Africa Education Review
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/raer20
The Impact of the Free Senior High School
Education Policy and Double-Track System
on Quality Education Outcomes: A Quasi-
Experimental Policy Evaluation Study in Ghana
Duah Dwomoh, Anthony Godi, John Tetteh, Charles Amoatey, Richard Otoo,
Leticia Tornyevah & Chad Hazlett
To cite this article: Duah Dwomoh, Anthony Godi, John Tetteh, Charles Amoatey, Richard
Otoo, Leticia Tornyevah & Chad Hazlett (2022) The Impact of the Free Senior High School
Education Policy and Double-Track System on Quality Education Outcomes: A Quasi-
Experimental Policy Evaluation Study in Ghana, Africa Education Review, 19:2, 1-24, DOI:
10.1080/18146627.2023.2225754
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Article 
The Impact of the Free Senior High School 
Education Policy and Double-Track System on 
Quality Education Outcomes: A Quasi-Experimental 
Policy Evaluation Study in Ghana 
Duah Dwomoh Anthony Godi 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2726-9929 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7892-4495 
University of Ghana University of Ghana 
duahdwomoh@ug.edu.gh 
 
John Tetteh Charles Amoatey 
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1986-4103 https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4243-5304 
University of Ghana Ghana Institute of Management and 
Public Administration 
Richard Otoo Leticia Tornyevah 
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-5886-9998 https://orcid.org/0009-0009-0826-2893 
Ghana Institute of Management and Ghana Institute of Management and 
Public Administration Public Administration 
Chad Hazlett  
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1819-1928 
University of California, Los Angeles, 
United States 
Abstract 
In the 2017/2018 academic year, the government of Ghana, through the Ministry 
of Education, began an educational reform policy codenamed the “Free Senior 
High School” (FSHS) policy to fully absorb the cost, increase enrolment, and 
improve the quality of education for all public senior high schools in Ghana. To 
accommodate more students and reduce overcrowding in schools, the 
government, as part of the FSHS policy, introduced the double-track system, 
which divides the total student population and staff into two tracks; as one of 
the tracks attends school, the other is on vacation and vice versa. No study has 
assessed this policy on education outcomes. This study assessed the impact of 
the FSHS policy and the double-track system on quality education outcomes 
and explored the challenges associated with the implementation of the policies. 
 
 
Africa Education Review https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2023.2225754 
www.tandfonline.com/RAER ISSN 1753-5921 (Online), ISSN 1814-6627 (Print) 
Volume 19 | Number 2 | 2022 | pp. 1–24 © Unisa Press 2023 
 
Dwomoh et al. 
The study further identified strategies needed to address these challenges. The 
study employed a quasi-experimental study design using a pre-post data 
collection instrument designed to assess quality education metrics. We also used 
a comparative cross-sectional study design and qualitative design 
methodologies to evaluate the FSHS policy and the double-track system. We 
quantified the impact of the policies using quantile and ordinary least square 
regression models with cluster robust standard errors. Our evaluation of the 
policy showed a significant decline in quality of education outcomes and 
academic performance. Students who attended the double-track schools 
performed poorly in all the core subjects compared with non-double-track 
schools. The challenges associated with the implementation of the policy were 
financial constraints, infrastructure deficit, inadequate and delayed release of 
food items, lack of teaching and learning materials, inadequate contact hours, 
and poor implementation of the policy and the double-track system. 
Government must comprehensively review the FSHS policy and consider cost 
sharing with parents and caregivers to sustain the policy. 
Keywords: academic performance; double-track system; education policy evaluation; 
free senior high school; impact evaluation; ordinary least square 
regression; quantile regression; quasi-experimental study 
Introduction  
An improvement in all dimensions of quality of life (poverty alleviation, improvement 
in health, etc.) is heavily dependent on the quality of education received from the basic 
to tertiary level (Adu-Ababio and Osei 2018). Formal education has both short- and 
long-term impacts and is considered a channel through which a country can put its 
human and material resources into productive use for the benefit of its citizenry. A key 
tool to improving access to education is to remove financial barriers that hinder access 
to quality secondary education. However, only 17 Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) countries 
(37%) offer some form of free secondary education (Kerr 2020). SSA has the highest 
number of out-of-school children of any region in the world. The UNESCO Global 
Monitoring Report in 2015 showed that in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa where 
there are no school fees, much of the actual cost of education is still covered by the 
household, rather than the government (UNESCO 2015). 
The 1992 constitution of Ghana clearly states that all persons shall have the right to 
equal educational opportunities and facilities, and to achieve the full realisation of that 
right, basic education shall be free, compulsory, and available to all (Republic of Ghana 
1992). The Sustainable Development Goal 4 (United Nations 2015) states that “by 2030, 
all boys and girls should complete free equitable and quality primary and secondary 
education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.”  
The gradual improvement in Ghana’s education system can be attributed to major policy 
initiatives in education by the current and previous governments. Article 25(1)(b) of the 
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Dwomoh et al. 
1992 constitution states that “Secondary education in its different forms including 
technical and vocational education, shall be made generally available and accessible to 
all by every appropriate means, and in particular, by the progressive introduction of free 
education.” Several government policies have been implemented in the pursuit of 
improving access to quality education in Ghana. For instance, the Free and Compulsory 
Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) programme was introduced in 1995 and promised 
universal education by 2005, and the Progressively Free Senior High School Education 
Programme (FSHS policy) for day students started between 2014–2016, in which 
substantial investments were made in educational infrastructure. In the 2017/2018 
academic year, the government of Ghana, through the Ministry of Education, began an 
educational reform policy to fully absorb the cost of senior high school and vocational 
education for all students in public schools in Ghana (FSHS). The FSHS policy aims to 
improve quality through the provision of core textbooks and supplementary readers, 
teacher rationalisation, and deployment (Free SHS Secretariat, n.d.). The beneficiaries 
of the FSHS policy do not pay tuition and admission fees, textbooks, library fees, 
science centre fees, fees for ICT, examination fees, utility fees, boarding, and meals.  
To accommodate the increasing number of students within the facility and reduce over-
crowding associated with the implementation of the policy, the government, as part of 
the FSHS policy, introduced the double-track system (DTS), which divides the total 
student population and staff into two tracks; while one track attends school, the other is 
on vacation and vice versa (Free SHS Secretariat, n.d.). The DTS intervention was 
adopted because the 2018 projections for the number of prospective students showed 
that there was a need for the government to create an additional 181 993 extra spaces to 
accommodate the high number of students projected to enrol in senior high schools in 
the 2018/19 academic year. Each track was in school for 81 days per session and 41 
days of vacation (Mensah 2019). This was in sharp contrast to what existed before the 
implementation of the policy, where all the students were in school at the same time and 
were subjected to three months of teaching and learning. The green track represents the 
first batch of students who go to school for a semester and are followed by the gold track 
students who continue after students of the green track session have vacated the 
academic calendar. Available data on senior high school enrolment showed that the 
number of students admitted to senior high schools almost doubled from 393 995 in 
2007/08 to 787 861 in the 2017/18 academic year (Free SHS Secretariat, n.d.). 
