Partenaires techniques et financiers (Page Technical and financial partners (Page 21) 21) Diagnostic de la situation economique, Diagnosis of the economic, social and sociale et environnementale (Page 24) environmental situation (Page 24) Performances macroeconomiques (Page 24) Macroeconomic performance (Page 24) La croissance économique (Page 26) Economic growth (Page 26) Croissance inclusive (Page 31) Inclusive growth (Page 31) Centres des formalités des entreprises (Page Center for Business Formalities (Page ix) ix) Fonds national de la finance inclusive (Page National Fund for Inclusive Finance (Page x) x) 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 Dynamic Equivalence Unlike formal equivalence, dynamic equivalence focuses on the meaning and receptor response rather than the words. According to Nida (1964), dynamic equivalence describes a translation principle whereby the translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original text in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact on the target language audience. The Formal equivalence focuses on the message in both form and content, while the dynamic equivalence is based on the relationship between the receiver and the message in both SL and TL texts. The author acknowledges that sometimes the form of the source text changes but inasmuch as the change goes by the rules of back transformation in the source language and achieves contextual consistency in the transfer, the translation is equally good, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful. During our translation process, we noticed that if we used formal equivalence to translate some of the technical terms, we might end up having a bad translation and therefore not conveying the exact meaning in the target language. For example, phrases such as (Page 27) ‹‹Evolution du Produit Intérieur Brut››, which we translated as “Increase in Gross Domestic Product” could have been translated literally as “Evolution of Gross Domestic Product”, which is the accurate equivalent. Other examples of the translation of the source text using dynamic equivalence are presented below: 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Source Text Target Text La faiblesse de la croissance (Page 30) Low level of growth (Page 30) Relever le défi de la transformation In order to meet the expectations of the structurelle nécessite donc un changement de Togolese people, this structural paradigme de développement, pour répondre transformation challenge will require a aux attentes des Togolais (Page 30) paradigm shift in the area of development (Page 30) L’approfondissement des interactions Strengthening the relationship between the entre le secteur public et le secteur privé public and the private sectors to complete pour réaliser les projets ciblés (Page 31) the targeted projects (Page 31) La masse salariale sur recettes fiscales a été Income tax was maintained below 35%, maîtrisée en-deçà de 35%, tandis que while investment on internal resources (in l’investissement sur ressources internes relation to tax revenue) was above 23%. (rapporté aux recettes fiscales) est resté au- (Page 33) delà de 23%. (Page 33) Ce solde global s’est chiffré à (Page 33) This total balance amounted to (Page 33) 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l’approvisionnement du marché intérieur domestic market supply (Page 66) (Page 66) For example, if we had used the principle of formal equivalence to translate the following sentence (Page 33), ‹‹Ce solde global s’est chiffré à››; the translation would have been, “This global balance calculated to,” which does not give the exact meaning in the target language. From the above examples we can conclude that in order to have a natural translation, the translator may make use of both the formal and dynamic equivalence principles by searching for the appropriate equivalences. 3.5 Polysemy Polysemy refers to the situation in which a word has more than one meaning. It is undoubtedly one of the key problems in translation since translation is about the meaning of words within a context. Ullman (1967: 159) defines polysemy as a “situation” in which the same word has two or more different meanings. Polysemous words pose challenges to the translator because of their ambiguity and their specific meaning. In such a situation, it behoves the translator to take into consideration the context of the situation so as to eliminate the ambiguity and ultimately find the actual meaning of the words. Finding the appropriate meaning of a number of polysemous words was one of the many challenges we faced during the translation process. However, we were able to overcome the challenge by focusing more attention on the context in which these words appear. For example, the word ‹‹Evolution›› in French has many meanings in English such as evolution, changes, development, progress, etc… In the following sentence (Page 27): Evolution du Produit Intérieur Brut; we translated the sentence as Increase