University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE AFRICAN UNION AND THE CHALLENGE OF BEING A STRONG, UNITED, RESILIENT AND INFLUENTIAL GLOBAL PLAYER AND PARTNER (AGENDA 2063, ASPIRATION SEVEN). BY ISAAC NANA OSEI (10401078) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON JULY 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Juliana Appiah, and that apart from other works, which are duly acknowledged, no part of it has been submitted anywhere else for any purpose. …………………………… …………………………….. ISAAC NANA OSEI DR. JULIANA APPIAH (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE:…………………………. DATE………………………….. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This study is dedicated to first and foremost, the God Almighty for his guidance, wisdom and the strength to complete this research. Also to my devoted late Parents, Mr. James Bruce Kwame Osei and Mrs. Beatrice Osei whose assistance and counselling from infancy has brought me this far, not to forget my helpful siblings (Thomas Osei, Emmanuel Anane, Stella Osei, and George Yaw Osei) and also to my tireless Supervisor, Dr. Juliana Appiah. Finally, I dedicate this work to all my friends who have become a family, and in numerous ways, assisted me throughout this work when necessary. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am highly indebted to the almighty God for the abundance grace He has always provided. It was His protection and guidance that made this work possible. One of such God’s blessings to me was my supervisor, Dr Juliana Appiah. Her intellectual guidance, time and constructive criticisms, without which this study would have been impossible are in no small ways appreciated. Her disciplinary approach and corrections were invaluable. A heart felt gratitude also goes to the entire Research Fellows at the Legon Center for International Affairs and Diplomacy, whose professional experience in teaching, contributed to my academic knowledge used in the successful completion of this work. Again, I am highly grateful to the entire respondents for making time to respond to me amidst their busy schedules for the completion of this work, most especially His Excellency J. J Rawlings and His Excellency J. A. Kufour both former presidents of Ghana and former Chairpersons of the African Union. An equal gratitude goes to the staff and directors of Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration especially Ambassador Albert Yankey (AG Director of the ministry) and Mr Sabastian Beliwine (AG Director at the African Bureau of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration). Finally, my earnest appreciation goes to my entire family and friends who encouraged and prayed for me from the start up until the completion of this work. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AEC – African Economic Community APPER – Priority Programme for Economic Recovery AU - African Union CAM – Common African Market Comprehensive African Agriculture Development CAADP – Program ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States EU – European Union GDP – Gross Domestic Product IRT - International Relations Theories JAES – Joint African EU Strategy LPA – Lagos Plan of Action MDG - Millennium Development Goals NEPAD – New Partnership for Africa’s Development NGO - Governmental Organization OAU – Organization of African Unity RECs – Regional Economic Communities UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UN – United Nations WTO – World Trade Organization iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................ v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.0 Background to the Study ...................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Research Questions............................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................. 5 1.4 Scope of Study ...................................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Hypothesis ............................................................................................................................. 5 1.6 Rationale of the Study .......................................................................................................... 5 1.7 Justification of the Study ...................................................................................................... 6 1.8 Limitations of Study ............................................................................................................. 7 1.9 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................ 7 1.10 Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 9 1.11 Methodology and Sources of Information ...................................................................... 16 1.12 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................ 17 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 20 THE ROAD MAP TO AGENDA 2063 ................................................................................... 20 2.1 The Formation of the Organization of African Unity ...................................................... 21 2.2 The Lagos Plan of Action (LPA), in 1980 ........................................................................ 23 2.3 The Abuja Treaty of 1991 .................................................................................................. 26 2.4 The Sirte Declaration of 1999 ............................................................................................ 27 2.5 The African Union and NEPAD ........................................................................................ 28 2.6 Agenda 2063 of the African Union ................................................................................... 32 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................... 36 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................... 38 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF THE AFRICAN UNION IN ACHIEVING ASPIRATION SEVEN OF AGENDA 2063 ........................................................................... 38 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1 Aspiration Seven of the AU Agenda 2063 and its Relevance ......................................... 38 3.2 Challenges of the African Union in Meeting Aspiration Seven ...................................... 40 3.2.1 Economic Challenges of the Aspiration Seven .......................................................... 41 3.2.2 Political Challenges of Aspiration Seven ................................................................... 44 3.2.3 Socio-Cultural Challenges of Aspiration Seven ........................................................ 48 3.2.4 Other Challenges Impeding the Achievement of Aspiration Seven ......................... 50 3.3 Successes of the African Union ......................................................................................... 53 3.4 Prospects of African Union achieving Aspiration Seven ................................................. 55 3.4.1 Economic Prospects of Achieving Aspiration Seven ................................................ 56 3.4.2 Socio-Cultural Prospects of AU in Achieving Aspiration Seven ............................. 58 3.4.3 Other Prospects of Achieving Aspiration Seven ........................................................ 59 3.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 61 Endnotes .................................................................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................................... 64 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 64 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 64 4.1 Summary of Findings ......................................................................................................... 65 4.2 Conclusion........................................................................................................................... 70 4.3 Recommendations............................................................................................................... 70 4.4 Areas for Further Research ................................................................................................ 71 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................................... 72 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The African Union, since its formation, from the days of the Organization of African Unity to its current form, has taken several steps to ensure total continental unity. The AU, has initiated commendable programs such as the Lagos Plan of Action, the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights drafted in 1981; Priority Programme for Economic Recovery (APPER) in 1985, The Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (EAC), known as the Abuja Treaty, in 1991; The Sirte Declaration of 1999; The 2000 Solemn Declaration on Security, Stability, Development and Cooperation of the African continent; the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in 2000 and the latest being the adoption of Agenda, 2063. This study therefore aims at examining the relevance, challenges and the prospects of Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063 of the AU. The study adopts a qualitative research methodology that relies on both secondary and primary data, using interviews as instrument of data collection, where the views of both practitioners and professionals, such as diplomats, former presidents and former AU Chairpersons and others have been presented and analyzed. The study found out that, Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063, is very relevant especially to the socio-economic development of the African continent, as it has the potential of making Africa a united and an influential global player. However, despite the relevance of Aspiration Seven, the study