According to the minister of finance, the government has spent a total amount of 
GH¢7.62 billion (954 million USD equivalent) for the implementation of the FSHS 
programme during the past five years (2017–2022) (Agyeman 2021).  
It is evident that a great deal of taxpayers’ money has been spent on the policy, and that 
there has been an increase in enrolment; other positive outcomes of the intervention 
include increased educational attainment, knowledge, skills, and preventative health 
behaviours, while reducing female fertility (Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer 2021). However, 
we do not know the extent to which the quality of education has been affected after the 
implementation of the policy. Impact evaluation of the policy on the quality of education 
3 
Dwomoh et al. 
measured in terms of academic performance has become important because of the 
numerous challenges associated with the implementation of the policy. The timing of 
implementation of the policy has been the subject of a significant political debate 
between the two major political parties in Ghana in the last four presidential elections. 
While the main opposition party believes that the implementation should be gradual and 
secondary education made progressively free for sustainability, the current government 
believes otherwise, and thinks that the time to make senior high school education free 
for all public schools is long overdue. In addition, experts in educational policy 
evaluation, headmasters of senior high schools, civil society organisations, and other 
stakeholders are of the view that the introduction of the FSHS policy and the double-
track system have affected the quality of education delivery at senior high schools 
because of the reduced contact hours for student-teacher face-to-face interaction, 
inadequate teaching and learning materials, and lack of infrastructure to accommodate 
the expected increase in enrolment and their opinions correlate with similar challenges 
associated with the introduction of free educational policies elsewhere (Asankha and 
Takashi 2011; Mate and Wesonga 2013). These challenges, they believe, will have a 
detrimental effect on the quality of education. However, there is no empirical evidence 
to support their hypothesis and shape public opinion. To the best of our knowledge, no 
study has evaluated the impact of the FSHS policy and double-track system on quality 
education metrics among senior high school students in Ghana. 
Three key policy questions are of interest: (1) Has the three-year implementation of the 
FSHS policy improved academic performance among students? (2) What is the impact 
of the double-track system on academic performance? (3) What are the major challenges 
associated with the implementation of the FSHS policy from the perspective of key 
stakeholders (heads of academic departments, matrons, parents, and civil society 
organisations) and what are the mitigation strategies to address these challenges to 
sustain the policy? 
Literature Review 
Several factors may contribute to quality education, as highlighted by Adu-Agyem and 
Osei-Poku (2012). These include poor infrastructure and inadequate logistics for 
teaching and learning, lack of funding for high schools, inadequate number of trained 
and well-motivated teachers to promote quality education, and ineffective use of contact 
hours. Policies that are geared towards improving academic performance should ideally 
address these challenges. The provision of funding similar to the FSHS policy in other 
jurisdictions has been shown to have a significant impact on students’ enrolment and 
academic performance globally (Blimpo, Gajigo, and Pugatch 2019; Boatman and Long 
2016; Branson and Lam 2017; Garlick 2013). For instance, Abdul-Rahaman et al. 
(2018) assessed the impact of government funding on students’ academic performance 
in Ghana and concluded that the progressive free policy has a greater impact on 
students’ academic performance. Blimpo, Gajigo, and Pugatch (2019) looked at the 
effects of large-scale fee elimination for secondary school girls in The Gambia on the 
4 
Dwomoh et al. 
quantity, composition, and achievement of students and concluded that the policy had a 
positive point estimate of the programme on test scores. Tatiana (2016) also showed 
that learner motivation via financial incentives increased enrolment rates and decreased 
dropout rates, with significant improvement of academic performance of a significant 
and sizeable magnitude. The current study situates the FSHS policy within the context 
of being able to provide these necessities to promote quality education. There are few 
studies that have assessed the impact of the FSHS policy in Ghana. For instance, Adbul-
Rahim, Adom, and Adu-Agyem (2022) evaluated the impact of the FSHS policy on the 
quality of education in Ghana using the case of Kintampo Senior High School. Their 
study only looked at one school and is thus not nationally representative of the effect of 
the policy on performance. None of the studies reviewed comprehensively assessed the 
current policy and the double-track system.  
Methods  
This study followed the standard guidelines for reporting quasi-experimental studies 
using the Transparent Reporting of Evaluations with Nonrandomized Design/Quasi-
Experimental Study Design (TREND) and the standard for reporting qualitative 
research (SRQR). 
Overview of Ghana’s Education System 
According to Ghana’s laws and legislation, formal education in Ghana begins with two 
years of kindergarten, six years of primary school, and three years of junior high school. 
Students who complete public and private junior high school sit for the Basic Education 
Certification Examination (BECE), which is the final examination required to gain 
admission to any of the Second Cycle Institutions (senior high schools). Senior high 
school education in Ghana is three years, after which the students sit for their final 
examination organised by the West African Examination Council, which is a 
constitutionally mandated body required to organise examinations in the West African 
sub-region. Students that obtain the pass mark from these examinations automatically 
gain admission to any of the tertiary institutions in Ghana (polytechnic, university, 
teacher training and nursing training college) and other diploma and higher diploma 
awarding institutions depending on their results.  
Study Design 
Two different policy initiatives were evaluated in this study. First, we assessed the 
impact of the FSHS policy by comparing data before and after the implementation of 
the policy. The study compared the academic performance of senior high school 
students in Ghana who wrote the 2016 examination (before the intervention) with senior 
high school students who benefited from the intervention between 2017 to 2019 and 
wrote the final examination in 2020. We emphasised that there was no significant 
violation of the stable unit treatment value assumption, that is, there was no systematic 
change in the composition of students before the implementation of the intervention and 
5 
Dwomoh et al. 
students that benefitted from the policy. This is primarily because of the educational 
system in Ghana, where every child must at least complete junior high school (JHS) 
before they get admission to senior high school. This stipulates that independent of 
whether a child benefits from the policy or not, the child must at least obtain a certificate 
at the JHS level before they are admitted to senior high school. The two groups of 
students (beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of the free senior high school policy) were 
subjected to the same system of JHS education before being admitted to senior high 
school. An increase in enrolment because of the policy implementation in this context, 
therefore, does not necessarily change the composition of students in terms of the quality 
of students that were admitted after the policy was implemented.  