in Gross 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Domestic Product since it gives a natural meaning in English than saying Evolution in Gross Domestic Product. But the same “evolution” which appears in the sentence (Page 32): Evolution des autres indicateurs macroéconomiques was translated as Changes in other macroeconomic indicators since changes is the actual meaning of the word Evolution as used in the source text. Also, the French word ‹‹Niveau›› appears so many times in the ST but has different meanings according to the context in which it appears, as illustrated in the following sentences: Source Text Target Text Au niveau des comptes extérieurs, la As regards external accounts, the balance of balance des paiements est caractérisée par un payments was characterized by a structural déficit structurel du compte des transactions deficit of the current account (-13.9% of courantes (-13,9% du PIB en 2013 et - 9,9% GDP in 2013 and - 9.9% in 2016). (Page 33) en 2016). (Page 33) A la faveur de la reprise formelle de la Public investment has increased sharply, as a coopération au développement en 2008, result of the formal resumption of l’investissement public a fortement cooperative development in 2008, averaging progressé, s’établissant en moyenne à 8,2 % 8.2% of GDP between 2010 and 2015, a level du PIB entre 2010 et 2015, soit un niveau comparable to that of the countries in South comparable à celui des pays de l’Afrique au Sub-Saharan Africa… (Page 37) sud du Sahara…. (Page 37) 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh La stabilité macroéconomique s’est Macroeconomic stability has also improved, améliorée, après une phase d’endettement after an accruing debt period and an dus au rattrapage et à la mise à niveau des infrastructure upgrade. (Page 26) infrastructures structurantes. (Page 26) au niveau de la norme communautaire de in line with the ECOWAS requirement. 70%. (Page 26) (Page 26) l’élimination de certaines zoonoses comme the elimination of certain zoonosis such as la maladie de Newcastle au niveau des Newcastle Disease in poultry, (Page 46) volailles, (Page 46) Another example is the term ‹‹croissance›› which can mean all of the following: increase, development, growth, expansion…., as shown in the sentences below. Source Text Target Text ….permettant d’inverser la tendance à la ….in order to turn around the deterioration of détérioration des indicateurs the macroeconomic and social indicators, macroéconomiques et sociaux et de retrouver leading to a positive and stronger growth. le chemin d’une croissance positive et de (Page 16) plus en plus forte. (Page 16) 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh un marché estimé à 380 millions de a market growth estimated at 380 million personnes qui représente la plus grande people who represent the greatest opportunité pour la croissance de opportunity for the growth of the Togolese l’économie togolaise. (Page 18) economy. (Page 18) la période de croissance (Page 19) growth period (Page 19) Croissance économique (Page 18) Economic growth (Page 18) In the above sentences, we translated the word ‹‹croissance›› as “growth” for it is the appropriate meaning in the contexts above. In the same way the French term ‹‹visible›› in the following sentence (Page 31) ‹‹Dans la mesure où la pauvreté est plus visible dans le monde rural où 68,7% de la population est pauvre (QUIBB 2015)››, which we translated as “common” in the English sentence: “Since poverty is more common in the rural world, where 68.7% of the population is poor (QUIBB 2015)”, the word “visible” in English is ambiguous if used in this particular context because saying that “poverty is more visible in the rural world… is very ambiguous. Therefore, we decided to use a more appropriate term like “common” which gives a better meaning in the above context. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CONCLUSION The main objective of translation is to convey a message to the target reader as naturally as the original message. However, achieving such an objective is always a challenge for most translators, as most translators struggle to appropriately transfer meaning by finding equivalent expressions. Given the challenge relating to appropriateness and equivalence, our work sought to further assess the situation and propose theories and strategies for overcoming such a challenge. In order to appropriately address the issue of equivalence and appropriateness, we translated a technical text that was carefully chosen to help us achieve our objective. By focusing on the issue of equivalence and appropriateness, during the translation process, we resorted to online dictionaries, various websites and other important materials in order to appropriately keep the meaning of the Source Text in the Target Text. We also resorted to various theories and strategies such as Translation Unit, Formal Equivalence and Dynamic Equivalence proposed by Eugene Nida and other theorists, in translating