Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Cities
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cities
Cities at risk? Exploring the synergies between smartphones and everyday T
vulnerabilities
Ebenezer F. Amankwaaa,⁎, Karen B. Blayb
a Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, Ghana
b School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Smartphones present new forms of spatiality and sociality for cities worldwide. The sudden outburst in smart-
Smartphones phone technologies has revolutionised human relations creating new possibilities of encounter and connectivity.
Social media networks This paper examines people's smartphone usage patterns and highlights how this is increasing human vulner-
Vulnerabilities abilities in cities with resultant wider societal implications. Drawing on the theory of vulnerability, Hofstede's
Individualism cultural dimension theory and carrying out semi-structured interviews in the United Kingdom and Ghana, the
Collectivism
Smart city paper reveals that the current scale of usage and addiction to smartphones and social media are fostering
emerging forms of everyday vulnerabilities. Victimisation, privacy breach, home emergencies and road accidents
are prevalent vulnerabilities in both Accra and London. By comparing participants' smartphone usage patterns
and their motives for adopting or ignoring certain social media practices, the study illustrates how the concept of
attitudinal vulnerability extends our understanding of Hofstede's theory of collectivism and individualism. While
the finding from Accra complicates Hofstede's collectivism label as there seems to be a loss of genuine sense of
care and people-centeredness among participants it confirms individualism tendencies among the participants in
London though some tendencies of ‘virtual collectivism’ were observed. In conclusion, the study emphasises how
significant behavioural changes among smartphone users can reduce human-induced vulnerabilities in cities. By
so doing, we add weight to the literature that focuses on the importance of developing context-specific cutting-
edge ICT policies vis-à-vis building smart, safe and sustainable cities.
1. Introduction promote smarter infrastructures that reduce hazards (see for example
Aina, 2017 on GeoICT; Hampshire et al., 2015 on m-health), they are
As the information and communication technologies (ICTs) pervade also associated with issues of cyber-crimes and human-induced risks
into our everyday lives, so have mobile phones become smarter in (Alsaleh, Alomar, & Alarifi, 2017). The diffusion of ICT and smart
providing connectivity to the world around us. The scale of human mobile phones (SMPs) in today's ‘virtual cities’ presents a host of op-
connectivity has reached unprecedented levels such that smartphones portunities (efficiencies and convenience) and vulnerabilities (privacy
are just like personal computers and most people now use one or more threats and loss of personal care) (see for instance Aina, 2017; Battarra,
online social media services including WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, Gargiulo, Pappalardo, Boiano, & Oliva, 2016). In this paper, we define
YouTube, Instagram and Snapchat for watching videos, expressing SMPs as multi-functional devices which are used for networking,
themselves and searching and sharing information. Worldwide, smart- sharing information and promoting fame, with the potential of
phones were used by 1.85 billion people in 2014. This number reached shrinking genuine human care and societal cohesiveness.
2.32 billion in 2017 and is expected to reach 2.87 billion in 2020 A growing scholarship shows how SMPs are reshaping cities and
(Statista, 2017). The fast pace of technological innovation and pene- presenting new forms of spatiality and sociality, particularly in relation
tration is rapidly changing the face of our cities into what are now to a more mobile life, and the way business is done, social network is
referred to as “smart-cities” – whereby urban locales integrate cyber- built, and romantic courtship is forged and nurtured (Buglass, Binder,
physical technologies and infrastructure to create environmental and Betts, & Underwood, 2016; Chan, 2015). For instance, Turkle (2011)
economic efficiency while improving the overall quality of life draws our attention to the rising digital dependency in the global North,
(Neirotti, De Marco, Cagliano, Mangano, & Scorrano, 2014; OCIA, linking the intensive use of mobile technologies with a decline in
2015). While smart-city technologies enhance virtual mobility and genuine face-to-face human connections. Pain et al. (2005) highlight
⁎ Corresponding author at: P.O. Box Lg 59, Legon, Accra, Ghana.
E-mail addresses: efamankwaa@st.ug.edu.gh (E.F. Amankwaa), k.b.blay@lboro.ac.uk (K.B. Blay).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2018.06.015
Received 20 July 2017; Received in revised form 22 March 2018; Accepted 23 June 2018
Available online 04 July 2018
0264-2751/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
the different ways that young people and their parents in the UK use 2. Conceptualizing human vulnerabilities and smart mobile
smartphones in managing and negotiating safety, raising questions as to phones (SMPs) in cities
whether phones are technologies of surveillance or empowerment. In
the global South (e.g. Ghana, Malawi and South Africa), Porter et al. Vulnerability can be defined as the susceptibility to harm, a po-
(2015) have documented the intergenerational differences in people's tential change when struck with disruption and the absence of adap-
phone usage emphasising how the youth mostly are repositioning tation (Adger, 2006; Gallopín, 2006). Vulnerability is influenced by
themselves as family information hubs with extensive phone use exposure and sensitivity. While exposure shows the extent to which an
duration. While these previous studies are unique in terms of focus and entity is subject to a disruption (Gallopín, 2006), often characterised by
contribution to scholarship, not much attention has been given to the duration, proximity or level of subjectivity (Smit & Wandel, 2006);
contribution of smartphones to risk accumulation in cities. This makes sensitivity is the inherent property of the entity which exists prior to a
researching into smartphone users' practices and the dynamics of ev- disruption and has its magnitude dependent on the extent of exposure
eryday risks imperative. to the disruption (Gallopín, 2006). When exposed to disruptions, sen-
This paper interrogates these shifting usage patterns of SMPs and sitivity of the entity utilizes its adaptive capacity to modify the cir-
the new virtual opportunities and associated vulnerabilities SMPs cumstance to reduce vulnerability (Birkmann et al., 2013). Thus,
create, with particular emphasis on the synergies and implications of adaptive capacity enables the entity to cope with, persist or be flexible
addiction, distraction, emergencies and response. Specifically, the towards the disruptions and thus, reduce vulnerability. The sources of
paper illustrates how SMPs contribute to human-induced risks such as disruptions which lead to vulnerability vary; examples are natural ha-
home emergencies, distracted walking and driving accidents, and zards and human-induced risks. Both sources lead to varying vulner-
fatalities, as well as how SMPs influence people's response to such risks; abilities such as economic, social and cultural (Birkmann et al., 2013).
that is, either posting real time information or providing an interven- In the past few decades, discussions about natural hazards have re-
tion. The paper argues that the use of smartphones is creating new ceived significant attention which has brought to the limelight issues of
forms of attitudinal vulnerabilities in cities which have resultant wider flood reduction (Schanze, 2006) and climate change adaptation (Adger,
implications for Hofstede's theory on collectivism and individualism. 2006). Human-induced risks, on the other hand, have not received
These dynamics are posing emerging challenges for city governments in commensurate academic attention largely due to the lack of apprecia-
relation to the achievement of the urban Sustainable Development Goal tion of its multi-dimensionality and pathways to impact. However, as
(SDG) since SMPs which are meant to improve efficiency and in- argued in this paper, human-induced risks present everyday vulner-
clusivity are also bedevilled with issues of exclusion and everyday risks. abilities which are taken for granted and often go underreported.