Although an experimental design would have been the preferred evaluation design to 
assess the impact of the policy because it ensures that the intervention and the 
comparison schools are more similar in terms of both the observed and unobserved 
characteristics via random treatment assignment of the policy, it was not feasible in our 
case since the policy was implemented nationwide for all public schools at the same 
time. In addition, it was not prudent to compare the academic performance of public and 
private senior high schools using the double-difference in differences analysis method 
because the management and administration of private schools in terms of the 
availability of teaching and learning materials, teacher motivation and incentives, built 
environment, academic qualification of teachers at the private schools, monitoring and 
evaluation, and the type of students admitted are different from public schools. This 
would have created the problem of selection bias and ultimately bias the impact 
estimate. 
To obtain adjusted causal effect estimates of the policy (high internal validity) and more 
precise standard errors, we accounted for the covariates that could potentially influence 
academic performance by including a set of variables such as the school structure (day 
or boarding), geospatial location of the school, the academic rank of the school, and 
school type (boys only, girls only, mixed) in the regression model. These variables were 
included in the model to reduce residual variance in the outcome, resulting in a more 
precise (i.e., lower standard error) estimation of the policy coefficient. 
Second, we assessed the impact of the double-track system, which is a sub-intervention 
implemented within the FSHS policy to accommodate the increasing number of students 
attributed to the implementation of the FSHS policy. The double-track system of senior 
high school education was introduced in the 2018/19 academic year in about 400 senior 
high schools across the country. The system operates in two sessions, namely the green 
track and the gold track. Students were allocated either a green or gold track for each 
form and attended classes in an alternating manner instead of the traditional sit-in 
section where students continuously have face-to-face interactions with their teachers 
for at least three months. According to the Ghana Education Service, the unit directly 
responsible for managing senior high schools in Ghana, the double-track system is an 
intervention that allows senior high schools to accommodate more students within the 
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Dwomoh et al. 
same facility and it is often motivated by its potential to reduce overcrowding. To 
determine the impact of the double-track system on academic performance, the study 
used a cross-sectional survey to generate data that compared the final examination 
results in 2020 for schools that were assigned double-track and non-double-track 
schools. In addition, the study accounted for some contextual factors that could mask 
the relationship between the double-track system and academic performance, such as 
the structure of the school (day or boarding), geospatial location of the school, the 
academic rank of the school, and school type (boys only, girls only, mixed). 
Data Sources  
The data used in this study were obtained from 58 randomly sampled schools from a 
total of 681 public senior high schools. These 58 schools were located in 55 districts 
within the 16 administrative regions of Ghana.  
Sample Size Determination 
The sample size for the total number of schools was obtained using the paired t-test on 
the recommendations of Chow et al. (2017) and Rosner (2015). 
2
(𝑍 𝛼 + 𝑍
1− 1−𝛽
)
𝑛 = 2  
𝑀𝐷𝐸 2
( )
𝑆𝐷∆
where 𝑛 is the total number of senior high schools required, 
𝑍 𝛼 
1−
2
is the standard normal deviate for 𝛼 = 5%, and 𝑍1−𝛽 = 0.845 is the standard normal 
deviate for 𝛽 where 1 − 𝛽 corresponds to 80% power for the study. We assumed a 
standardised minimum detectable effect 
𝑀𝐷𝐸
( ) 
𝑆𝐷∆
of 0.37 based on the limited financial budget for the study to arrive at a sample size of 
58 public schools in Ghana. For each school, we interviewed the heads of academic 
departments for core mathematics, English language, and integrated science and social 
studies. In all, a total of 232 heads of academic departments were interviewed. We also 
interviewed a total of 43 chief matrons who agreed to be part of the study. Some of the 
day schools did not have matrons. 
7 
Dwomoh et al. 
Sampling Technique 
We obtained a list of all public senior high schools from the National School 
Inspectorate Authority (NaSIA). NaSIA, an agency under the Ministry of Education, is 
responsible for licensing new and existing pre-tertiary educational institutions, 
regulating the establishment of new schools and the quality of infrastructure, and 
conducting monitoring and evaluation to ensure quality education at the senior high 
school level. The sampling frame of schools obtained from NaSIA was stratified by the 
16 administrative regions and a simple random sampling technique with sampling 
proportionate to size (number of schools in the region) was used to randomly generate 
representative samples of the schools.  
Data Collection Instruments  
We used a structured questionnaire to collect pre-baseline data on the school’s academic 
performance for first-year students enrolled in the 2013/2014 academic year who wrote 
their final examination administered by the West African Examination Council 
(WAEC) in 2016 (that is, before policy implementation). We used the same data 
collection instrument to collect endline data for first-year students enrolled in the 
2017/2018 academic year who wrote their final examination in 2020 (post-FSHS policy 
implementation academic performance) organised by the same institution.  
Unit of Analysis 
The unit of analysis in this study was the schools that took part in the WAEC. That is, 
we compared a school’s academic performance before and after implementing the 
policy. We also interviewed heads of academic departments and matrons of the boarding 
schools. 
Spatial Data Collection Procedure  
We obtained the geographical coordinates of the sampled schools across the country 
using GPS during the study as part of the data collection. These geographical 
coordinates were captured as longitudes and latitudes and were stored as shapefiles for 
mapping. To put the locations of our sampled schools in context, we also downloaded 
and extracted both regional and district shapefiles for Ghana using geographic 
information systems (GIS) and geospatial approaches. These were downloaded as 
shapefiles. The shapefile for the 16 regions and the 260 districts were obtained from the 
Humanitarian Data Exchange (HDX) website (https://data.humdata.org/dataset/cod-ab-
gha).  
Primary Outcome Measures 
The following primary outcome measures were studied: the general academic 
performance, which was measured as the percentage of students in the index school that 
passed a particular course (English, mathematics, integrated science, social studies), and 
the average scores of the four subjects. Our proposed conceptual framework for the 
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Dwomoh et al. 
definition of quality of education was based on an input (human resources, the provision 
of teaching and learning materials, etc.), process (supervision of teachers, support for 
teaching and learning, etc.), and output (pass rate, social skills, etc.) approach developed 
by Garira (2020). However, this study limited the definition of quality education to 
achievement in academic subjects, ignoring other aspects of quality education such as 
students’ cultural heritage, social preparation, and personal development geared towards 
overall development of the child.  