found out that the challenges facing the African Union in its bid to realize the Aspiration Seven of the Agenda 2063, are multifaceted and can be seen in the aspects of economic, political, socio-cultural and external factors. The study however revealed that the prospects of the Aspiration Seven are very bright, if the African Union would demonstrate the required commitment and zeal towards the realization of the Agenda 2063. The study concludes by indicating the possibility and the difficulty in achieving Aspiration Seven of the Agenda 2063 by the African Union. The study therefore gives various recommendations to the effect that, the African Union should put together a very strong economic team, who understand the African economic dynamics to offer valuable solutions to the African economic problem. The study recommends. among other things, that the African Union should put in place a very deterring sanction scheme that can help whip uncommitted member states into line for the realization of this important aspiration. vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study Continents all over the world have decided to form unions not only to engineer development in their various countries, but also to have a collective goal, of developing regionally and continent-wise. It is this motivation that has encouraged countries in Europe, for instance, to form the European Union (EU). The EU has chalked some notable successes over the years prominently among this include the establishment of their currency known as the Euro, which has affected global economic dynamics. Among the effects of the establishment of the Euro includes aiding the exchange of goods and services, promoting inter/intra state trade among member countries. It is, therefore, in the same spirit, that African countries saw the need to come together and form the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963 that was later transformed into the African 1 Union (AU). th The African Union was established in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia on the 26 of May 2001. It later came into being on 9th July, 2002 at a city in South Africa called Durban, (African Union, 2017). Currently, it consists of 55 African countries. The latest member state to rejoin the AU is Morocco in January 2017. Morocco joined the AU after withdrawing from the OAU initially in 1984. Their withdrawal was due to the AU accepting Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic as a member state. Until Morocco’s return to the AU, the AU consisted of all other African countries except Morocco. Burkina Faso and the Central African Republic have however been suspended from the Union due to the coup d'état and civil war that took place in both countries. The aim of the AU in totality is to spearhead wholesome integration and development of African countries on the global platform. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The African Union just like other similar unions across the world, since its formation has been confronted with a dossier of challenges ranging from issues such as lack of political commitment by member states, fear of loss of sovereignty, infrastructural challenges, and financial difficulties to other issues such as geographical challenges and other external 2 challenges such as foreign interferences. This notwithstanding, there are quite a considerable number of successes that the Union has been cloaked with, which are worth noting. The Organization of African Unity was able to organize member states well in fighting for their independence from colonial in the early years of the decolonization 3 process. The African Union later supported member states with military troops to curb political instability and other disturbances. Despite the above successes by the Union, it needs to ensure that it is more organized and strategized in order to contribute to the welfare of member states, as well as being in a good position, to play the role for which it 4 was formed. The AU has therefore set for itself several goals to achieve what would lead to the welfare of member states. Prominent among these goals coupled with aspirations of the African Union is the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. The Agenda 2063 is a framework designed with a strategy that seeks to unleash in Africa, a socio-economic transformation on the 5 African continent within the next 50 years. It seeks to continue and induce the implementation of past and existing African initiatives. This is intended to accelerate in 6 Africa, growth and sustainable development. This Agenda of the African Union, is in line with the general vision of the Union, which is to see “an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens and representing a dynamic force in the 7 International arena”. The Aspiration Seven of this Agenda submit that by 2063, Africa 8 would be seen as a “strong, united, resilient and influential global player and partner”. It is very clear that the realization of this agenda and aspiration would mean that, the African 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Union would rise above all the challenges it faces as a union and achieve its goals. It is, therefore, against this background that this study seeks to examine the challenges that the African Union faces vis-à-vis its ambition of realizing and achieving the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. 1.1 Problem Statement The AU’s Agenda 2063 was launched in 2013, by the African Heads of State and Government. This agenda ambitiously envisioned an action plan, intended to drive Africa's change, development, and transformation for the next 50 years. The first objective of the AU according to the Constitutive Act, is the drive for unity and this has always influenced AU’s initiatives. It is on this vein that Agenda 2063 incorporated again, the drive for continental unity in Aspiration Seven, which seeks to achieve ‘’an Africa as a strong, united, resilient and influential global player and partner’’. The question of how Africa can become influential as a global player and partner in the midst of the AU’s numerous challenges is mind boggling. Due to poverty, the AU continues to receive funds from foreign donors such as the European Union, the World Bank, USA, China just to mention a few, in other to operationalize most of its initiatives. Another challenge is the fact that Africa is known for the production of primary products, which are of less value making the continent reap relatively smaller gains in international trade. In terms of power politics, Africa is always at the periphery. Superpowers and intergovernmental organizations, such as the Bretton Woods institutions reserve the right to interfere in the affairs of African countries. Africa does not have any permanent member in the Security Council of the UN. Regardless of the rebranding of the OAU into the AU, the number one objective of the AU, that is, African unity, per the AU’s Constitutive Act, still remains unattainable. However, all of these challenges persist in the AU. The question 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that begs to be answered is how feasible, is the realization of Aspiration Seven of the AU’s Agenda 2063? There is no single panacea to Africa’s development, yet the assumption is that, if the AU will be resilient in achieving unity in Africa, to a large extent, the continent as a whole would progress as a global player and partner. It is, therefore, against this background that this study seeks to examine Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063, focusing on Africa’s quest for unity and becoming a global player. This study assesses the prospects of implementing Aspiration Seven of the Agenda 2063 amidst increased pressure for a holistic awakening to rebrand the future of the AU and adopt hopeful ideas for the 21st century in a globalized context. Finally, this research mainly assesses challenges that are usually identified with African developmental initiatives and how Africa can look into the future, by dealing with these challenges in order to achieve continental unity and the drive towards being a strong global partner and player. 1.2 Research Questions The following research questions are posed to help as a guide to achieve the research objectives set out for this study: 1. What is the relevance of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven to Africa? 2. What are the challenges facing the African Union with regards to the realization of the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven? 3. What are the successes of the African Union and the prospects in achieving the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven? 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Research Objectives The overall objective of this study is to examine the challenges and prospects of the African Union with regards to the realization of Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. Specifically, the study aims at achieving the objectives below: 1. To examine the relevance of the African Union’s Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven to Africa. 2. To examine the challenges of the African Union in achieving the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. 3. To explore the successes of the African Union and the prospects of Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. 