This paper addresses two key questions: How are smartphones shaping Human vulnerability refers to the susceptibility to harm caused by
cities in terms of people's usage patterns and experience of attitudinal human activities (i.e. induced risks). These activities are the common
vulnerabilities like privacy threats, home emergencies and road acci- sources of disruptions in cities (Birkmann et al., 2013; Cannon, Twigg,
dents? How are people's SMP usage and emergency responses altering & Rowell, 2003) with tangible manifestations in everyday life. The
the notions of societal cohesiveness and cultural identity? growing technological drive in cities has compounded the already ex-
By answering these questions, city planners, police service and se- isting induced risks. Human-induced risk has a direct relationship with
curity analysts would be able to identify and focus on the factors that the level of addiction to technological tools especially smart mobile
influence smartphones users' practices, behavioural changes and atti- phones (SMPs). According to King et al. (2013) there is severe anxiety
tudinal vulnerabilities and incorporate such thinking into smart city and discomfort among people when they are unable to access their
design thereby promoting continued people-oriented protection stra- SMPs. This situation is termed as nomophobia (King et al., 2013). The
tegies in relation to this evolving technology. Also, examining these increasing level of addiction to SMPs has influenced and is being in-
issues would contribute to studies highlighting the opportunities and fluenced by attitudinal vulnerabilities. Attitudinal vulnerability refers
vulnerabilities associated with SMPs (Alsaleh et al., 2017; Buglass et al., to the susceptibility to harm due to addiction or dependency on ex-
2016; Mahmood, 2013). Ultimately, the study would add to the debates ternal support (Bartlett, Brown, Shattell, Wright, & Lewallen, 2013;
on smart cities and digital technologies in terms of the need for in- Cannon et al., 2003). Addiction is defined to mean the compulsive as-
creasing awareness on security and privacy threats especially with re- pects of behaviour, the presence of physical dependence and dimin-
gard to the ‘ICT systems’, ‘economy’ and ‘people’ domains of smart ci- ished control (Walters & Gilbert, 2000). Employing this definition in the
ties (see Neirotti et al., 2014). This will eventually aid policy makers SMP context, the addiction of people to SMP can be said to introduce
and researchers to develop tailor-made mechanisms that minimize attitudinal vulnerabilities which influence people's response to SMP
human-induced SMP related risks. The case studies to illustrate these related emergencies.
intersections are Ghana (representing global South) and the UK (re- Smartphone addiction is considered as the inability to control
presenting global North). smartphone use despite negative effects on users. Smartphone addiction
This paper is organized as follows: first, the concept of vulnerability is regarded to be rooted in internet addiction due to the similarity of the
and how smartphone technologies could be used to understand emer- symptoms and negative effects on users. The addiction bar for internet
ging forms of human vulnerabilities are discussed. Afterwards, the is- services is estimated at 3 h (Bi et al., 2015; Cha & Seo, 2018; Egger &
sues of SMP usage patterns, human vulnerabilities, cultural identity and Rauterberg, 1996). The average smartphone user checks their device 85
ICT policy are stitched together to provide a conceptual lens for the times a day, for a mean duration of 10–250 s, and use up to
study. This is followed by a brief profile of the case study cities and 1–1000megabyte (MB) data per day (Falaki, Mahajan, & Kandula,
discussion of the methodology employed to collect data. Subsequently, 2010). Smartphone addiction could be categorized as a behavioural
results from the case studies are discussed under three themes: SMP addiction, such as internet addiction which is an impulse control dis-
usage patterns; human vulnerabilities and emergency response; and order characterised by pathological internet use (see Cha & Seo, 2018).
societal cohesiveness and cultural identity; in accordance with the SMPs are not only addictive and pervasive but also, distracting, and
conceptual framework. The final sections revisit the conceptual fra- subtly contribute to and create new forms of everyday vulnerabilities.
mework and provide some conclusions and recommendations on how For instance, the use of online social media platforms like WhatsApp,
SMPs can be leveraged to reduce vulnerabilities, raise awareness and Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram and Snapchat are characterised
strengthen societal cohesiveness. by the addiction to seek and share information; and the fame associated
with the process which is usually measured by the number of posts,
likes, comments and shares the poster or blogger attracts. The or-
ientation towards public fame motivates SMP users to quickly share
130
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
information and upload events on social media and be tagged as ‘first- 3. Study area and methods
timers’ (see Greenwood, 2013; Heimbach, Schiller, Strufe, & Hinz,
2015). This addiction and crave for fame have been associated with 3.1. Study area
several challenges. For instance, the use of SMP technologies while
driving is identified in the United Kingdom as a major cause of road The research was conducted in England and Ghana as they provided
fatalities (Ingham, 2014; McCann, 2016). The situation is not different contrasting cases on SMPs and human vulnerabilities within a global
from Ghana where the use of mobile phones while driving has been context. England is a developed country which is part of the United
reported as the second major cause of road accidents (GhanaWeb, Kingdom. It has a population of about 65 million with a high literacy
2013). Meanwhile, this multi-dimensional aspect of SMP related risks level of 84% (ONS, 2016). Technology adoption is around 88% (ONS,
and emergencies, particularly at the individual and household levels are 2017). The capital of England, London, comprises diverse group of
poorly understood by relevant stakeholders, personally handled by people with the city well known for its high technological adoption.
users and victims and often not accounted for by city authorities. Given London's status as a tourist attraction destination and home for
In addition, there is a worrying trend in emergency response prac- international businesses (Guardian, 2014), its population has increased
tices whereby people are increasingly becoming less judgmental of si- to about nine million in 2016. The technological drive and scale of
tuations and more oriented towards information sharing, thus recording usage within the city have made smartphones a part of people's daily
events and sharing them on social media, than providing an interven- lives and activities. For instance, SMPs are used in London for planning
tion to save the situation (Fuchs, 2017). While this switch in orientation journeys (TFL, 2017), making payments (Barclays, 2017), locating
promotes real time information sharing that can create awareness and friends and residences, ordering food, seeking medical help and plan-
trigger investigations, it also perpetuates attitudinal vulnerabilities by ning what to wear for events (Chan, 2015; Ozcan, 2014). Given its
putting SMP users and non-users' lives and properties at risk. According individualistic culture, England has structures and support systems that
to Halevi, Lewis, and Memon (2013) and Cha and Seo (2018) socio- promote and prioritize self-reliance. For instance, the government
demographic factors such as gender, education, personal experiences provides aid and social support schemes to individuals (HMRS, 2017)
and personal traits largely influence human vulnerabilities and people's unlike Ghana where the collectivistic culture entreats the family sys-
responses orientation. For instance, males and females have different tems to provide social support especially for the aged. SMPs are un-
SMP use patterns as they have differing levels of involvement or de- consciously eroding cultural traits and changing people's way of life.