Secondary Outcome Measures 
In addition to the primary outcomes, the study assessed knowledge and understanding 
of instructions by students, students’ extra-curricular activities (e.g., school plays, 
sporting activities), student feeding, healthcare and general welfare, content, quality and 
quantity of teaching materials, food quality, staff motivation and remuneration, and staff 
job satisfaction and security before and after the implementation of the FSHS policy. 
This was achieved by developing a Likert-based standard quality education metric tool 
to rate the experiences of heads of academic departments and matrons before and after 
the implementation of the policy. 
Primary Exposures (Interventions) 
The FSHS policy and the double-track systems were the primary exposures of interest. 
Confounders 
The following were assumed to have an effect on academic performance: type of school 
(boys, girls, or mixed), geospatial location of the school, the structure of the school (only 
day versus day/boarding), the rank of the school, and number of courses offered in the 
school. 
Statistical Analysis 
Descriptive summary measures (mean, standard deviation, median, interquartile range) 
were used to analyse differences in the outcome measures before and after the policy 
intervention. The normality of all the outcome measures was assessed using the 
Kolmogorov-Smirnov goodness of fit test. In the case of non-normally distributed 
outcome measures, a multivariable quantile regression model with a robust standard 
error was used to generate a more representative median impact estimate of the FSHS 
policy and the double-track system on academic performance. The quantile regression 
model is more robust and does not require any specified error distributions for skewed 
data with repeated measurements and no transformation for the outcome measure 
(Chen, Bertke, and Curwin 2021; Lu and Fan 2020). For the normally distributed 
outcome measures, a multivariable ordinary least square regression model with cluster 
robust standard error was used to evaluate the effect of the policy and the double-track 
system on academic performance.  
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Dwomoh et al. 
We specified the model as follows. The quantile regression model for the 𝜏th quantile 
is given as follows:  
𝑄𝜏(𝑦𝑖𝑡) = 𝛽0(𝜏) + 𝛽1(𝜏)𝐹𝑆𝐻𝑆 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑦 + 𝛽2(𝜏)𝑋𝑖𝑡 + 𝛽3(𝜏)𝑍𝑖 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝜀𝑖𝑡(𝜏), 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 
where 𝑦𝑖𝑡 represent the academic performance for school 𝑖 at time 𝑡. 𝑋𝑖𝑡 is the time-
varying covariates and 𝑍𝑖 is the time-invariant covariates that could influence the 
outcome measures, 𝛼𝑖 and 𝜀𝑖𝑡 are both error terms. 𝜀𝑖𝑡 is different for each school at 
each point in time. 𝛼𝑖 only varies across schools but not across time (captures the effect 
of unmeasured time-invariant/stable variables). 
The double-track system was only implemented in the 2020 academic year as a sub-
component of the FSHS policy. To evaluate the impact of the double-track system on 
academic performance, this study compared the distribution of academic scores between 
students who graduated from public schools where the double-track system was 
implemented against schools that did not implement the system by employing a similar 
analytic technique. The assessment of quality education metrics based on the responses 
from the heads of academic departments and matrons of the school before and after the 
implementation of the FSHS policy were compared using the paired t-test. Data 
management and analysis were conducted using Stata version 17 (StataCorp, College 
Station, Texas, USA), and p-values less than .05 were considered statistically 
significant. 
Geospatial mapping approaches were employed to show the distribution of the sampled 
schools selected for the study. Regional and district-level shapefiles for Ghana were 
downloaded, extracted, processed, and prepared for the mapping. The rgdal, leaflet, 
maptools, spdep and tmap packages in R software version 4.1.1 and RStudio were used 
for the geospatial data preparation and mapping. 
Assessing the Challenges Associated with the Implementation of the FSHS Policy 
A semi-structured questionnaire and qualitative study design approach were used to 
better understand from the perspective of key stakeholders (parents, teachers, 
headmasters, heads of department, CSOs) the key challenges associated with the 
implementation of the policy. Content analysis of the in-depth interview with these key 
stakeholders was conducted to understand the challenges of the policy. We developed 
themes that emerged and looked for them in the data we collected. We used a colour-
coding or numbering system to identify text about the different themes, grouped 
together ideas, and gathered evidence about views on each theme. This content analysis 
was carried out using NVivo software. We summarised and tabulated the findings from 
the content analysis. During the process of coding, data analysis was carried out using 
sub-thematic areas on the interview guide as a predetermined concept. The coded data 
were refined to represent participants’ perspectives on challenges associated with the 
implementation of the policy. The key informant interview guide can be found in the 
supplementary material. 
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Dwomoh et al. 
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate 
This study secured ethical approval from the Ghana Education Service Ethical Review 
Committee with approval number GES/DD-G/Q&A/21/54. All participants completed 
informed consent forms indicating their understanding of the study objectives and their 
willingness to participate. 
Results 
Distribution of the Schools 
A total of 58 public senior high schools were randomly sampled across the 16 
administrative regions of Ghana and included in the study. Fifty per cent (n = 29) of the 
schools were classified as double-tracked schools. Twenty schools were in the coastal 
zone, 21 in the middle zone, and 17 in the Northern Zone. Of the 58 schools, 12 were 
boys only schools, 18 were girls only, and 28 were mixed (both boys and girls). 
Approximately 62 per cent (n = 36) of the schools were “day/boarding” and the 
remaining 22 (38%) were classified as “day” schools. Table 1 and Figure 1 show the 
distribution of the 58 sampled schools across the 216 districts within the 16 
administrative regions of Ghana. 
Table 1: Distribution of senior high schools across the 16 administrative regions 
Region Number (n) (%)   
of schools  
Ahafo 3 (5.17)  
Ashanti 5 (8.62)  
Bono 5 (8.62) 
Bono East 4 (6.90) 
Central 3 (5.17) 
Eastern 4 (6.90) 
Greater Accra 5 (8.62) 
North East 3 (5.17) 
Northern 4 (6.90) 
Oti 3 (5.17) 
Savanah 2 (3.45) 
Upper East 4 (6.90) 
Upper West 4 (6.90) 
Volta 4 (6.90) 
Western 4 (6.90) 
Western North 1 (1.72) 
Total 58  
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Dwomoh et al. 