1.4 Scope of Study This study is concerned with the African Union and its challenges with regards to the realization of Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. The study also covers the history of the formation of the African Union as well as the processes and the events that led to the setting up of Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. The study also covers the success and the prospects of the African Union, in achieving the Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven. 1.5 Hypothesis It is hypothesized that, the African Union is faced with daunting challenges that if not solved, would make it impossible to realize Agenda 2063, Aspiration Seven within the specified time. 1.6 Rationale of the Study The topic for this study is “The African Union and the Challenge of being a Strong, United, Resilient and Influential Global Player and partner (Agenda, 2063. Aspiration Seven)”, however, the study focuses on African unity and the quest for Africa to be a 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh global player. The rationale of this study is therefore based on the quest of Africa to become a global player since its early years of independence. The study recognizes the efforts that the African Union has been making over the years and still failed to catch the attention of the international community as one of the active global players. The study therefore finds it very imperative to examine the African Union and its quest of being a global player after more than fifty years of freedom from colonialism amidst the challenges in a globalized context, by specifically examining the Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063. 1.7 Justification of the Study African countries have similar challenges with development, hence, the desire for a united Africa as a major basis to create a self-inclusive environment for the continent’s development. The African Union over the years has adopted and implemented several policies and programmes as well as resolutions such as the Lagos Plan for Action, the Abuja Treaty, Africa’s Priority Programme for Economic Recovery (APPER), the Sirte Declaration, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and others, yet, there has not been any concrete success as far as seeing Africa as a united continent as well as a global player is concerned. Since the initial programmes have not chalked much success, this study examines what is new in this agenda that could make the difference. This study is, therefore, justified in the sense that, it examines the African Union and its quest to become a global player, by examining Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063. The study is also justified in the failures of previous efforts aimed at securing African unity and putting Africa in the limelight of global affairs. The study is also justified in its relevance, since it adds to the existing literature on the subject of unity in Africa, by delving into some of the reasons leading to why Africa’s influence has been stigmatized in the global arena. This research examines some perspectives held about the African continent and its 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influence as a global partner and as well suggests some recommendations to curb these challenges. The study will also help the academic fraternity, state actors and other international agencies to ascertain better, the experiences and importance of the African continent in the rightful context in analyzing global issues. 1.8 Limitations of Study The major limitation for this study was the availability of resource persons to interview, as well as having access to the few resource persons. Due to the caliber of people that constitute the target population for this study, it was very difficult to have a face to face interview with them due to their busy schedule. There is also the issue of available data from the various offices. However, though some of the challenges confronted by the researcher in the conduct of this research actually posed a hindrance to this research, serious and concerted efforts were made to ensure better responses and compliance from the respondents. Thus the aim of the researcher was satisfied. 1.9 Theoretical Framework This study is essentially grounded in one of the Regional integration theories called, Neo Functionalism. Babarinde in his refereed paper titled “Analyzing the Proposed African Economic Community: Lessons from the Experience of the European Union” observes that, the theory of Regional Integration is captured into three main theoretical underpinnings, that is the Federalist theory, the Functionalist theory and Neo 9 Functionalism. . According to Babarinde, the Federalist theory advocates for a strategy of integration, which requires that member countries agree to share part of their political power. Another theoretical strategy under regional integration as indicated by Babarinde, is the Functionalist Strategy of Regional Integration, which is more or less an opposite of the federalist strategy. According to this theory, countries would only need to come to an 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh agreement to cooperate with one another just so they could achieve a common goal and would not need to share their political power or sovereignty with the mother union. The last one is the Neo-Functionalist strategy, which scholars described as a “hybrid of the two models”. This theoretic strategy simply criticizes the federalist and the functionalist strategies and proposed that the two theories combined to meet a common ground, hence the main theory for this study is Neo Functionalism. The common ground that justifies the appropriateness of Neo Functionalism for this study is that, with Neo Functionalism, governments are able to control the integration process. This integration process tends to highlight inclusiveness by empowering supranational actors, transnational corporations as well as interest groups which is also needed in the African Union. According to Ben Rosamond who wrote extensively on the European Integration, the origin of this theory can be traced to the end of the Second World War, where there was a 10 proposition for the formation of the United States of Europe. According to Rosamond, this theory is best suited for situations where unity and consensus reaching is a big 11 problem. This theory is appropriate for this study again because, the African Union indeed has a problem in reaching unity. The AU, has been accused of not having any strong legal backing and as a result, it is just a toothless bulldog that lacks the ability to bite any of the member states that proves to be stubborn. The federal theory under the regional integration theory provides the African Union with the political and the legal power over its members. This would definitely make the African Union very powerful enough to champion the implementation of the Agenda, 2063 and achieve all the aspirations, especially the Aspiration Seven. Though the Federalist strategy of the Regional Integration theory has been criticized for asking for too much from nation states, since they would be sharing part of the sovereignty and political power, it still remains a very good choice for Africa because it obviously has the potential of not only improving 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the African identity, but it will also go a long way to integrate the continent for a strong and resilient political and military might. 1.10 Literature Review There are a great number of scholars writing on the underdevelopment and poverty on the continent as well as the urgent need for African countries to come together and against poverty. According to the United Nations most of the least developed countries are in 12 Africa. The level of underdevelopment in Africa keeps surging for the last quarter- 13 century. Meanwhile, it has been declining in the rest of the developing world like Asia. The African Union is a regional integration body aimed at helping the continent of Africa to resolve challenges. Many scholars have also written a lot on the formation of the African Union and its related issues. Sesay examines the formation of the African Union and pointed out certain issues that need attention, however, Sesay did not really tackle the challenges and achievements of the 14 organization, especially on its first objective of attaining continental unity. According to Thom -Otuya, African integration is vital because it creates the environment for democracy in Africa. It strengthens peace-building processes and also increases its military power to secure the continent. Again, it speeds up the entire development processes, and 15 boosts the survival of its member states in the community of nations. Even though, Thom-Otuya said little on what are the particular challenges the AU itself is facing in achieving integration and unity, his work hinted at the possible problems facing the 16 African Union and recommended some possible means by which they can be addressed. Okhonmina, in his study makes recommendations as to how Africa could face the challenges of an increasingly competitive world. The recommendations are that, Africa needs to be resilient in modern times, be vital and create a united Africa that is poised to 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 resist influence from the Western countries. In his work, he stressed that “the drive for unity in Africa will remain problematic if Africa perceives the platform of a common 18 alliance and desire it as an end in itself rather than a means to an end”. Succinctly, the African union has shown interest in the need for member states to join efforts in solving 19 African problems with indigenous or home grown African solutions. It is very clear that African countries over the years have established several strategies aimed at integrating them further. These efforts have been cushioned with some institutions and organisations. For instance, the relation between the AU and its Regional Economic Communities (RECs), is solidified with protocols to establish a smooth working relation among them. Salim in his work identifies that, one of the main reasons for which the African Union was 20 established, is the desire to enforce unity among