pendency on their phones, all of which have wider implications for Based on its cosmopolitan and technological driven characteristics, this
societal cohesiveness and cultural identity. paper examines whether SMP technologies, associated forms of vul-
Drawing on the globalization literature, this paper situates the is- nerabilities and people's response are shaping London's culture; that is
sues outlined above within Hofstede's theory of individualism and whether it is still firmly individualistic or if it is moving towards a more
collectivism (Fiske, 2002; Parker, Haytko, & Hermans, 2009). The in- socialist, tight-fitting collectivist setting.
dividualism and collectivism constructs have been significantly useful Ghana is a developing country located on the West coast of Africa. It
for research since Hofstede (1980) identified them as opposite poles of a is geographically the closest landmark to the center of the world. It is
value dimension differentiating world cultures. The assumption that predominantly urban (52%) with a total population of about 27 million.
groups are socially bound together by a sense of community spirit and Ghana has the 4th fastest internet connection on the African continent
norms and that individuals are defined as part of a collective (Parker (Akamai, 2016) and has a high taste for technology adoption. Between
et al., 2009) seems to be the central theme of collectivism. Such em- 2008 and 2010 the proportion of the population with internet access
phasis on group harmony and homogeneity influences people's desire to increased from 4.2% to 7.8%, and to 17.1% in 2012 (ITU, 2013).
‘blend in’ rather than stand out: giving them the perceived right to get Ghanaians, just like the rest of the world, with access to the internet has
involved in the affairs of others (Triandis, 2004). In contrast, in- a tremendous use of real time communications through the numerous
dividualistic cultures place greater emphasis on individuals becoming social media platforms such as WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube,
more loosely connected to groups. Such emphasis on self-sufficiency, and Snapchat. The Internet usage report released by Internet World
self-esteem, pursuit of individual happiness, and competitive relation- Statistics (2017) reveals that approximately 12.9% of Ghanaians are
ships with other groups influence people's desire to have respect for using Facebook. Accra is the capital and largest city of Ghana with an
individuality or privacy of group members (Buglass et al., 2016; Morris, urban population of 2.27 million (GSS, 2012). The Greater Accra Me-
Davis, & Allene, 1994). tropolitan Area (GAMA) has about four million inhabitants, which
Research using these concepts suggests that the cultures of Africa, makes it the 11th largest metro area in Africa (Amankwaa, 2017). Accra
Asia and Latin America tend to be collectivistic; while those of Western is cosmopolitan with about 27.8% of the city dwellers using online
Europe, Canada and the United States tend to be individualistic (Parker social media platforms like Facebook (Internet World Statistics, 2017).
et al., 2009; Triandis, 1995). Thus, an examination of Hofstede's (1980, Given its collectivistic culture, Ghanaians are known to prioritize group
1991) works reveals a predominance of developed nations ranking high solidary and societal cohesiveness over individual goals. While this
on the individualism scale, while less developed nations rank lower. assumption may have been supported in the past, it is plausible that as
This classification has informed our choice of the UK and Ghana as case Ghana experiences rapid technological adoption rate and western
study countries to illustrate the implications of SMPs usage on cultural trends, and progresses as a lower middle-income nation, the collecti-
identities and societal cohesiveness. By highlighting these concerns our vistic culture will be under environmental pressure to becoming more
paper seeks to contribute to the global campaign and awareness crea- individualistic in nature. Therefore, using Accra as a case study, this
tion agenda for policy makers in terms of how SMPs and online social paper examines whether the Ghanaian culture is still solidly collecti-
media networks influence people's behaviour and way of life (Ruths & vistic or if it is moving towards a more liberal, loose-fitting in-
Pfeffer, 2014) thereby exacerbating and introducing new forms of ev- dividualistic setting under the aegis of SMPs technologies, associated
eryday vulnerabilities. These various insights highlighted above are forms of vulnerability and response to risks.
drawn upon to develop a conceptual framework that shows the re-
lationships between SMP usage patterns, human vulnerabilities, cul- 3.2. Methods
tural identities and its influence on ICT policies. This has been illu-
strated in Fig. 1. A qualitative method involving semi-structured interviews was
adopted to collect data for this study (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill,
2012). This approach afforded us the opportunity to explore in details
people's use of smartphones, changing trends, vulnerability experiences
131
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Fig. 1. Conceptual framing of SMP usage patterns, human vulnerabilities, cultural identity and ICT policy.
Source: Authors' construct, 2017.
and response and pathways to influencing cultural identity. A purposive cohesiveness included; what are the main types of SMP related vul-
sampling technique was employed to select individuals who had nerabilities; can you remember a time where you or someone you know
knowledge and experience in smartphones usage and related vulner- was using a smartphone which put your life at risk? Narrate the si-
abilities. This method entailed a random sampling strategy (Marshall, tuation? Have you or the person used the smartphone for the same
1996) at the initial stages of the data collection process. Further, reason during a similar situation again? Can you remember a time
snowball and convenience sampling approaches were employed to gain where you or someone you know was using a mobile phone which put
access to more respondents. Due to the challenge in identifying re- someone else's life at risk? What factors influence your response during
spondents, snowball method was predominantly used in London and an SMP related emergency situation? In what ways do you think SMP
this process afforded us the opportunity to identify potential re- usage is affecting cultural identities? Questions on the positive impact
spondents through previous interviewees (Fellows & Liu, 2008). In of SMPs were also asked; can you remember a time where using a
Accra, the convenience sampling strategy was mainly utilized due to mobile phone (either by you or someone) saved your life? Narrate the
the relatively accessible sample population. The reason for following situation? Can you remember a time where using a mobile phone (ei-
this recruitment approaches was to obtain a sample that represented ther by you or someone) saved someone's life?
smartphone users with varying demographic backgrounds. For this These questions were used as conversation starters hence based on
reason, our sample had differing age groups and diversity in occupa- the responses provided, other probing questions were asked to ensure
tion, marital status and income level. The selected sample only included that detailed information needed for analyzing SMP usage patterns,
users who had been using smartphones for more than 3months and human vulnerabilities, emergency responses and consequences on cul-
excluded participants whose ages were below 18 years and above tural identity and societal cohesiveness were obtained. Data analyses
40 years. were done by providing illustrative quotes, categorizing emerging
In all, 40 semi-structured interviews, each lasting between 30 and themes and determining the level of specificity and generality
60min, were conducted with individuals who resided in Accra and (Butterfield, Borgen, Amundson, & Maglio, 2005). Results were cate-
London following their verbal informed consent. To achieve a re- gorized to determine the level of specificity and extent of generalization
presentative sample, participants selection was done to cover a di- of the study findings in relation to the broader literature. The cate-
versity of areas in Accra and London, thus the central and peripheral gorization of results was an iterative process until saturation of data
locations of these cities. The participants were aged between 18 and was achieved (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
40 years with the average age being 27 years. In Accra interview par-
ticipants comprised 11 males and 9 females, while in London they were
8 males and 12 females, representing 52% and 48% male and female 4. The synergies between SMPs, human vulnerabilities and
respondents respectively. The educational level of respondents varied; societal cohesiveness
58% had undergraduate degrees, 20% had postgraduate degree and
22% had secondary education. Table 1 captures details of the demo- 4.1. Changing SMP usage pattern
graphic data of respondents in Accra and London.