Figure 1: Distribution of location of sampled schools (red circles) by regions (blue 
polygons) and districts (grey polygons) 
Impact of the Free Senior High School Policy on Academic Performance 
The average academic performance measured via the percentage of students that passed 
subject-specific WAEC examinations before and after the policy implementation was 
studied among the 58 randomly sampled schools. Table 2 compares the academic 
performance of students before the implementation of the policy (that is, students who 
were enrolled in 2014 but wrote their final examination in 2016) and after the policy 
implementation (that is, the first beneficiaries of the policy who were enrolled in 2017 
but wrote their final examination in 2020). Among the four subject areas that were 
assessed, the average academic performance in integrated science reduced significantly 
after the FSHS policy by 14.5 per cent (95% CI: [-26.6, -2.4]; p < .05) compared with 
the performance in 2016. The average performance in social studies also reduced by 3.8 
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Dwomoh et al. 
per cent (95% CI: [-14.8, 11.0]; p > .05) after the implementation compared with 2016, 
albeit statistically insignificant. Although the academic performance in core 
mathematics and English language increased after the policy implementation compared 
with 2016, the difference in academic performance was not statistically significant. 
Table 2: Average academic performance before and after the implementation of the 
policy 
Subjects Total Before (2016) After (2020)  
Impact of policy on 
academic performance: 
adjusted estimate from 
quantile regression with 
robust standard errors 
 Median [LQ, UQ] Median [LQ, UQ] Median [LQ, UQ] [95% CI] 
Core     
English language 82.31 [52.58, 98.26] 82.18 [56.52, 98.86] 82.44 [42.00, 98.00] 4.54 [-9.95, 19.04] 
Core mathematics 85.00 [51.95, 98.00] 81.04 [39.00, 96.00] 88.71 [60.00, 98.78] 12.00 [-2.98, 26.98] 
Integrated science 79.89 [46.00, 98.00] 86.04 [63.08, 99.00] 72.00 [32.00, 97.80] -14.48 [-26.58, -2.37]* 
Social studies 83.52 [50.56, 96.00] 85.20 [64.00, 99.38] 81.83 [38.00, 95.91] -3.80 [-11.32, 3.72] 
Overall scores 78.95 [49.66, 97.50] 81.00 [49.66, 98.06] 76.51 [45.75, 97.50] -1.04 [-12.97, 10.88] 
Note. LQ: Lower quartile, UQ: Upper quartile: CI: Confidence interval; p-value notation: ***p < 
.001, ** p < .01, *p < .05. The model adjusts for the type of school (boys, girls, or mixed), 
geospatial effect (latitude and longitude), the structure of the school (only day versus 
day/boarding), the rank of the school, and number of courses offered in the school. 
Evaluating Student Enrolment and Completion Rate Before and After Policy 
Implementation 
Table 3 shows the results of senior high school student enrolment and completion 
among the 58 randomly sampled schools. The policy increased the average enrolment 
of students and those that completed SHS1, SHS2, and SHS3 compared with the 
situation before the policy.  
Table 3: Evaluating student enrolment and completion 
Before  
Subjects Total (2016) After (2020)  
Impact of policy on 
Impact of policy on enrolment and 
enrolment and completion: adjusted 
completion: adjusted estimate from quantile 
estimate: OLS with regression with robust 
cluster robust standard standard errors  
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) errors [95% CI] [95% CI] 
Enrolment  
as a 
percentage 
of school size     
SHS 1¥ 33.73 (15.37) 27.92 (18.69) 37.80 (11.07) 9.05 [0.46, 17.63]* 8.44 [2.29, 14.59]** 
SHS 2¥ 30.47 (11.84) 23.39 (12.89) 34.90 (8.69) 11.55 [5.40, 17.70]*** 11.52 [5.41, 17.62]*** 
SHS 3 26.43 (12.22) 21.86 (12.81) 29.52 (10.91) 7.28 [0.88, 13.68]* 4.13 [-3.59, 11.85] 
      
13 
Dwomoh et al. 
Before  
Subjects Total (2016) After (2020)  
Impact of policy on 
Impact of policy on enrolment and 
enrolment and completion: adjusted 
completion: adjusted estimate from quantile 
estimate: OLS with regression with robust 
cluster robust standard standard errors  
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD) errors [95% CI] [95% CI] 
Completion  
as a 
percentage 
of school size     
SHS 1¥ 31.29 (16.23) 27.32 (21.84) 34.45 (9.03) 7.39 [-3.20, 17.99] 4.45 [-6.83, 15.73] 
SHS 2 27.04 (12.99) 21.34 (14.96) 30.84 (10.08) 9.29 [1.16, 17.43]* 8.42 [0.84, 16.01]* 
SHS 3¥ 28.08 (20.11) 21.04 (13.03) 32.83 (22.68) 11.85 [2.45, 21.24]* 4.63 [-2.07, 11.31] 
Note. OLS: Ordinary least square; LQ: Lower quartile; UQ: Upper quartile; CI: Confidence 
interval; p-value notation: *** p < .001, **p < .01, *p < .05. The model adjusts for the type of 
school (boys, girls, or mixed), geospatial effect (latitude and longitude), the rank of the school, 
the structure of the school (only day versus day/boarding), and the number of courses offered in 
the school. ¥ not normally distributed. 
Policy Evaluation by Heads of Academic Departments 
Subject-Specific Assessment 
The heads of academic departments indicated that the teachers have had a poor teaching 
experience after the implementation of the policy compared with experiences before the 
policy implementation. There was a statistically significant decline in teaching 
experience in the following subject areas: English language, core mathematics, 
integrated science, social studies, agricultural science, business accounting and 
secretariat, general arts, general science, and home economics (Table 4). 
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Dwomoh et al. 
Table 4: Ratings of teaching experiences before and after the Free Senior High School 
policy implementation 
Paired t-
Subjects Before After Difference test 
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)  
Core     
English language 4.09 (0.77) 3.67 (1.16) 0.42 (1.39) 2.22*** 
Core mathematics 4.25 (0.66) 3.78 (1.03) 0.47 (1.19) 3.05** 
Integrated science 4.09 (0.69) 3.59 (1.11) 0.50 (1.22) 2.77*** 
Social studies 4.15 (0.60) 3.69 (0.99) 0.46 (1.06) 2.96** 
Electives     
Agricultural 4.26 (0.54) 3.35 (1.07) 0.91 (1.12) 3.89*** 
Business Accounting 4.17 (0.85) 3.67 (1.06) 0.50 (1.31) 2.43*** 
Business (Secretariat) 4.37 (0.74) 4.12 (0.35) 0.25 (0.71) 1.00 
General art 4.22 (0.62) 3.66 (1.00) 0.56 (1.01) 4.29*** 
General Science 4.21 (0.64) 3.73 (1.02) 0.48 (1.02) 2.68* 
Technical 4.17 (0.58) 3.83 (0.58) 0.34 (0.65) 1.77 
Vocational (Home Economics) 4.00 (0.73) 3.48 (1.07) 0.52 (1.15) 2.65* 
Vocational (Visual arts) 4.21 (0.66) 3.75 (1.18) 0.46 (1.18) 1.90 
Note. SD: Standard deviation; p-value notation: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 
Assessment of the Built Environment, Infrastructure, Learning, and Teaching 
Materials 
This study assessed the built environment, infrastructure, availability of teaching and 
learning materials, staff motivation, and remuneration after the implementation of the 
policy. Of the 22 core indicators that were assessed, 16 indicators were found to have 
significantly decreased in quality and standard after the implementation of the policy 
(p < .05, Table 5). 