African states and the people of Africa. Similarly, when the implementation of the Abuja Treaty was moving slowly, the AU’s 21 Constitutive Act was established to promote the whole integration process. It is, therefore, refreshing to see the African Union making very frantic efforts to alleviate poverty among its member countries. This notwithstanding, Reynolds, however, believes 22 that the challenge of unity in the AU stays the same. It is indeed real, that continental unity is slow because, AU member states inherently refuse to drop the issue of ‘sovereignty worshiping. Meanwhile, it is these same leaders that are advocating for a 23 ‘United States of Africa’. Africa’s status as a global player is delayed and the unity agenda is quite overdue, and this has been attributed to the existence of conflicts, increase in population growth, economic upheavals, diseases, political instability, poor governance, inefficient technocrats and corruption among others. Maimela is of the view that, a strong institutional structure, leadership and social agency are the three major dimensional and analytical frameworks that has the potential to curb 24 Africa’s predicaments. He goes further to add that, the European supremacy over the 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 African continent led to Africa’s destruction. Maimela advocates for an evolution in Africa, where the African continent will improve their competitiveness on the global 26 scene. According to Malberg, African leaders are to blame for the bad political and 27 economic governance in Africa. Maimela believes however, that indeed, some African countries suffered from colonialism, whilst other countries rather benefited from colonialism. However, all of these countries are in modern times, encrusted with 28 poverty. So then, the justification that colonialism led Africa into poverty is weak per his view. This notion is seconded by Taylor, who also rejects the notion that, colonialism and other historical factors contributed to the plights of Africa. Taylor accused the elites in 29 Africa as the cause of Africa’s woes. He also asserts that ‘’neopatrimonialism’’ and “malgovernance” are also contributing factors that undermine the continent’s 30 development. According to Moshi, one of the problems facing the AU against establishing unity is the 31 constant outbreak of wars and conflicts. In other to reduce insecurities that accrue from conflicts and wars and scourge the continent’s efforts towards developments, there must be some priority actions with short term benefits, like establishing an effective peace and security 32 council. According to Moshi, if successes could be chalked from the projects of the AU, then 33 it lies mainly in the hands of the head of states and governments of the member states. Head 34 of states should be willing to share some amount of sovereignty in key areas of law making. 35 There should be economic measures to guard financial and economic convergence. These concerns raised by Moshi are all attainable if there is unity in the African Union, which Moshi did not highlight. This study attempts to give recommendations as to how the AU shall curb its challenge of attaining unity. The way forward in awakening the African status as an influential global partner and player has been suggested by different different scholars. Example, Ndikumana, posits that 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Africa is wholly marginalized on the global scene; hence Africa needs to be integrated into 36 the global economy in other to reap a reasonable amount of growth. This claim is also supported by basically two arguments raised from the works of Ng and Yeats. First and foremost, they believe that trade was essential to industrialization and growth, secondly, that low economic performance is as a result of high domestic trade barriers adopted by 37 countries. However, Africa especially Sub- Saharan Africa would have benefited from trade if it pursues less oppressive governance and trade liberalization. Just like other scholars believe, Africa is not developing because it has not well integrated into the global 38 economy as far as international trade is concerned. This concept could work for some countries but what Ndikumana and Ng and Yeats, may have highlighted is the fact that, perhaps as this prescription may become globally appreciated, the prospect is that, the nature of global economic integration and trade is as a matter of fact, implemented by some sine qua non forces such as efficient communication, able source of power, 39 technological advancement, just to mention but a few. These afore mentioned forces must also be backed by the political will from African countries, but in reality this political will is very low. The onus lies in the hands of African countries, to exhibit readiness in participating on fair grounds, in international trade, exporting of human and capital resources, all in the quest to tap from global economic trade. African states ought to assess the benefits in participating in global trade as well as economic integration before any indulgence. This is necessary because, participating in the global economy is no more at the verge of force. Again, there are some fundamental forces that are influencing global economic integration, coupled with the assurance of moving the world towards a desirable economic development in future. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again, Nwankwo, argues that Africa has predominantly being at the receiving end of global politics and that, this subjugation has fused into the continent’s internal and external 40 politics. To him, the true state of affairs on the global scene is that, least developed 41 countries have less influence on the global scene. As a result of this subordination, there is a conscious effort by the external forces to prevent Africa escaping from the vicious cycle of poverty (For mercantilist purposes). He goes further to state that, the traces of 42 negative attitude of African leaders are traits inherited from their colonial masters. For Nwankwo, Africa needs to break their dependence on external sources to help run their 43 governance. His advice is that, the solutions to end this dependence are all to be found 44 within the continent of Africa. The submissions he puts across is that, African leaders must develop developmental schemes that better fits the African conditions rather than trying to accord with external developmental schemes that mostly do not fit into Africa’s 45 conditions. These arguments were also affirmed by Easterly, where he explained how the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are poorly and indiscriminately fashioned, as a standard to measure progress against poverty and deprivation. The way the MDGs were fashioned 46 were such that, they were design to make Africa look worse than it really is. Furthermore, these submissions by Nwankwo are but an excuse, for most African leaders and writers to justify their current state of poverty. Perhaps, there must be a new era where Africa will realize the past accusations should remain in the past and that, it is about time that African countries put their differences aside and appreciate the beauty of their diversity and history by uniting as a continent. This continental unity was also possible from the European Coal and Steel community, now transitioned into the European Union, perhaps the most effective continental organization in this contemporary time. This 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh historical trajectory of the European Union do well to emphasis the strength in unity as a continent towards a particular goal, which this study seeks to advocates. Nikwane also add to the argument of the place of Africa in global politics that, the African 47 continent is ignored in International Relations (IR) as an academic discourse. She based her argument on power dynamics within the discipline to explain the relegation of the 48 African continent, just as it is posited by the realist school of thought. This is a unique concern when it comes to Africa’s marginalization in the global context such that, it veer into a different mode of argument where Africa’s marginalization is also depicted in 49 academia, unlike other arguments that are mostly African history related. However, it would have been prudent if she expatiated what entails in her context of power dynamics. She did not explain what constitutes her notion of power in international relations. Writers like Mbeki and Hagen explained that there are no non international relations theories (IRT) because, among their numerous views discussed, ‘’ the Western IRT has discovered the right path to comprehend international relations so as to preclude the need 50 for other voices’’. Some of the African perspective in response to this claim is that of Mbeki, he observed that: Bringing Africa into IR cannot be simply a question of ‘add Africa and stir’, as the continent does not enter the discipline as a neutral object of study. Instead, it is already over determined and embedded within the politics and structure of values of the academe, which are in turn influenced 51 in complex ways by changing geopolitics. He suggested that, ‘’an assemblage approach’’ in studying the African continent at the same time by laying emphasis on the continent's politics and social interactions or makeup 52 as both unique and global, is ideal. This holistic and mutual efforts, coined in his tone as ‘’an assemblage approach’’ is what this study aims to project as a recommendation for the African continent in achieving unity. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ndikumana again asserts that, Africa is deeply relegated as a global player and for Africa to experience growth on the global scene it must pursue an agenda of integrating into the 53 global economy. To him, slave trade and colonialism were means to integrate the 54 continent into the global sphere in an exploitative way. In contemporary times, 55 globalization is the process of integration which he describes as more gloomy. He stated that, globalization favours the developed countries and impoverishes less developed countries. This is partly because, western countries prescribes conditionality for Africans 56 that are not even implemented in the western countries. Again he sees the constant migration of the able African youth labour into the developed countries as severe threats 57 on African economies. From the above submissions raised by Ndikumana, there is a gap in highlighting those agents in Africa that serve as a link to perpetuate this repugnant exploitation in Africa by the western countries. These agents are the ‘’Comprados bourgeoisies’’ as called by the dependency theory advocates. They comprise of a small group of elites in the third world countries (less developed) that collaborates with the elites of the metropole (developed countries) to perpetuate the status quo for their selfish 58 gains. This is simply through bribery and corruption in Africa that requires a radical move to be discarded as a continent that aspires to be a strong global partner. The literature reviewed above contributes to this study because, it is very clear that the various scholars have actually tackled the place of African Union in Africa’s continental unity and global politics. The literature has also emphasized on Africa’s need to unite and become a strong global player. One thing that features prominently in all the literature reviewed above, is the very important gap of investigating the specific challenges that are confronting the African Union, especially in continental unity and global competitiveness, and also attempts to activate measures to achieve the theme stipulated by Agenda, 2063, Aspiration Seven. It is therefore this literature gap that this study seeks to fill. This study is 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh principally aimed at not only examining the role of the AU in fostering unity in Africa, the challenges it faces in this quest, the success stories of the AU in attaining unity, but the study is also aim at specifically exploring the main challenges that confront the African Union and how it relates to achieving the Agenda, 2063, Aspiration Seven. 1.11 Methodology and Sources of Information This study uses both primary and secondary data. Primary data was obtained from sampled respondents, using unstructured interviews as an instrument of data collection. Unstructured interviews were conducted for the primary data collection in other to probe further in the interview. A sample size of about twelve respondents was chosen because of their expertise in relation to the topic. A snowball approach was employed for a purposive sampling for individuals suggested by experts to respond to the interviews on this topic. Respondents included His Excellencies John Agyekum Kufuor and John Jerry Rawlings who are both former president of Ghana and former Chairmen of the AU, Prof. Kwame Boafo-Arthur, Dr Charles Amo Agyeman and Dr Rosina Foli, all of University of Ghana Political Science Department, Mr Sabastian Beliwine: Acting Director of African Relation Bureau of Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration in Ghana and Ambassador Albert Yankey, Chief Director of Ghana’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, Mr. Seth Osei Akoto, Acting Director of Crops Services at Ghana’s Ministry for Agriculture. Mr. Daniel Mensah, an Agric-Officer at Ghana’s Ministry for Agriculture, Dr. Yao Graham: Head of Third world Network Africa, Mr. Gmayi Nsuiban, Public Relation Officer at Ghana Museums and Monuments Board, Prof. Henry Wellington of University of Ghana Archaeology Department, were all consulted to tap their knowledge on this study. A qualitative research analysis was adopted for the content analysis which was basically narrative and interpretative. The Secondary sources for this study include published and unpublished literature, obtained from libraries, internet sources and other 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sources such as academic journals. All the information obtained from these secondary sources are reviewed and analyzed accordingly. 1.12 Organization of the Study This study is organized into four chapters; 1. Chapter one constitutes the introduction. 2. Chapter two is the road map to Agenda 2063. 3. Chapter three focuses on the challenges and prospects of the African Union in achieving Aspiration Seven of Agenda 2063. This chapter responds to the research objectives. 4. Chapter four provides the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations to the study 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Endnotes 1 Hilary Kipkurui kibet (2009): A Comparison of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) And African Union (Au) Management of Conflicts in the Horn of African, Master’s Thesis submitted to the University of Nairobi Kenya. 2 Alhaji Ahmadu Ibrahim (2016): African Union and the Challenges of Underdevelopment in Contemporary Africa: British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science 14(4): 1-10, 2016, Article no. BJESBS.23488 ISSN: 2278-0998 3 Ibid 4 Jeannine Ella Adénikè Abatan (2015) Challenges facing the African Union (AU) in the implementation of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P): a case study of the 2010/2011 intervention in Côte d’Ivoire, Master’s thesis submitted to the department of Political Studies, University of Pretoria, South Africa 5 African Union Commission (2015), Agenda, 2063 Final edition published in 2015 ISBN: 978-92-95104- 23-5 6 Ibid 7 The African Union Commission (2016), The Africa We Want, Agenda 2063, General Briefing Kid 8 Ibid 9 Babarinde, O.A. (1996). “Analyzing the Proposed African Economic Community: Lessons from the Experience of the European Union” Third ECSA-World Conference on The European Union in a Changing World, Brussels, Belgium, 19-20 September. 10 Ben Rosamond (2000): Theories of European Integration: London, Macmillan [ 1 1 Ibid 12 The African Union Commission (2016), The Africa We Want, Agenda 2063, General Briefing Kid 1 3 Ibid 14 Sesay, A. (2008). The African Union: Forward March or about face turn? Claude Ake Memorial Papers. 15 Thom-Otuya, B.E.N. (2014). Strengthening African Union for African Integration: An African Scholars Perspective. African Research Review. 16 Ibid 17 Okhonmina, S. (2009). The African Union: Pan-Africanist Aspirations and the Challenge of African Unity. The Journal of Pan African Studies, 3 (4) 18 Ibid 1 9 Ibid 20 Salim, S (2001) Report of the Secretary General on the Implementation of the Sirte Decision on the African Union. EAHG/DEC.19 (V), Lusaka, Zambia, 2-7 July 2 1 Ibid 22 Reynolds, P. (2002). African Union replaces Dictator’s club. BBC News World Edition. Retrieved from news.bbc.co.uk/a/hi/Africa/2115736.stm 23 Ibid 24 Maimela, D. (2007). Pan-Africanism of the 21st Century – Challenges and Prospects 25 Ibid 2 6 Ibid 2 7 Malberg, B. (2017) Demography and the development potential of sub Saharan Africa. 2 8 Ibid 29 Taylor, I. (2004). Blind Spots in Analyzing Africa’s Place in World Politics. Global Governance. Vol.10, No.4. 3 0 Ibid 31 Moshi, H. E. (2013). Organization of African Unity/African Union and the Challenges of Realizing Its Objectives. 3 2 Ibid 3 3 Ibid 34 Ibid 3 5 Ibid 36 Ndikumana, L. (2015). Integrated Yet Marginalized: Implications of Globalization for African D evelopment. African Studies Review, Vol.58, No.2, September 2015 37 Ng, F., Yeats, A. (1998). Good Governance and Trade Policy; Are They the Keys to Africa's Global I ntegration and Growth? The World Bank. Washington DC. 3 8 Ibid 39 Ibid 4 0 Nwankwo, O. B. C. (2013). Africa in Contemporary World Politics : The Dynamics and Effects of Domination. Developing Countries Studies. Vol.3. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ibid 41 Ibid 42 Ibid 43 Ibid 44 Ibid 4 5 (Easterly, W. (2007) How the millennium development goals is unfair to Africa). 46 Nikwane, T. C. (2010). Africa and International Relations : Regional Lessons for a Global Discourse. International Political Science Review. Vol. 22 4 7 Ibid 4 8 Ibid 49 Hagen, R. J. (2002) Marginalization in the context of globalization 50 Mbeki T. (2002). Launch of the African Union, 9 July 2002: Address by the chairperson of the AU, th President Thabo Mbeki. ABSA Stadium, Durban, South Africa. Retrieved 16 October, 2015 from http://www.au2002.gov.za/docs/speeches/mbek097a.htm 5 1 Ibid 52 Ndikumana, L. (2015). Integrated Yet Marginalized: Implications of Globalization for African Development. African Studies Review, Vol.58, No.2, September 2015 53 Ndikumana, L. (2015). Integrated Yet Marginalized: Implications of Globalization for African Development. African Studies Review, Vol.58, No.2, September 2015 5 4 Ibid 5 5 Ibid 5 6 Ibid 57 Ndikumana, L. (2015). Integrated Yet Marginalized: Implications of Globalization for African Development. African Studies Review, Vol.58, No.2, September 2015 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO THE ROAD MAP TO AGENDA 2063 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents a historical account of the efforts made in Africa towards uniting the continent as well as ensuring that Africa is resilient, strong and united in order to become recognizable global player in contemporary times. The chapter traces the circumstances that led to the adoption of the Agenda 2063 by the African Union, by first of all recognizing the fact that, there have been many efforts demonstrated by African leaders towards ensuring that the continent is seen as a global player over the years. These efforts comprised of various resolutions, declarations, agreements and formations of continental bodies with the aim of galvanizing unity in order to ensure economic and political development in Africa. The chapter therefore traces efforts such as the formation of the Organization of African Unity, the Lagos Plan for Action, the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights drafted in 1981; (Priority Programme for Economic Recovery :APPER) in 1985, which was formed to address the emerging crisis of the 1980s; The Treaty Establishing the African Economic Community (EAC), known as the Abuja Treaty, in 1991; The Sirte Declaration of 1999; The 2000 Solemn Declaration on security, stability, development and cooperation of the African continent; The AU’s, New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) in 2000; and The AU Constitutive Act of 2001, forming the African Union in 2002, all leading to the promulgation of the Agenda 2063. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1 The Formation of the Organization of African Unity At the eve of decolonization in Africa, various local anti-colonial alliances and groups as well as regional pressure groups began to spring up with the aim of resisting colonial rule and liberating their respective countries from colonial domination. Few of the African states actually got their political independence with the help of these pressure groups. However, many of the African states were yet to gain their independence from European imperialism. It was quiet obvious that Africans needed to be united if the continent wanted to liberate all African countries from colonial domination. There was therefore, the need for the formation of a continental body that could regulate and coordinate activities to 1 make sure that the rest of Africa was liberated from colonial subjugation. It was therefore against this background that the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was formed on the th 2 25 of May, 1963, in Addis Ababa, with thirty-two signatory governments. In 1963, African countries that had newly gain independent joined the OAU by signing the Charter of the OAU in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This was a holistic effort, made by African states to release the continent from the bondage of colonialism. In the end, all of these efforts were meant to bring the people of Africa much closer together as a continent. An attempt to comprehend the key issues that led to the formation of the OAU is vital. This understanding will contribute to the reasons why the OAU failed in integrating Africa and 3 achieving the developmental aspirations for which it was created. The objectives of the OAU among others were; to eradicate all forms of colonialism and white majority rule on the African continent; to coordinate and heighten the integration process of African states. This is because, integration is a means to achieve a desirable life for the African people. It also had the potential of strengthening the defense of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of African states. Again, this cooperation was a means to an end, where there was be progressive African development 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh efforts to free the continent from chronic underdevelopment. Indeed, the way forward for the eradication of underdevelopment in Africa is the promotion of economic development 4 of the various member states of the AU. According to Kumar, the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), epitomized the demonstration of grave Pan-African concern to the security and unity of African people with the sole aim of securing African 5 states. The coming into existence of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was just a perfect illustration and registration of African abhorrence and résistance to the external domination as well as an outstanding depiction of the fact that Africans can join hands and show strong commitment in realizing the “African solutions for African problems” mantra 6 that was being sang by many African leaders at the time. There is therefore no disputing the outstanding reality that the Organization of African Unity had played a very significant role not only in the liberation of many African countries from colonial domination, but 7 also in helping to ensure African unity and common identity as a continent. However, it has been scholarly established that the OAU was not able to live up to expectation as far as putting the African continent into the limelight of global recognition and as equal players in international poltics and economics. Contemporary scholars such as Abubakar, and Moller, have mentioned the fact that the Organization of African Unity (OAU) was found to be very inefficient and insufficient in addressing the many and diverse challenges that confronted the continent especially when it came to ensuring that there was peace and security as well as unity and economic development in the continent 8 as a whole as well as preventing internal conflicts within countries on the continent. The main challenge that confronted the OAU was that, in spite of the fact that, African policy makers embraced the idea of African unity at the initial stages of the OAU, they 10 lacked a continental consensus on how to attain it. The differences of view led to 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh institutional form where one group met in Casablanca in January 1961⎯ that is the Casablanca Group and the other group, also met in Monrovia ⎯ known as the Monrovia 11 Group to discuss their view on what should connote unity in Africa. Though the groups agreed on the idea of unity and the need for African states to act together as confederates, their differences were basically on how to approach the issue. The Casablanca Group for instance, proposed and established an African Consultative Assembly, for which every African state was to be present. However, the Monrovia group suggested an African social 12 solidarity and identity engulfed with unified aspirations and actions. These were undoubtedly two different views towards the attainment of continental unity. This was one of the main challenges that impeded the OAU from its functions because, the division 13 represented a large negative agreement. One of the main issues that remained key, in the agenda at the first Summit of African Heads of states in Addis Ababa, in 1963 was the issue of economic cooperation and integration. This discussion pended till the 1979 summit that was held in Monrovia. It was at this summit when the leaders intensely 14 discussed and agreed on a consensus in a form a Common African Market (CAM). 2.2 The Lagos Plan of Action (LPA), in 1980 Another major effort that was made towards ensuring unity, togetherness and a common purpose in Africa after the summit in Monrovia in 1979 was the detailed discussion that evolved in 1980 at a Summit in Lagos, Nigeria, which later birthed a new African initiative called the Lagos Plan of Action (LPA). Patrick Kimunguyi, asserted that ‘’the LPA provided a more streamlined framework of action towards the achievement of economic 15 integration on the African continent.’’ African governments devoted themselves to advance economic and social development. Also, were the commitments, geared towards the integration of African economies just so they could promote African productivity and 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 self-sustained development of the continent. According to Mzukisi Qobo, this plan – The Lagos Plan of Action, envisaged that, through Regional Economic Communities, chronic 17 challenges of poverty and underdevelopment would be eliminated. According to the Lagos Plan of Action, under food and Agriculture, the plan advocated adopting the following measures: 1. Increase production in food crops, livestock and fisheries 2. Forest production 3. Agricultural Research 4. Agricultural extension services 5. Agricultural Services 6. Harnessing Agricultural resources 7. Implementation and monitoring of all proposed programs Under industry, the plan advocated for the establishment of the following industries throughout Africa: (i) ‘’food and agro-industries’’ (ii) ‘’building industries’’ (iii) ‘’metallurgical industries’’ (iv) ‘’mechanical industries’’ (v) ‘’electrical and electronic industries’’ (vi) ‘’chemical industries’’ (vii) ‘’forest industries’’ (viii) ‘’energy industry’’ The plan also advocated increasing development in both mineral and human resources with the aim of exporting African human resources to other parts of the globe, 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development in transport and communication sector, investing in science and technology, increasing trade and finance, by establishing an African Monetary Fund, African Mutual Guarantee and Solidarity Fund and the strengthening of the African Development Bank. The LPA also drew some modalities for the implementation of the plan in every aspect of the measures adopted and incorporated into the plan. However, the Lagos Plan of Action, did not see any dramatic success as African leaders have been accused by scholars such as Endalcachew Bayeh and Kumah of just paying lip service to African unity and not showing any practical efforts towards the executing of the 18 LPA. While scholars such as Adebayor Adedeji, think that, some of the recommendations in the LPA have been fully implemented with others not fully implemented, others think otherwise. For instance, according to Adebayor, one remarkable aspect where there has been some considerable success operationalizing the LPA as in institution-building. Although the targets submitted in the Plan have not entirely been met due to financial challenges on the part of member states, yet, a reasonable number of the 19 targets were achieved. A number of scholars such as Cervenka, Zdenek Siradag, and Abdurrahim, have blamed the failure of African leaders to properly implement the Lagos Plan Action on the many 20 challenges confronting the African Continent. According to these scholars, it is clear that the monumental challenges facing the African continent are the reasons why some of these effective efforts towards uniting Africa for a common purpose such as the Lagos Plan for 21 Action, are not able to achieve their core objectives. Other efforts towards African unity such as ‘’The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights drafted in 1981, Priority Programme for Economic Recovery (APPER) in 1985’’, which was formed to address the rising crisis of the 1980s are also worthy of mentioning 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as far as efforts demonstrated by African leaders to ensure rapid socio-economic development of the African Continent as well as ensuring that Africa is a global player is concerned. However, it is clear that, all these efforts are not entirely sufficient in addressing the numerous socio-economic challenges that have bedeviled the African continent. 