Interviews were carried out both in person and on phone, and the The findings reveal that on the average respondents in London and
semi-structured questions we used in our interviews were grouped into Accra have owned or used their SMPs for more than five years
four main sections namely; personal details; SMP usage patterns; vul- (5.75 years). The main uses of SMPs among respondents were social
nerability and societal cohesiveness; and positive impacts of SMPs. media applications and services such as WhatsApp, Facebook, and
Questions under personal details covered age, gender, education, lo- YouTube. Social media has replaced the conventional way of mobile
cation and marital status, whereas those under SMP usage patterns communication. Fig. 2 captures participants SMP usage patterns. The
included duration of SMP ownership/usage, main uses of SMPs, uses of smartphones in both cities have changed from calling and
changes in usage pattern, mostly used applications, motivation for SMP texting to social media, reading news, recording videos and sending
usage practices, frequency in SMP usage, hours spent on SMPs, and emails. This changing usage pattern is increasingly linked to advance-
what respondents would have used time for in the absence of a ments in mobile application technologies as smartphones now offer
smartphone. The questions asked under vulnerability and societal multiple connectivity and functionalities such as Wi-Fi, GPRS, instant
messaging, voice messaging, video calling, and live streaming.
132
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Table 1
Demographic overview of respondents.
Interview Accra-Ghana London-UK
Gender Age Education Location Gender Age Education Location
1 Male 32 University degree Agbogba Female 25 Postgraduate degree Hackney
2 Male 40 University degree Dansoman estate Female 24 Secondary education Islington
3 Female 25 University degree Mamobi Female 25 University degree Lewisham
4 Male 34 Secondary education Ablekuma Male 27 University degree Croydon
5 Male 25 Secondary education Adabraka Female 26 Secondary education Haringey
6 Male 34 University degree Teshie Female 24 University degree Edmonton
7 Female 20 Secondary education Pokuase Female 29 University degree Euston
8 Male 24 University degree Madina Female 27 University degree Hackney
9 Male 25 Secondary education Lapaz Female 18 University degree Victoria
10 Female 23 University degree Nungua Male 22 University degree Camden
11 Male 25 Secondary education Haatso Male 29 University degree Seven Sisters
12 Female 20 Secondary education Legon Female 25 Postgraduate degree Haringey
13 Female 29 University degree Spintex Female 28 University degree Central London
14 Female 27 University degree Dzorwulu Female 24 University degree Southwark
15 Male 25 Secondary education Tema Male 30 University degree Greenwich
16 Female 19 Secondary education Madina Male 33 University degree Old Kent road
17 Male 26 University degree Achimota Male 30 University degree Southwark
18 Female 34 University degree Accra Central Male 31 University degree Vauxhall
19 Male 36 Postgraduate degree Banana Inn Female 25 University degree Paddington
20 Female 30 Postgraduate degree American house Male 35 University degree Richmond
Regarding these technological features, the motivation for smartphone both gender and age dimensions. Males tend to use social media for
use is triggered by accessibility, portability, user friendly interface, work or business and leisure whereas females often use it for family and
design, music and video player, navigation, etc (Oulasvirta, Rattenbury, friends and following online trends especially catering and fashion. This
Ma, & Raita, 2012). The quotes below summarise the changing SMP finding resonates with Tsitsika et al. (2009) who found that women use
usage patterns in Accra and London respectively. the internet mostly for social purposes and males do so for downloading
programs, getting information, and for visiting pornographic sites. In
Yes, my phone use has changed. In the past I had to buy newspapers
addition, while the youth explore almost all the online application
for news but now it is all online and on social media so I use the
portals including video calls and live streams for entertainment and
phone more often. …The phone also helps me to send images
keeping groups active, those in their mid-thirties and above use appli-
[photos] to customers so I use it as a marketing tool as well.
cations like voice calling and text and voice messaging, particularly
(32-year-old male, Accra)
among the less educated population, and also follow online news up-
My phone usage pattern has changed because before there was no dates. This finding illustrates how recent SMP technologies appeal to
social media so little was being done with the phone but now, I am different social categories and age groups, complicating studies by Berg,
addicted to it. Taylor, and Harper (2003) and Ozcan (2014) that the IT world is or-
(25-year-old female, London) iented towards the youth and designed for people with educational
background.
The evolution in the social media world from messenger chatting to
The daily use duration of a smartphone is one of the most significant
instant messaging, and recently to live streaming and snapchatting has
Respondents commonly used SMP applicaons
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
WhatsAp
p Youtube Facebook
Instagra News
m Apps Twier Skype Snapchat Faceme Linkedin
London 10 0 5 7 7 5 3 8 8 8
Accra 20 7 10 2 2 2 3 5 4 5
Fig. 2. Respondents SMP usage patterns.
133
Percentage
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
indicators of smartphone addiction. Using the addiction level of 3 h bar London.
by Egger and Rauterberg (1996) and Bi et al. (2015), all but one re- Individual level vulnerabilities are mainly influenced by personal
spondent in Accra are addicted to SMPs while in London 70% of re- attitudes (Walters & Gilbert, 2000) such as addiction, distraction and
spondents are addicted. The prevalence of SMP usage among partici- fame seeking. The prevalent forms of individual vulnerabilities usually
pants was 7 h a day among participants in London and around 5 h a day manifest in victimisation, falsified relationships, broken hearts, privacy
in Accra. Besides the fact that there is high smartphone penetration in breach, injury and home and road accidents. The most prevalent in-
the UK than Ghana, this finding could be explained by the high data dividual vulnerabilities are shown in Fig. 4.
cost in using social media in the latter, unlike the former where users Societal vulnerabilities manifest in home emergencies, road acci-
subscribe to monthly packages and Wi-Fi connections are readily dents, destruction of personal property and public infrastructure or
available. This finding corroborates Torrecillas (2007) who reported facilities, and loss of genuine sense of care and people-centeredness
that 40% of adolescents and adults use smartphones for more than 4 h a which in effect are shaping cultural identities. It is not surprising that in
day to make calls and send messages. both cities SMP related accidents have been on the ascendancy and
In both Accra and London respondents unanimously concurred that noted as a major contributor to road fatalities (see GhanaWeb, 2013;
their addiction to smartphones hinders work productivity, potential Ingham, 2014; McCann, 2016). Individual and societal level vulner-
skills development and physical connections with family and friends. In abilities have direct and tangible bearing on household vulnerability.
Accra the dominance of SMPs has reduced face-to-face contacts and This includes collateral damages during home emergencies, financial
visits to family members but instead, enabled them to connect virtually costs for recovery and disruptions in daily activities schedule to respond
with family and friends –maintaining old and forging new ones–, ex- to emergencies. The quote below summarises the multiple dimensions
panding business opportunities and catching up with trends, while in of individual vulnerabilities as discussed above.