Table 5: Assessment of the built environment, infrastructure, staff motivation, 
learning, and teaching materials 
Variable Before After Difference Paired t-test 
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)  
Student admissions and enrolment 3.68 (1.02) 3.94 (1.08) -0.26 (1.52) -2.61*** 
The school’s general finances 3.75 (1.04) 3.05 (1.22) 0.70 (1.78) 5.76*** 
Student fees and fee payment 3.27 (1.17) 4.02 (1.24) -0.75 (1.98) -4.29*** 
Acquisition and availability of 
learning materials 3.44 (1.06) 3.34 (1.19) 0.10 (1.53) 1.06 
Content, quality, and quantity of 
teaching materials 3.71 (0.92) 3.53 (1.06) 0.18 (1.06) 2.21* 
Knowledge and understanding of 
instructions by students 3.99 (0.81) 3.41 (1.14) 0.58 (1.29) 7.01*** 
Performance outcomes and standards 
of students 3.88 (0.79) 3.37 (1.12) 0.51 (1.28) 6.18*** 
Student assessment and examination 
management 4.04 (0.67) 3.63 (3.50) 0.41 (1.14) 5.63*** 
Students’ extra-curricular activities 
(e.g. school plays, sporting activities) 4.03 (0.82) 2.97 (1.17) 1.06 (1.36) 11.85*** 
Classrooms and general academic 
facilities 3.66 (0.95) 3.29 (1.23) 0.37 (1.26) 4.49*** 
Student boarding management (for 
boarding schools) 3.82 (0.92) 3.19 (1.19) 0.63 (1.32) 6.49*** 
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Dwomoh et al. 
Variable Before After Difference Paired t-test 
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)  
Student feeding, healthcare, and 
general welfare 3.67 (0.96) 3.45 (3.45) 0.22 (1.43) 2.29* 
ICT and science resources (e.g., labs) 
and skills of teachers in using them 3.49 (1.06) 3.59 (1.11) -0.10 (1.15) -1.29 
School infrastructure development 
and maintenance 3.48 (1.02) 3.26 (1.19) 0.22 (1.27) 2.76** 
General student discipline and 
behaviour 3.98 (0.84) 2.97 (1.34) 1.01 (1.48) 10.55*** 
General school management and 
administration 3.99 (0.70) 3.73 (1.03) 0.26 (1.02) 3.83*** 
Relationships with parents/guardians 4.17 (0.64) 3.36 (1.22) 0.81 (1.27) 9.85*** 
Students with special learning needs 
(if applicable) 3.52 (0.83) 3.28 (0.96) 0.24 (0.93) 2.16* 
Provision of utilities (e.g. water, 
electricity, internet connection) 3.59 (1.03) 3.89 (1.07) -0.30 (1.17) -3.91*** 
Continuous professional 
development of school staff 3.65 (0.90) 3.72 (1.03) -0.07 (1.18) -0.88 
Staff motivation and remuneration 3.48 (1.11) 2.65 (1.21) 0.83 (1.42) 9.06*** 
Staff job satisfaction and security 3.41 (1.11) 3.02 (1.28) 0.39 (1.17) 5.13*** 
Note. SD: Standard deviation; p-value notation: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 
Policy Evaluation by Matrons 
According to the matrons of the schools that were sampled, the acquisition and 
availability of food, quality of foodstuff acquired, and the amount of money allocated 
to their department has significantly reduced after the implementation of the policy 
compared to the situation before the policy (Table 6). 
Table 6: Matrons’ experiences before and after the implementation of the Free Senior High 
School policy 
Variable Before After Difference Paired t-test 
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)  
Student numbers and their 
management 3.94 (0.79) 3.81 (0.92) 0.13 (1.22) 0.68 
Infrastructure development and 
maintenance 3.29 (1.20) 3.17 (1.20) 0.12 (1.16) 0.58 
The school’s finances regarding 
your unit 3.68 (1.11) 3.17 (1.25) 0.51 (1.25) 2.14* 
Acquisition and availability of 
equipment 3.74 (0.98) 3.51 (1.09) 0.23 (1.19) 0.23 
Acquisition and availability of 
foodstuff 3.94 (1.09) 3.25 (1.27) 0.69 (1.49) 2.80** 
Quality of foodstuff acquired 4.11 (0.85) 3.53 (1.11) 0.58 (1.38) 2.53* 
Quality of cooked food 4.28 (0.78) 4.22 (0.83) 0.06 (1.04) 0.32 
Number of student feeding 4.14 (0.77) 4.28 (0.71) -0.14 (0.97) -0.87 
General student discipline and 
behaviour towards your unit 4.06 (0.91) 3.68 (1.23) 0.38 (1.31) 1.67 
Management and administration 
of your unit 4.20 (0.79) 4.20 (1.01) 0.00 (1.06) 0.01 
Students with special learning 
needs (if applicable) 4.54 (0.52) 4.36 (0.67) 0.18 (0.60) 1.00 
Provision of utilities (water and 
electricity) 4.11 (1.02) 4.37 (0.88) -0.26 (1.01) -1.51 
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Dwomoh et al. 
Variable Before After Difference Paired t-test 
 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Mean (SD)  
Continuous professional 
development of your unit’s staff 3.65 (1.12) 3.53 (1.16) 0.12 (0.84) 0.81 
Staff motivation and remuneration 3.74 (1.09) 3.37 (1.19) 0.37 (1.38) 1.60 
Staff job satisfaction and security 3.68 (1.08) 3.43 (1.27) 0.25 (1.36) 1.14 
Note. SD: Standard deviation; p-value notation: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001 
Impact of Double-Track System on Academic Performance: A Multivariable 
Analysis 
Table 7 indicates that the general academic performance decreased in all four core 
subject-specific areas among the double-track schools compared with the non-double-
track schools. The results from the quantile regression with robust standard error 
showed that the average academic performance in English language significantly 
decreased by approximately 26.1 per cent (95% CI: [-41.99, -10.21]; p < .01) among the 
double-track schools compared with the non-double track schools. The performance in 
integrated science decreased by approximately 30.4 per cent (95% CI: [-45.6, -15.24]; 
p < .001) in the double-track schools compared with the non-double-track schools. 