2.3 The Abuja Treaty of 1991 Again, as part of efforts to ensure that Africa is united and positioned for a common purpose of continental prosperity and development, in June 1991, the African Economic Community (AEC) was adopted, and what was meant to connote its component was adopted at the next summit in Abuja, Nigeria. This was not so different an initiative, but an updated and corrected edition of the Lagos Plan. This was a very important initiative as it painted a new epoch of reform within the OAU as an institution. According to Kimunguyi, the Treaty of Abuja came along with a long process that had 22 begun in Monrovia in 1979. He added that, it marked the initial functional reform that was purposely adopted to bring a considerable amount of change. This change was targeted in the dimension of the OAU’s quest to unleash economic cooperation and integration in Africa. The AEC was also a sign of devotion of African states and governments to adopt an economic structure in Africa. The AEC was established for coordinate and harmonize economic cooperation among the various RECs. It became effective since May 1994. Since then, the AEC has been operating closely with sub- regional groups. It has been working with the sub regional groups in search of ways towards achieving its aspirations. Some of the examples of these sub-regional groups in Africa include the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), Common Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), Economic Community of Central 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh African States and Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) and the East African Community. The Abuja Treaty to a very large extent did achieve most of its objectives, as it was able to ensure the establishment of the African Economic Community, however, it is obvious, that the Abuja Treaty, is not sufficient to ensure that all Africa countries come together to integrate their economies in the areas of trade and general economic development. There are still several trade barriers and restrictions which pose serious challenges to economic 23 integration and by extension, continental unity and development in Africa. 2.4 The Sirte Declaration of 1999 th African leaders demonstrated another notable effort towards continental unity, on the 9 of September 1999. This happened at the fourth Extraordinary Session of the OAU Assembly of African Heads of State and Government, organized at Sirte, in Libya. The Organization of African Unity adopted a new resolution to undertake certain actions that would be crucial to the economic growth of the African continent. It was resolved at the Sirte Declaration that the following actions should be taken:  ‘’The establishment of the African Union (AU)’’  ‘’Speed up the implementation of the provisions of the Abuja Treaty, to create an  African Economic Community, African Central Bank’’  ‘’Establishment of African Monetary Union’’  ‘’Establishment of African Court of Justice’’  ‘’Establishment of Pan-African Parliament, with the Parliament to be established  by 2000’’ 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  ‘’Prepare a Constitutive Act of the African Union that can be ratified by 31  December 2000 and become effective the following year’’  ‘’Give President Abdelaziz Bouteflika of Algeria and President Thabo Mbeki of South Africa a mandate to negotiate for the cancellation of the African  indebtedness’’  ‘’Convene an African Ministerial Conference on security, stability, development  and co-operation’’ To a very large extent the Sirte Declaration of 1999 actually achieved almost all of its objectives. However, some of the dates given for the achievement were not met. After the Sirte Declaration was a summit at Lomé, Togo in 2000. It was during this summit that the Constitutive Act of the African Union was fledged. It also here that the plan on how to operationalize African Union was established. In Durban on 9 July 2002, the initial session of the Assembly of the African Union was held. The Pan-African Parliament’s inaugural session was also held in March 2004. However, there was still the need to take other equally important steps towards the realization of African Unity. 2.5 The African Union and NEPAD African leaders, realizing of the failures of the Organization of African Unity, proposed at the Sirte Declaration of 1999, at the fourth session of the OAU, the formation of a new continental body with a new direction of fostering unity among African countries as well as ensuring economic and social development of the continent. This new continental body was given the name, - African Union (AU). Scholars such as Kimunguyi observed that the failure of the OAU to integrate and unite Africa and the challenges of globalization and marginalization of Africa merely re-activated the call and desire for integration and unity 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 by transforming the OAU to AU in 2002. As part of giving the African Union a new mandate and direction that was different from the OAU, the African Union adopted a comprehension programme with the name – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). At this juncture, it is also prudent to briefly examine the developmental goals for which NEPAD was adopted. NEPAD had a vision of fundamental policy and governance reforms in African. This was a means to bring about significant development aid from the 25 multilateral and bilateral donors. NEPAD gained an affirmation by African governments. This affirmation translates that, these governments had a role to avert 26 underdevelopment and work towards sustainable development. It established a threshold 27 of about seven percent annual economic growth as an objective towards that end. All these objectives of NEPAD were aimed at ensuring that, Africa becomes a very active global player as far as economic development is concerned. However, despite the adoption of NEPAD by the African Union, Africa still records daunting developmental drawbacks. Economic growth “is still far below what is needed to meet the millennium development goal (MDG) of reducing poverty by half by the year 2015.” Most states in sub-Saharan Africa for instance, the level of adult literacy “stands 28 well below the developing–country average”. AIDS is taking lives and this negatively affects life expectancy of many Africans. Clearly, Africa is still yet to achieve its long time aim of being recognized as an important global player. According to United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2011)’s paper on the African Union – one of the main challenges facing the AU is the fact that there are about 54 sovereign states in Africa with a diverse of economic, social policies and languages at 29 different levels. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ordinarily, each African state has four states as neighbours. Again, 15 African countries 31 are landlocked on the average. Economic integration would translate into small economic units, as they will gain from the scale created by unified markets. Economic integration also seeks to improve resilience by leveraging on comparative advantages to 32 respond to individual vulnerabilities. It is factual that African states trade very little among themselves. This scanty trade among African states could be as a result of geographical balkanization. By 2009, intra-African trade was 10 percent. This is comparatively small with other regions such as North America (22 percent) and Asia (50 33 percent). There are several reasons contributing to this meager share of intra-African trade. In accordance with the objectives of the AU, is to avert some of the contributing factors to the undesirable intra African trade. As part of the contributing factors to this challenge in Africa has been a colonial trade system fashioned to take away resources from Africa to Europe. Africa also faces lower diversified economies that produce almost same products. There are also several pending old trade policy reforms. Africa also faces poor intra-African infrastructure network. Last but not the least is a limited access to finance 34 and regional payment mechanisms. Alemayehu Geda and Haile Kibret identified Poor Private Sector Participation in the integration processes as a very serious challenge for the AU. To the extent that implementation of the objectives and vision of the AU needs a mutual comprehension including both the public and private sector. This also requires a strong believe, and assurance in the private sector to deliver. This will require an active involvement of the private sector more especially and the general public at large on crucial developmental 35 