London, it has reduced reading time. Almost three quarter of re-
You face them every day; my sister has become a victim of online
spondents in London indicated that they would rather use time spent on
scam and mobile-money fraud; my friend nearly burnt her kitchen
SMP to read and acquire knowledge whereas in Accra this time would
and little baby because she was watching a food recipe online and
have been used for working and spending time with family and friends.
cooking at the same time; my work colleagues have had road acci-
This implies that SMP usage is potentially influencing productivity at
dents and injuries, and lost phones and suitcases because they were
the workplace and the collective tendency of Ghanaians (Markwei &
walking and chatting. Myself I've broken blenders, plates and phone
Appiah, 2016). These observations raise concerns regarding the vul-
screen because I leave phone on my shoulder to instantly reply to
nerability experiences of smartphone users.
posts when doing house chores. I've burnt my husband's clothes; and
he even has pictures of me sleeping with my phone on my chest.
4.2. Human vulnerabilities and emergency response (27-year-old female, Accra)
Attitudinal vulnerability is widespread among participants as 28 of It is worth mentioning that because smartphones contain con-
them, representing 70%, have experienced some form of smartphone fidential data like passcodes and bank details as well as private data
related vulnerabilities or know victims of such vulnerabilities. All the such as chart histories, photos and videos once the phone is lost or
vulnerabilities reported by participants were human-induced risks. stolen the users' data leak or become public. Moreover, through the
These include victimisation, falsified relationships and broken hearts, varied (spyware) applications and functionalities, smartphones leak
stalking, privacy breach and loss of confidential data, injury, home users' personal data which increases the vulnerability of phishing at-
emergency, road accidents and death. There is a similar vulnerability tacks (Wu, Miller, & Garfinkel, 2006) whereby scammers and hackers
trend in both cities albeit with some peculiarities. SMPs influence send fake messages and e-mails in an attempt to gain access to con-
human susceptibility to harm at three levels; individual, household and fidential information including credit card details and passwords. On
societal. While individual-type vulnerabilities dominate in London, many occasions participants indicated that they share content on social
Accra exhibited a mix of individual, household and societal-type vul- networks without thinking about the consequences of such information
nerabilities. Fig. 3 captures the levels of vulnerabilities in Accra and flow. In London, SMP use has been reported to be associated with
Levels of vulnerabilies in Accra and London
20
Individual, 18
18
16
14 Individual, 13
12
10
Society, 8 Accra
8
London
6
Household, 4
4
Society, 2
2
Household, 0
0
Individual Household Society
Levels
Fig. 3. Levels of vulnerabilities in Accra and London.
134
Number of Vulnerabilities
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Individual Vulnerabilies
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Accra London
Fig. 4. Prevalent individual vulnerabilities.
sexting scandals, online dating scams and privacy abuses. Mahmood vulnerabilities. Contrary to the conceptual framework in Fig. 1, edu-
(2013) draws our attention to how such issues have threatened people's cational level and personal experiences did not have a strong influence
marriages, careers and even landed others in jail. A quote below by a on people's response to SMP related vulnerabilities. Nearly half of the
30-year-old male graduate illustrates this point. respondents indicated that persons with higher education tend to have
wider social networks and therefore risk becoming social media addicts.
I once mistakenly sent a drug prescription meant for a friend's
In addition, more than one-third of the participants who have had prior
fiancée to my class' group page. I've been tagged! People don't re-
negative personal experiences of SMP related risks continue to engage
spect me as before. Some think I'm having extra marital affairs. …A
in practices like multi-tasking which increases their susceptibility to
lady also wrongly posted on our page her private chats with the
harm. This finding suggests that human vulnerabilities increase even
husband, I think they had a quarrel the previous night. Once you
when there is awareness of disruptions and risks. Further, it shows how
become a victim of wrong posts there's little you can do.
the social media world is perpetuating individualistic tendencies such
In Accra, one peculiar concern about the use of online social media that people project their personal traits (e.g. public fame) over the
is cyber fraud, colloquially known as sakawa. Cyber fraud includes safety of third parties, as discussed in studies by Mahmood (2013) and
using stolen credit cards to make online purchases, conducting online Halevi et al. (2013).
dating scams and luring contacts to participate in money transfers. One Personal trait however was a major factor that influenced partici-
respondent intimated: pants' response to vulnerabilities in London and Accra. The participants
in London adopt self-discipline and restraint strategies such as con-
I search online for helpers. I tell them my plight; my parents are
trolling SMP addiction, locking data and phone and activating privacy
separated, I'm a street child and a beggar, with no one to pay my
settings. In the event of an emergency participants preferred to main-
fees; to get their attention and request help from them later. But
tain their individuality and rather call emergency services. In the pro-
mine is not fraud. If they are convinced, they send the money. Some
cess, some take pictures and post online as eye witness evidence. The
male clients in turn propose love to those who have concealed their
quote below buttresses the point.
identity and changed their sex. … Other people, but not me, cook
stories and even support their requests with ‘juju’ [magic]. The world system is changing. Nowadays everybody is extra careful
(25-year-old male, Accra) about security. So when you see something unusual happening the
best thing to do is you call emergency and maybe take pictures to
Other vulnerability concerns, peculiar to the youth, pertain to ex-
help investigations.
posure of underage users to pornography and immoral language,
(29-year-old female, London)
shirking of household chores in favor of social media use, and poor
students' performance because of reduced study time, distraction from In Accra, normally people would provide ‘first aid’ during emer-
schoolwork, poor grammar and spelling and incorrect sentence con- gency situations before reporting or calling emergency services. This is
struction due to the use of colloquial language on social media. That probably because of the low public confidence in emergency services
notwithstanding the use of social media also improves research activ- and contacts and rapid response. The ‘first aid’ process involves people
ities and reading skills. taking pictures and videos to share with their social media networks
The causes of attitudinal vulnerabilities are strongly influenced by before providing direct helping hands such as taking a victim to hos-
personal trait and disposition such as addiction, carelessness, over pital, shouting or signalling a pedestrian to draw attention to im-
confidence to multi-task, curiosity and fame (as shown in Fig. 5). While pending danger, intervening to calm the situation and offering a phone
our study corroborates the work of Bartlett et al. (2013) which cited to call victim's relatives. The quotes below throw more light on this
addiction as a major cause of attitudinal vulnerability, it further con- point.
tributes to the broader literature by introducing carelessness, over
Last month I had to rush my madam's baby to the hospital because
confidence to multi-task, curiosity and fame-seeking as important fac-
she poured a bowl of boiling oil on herself; because I left her in the
tors that influence SMP users' practices and attendant attitudinal vul-
kitchen to answer a call. I was barefooted and half naked; just
nerabilities.
wearing brassiere and an underwear. Bystanders were videoing me
The study also analyzed participants' response to attitudinal
but I didn't even realize what was happening.
135
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Causes of atudinal vulnerabilies
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
 Over
Addicon Carelessness confidence to Curiosity  Fame
mul-task
Accra 8 4 3 1 4
London 8 4 2 4 2
Fig. 5. Causes of attitudinal vulnerability.