Overall academic performance decreased by 36.1 per cent (95% CI: [-50.4, -21.9]; p < 
.001) among the double-track schools compared with the non-double-track schools. 
Table 7: Impact of double-track system on academic performance 
Impact of double track system on 
academic performance: adjusted 
Non-Double Track estimate from quantile regression with 
Subjects (2020) Double Track (2020) robust standard errors 
 Median [LQ, UQ] Median [LQ, UQ]  
Core    
English language 91.58 [77.74, 98.50] 64.50 [32.17, 95.00] -26.10 [-41.99, -10.21]** 
Core mathematics 96.00 [74.00, 100.00] 81.39 [42.33, 97.50] -16.65 [-32.31, -0.98]* 
Integrated science 90.00 [61.34, 98.09] 42.70 [21.50, 81.01] -30.44 [-45.63, -15.24]*** 
Social studies 90.91 [63.09, 98.89] 59.14 [32.98, 90.23] -27.75 [-51.58, -3.92]* 
Overall scores 91.69 [70.00, 98.33] 60.58 [38.54, 89.13] -36.12 [-50.36, -21.89]*** 
Note. LQ: Lower quartile; UQ: Upper quartile; CI: Confidence interval; p-value notation: ***p 
< .001, **p < .01, *p < .05. The model adjusts for the type of school (boys, girls or mixed), 
geospatial effect (latitude and longitude), the structure of the school (only day versus 
day/boarding), the rank of school, and the number of courses offered in the school. 
Synthesis of the Qualitative Interviews 
This study analysed the in-depth interviews with key informants to identify challenges 
associated with the implementation of the policy. The main thematic areas explored 
were challenges experienced during the roll-out of the policy, measures to sustain the 
FSHS programme, and opinions that the FSHS policy should continue for all students 
regardless of their ability to pay. 
In terms of the challenges, the study identified a common theme among all the study 
participants (headmasters, parents, CSOs, policymakers, media, and faith-based 
17 
Dwomoh et al. 
organisations). The major challenges indicated by these categories of stakeholders 
concerning the implementation of the policy were financial constraints, inadequate 
teaching and learning materials, delay in the release of food items, inadequate contact 
hours, and poor implementation of the policy and the double-track system.  
Financial Challenges 
Funds were not released on time and even affected the initial take-off of FSHS; funds is 
the main issue for us, since we are a day school. (Headmaster) 
It is very expensive indirectly because as at the time they were paying fees they paid 
about 700 cedis per term, and when the free SHS started, it was free the things we 
bought, the extra class. They run three extra classes, they have extra classes, extra 
classes, extra classes and you have to pay all, and a subject was 50 cedis. So, if she did 
all the subjects, how much was that. I don’t know if it was a means for the teachers to 
extort money or not. I think they are the first or second who started the Free SHS. My 
sister-in-law was there, and they were paying fees and it wasn’t like that. But when these 
people started every week, you have to pay an amount, you have to buy books. The 
materials to be provided for them to learn it’s not there. You have to pay a lot for lab 
practicals. It didn’t help both directly and indirectly. It will only help someone who 
doesn’t have physical cash for the child to go that one if you just have your lorry fare, 
she can go. But if you look at the expenses, we pay more than we even paying the fees. 
So, to me, it was very expensive and the little you get you must be pumping on her every 
week I have to send 100 cedis to her. I know students extort money from parents but my 
girl I can stand in for her that she is not like that. She is currently at UDS studying 
Doctor of Pharmacy. Everything affected the food because it was free. (Parent) 
Inadequate and Delayed Release of Food Items 
When FSHS started, everything was flowing, money and food were coming, but after 
the election, things have changed; money, you have to wait for a long time before it 
comes. Food supply you can't beat them, it is rationed when you get this you don't get 
that, so it has become very difficult. (Headmaster) 
Challenges are on feeding, which has been the biggest challenge, food from buffer stock 
hasn’t been regular. In fact, we have thrown away a menu that we were supposed to use 
in the schools and that’s the biggest challenge. (Headmaster) 
The quality of the food was affected, and she complains she can’t eat the food. So, they 
have to be buying from outside. (Parent) 
Poor Implementation of the Policy 
We consistently made it clear that we were not against the provision of schools or 
education for our children, but we were worried about the State’s ability to provide 
quality education and still make it free and so, much as we were not against the policy 
per se, we consistently questioned how it could be successfully implemented and rolled 
out. We thought that free SHS was trying to solve a problem, which was not well 
identified and well defined, we always challenge the notion that the biggest problem in 
18 
Dwomoh et al. 
our education was financing. We felt that money per say was not the problem, it was 
management and so we can throw a lot of money at it, but if we don’t get the 
management right, we will not end up with positive results. (CSO) 
The feedback has been mixed, in the sense that, people like the policy generally, but 
people feel that the Government rushed the implementation and it’s not being patient 
enough to deal with the challenges that emerge when people give negative feedback 
about the policy. So, that’s my general feeling. So, most people say they like the policy, 
a lot of people can go to school, but they think that because of the way it was rushed, 
there is overcrowding, teachers are overwhelmed, discipline is an issue and some of 
those issues have made it difficult for the policy to be successful. (Media) 
So, in short, free SHS should not be conducted in a way it is presently being conducted. 
We’ve had enough experience and we think we should learn the lessons. Um, I think we 
are wasting the money and we are not getting the value out of that programme. (CSO) 
Double-Track System 
Parents are generally happy with the idea that they are not paying school fees but they 
are not too happy with the shift system. They feel the children are not able to have 
enough time to study and have to organize extra classes for their wards at home so it is 
more or less like they are back to paying school fees. Therefore, there is a problem with 
teaching and learning with the free senior high school policy which needs to be 
addressed. (Media) 
The free SHS to me didn’t help the children at all because of their break in school that 
they will stay in the house for three months before they go back to school and there was 
no challenge in the school because it became like everybody can go to school, once you 
complete JHS, you can go back to school whether your grades are high or low unlike 
our time there were a lot of challenges that you have to struggle before you. (Parent) 
We further synthesised the results to understand how the policy could be sustained. Most 
of the key informants believed that there is a need to review the policy and government 
may consider a cost-sharing approach to sustain the policy. Government should only 
target poor people in society and offer them scholarships at the senior high schools. The 
following are some of the specific quotes from key stakeholders. 
