University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE “BIG SWITCH”; PLASTICS TO PAPER. GHANA’S LONG ECO JOURNEY: CHALLENGES, PROSPECTS AND OPPORTUNITIES. BY AWO AFUA YEBOAH (10301656) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON FEBRUARY 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Daniel DramaniKipo-Sunyehzi. All sources referred to in the study have duly been acknowledged and that no part of it has been submitted anywhere else for any other purpose. ………………………………….. …………………………………… AWO A. YEBOAH DR. DANIEL D. KIPO - SUNYEHZI (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE:………………………….. DATE:………………………………. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated first of all to God Almighty for His infinite favour and grace over my life throughout my academic pursuits. Also I dedicate it to my daughter Anika Yeboah Asante, whom I had while pursuing this degree. To my sister Dr. Abena Odurowaa Yeboah and my amazing mother Mrs. Joyce Egyir-Danso for their love and support. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I give thanks to God Almighty for seeing me through this journey. Also I would like to express my special gratitude and indebtedness to my supervisor of this dissertation Dr. Y. Kipo, who took me on at the last minute and had incredible patience to guide me through. I also appreciate the enormous contributions made by Mr Peter J. Dery, Deputy Director, Ministry of environment, science and technology. Mr. Godson Cudjoe Voado, Chief programme officer, built environment department, EPA. These personalities deserve acknowledgement as they took time off their tight schedules to grant me interviews. I am very grateful to you all for the support you extended to me. I also extend my warmest gratitude to all lecturers at LECIAD for their counsel. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACARP - Accra Compost and Recycling Plant Limited COP - Conference of the Parties DCEs - District Chief Executives ECOSOC - Economic and Social Council EMS - Environmental Management System EPA - Environmental Protection Agency GA - General Assembly HDPE - High-Density Polyethylene ICJ - International Court of Justice IEL - International Environmental Law INGOs - International Environmental non-Governmental Organizations IRECOP - Integrated Recycling and Compost Plant LDPE - Low-Density Polyethylene LECIAD - Legon Centre for International Affairs and Diplomacy LoN - League of Nations MEAs - Multilateral Environmental Agreements MESTI - Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation MPPI - Mobile Phone Partnership Initiative MPs - Members of Parliament MSW - Municipal Solid Waste MSWR - Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NEP - National Environmental Policy OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development PACE - Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment PET - Polyethylene Terephthalate PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals SSA - Sub-Saharan African UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNSC - United Nations Security Council v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.......................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION............................................................................................................................................. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................... vi ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ ix CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Research Problem ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................ 3 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Objectives ......................................................................................................................................... 5 1.5 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................................. 5 1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Research .............................................................................................. 5 1.7 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................................... 6 1.8 Literature Review .............................................................................................................................. 8 1.8.1 Historical Overview .......................................................................................................................... 8 1.8.2 Stylized Facts about Plastic Pollution ............................................................................................... 9 1.8.4 Effects of Plastic Pollution .............................................................................................................. 10 1.8.5 Recycling of Plastic Waste ............................................................................................................. 13 1.9 Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 15 1.9.1 Sources of Data ............................................................................................................................... 16 1.9.2 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 16 1.9.3 Ethical Issues in Research ............................................................................................................... 17 Endnotes ...................................................................................................................................................... 18 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................................... 20 OVERVIEW OF MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS ................................... 20 2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 20 2.1 United Nations Environment Programme ....................................................................................... 20 2.3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements ......................................................................................... 21 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) .................... 23 2.3.2 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ...................... 24 2.3.3 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade .......................................................................................................... 26 2.3.4 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants ........................................................ 27 2.3.5 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal ...................................................................................................................................................... 28 2.3.5.1 Key Achievements and Challenges of the Convention ........................................................... 30 2.3.5.2 Basel Convention: Plastic Pollution Amendment ................................................................... 31 2.4 Sustainable Development Goal ....................................................................................................... 33 2.5 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 33 Endnotes ...................................................................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................. 