(23-year-old female, Accra) stay in touch with long distant relationships, the impact at the societal
level is physical distance — people are losing their genuine sense of
The sharp cameras and live chat apps tell users what to do with
belongingness and responsibility of care for one another. The quotes
SMPs. So if you see an accident or an unusual event you have to take
below emphasise the point.
pictures so that people will believe you in case you post the event to
them. The police even ask for evidence. Mobile phones are taking away the best part of our lives, and it
(36-year-old male, Accra) makes us think we are closer but we are actually very apart. It makes
us compare ourselves with others and bring unnecessary competi-
Besides these vulnerabilities SMPs are also associated with some
tions because people put the best parts of their lives there and make
positive aspects. During emergencies SMPs are used to trace family
those who haven't been successful feel down. I think social media
contacts and call emergency services, track lost devices and properties,
should be scrapped.
take photos to provide evidence and facilitate investigation and raise
(22-year-old male, London)
media awareness. On many occasions, respondents recounted how they
wasted time and money to attend cancelled appointments or meetings We think smartphone is making us connected but its eroding our
because they failed to check alerts on social media. Some narrated how moral and cultural values as Ghanaians. Look at the recent Major
relatives were robbed or sickness worsened because they failed to in- Mahama's case; through social media we all saw the gruesome act:
stantly check WhatsApp alerts requesting them to call emergency ser- but the pictures and videos were nude and heart breaking. No one
vices. For city dwellers, such tendencies occupy two ends of a spectrum helped; they watched him lynched and rather took pictures. This is
as they present rewards and risks: on the one instance staying active on not Ghanaian.
social media can save emergency situations while on the other hand (25-year-old female, Accra)
becoming too addicted can cost lives. These perspectives raise concerns
These comments highlight how the exposure to smartphone tech-
for people's genuine sense of care and people-centeredness which have
nologies underpinned by the insatiable appetite for online social media
implications for societal cohesiveness and cultural identities.
is altering both individuals' personality, rights and lifestyles; as well as
cultural identity and societal cohesiveness. Smartphones are con-
4.3. Societal cohesiveness and cultural identity tributing to cultural transitions and triggering changes in the degree of
collectivism and individualism in modern societies. Self-discipline, at-
The study corroborates LeFebvre and Franke (2013) as the findings titudinal changes and proper enforcement of laws that ban the use of
confirm that the Ghanaian society values collectivism more highly than mobile phones while driving including issuing points to drivers, and
the United Kingdom, albeit Ghanaians response to vulnerabilities ex- penalizing those who put their lives and others at risk were proffered as
hibits strong inclinations towards individualism. Here, the term ‘virtual key strategies to reducing SMP related vulnerabilities and promoting
collectivism’ is adopted to show how SMP usage is making people more people-oriented protection strategies.
remotely connected but physically distant with a decline in genuine
human interactions. In London, participants respond to vulnerabilities 5. Revisiting SMP usage patterns, human vulnerabilities, cultural
in a more individualistic manner at the household level. A respondent identity and ICT policy
recounted her experience of sharing a vehicle to work with her col-
league who always texted while driving. Instead of showing concern To contextualize our conceptual framing the framework in Fig. 1
and cautioning him, she was self-centered and stopped car sharing. At was revisited to reflect the factors that influence smartphone usage
the societal level, some tendencies of virtual collectivism were observed patterns, attitudinal vulnerabilities and participants' emergency re-
as almost all respondents indicated they used their SMPs to call emer- sponses. The major changes observed in the revised framework illu-
gency services to help situations. However, in Accra, participants in- strated in Fig. 6 are the components of socio-economic factors which
dicated that the addiction and crave for fame on social media is eroding are occasioning a cultural transition. Under socio-economic factors the
Ghanaian collectivism and perpetuating individualistic tendencies. Al- findings reveal that SMP usage behaviour and vulnerabilities are
though at the individual and household levels there is virtual collecti- strongly influenced by personal traits and disposition such as addiction,
vism — people are more connected to wider social networks and can carelessness, over confidence to multi-task, curiosity and fame seeking
136
Number of respondents
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
Fig. 6. Developed framing of SMP usage patterns, human vulnerabilities, cultural identity and ICT policy.
rather than educational level and personal experiences. This suggests packages and bounty should be championed by the telecommunication
that human vulnerabilities increase even when there is awareness of industry and their relevant stakeholders. This will promote attitudinal
disruptions and users prior experience. The study advances the im- changes among smartphone users and motivate people to act as ‘Good
portance of personality traits to demographic and socio-economic fac- Samaritans’ in the event of emergency situations. Citizens should be
tors in our understanding of smartphone users' practices and perceived encouraged to report SMP related emergencies rather than handling
risks (see Alsaleh et al., 2017). It also adds weight to the growing them personally to help build a national database system. The essential
scholarship on smartphones and online social media vulnerabilities services in Ghana, particularly the police, security and health services,
(Cha & Seo, 2018). Based on the foregoing discussions, Fig. 6 stitches should be supported with the logistics necessary to detect, isolate and
together a developed framing of SMP usage patterns, human vulner- provide detailed records of SMP related emergencies. This will create a
abilities, cultural identity and ICT policy. The modifications to the in- database of everyday vulnerabilities associated with smartphones
itial framework (Fig. 1) have been indicated in italics. thereby raising awareness, and presenting the on-the-ground realities
Responses to these vulnerabilities are leading to a new type of social necessary to inform any cutting-edge and evidence-based ICT policy.
exclusion which is putting societies on a path of cultural transition, and
altering the degree of collectivism and individualism. Specifically, the
study corroborates Halevi et al. (2013) and Kulkarni and Bojewar 6. Concluding remarks
(2015) who found a direct link between cyber security and privacy
related behaviour and personality traits in the context of smartphone As world cities become less isolated, change is undoubtedly ex-
vulnerabilities. Our present study has emphasized the importance of pected to occur. The high ICT adoption rate coupled with the attendant
personal traits and disposition in understanding SMP usage patterns, addiction to smartphone technologies is fast-tracking this dynamism
human vulnerabilities and emergency response. Further, it has under- and melding cultures. While this emerging technology, particularly
scored the centrality of personality traits in any future ICT policy social media practices, privacy threats and security risks have been
especially if the urban SDG of building inclusive, safe, resilient and amply documented (Buglass et al., 2016; Mahmood, 2013), the same
smart sustainable cities is to be achieved. academic attention has not been given to the synergies between
In effect, in addition to cities experiencing changes in their political, smartphones and everyday human vulnerabilities (Kulkarni & Bojewar,
economic, religious and social systems, there is a rapid but subtle re- 2015). This paper has shown how smartphones offer multiple con-
volution occurring in people's social relationships, under the aegis of nectivity, applications, and functionalities which help foster new and
smartphone technologies and social medial platforms that may require reconnect old friendships, build distant and virtual networks, and
redefinition of in-groups and out-groups and assigning different provide real time information that can save emergency situations.
meanings and significance to personal traits – the concepts of self, There is also a strong association between exposure to SMPs and in-
identity and fame (Amankwaa, 2017; Parker et al., 2009). These creased attitudinal vulnerabilities. Importantly, attitudinal vulner-
changes in disposition require shifts in attitudes, values and lifestyles, abilities are not only influenced by educational level and addiction as
as well as plans and strategies towards addressing future risks and previous studies articulate (Bartlett et al., 2013; King et al., 2013), but
vulnerabilities in cities. These observations reveal how cities can best also carelessness, over confidence to multi-task, curiosity and fame-
be envisaged as a mobile networked whole consisting of connected and seeking are important personal trait and lifestyle factors that influence
compartmentalised systems, risks and human agency (Skelton & Gough, smartphones users' practices and vulnerabilities. This has implications
2013) and may have implications for how we examine cities and their beyond this study for how we should theorize, conceptualize, analyze
surrounding peripheries and rural areas. and manage vulnerabilities in cities.