We need to take a second look at the financing. Government solely financing everything 
to me is something else, there are some basic things that should be taken off for instance 
to me I may be wrong I don’t see why government should be buying something like 
church cloth or school cloth for them, this church cloth sometimes delays, they may 
even get it at the end of second year and at the end of the day they have taken it out and 
government will still buy another. (Headmaster) 
There should be a cut-off point and also they should allow us to repeat the student who 
are not good or who don’t perform in the exams so that it will serve as a deterrent to the 
others to be more serious. And then nowadays too you cannot withdraw any student so 
the person can be in the house for so many months then the person will just pump in to 
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Dwomoh et al. 
come register then you are not supposed to disallow the person so you have to allow the 
person to register. So it could happen that yes you may see the person for about a few 
weeks and that could be the end you may not see the person again. You don’t have the 
right to withdraw any student. (Headmaster) 
So, I feel the government has to find a way to review the policy. It is five years now 
since its implementation and needs to be reviewed. Some parents are ready to pay, so 
those who are ready to pay should be allowed to pay and those who genuinely do not 
have and needs support, the government should make the free senior high school policy 
open to such persons. This will help in funding the policy. (Media) 
No. I think it is not a smart approach to solving the problem. Nobody, who can afford 
to pay the fees of their child, should go to school free, especially because there are many 
people who cannot afford and the money must go to those people. So, our position has 
remained the same. (CSO) 
Yeah. Yes. Uh, as an institution, because I discussed with some of my colleagues and 
some of my senior men, um, as an institution, number one, we think it’s good program. 
It should continue, but then, because of the current challenges we think it should be 
prioritized in terms of um, government doing more work to identify those who are 
actually in need, because it is not everyone who are at the same level, some can pay for. 
(Faith-based organisation) 
Discussion 
The study assessed the impact of the FSHS policy and double-track system on academic 
performance and other dimensions of quality education evaluation metrics. The study 
further identified challenges associated with the implementation of the policy to guide 
decision-making geared towards improving the design and implementation of the 
policy. Although the admission rate increased similar to what has been reported in 
previous studies (Abdul-Rahaman et al. 2018; Blimpo, Gajigo, and Pugatch 2019; 
Boatman and Long 2016; Branson and Lam 2017), the policy did not generally improve 
academic performance; this finding is consistent with a previous assessment of the 
impact of financial aid on students’ academic performance (Mashala 2019). The 
synthesis of the findings from the qualitative interviews showed that the poor 
performance of students after the implementation of the policy may be attributed to 
delays in the release of funds, lack of teaching and learning materials, inadequate and 
delayed release of food items, inadequate contact hours for the students, poor 
implementation and management of the policy. Some key informants were of the view 
that the government rushed in the implementation of the policy without necessarily 
conducting process evaluation to anticipate potential challenges and how they could be 
addressed these challenges. The aforementioned factors and other contextual factors 
might have contributed significantly to the low academic performance scores after the 
implementation of the policy. 
20 
Dwomoh et al. 
Our findings showed that academic performance has generally declined and schools that 
were classified as double-track performed poorly in the WAEC examinations compared 
with the non-double-tracked schools. Challenges associated with the double-track 
system have recently been documented. Adjei (2021) used the Job Demand Resources 
Model and Robert Merton’s theory on adaptation to assess the challenges of the double-
track system. The study indicated that double-track schools faced challenges with 
infrastructure, inadequate human resources, the untimely release of funds to support 
teaching and learning, inadequate stakeholder consultation, inadequate provision of 
logistics, inadequate contact hours to complete the syllabus owing to the double-track 
system, increased number of holidays, and the poor maintenance of school facilities, 
including the unwholesome and undersupply of food items which ultimately had some 
effect on academic performance. The author indicated that if the challenges are not 
timely met, they will affect the effective delivery of education at the senior high school 
level.  
The double-track system has been criticised by some civil society organisations because 
in some cases, students spend a shorter time staying in contact with teachers in school 
and return home and this they believe could have an adverse effect on their academic 
performance and that may have contributed to the poor academic performance observed 
in the double-track compared with the non-double-track schools.  
Policy Implications 
This study provides empirical evidence of the urgent need for government and other 
relevant stakeholders (Ministry of Education and Ghana Education Service) to 
comprehensively review the policy and address the challenges associated with its 
implementation of the policy. Government should consider alternative sources of 
generating revenue to support the main policy funding stream. Government must 
provide teaching and learning materials, improve the standard of infrastructure, timely 
release of funds for food suppliers, increase student-teacher contact hours, completely 
abolish the double-track system, and provide additional incentives to teachers to 
motivate quality delivery. The government may consider cost-sharing with parents and 
caregivers to mitigate the effect of financial challenges experienced in the second-cycle 
institutions. 
Strengths and Limitations 
This study used a rigorous statistical analysis of data that originated from a random 
sample of 58 senior high schools across the 16 administrative regions of Ghana. To the 
best of our knowledge, it is the first post-FSHS policy era study that combines 
qualitative and quantitative study designs to evaluate the effect of the policy on different 
performance indicators and quality education metrics. It is the first study to assess the 
policy by interviewing all relevant key stakeholders (headmasters, heads of academic 
departments, matrons, parents, CSOs, and media). That notwithstanding, the current 
study may suffer from bias associated with a smaller sample size relative to the total 
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Dwomoh et al. 
number of public senior high schools. In addition, poor records keeping at the senior 
high schools resulted in missing relevant information and data within the study period. 
The use of a quasi-experimental study design may not be the most rigorous evaluation 
approach compared with an experimental design but the circumstances leading to the 
implementation of the policy nationwide did not allow the use of an experimental study 
design. Several unknown factors may have contributed to academic performance and 
the outcome measures apart from the policy implementation; however, this study could 
not account for these factors because of the unavailability of data. The impact of 
COVID-19 on the outcome measures, especially during the peak phase of the pandemic 
in 2020, cannot be underestimated.  
Conclusion 
The findings showed that the policy has not improved the quality of education and 
general academic performance. We emphasise that the knowledge and understanding of 
instructions by students, students’ extra-curricular activities, student feeding, 
healthcare, general welfare, content, quality and quantity of teaching materials, food 
quality, staff motivation and remuneration, staff job satisfaction, and security have been 
negatively affected. Students who attended the double-track schools performed poorly 
in all the core subjects compared with non-double-track schools. The policy has, 
however, increased both enrolment and graduation rates at the senior high schools. 
There is a need for the government and all relevant stakeholders to comprehensively 
review the FSHS policy implementation and address the challenges associated with the 
policy. 
Acknowledgements 
The study received financial support from the Hewlett Foundation in the USA, through 
the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration. 
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