37 AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CAPACITY OF GHANA TO MANAGE PLASTIC POLLUTION .. 37 3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 37 3.1 Ghana and the Global Response to Plastic Pollution ...................................................................... 37 3.2 Ghana‘s Capacity to Deal with Plastic Pollution ............................................................................ 39 3.2.1 Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) ..................................... 40 3.2.2 Environmental Protection Agency .................................................................................................. 41 3.2.3 Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources (MSWR) ................................................................... 41 3.3 Ghana‘s Response to Plastic Pollution ............................................................................................ 45 3.4 Effects of Plastic Pollution .............................................................................................................. 50 3.6 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 52 Endnotes ...................................................................................................................................................... 54 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 56 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 56 4.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 56 4.1 Summary of Findings ...................................................................................................................... 56 4.2 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 58 4.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 59 4.3.1 Public Education ............................................................................................................................. 59 4.3.2 Law Enforcement ............................................................................................................................ 60 4.3.3 Reward Systems .............................................................................................................................. 60 4.3.4 Recycling ........................................................................................................................................ 61 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.5 Alternatives to Plastics .................................................................................................................... 61 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 62 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study examines the plastic pollution menace globally and its ramifications for Ghana. The study was motivated by the increasing wave of plastic production and its attendant disposal challenges. Deploying a qualitative methodology, the study used primary sources like interviews and reviewed secondary data on plastic pollution in addition to a field research involving senior public officials and private citizens. The findings of this study show that there is a major global effort, led by the United Nations, to protect the environment in general and manage plastic waste in particular. Of utmost significance in this regard is the Basel Convention which has recently been amended to include provisions on plastic waste management. The study also assessed the capacity of Ghana to deal with plastic pollution and the findings show that although the country is signatory to several international Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and has made efforts to domesticate some of them, it lacks the political will to fully implement them. For example, the country is currently having challenges with landfill sites to manage waste, yet the study could not establish that there are plans to make substantial investments in recycling or incineration of waste, apart from a few private sector initiatives. The study concludes with some recommendations on how the Government of Ghana can rally citizens to reduce plastic pollution on the environment. ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Research Problem Plastics pollution is a major global environmental challenge. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) says that the ubiquity of plastic waste now serves as a geological indicator 1 of the Anthropocene era. Indeed, with over 300 million tonnes of plastic waste being produced 2 every year the UNEP describes Planet Earth as drowning in plastic pollution. The alarming statistics on plastic pollution is now pushing the world to wake up to the realities of the threat this menace poses to human life, wildlife and marine life. Leaders around the world have in unison called for concerted global action to deal with plastics pollution through several treaties and protocols on the environment. What has been lacking so far, is commitment on the part of developed countries and capacity on the part of developing countries to comprehensively address the challenges of plastics pollution. In other words, while developed countries have the capacity to deal with the situation they have questionable commitment levels in comparison with 3 developing countries which do not have the technological capacity to confront plastics pollution. In Ghana, just like in many Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries the menace of plastic pollution is gradually gaining national attention. The government has expressed concerns about the ever- increasing hazards of plastics to the environment and has announced plans to implement a ban. Countries like Kenya and Tanzania have already taken the lead on the continent in banning the use of plastics, specifically, single use plastics. This has been hailed globally as a step in the 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh right direction in the effort to fight the effects of plastics pollution on the environment. Ghana however, has been dilly-dallying on the ban because some people believe the country is not quite ready to provide alternatives to single use plastics. There are also concerns that a ban on the use of plastics could negatively affect the industry that has so far been created in the manufacturing sector with its thousands of jobs along the value chain. There are some who hold the view that Ghana may not act expeditiously unless pressure is brought to bear on the country in line with international treaty commitments. At the last count, Ghana had virtually signed up to all the international environmental treaties including the Basel Convention. More recently, the country has made firm commitments towards the attainment of Goal 8 of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the UN. As a demonstration of this commitment the government established a Ministry of Sanitation specifically charged with the mandate of leading the country to manage its waste. As part of its strategies to achieve its objective, the Ministry has sanctioned the last Saturday of every month as a ‗clean up‘ day. During this period, all commercial centres remain shut and traders are expected to participate in the cleaning exercise. Beyond that, the country has also established sanitation courts which prosecutes offenders who litter the environment or dispose of waste hazardously. The impact of plastics pollution in Ghana is ominous. It frequently