initiatives. This part of the regional integration process in Africa has been tagged as one 36 of the major deficiencies of the initiative. Country level studies in SADC and COMES depicts that, the involvement of the private sector is handicapped by lack of government 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resources to aid full participation. Also, when some resource is secured, the participation is 37 limited at the level of the chamber of commerce officials. Moreover, lack of sufficient knowledge to utilize existing information at the level of private sector associations is also 38 noted as great challenge. In an attempt to avert this will require establishing specific government structures. These structures would be tasked to promoting and administering economic integration at a country level (as some countries – Burkina Faso, Senegal, Ghana, and Nigeria and few others- have done). This would not only depict devotion of 39 these countries but also improve the efficiency of operationalizing these policies. Despite all these impressive attempts towards Regional Integration in Africa through the formation of the OAU, the LPA, the APPER, the Abuja Treaty, the Sirte Declaration, the African Union and NEPAD, scholars such as Jaime de Melo and Yvonne Tsikata, indicated that critical issues such as the continent’s size, countries’ sizes, remoteness, uneven distribution of natural resources, and associated rents continue to hinder the set objectives of AU. These critical issues were not conceived in the evaluations of the initial 40 wave of attempts in uniting Africa and enhancing economic growth. Meanwhile the diagnosis of Africa’s lower performance was changing from a discussion of external 41 versus internal challenges towards African continent. It is in this context that “effective regional integration plan, with the aim of uniting all African countries together for a common purpose, has a major role to play in helping African countries address these and st 42 other common concerns in the 21 century’’. In the light of this, the African Union, in 2013 adopted yet another bold and commendable resolution to implement what it called the - Agenda 2063, with seven aspirations. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Agenda 2063 of the African Union As usual, due to the desire of African leaders to respond to contemporary challenges confronting the African continent, coupled with failure of previous policies to achieve certain specific objectives of the African Union, Africa’s political leadership, acknowledging the need for a more positive outlook and to overcome the challenges of the st 21 century, in May 2013 rededicated itself to the continent’s socio-economic and political 43 transformation. The 21st Ordinary Session of the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the AU therefore requested the elaboration of a 50-year framework, namely Agenda 2063, founded on the AU vision of “an integrated, prosperous and peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens and representing a dynamic force in the 44 international arena.” This agenda came very timely when the AU was celebrating the 50 years of the OAU-AU. Agenda 2063 framework was adopted at the 24th Summit of the AU in January 2015. The Framework document is organized into three parts and presented in six chapters as follows: Part one is “The Vision”, which contains the context, challenges and opportunities for 45 achieving Agenda 2063. This constitutes Chapters one to three. Chapter one situates Agenda 2063 in the historical context of Pan Africanism. It also situates African 46 Renaissance and the struggle for self-determination and economic independence. Chapter two contains “The Vision and African Aspirations” for 2063 which portrays a detailed picture of where Africa would like to be in 2063 when the continent will be celebrating the centenary of the founding of the OAU. Comprehensive Situational Analysis, as contained in Chapter three, examines the trends, challenges and opportunities in the political, economic, social and cultural fields and highlights key issues to be 47 addressed. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Part two contains “The Transformation Framework” outlining the Agenda 2063 goals, priority areas, targets and indicative strategies contained in Chapter four while Chapter five presents the critical success factors, risks and mitigating strategies. Chapter five also 48 entails global megatrends likely to impact Africa’s future. Finally, part three “Making it Happen” involves implementation, monitoring and evaluation arrangements. It further expantiates financing, communication strategy and capacity for implementation. This is contained in the sixth and final chapter. African heads of state and government committed themselves to eight key priority areas: “African identity and renaissance, the continued struggle against colonialism and the right to self-determination, continental integration, social and economic development and transformation, peace and security, democratic governance, determining Africa’s destiny, 49 and fostering Africa’s place in the world.” Out of these eight key priority areas came the 50 seven aspirations as contained in Agenda 2063. The seven aspirations are: 1. ‘’A prosperous Africa based on inclusive growth and sustainable development’’ 2. ‘’An integrated continent, politically united, based on the ideals of Pan-Africanism and the vision of Africa’s renaissance’’ 3. ‘’An Africa of good governance, democracy, respect for human rights, justice, and the rule of law’’ 4. ‘’A peaceful and secure Africa’’ 5. ‘’An Africa with strong cultural identity, common heritage, values, and ethics’’ 6. ‘’An Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children’’. 51 7. Africa as a strong, united, and influential global player and partner 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The aspirations reflect the desire of Africans for prosperity and well-being. It further looks at unity and integration, for a continent whose citizens are free. It incorporates expanded horizons with freedom from conflict and improved human security, for a passionate identity, culture and values, as well as a resilient and influential player on the global stage. This will mean Africa will be making equal and respected contributions to human progress 52 and welfare. The objective of Agenda 2063 is to boost Africa’s growth trajectory over the next 50 years, benefiting from lessons learnt over the last 50 years. Agenda 2063 is described as “a 53 global strategy to optimize use of Africa’s resources for the benefits of all Africans” and as “an approach to how the continent should effectively learn from lessons of the past, build on the progress now underway and strategically exploit all possible opportunities available in the immediate and medium term, so as to ensure positive socioeconomic 54 transformation within the next 50 years.” As both a vision and an action plan, Agenda 2063 vehemently calls for Africa’s “positive socioeconomic transformation.” Agenda 2063’s vision is comprehensive, entailing issues of identity and self-determination. It also looks at political independence, and socio-economic development in a globalized 55 context. A major success factor for Agenda 2063 will demand the involvement of multiple stakeholder groups at all stages. This also requires a result-based approach with measurable objectives. These objectives ought to cover the right set of African values in line with the African Renaissance. Again the objectives must suggest the transformation of 56 attitudes, values, and mind sets. According to Arowolo, AU Agenda 2063 was envisioned as a driving force for the 57 transformation of Africa by Africans and African institutions. He posits that Agenda 2063 seeks to serve as a platform on which Africa will launch its development agenda and 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh secondly “inspire African countries to continue emphasizing the themes of solidarity and 58 collaboration that helped the continent emerge from colonial domination.” Bujra argue that Agenda 2063, unlike other policies has a more detailed plan that consist 59 of specific targets, goals and priorities as spelt out in the various aspirations. He posits that, there are challenging goals but they are as well achievable and relevant to the needs 60 of Africa. DeGhetto et al argue that, the main purpose of Agenda 2063 is to secure three 61 ideals. These three ideals are unity, prosperity and peace for all citizens of Africa. According to the African Union Commission, Agenda 2063 is a product of the th 62 “Constitutive Act, the AU vision and the 50 Anniversary solemn declaration.” It seeks to enhance development on the grounds. The Agenda 2063 is expected to unite and 63 integrate Africans to realise their full potential. This is believed to be the panacea through which Africa can be strong, resilient and powerful global player. This study is therefore concerned with the Aspiration Seven of the Agenda 2063 which is aimed at ensuring that Africa is seen ‘’as a strong, united, and influential global player and partner’’. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Endnotes 1 Ajala A., “Background to the OAU” Nigerian Journal of International Affairs Vol. 14, No.1, p.36. (1988) 2 Ibid 3 Ibid 4 Ibid 5 Kumar M. (2008); “The African Union: Its Contribution to Conflict Resolution”, A Journal of International Affairs 64:106-137 6 Cervenka, Zdenek. (1977.), The Unfinished Quest For Unity: Africa and the OAU, London: Julian F riedmann Publishers Ltd, 7 Siradag, Abdurrahim. (2012) “African Regional and Sub-Regional Organisations’ Security Policies: Challenges and Prospects”. Journal of Academic Inquiries 2012; 7(2):231-255. 8 Schoeman, Maxi 2003. The African Union after the Durban 2002 Summit [online]. Available at