the technical terms as well as finding the appropriate equivalence of the polysemous words, in order to avoid the ambiguous problems they cause. The theories and strategies above were useful in helping us produce a good translation, despite the number of challenges that we encountered, especially with the issue of Equivalence and Appropriateness. Our work demonstrates that good cultural knowledge also plays a key role in surmounting the issue of equivalence and appropriateness, more specifically, in the translation of acronyms and abbreviations. Our work also confirms the idea that the principles of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence are good principles that can help translators produce good translations devoid of ambiguity, if such principles are applied accurately. Therefore, we strongly recommend the adoption of these theories and strategies as they will help translators address the issue of Equivalence and Appropriateness in their projects. Our work also demonstrates that, mere 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh knowledge of the aforementioned theories and strategies does not automatically make one a good translator, however, it is equally important to be fluent in the Source Language and Target Language. Our work also emphasizes the need for translators to develop good writing skills, in order to produce good translations that will generate the desired response. Considering that this project is only a Master’s dissertation, we are convinced that future researchers still have a lot of work to do regarding the issue of appropriateness and equivalence. We believe that access to good funding for such research projects will produce much more interesting results as researchers will have the financial capacity to travel and ask all the questions that need answers and to discover certain things that can only be discovered in the cultural settings of the Source Text and Target Text. It is also our opinion that the organization of more seminars by institutions offering Translation programmes and the creation of networks between students and professional translators and theorists will help students discover more pertinent issues in Translation. Whereas the issue of appropriateness and equivalence may constitute a nightmare for translators and translation researchers, after careful consideration of the issue through our work and after proposing solutions thereto, we have realized the need to ask whether the translator’s personality is also relevant in producing good translations. Future research will determine the answer to the question. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Alfaori, N. A. D. M. (2017), Equivalence Problems in Translation; Sino-US English Teaching, 14(2), 86-97. Arffman, I. (2002). In search of equivalence: Translation problems in international literacy studies. 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Routledge. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GLOSSARY French English Accumulation de capital Capital accumulation Allocations budgétaires Budgetary allocations Approvisionnement du marché intérieur Domestic market supply Balance commerciale Trade balance Balance des paiements Balance of payments Biens de consommation Consumer goods Chaînes de valeur Value chains Climat des affaires Business environment Commerce transfrontalier Cross-border trade Comptes extérieurs External accounts Coopérative d’épargne et de crédit aux artisans Savings and credit cooperative for artisans Crise sociopolitique Socio-political crisis Croissance inclusive Inclusive growth Croissances sectorielles Sectoral growth Déficit budgétaire Budget deficit 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Déficit structurel du compte des transactions Structural deficit of the current account courantes Denrées alimentaires Foodstuff Dépense Publique Public Expenditure Endettement public Public debt Épargne Savings Expédition Shipping Faible productivité Low productivity Guichet unique du commerce extérieur Single window external trade system Inclusion financière Financial inclusion Indicateurs macroéconomiques Macroeconomic indicators Inflation Inflation Insuffisance de capitaux en fonds propres et les Inadequate equity capital and the risques associated risks Investissement direct étranger Foreign direct investment Partenaires techniques et financiers (Page 21) Technical and financial partners (Page 21) 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pauvreté poverty Petite et moyenne entreprise Small and Medium Enterprise Petite et moyenne industrie Small and medium industry Produit intérieur brut Gross Domestic Product Produits pétroliers Petroleum products Recettes fiscales Tax revenue Rentabilité Profitability Secteur informel Informal sector Secteur public Secteur privé Solde global Total balance Solde global de la balance des paiements Total balance of payments Stabilité macroéconomique Macroeconomic stability Taux d’inflation inflation rate 100