While government policies and punitive measures such as arresting The paper has revealed how cities today do not wholly epitomize
and issuing points to drivers who use SMP while driving (DVLA, 2017) Hofstede's (1980, 1991) labelling of collectivism among least developed
are encouraging in deterring addicted users and saving lives, future IT countries and individualism among advanced countries (see Fiske,
related policies should be broadly conceptualized to encompass the 2002). This study challenges Accra's collectivism tendency and con-
everyday human induced vulnerabilities. For instance, national cam- firms London's individualism inclination though some tendencies of
paign programs and education on online privacy, fame syndrome virtual collectivism were observed. By comparing participants' smart-
awareness, and emergency reporting help-lines/platforms, data phone usage patterns and their motives for adopting or ignoring certain
social media practices, the study emphasizes how the concept of
137
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
attitudinal vulnerability and associated emergency responses extends Blackwell Publishing.
our understanding of Hofstede's cultural dimension theory. This paper Fiske, A. P. (2002). Using individualism and collectivism to compare cultures—A critique of the
validity and measurement of the constructs: Comment on Oyserman et al. (2002).
contributes to broader debates on how technology shapes vulner- Fuchs, C. (2017). Social media: A critical introduction. Sage.
abilities and cultural identities by providing new empirical data on how Gallopín, G. C. (2006). Linkages between vulnerability, resilience, and adaptive capacity.
smartphones and social media networks are altering the traditional 16, 293–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.004.
notions of Western-centric individualism and African-centric collecti- GhanaWeb (2013). The hidden cause of road accidents and deaths. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/The-hidden-cause-of-
vism. This dynamism should be considered in policy making especially road-accidents-and-deaths-282863.
under the ‘economy’ and ‘people’ domains of smart cities. Greenwood, D. N. (2013). Fame, Facebook, and Twitter: How attitudes about fame pre-
Overall, by examining smartphone usage patterns related to uti- dict frequency and nature of social media use. Psychology of Popular Media Culture,
2(4), 222–236.
lizing many smartphone applications, we confirm, extend and refine GSS (Ghana Statistical Service) (2012). 2010 population and housing census: Summary re-
findings of prior studies (Battarra et al., 2016; Buglass et al., 2016; Cha port of final results. Accra: GSS.
& Seo, 2018; Mahmood, 2013) by providing evidence that users' SMP Guardian (2014). London welcomes largest number of visitors since 1961. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2014/may/09/2013-highest-
behaviour, vulnerability experience and emergency response are in- number-london-visitors-since-1961-tourists.
fluenced by multiple factors, mainly personal traits and lifestyle and not Halevi, T., Lewis, J., & Memon, N. (2013). A pilot study of cyber security and privacy
merely education or personal experience. Given the widespread forms related behavior and personality traits. WWW 2013 Companion, May 13–17, 2013,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil ACM 978-1-4503-2038-2/13/05.
of attitudinal vulnerabilities among smartphone users in both cities, the Hampshire, K., Porter, G., Owusu, S. A., Mariwah, S., Abane, A., Robson, E., ... Milner, J.
study concludes that moving towards a people-centered agenda that (2015). Informal m-health: How are young people using mobile phones to bridge
focuses on personality traits and issues of attitudes, values and lifestyles healthcare gaps in Sub-Saharan Africa? Social Science & Medicine, 142, 90–99.
Heimbach, I., Schiller, B., Strufe, T., & Hinz, O. (2015). Content virality on online social
as a basis for future action is an important starting point for minimizing networks: Empirical evidence from Twitter, Facebook, and Google+ on German
human-induced vulnerabilities and realizing safe and smart cities. This news websites. Proceedings of the 26th ACM Conference on Hypertext & Social Media
study thus adds weight to scholarship arguing for local contextualiza- (pp. 39–47). ACM.
tion and a paradigm shift in how cities are planned and managed in HMRS (2017). Proposed benefit and pension rates 2017 to 2018. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/proposed-benefit-and-pension-rates-2017-to-
terms of addressing future risks and vulnerabilities (Aina, 2017; Alsaleh 2018.
et al., 2017; Batty, 2013; Neirotti et al., 2014). Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-
References Hill.
Ingham, J. (2014). Mobile phones are biggest cause of road fatalities. Retrieved from
Adger, W. N. (2006). Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16, 268–281. http://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/490393/Mobile-phone-use-the-biggest-cause-
Aina, Y. A. (2017). Achieving smart sustainable cities with GeoICT support: The Saudi of-road-fatalities, Accessed date: 6 September 2017.
evolving smart cities. Cities, 71, 49–58. Internet World Statistics (2017). Africa 2017 population and Internet users statistics.
Akamai (2016). Q1 2016 State of the internet connectivity report. Akamai, 9(1), 1–64. Retrieved from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm.
Alsaleh, M., Alomar, N., & Alarifi, A. (2017). Smartphone users: Understanding how se- ITU (2013). ICT facts and figures 2013. Retrieved from http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/
curity mechanisms are perceived and new persuasive methods. PLoS One, 12(3), Statistics/Pages/stat/default.aspx.
e0173284. King, A. L. S., Valença, A. M., Silva, A. C. O., Baczynski, T., Carvalho, M. R., & Nardi, A. E.
Amankwaa, E. F. (2017). Water and Electricity Access for Home-based Enterprises and (2013). Nomophobia: Dependency on virtual environments or social phobia?
Poverty Reduction in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA). Ghana: University of Computers in Human Behavior, 29(1), 140–144.
Ghana (Unpublished PhD thesis, 2017). Kulkarni, S. P., & Bojewar, S. (2015). Vulnerabilities of smartphones. International
Barclays (2017). Way to pay. Retrieved from http://www.barclays.co.uk/ways-to-pay. Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 2(9), 2422–2426.
Bartlett, R., Brown, L., Shattell, M., Wright, T., & Lewallen, L. (2013). Harm reduction: LeFebvre, R., & Franke, V. (2013). Culture matters: Individualism vs. collectivism in
Compassionate care of persons with addictions. Medsurg Nursing, 22(6), 349. conflict decision-making. Societies, 3(1), 128–146.
Battarra, R., Gargiulo, C., Pappalardo, G., Boiano, D. A., & Oliva, J. S. (2016). Planning in Mahmood, S. (2013). Online social networks: Privacy threats and defenses. In R. Chbeir,
the era of Information and Communication Technologies. Discussing the “label: & B. Al Bouna (Eds.). Lecture notes in social networks. Springer-Verlag Wienhttp://dx.
Smart” in the South-European cities with environmental and socio-economic chal- doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-0894-9 (2, 2013).
lenges. Cities, 59, 1–7. Markwei, E. D., & Appiah, D. (2016). The impact of social media on Ghanaian youth: A
Batty, M. (2013). Big data, smart cities and city planning. Dialogues in Human Geography, case study of the Nima and Maamobi communities in Accra, Ghana. The Journal of
3(3), 274–279. Research on Libraries and Young Adults, 7(2), 1–26.
Berg, S., Taylor, A. S., & Harper, R. (2003, April). Mobile phones for the next generation: Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice, 13(6),
device designs for teenagers. Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in 522–526.
Computing Systems (pp. 433–440). ACM. McCann, K. (2016). Drivers could be blocked from using mobile phones at the wheel in a
Bi, Y., Yuan, K., Feng, D., Xing, L., Li, Y., Wang, H., ... Tian, J. (2015). Disrupted inter- bid to curb road deaths. Telegraph Media Group Limited. 2017. Retrieved from
hemispheric functional and structural coupling in Internet addiction adolescents. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/12/19/drivers-could-blocked-using-
Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 234(2), 157–163. mobile-phones-wheel-bid-curb-road/, Accessed date: 6 September 2017.
Birkmann, J., Cardona, O. D., Carreño, M. L., Barbat, A. H., Pelling, M., Schneiderbauer, Morris, M. H., Davis, D. L., & Allene, J. W. (1994). Fostering corporate entrepreneurship:
S., ... Welle, T. (2013). Framing vulnerability, risk and societal responses: The MOVE Cross-cultural comparisons of the importance of individualism versus collectivism.
framework. Natural Hazards, 67(2), 193–211. Journal of International Business Studies, 25(1), 65–89.
Buglass, S. L., Binder, J. F., Betts, L. R., & Underwood, J. D. M. (2016). When ‘friends’ Neirotti, P., De Marco, A., Cagliano, A. C., Mangano, G., & Scorrano, F. (2014). Current
collide: Social heterogeneity and user vulnerability on social network sites. Computers trends in Smart City initiatives: Some stylised facts. Cities, 38, 25–36.
in Human Behavior, 54, 62–72. OCIA (Office of Cyber and Infrastructure Analysis) (2015). The future of Smart Cities:
Butterfield, L. D., Borgen, W. A., Amundson, N. E., & Maglio, A. S. T. (2005). Fifty years of Cyber-physical infrastructure risk. National Protection and Programs Directorate Office of
the critical incident technique: 1954–2004 and beyond. Qualitative Research, 5(4), Cyber and Infrastructure Analysis. U.S. Department of Homeland Security.
475–497. ONS (Office of National Statistics) (2016). Subnational population projections for
Cannon, T., Twigg, J., & Rowell, J. (2003). Social vulnerability, sustainable livelihoods and England. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/
disasters. Londres: DFID. populationandmigration/populationprojections/bulletins/
Cha, S. S., & Seo, B. K. (2018). Smartphone use and smartphone addiction in middle subnationalpopulationprojectionsforengland/2014basedprojections.
school students in Korea: Prevalence, social networking service, and game use. Health ONS (Office of National Statistics) (2017). Digital Technology enterprises in districts of
Psychology Open, 1–15. England. Retrieved from https://www.ons.gov.uk/businessindustryandtrade/
Chan, M. (2015). Mobile phones and the good life: Examining the relationships among business/activitysizeandlocation/adhocs/
mobile use, social capital and subjective well-being. New Media & Society, 17(1), 005504digitaltechnologyenterprisesindistrictsoftheeastofengland20092014and2015.
96–113. Oulasvirta, A., Rattenbury, T., Ma, L., & Raita, E. (2012). Habits make smartphone use
DVLA (2017). Penalty points. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk/penalty-points- more pervasive. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 161(1), 105–114.
endorsements/new-drivers. Ozcan, A. (2014). Mobile phones democratize and cultivate next-generation imaging,
Egger, O., & Rauterberg, M. (1996). Internet behavior and addiction. Zurich: Swiss Federal diagnostics and measurement tools. Lab on a Chip, 14(17), 3187–3194.
Institute of Technology (Semester thesis, 1996). Pain, R., Grundy, S., Gill, S., Towner, E., Sparks, G., & Hughes, K. (2005). ‘So long as I take
Falaki, H., Mahajan, R., & Kandula, S. (2010). Diversity in smartphone usage. Proceedings my mobile’: Mobile phones, urban life and geographies of young people's safety.
of the 8th International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29(4), 814–830.
(MobiSys) (pp. 179–194). . Parker, S. R., Haytko, D. L., & Hermans, C. M. (2009). Individualism and collectivism:
Fellows, R. F., & Liu, A. M. (2008). Research methods for construction (3rd ed.). Chichester: Reconsidering old assumptions. Journal of International Business Research, 8(1).
Porter, G., Hampshire, K., Abane, A., Munthali, A., Robson, E., Bango, A., ... Milner, J.
138
E.F. Amankwaa, K.B. Blay Cities 83 (2018) 129–139
(2015). Intergenerational relations and the power of the cell phone: Perspectives on contactless/other-methods-of-contactless-payment/apple-pay.
young people's phone usage in sub-Saharan Africa. Geoforum, 64, 37–46. Torrecillas, L. (2007). Mobile phone addiction in teenagers may cause severe psycholo-
Ruths, D., & Pfeffer, J. (2014). Social media for large studies of behavior. Science, gical disorder. Medical Studies, 14, 11–13.
346(6213), 1063–1064. Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2012). Research methods for business students (6th Triandis, H. C. (2004). The many dimensions of culture. Academy of Management
ed.). Harlow: Pearson. Executive, 18(1), 88–93.
Schanze, J. (2006). Flood risk management–A basic framework. Flood risk management: Tsitsika, A., Critselis, E., Kormas, G., Konstantoulaki, E., Constantopoulos, A., & Kafetzis,
Hazards, vulnerability and mitigation measures (pp. 1–20). Dordrecht: Springer. D. (2009). Adolescent pornographic internet site use: A multivariate regression
Skelton, T., & Gough, K. V. (2013). Young people's im/mobile urban geographies: analysis of the predictive factors of use and psychosocial implications.
Introduction. Urban Studies, 50, 455–466. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 12, 545–550.
Smit, B., & Wandel, J. (2006). Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Turkle, S. (2011). Alone together. New York: Basic Books.
Environmental Change, 16, 282–292. Walters, G. D., & Gilbert, A. A. (2000). Defining addiction: Contrasting views of clients
Statista (2017). Number of smartphone users worldwide from 2014 to 2020. Retrieved and experts. Addiction Research, 8(3), 211–220.
from https://www.statista.com/statistics/330695/number-of-smartphone-users- Wu, M., Miller, R. C., & Garfinkel, S. L. (2006, April). Do security toolbars actually pre-
worldwide/. vent phishing attacks? Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research techniques. Sage publications. Computing Systems (pp. 601–610). ACM.
TFL (2017). Apple Pay. Retrieved from https://tfl.gov.uk/fares-and-payments/
139