leads to the choking of gutters and drainage systems which in turn leads to the outbreak of diseases such as cholera and malaria. This happens when the gutters or empty plastics attract houseflies or breed mosquitoes. But, beyond these, there are greater concerns about micro plastics when used plastics find their 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ways into the oceans and affect marine life. There is growing body of evidence that some of the fish caught for human consumption contain micro plastics which is harmful for human 4 consumption. Plastics are also known to be non-biodegradable. Indeed, some of them can take up to 500 years before they break down. The management of plastics pollution, therefore, is an imperative for all countries around the world. And, it is against this background that this study assesses the capacity of Ghana to manage plastics within the framework of international treaties that the country has entered into. 1.2 Problem Statement Plastic pollution refers to ―the accumulation of plastic waste in the environment which 5 negatively affects all living things and their habitat.‖ It comes in various forms including plastic litter, marine debris and plastic particle pollution that can be found in all parts of the globe; from 6 the topmost peaks of mountains to the deepest bottoms oceans. Discarded plastics are a form of 7 solid waste which according to Ackah et al can be described as waste materials containing less than 70% water. Solid waste may be bio-degradable or non-degradable. Where they are degradable, they are easily absolved by the earth and they replenish it. But, where they are non- degradable, they pose a major challenge to the earth. Plastics, as solid waste materials fall in the latter category and that it is why they now pose a major challenge to the world. 8 In Ghana, Fobil has identified commercial plastic materials in Ghana to include Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) commonly called polyethylene films; High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) as well as other plastics materials such as polypropylene, polystyrene, Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET). As matter of fact, the use of plastics gained currency in the 1970s as a result of the challenges with previous carriers and wrappers including leaves, cane baskets, metal containers and paper bags. They were deemed to be either unhygienic or cumbersome when it came to portability. Thus, when plastics emerged on the scene, they quickly gained popularity and acceptability. A new plastic manufacturing industry consequently emerged, with employment opportunities for several hundreds of people. One of the popular businesses that proliferated with the preponderance of plastics was sachet water (known in local Ghanaian parlance as ‗pure water‘.) It substituted the sale of water in public places in cups which many considered as unhygienic because the same cup was shared by several people. However, in recent times, the use of plastics has come under scrutiny due to the several challenges they are posing for the environment. In major cities across the country, one cannot miss the sight of piles of refuse mostly made up of plastic waste. This has exposed the capacity 9 of local authorities to deal with Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Presently waste disposal methods include landfilling, recycling, incineration and composting. But, due to the capacity challenges of local authorities, about a quarter of the waste remains uncollected and this is a major health threat. 1.3 Research Questions  What is plastic pollution and why is it a global concern?  What is the global response to plastic pollution?  Does Ghana have the capacity to deal with plastic pollution?  What are the effects of plastic pollution on the environment? 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Objectives  To understand why plastic pollution is a global concern.  To analyse the international response to plastic pollution.  To investigate the capacity of Ghana to deal with plastic pollution.  To examine the effect of plastic pollution on the environment. 1.5 Significance of the Study This study seeks to contribute to the body of knowledge on the management of plastics pollution in Ghana. Whereas most studies in Ghana look at environmental pollution in general, this study focuses at depth on plastic pollution. What is novel is the fact that rather than concentrating on just what the country is doing, the study situates the efforts of Ghana within the global context of treaties, conventions and protocols. This is quite significant because the nature of plastics pollution is such that no single country can deal with it. It requires the collaborative partnership of all countries around the globe, working within a single framework, to be able to meaningfully address the menace. 1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Research This study focuses solely on plastic pollution and the international legal frameworks that have been put in place to assist countries to deal with the situation. It does not cover the entire spectrum of environmental challenges currently facing the planet. The main focus is on Ghana and the study assesses the capacity of the country to manage plastic pollution. The study was conducted in only the Greater Accra Region and it focused more on the policy aspects of plastic 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh pollution rather than the general production and use of plastics. It is recommended that future research must be extended to other regions, especially the coastal regions to find out their own experiences with plastic pollution. 1.7 Theoretical Framework Theories are important in research because they provide a framework for analysis; method for 10 field development; and clear explanations for the pragmatic world. In this study, the theory 11 undergirding the analysis is the theory of behavior change as propounded by Fritz Perls. Originally, this theory was espoused for analysis in psychology regarding social behavioral change. The theory is however applied here because the phenomenon of plastic pollution is one that can only be managed by a change in behavior, with regards to the production of plastics and their disposal. This change could be achieved either by regulation or reward systems that motivate citizens to better manage plastics. 12 Liboiron in a case study on plastic pollution argues that plastics and their chemicals are challenging regulatory models of pollution, research methods, and modes of action. This is because of their ubiquity, longevity, and scale of production. He investigated how scientists researching plastic pollution are attempting to create a new model – or models – of pollution that account for the unpredictable and complex materialities of 21st-century pollutants. According to him, his findings show how the Anthropocene has come to be a shorthand for the material understandings of moral transgressions, cherished boundaries, and good citizenship. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Indeed, environmental plastic pollution constitutes a significant hazard to marine life, human 13 health and well-being as already noted. Eagle et al. in their attempt to explain environmental pollution use a transdisciplinary approach to draw together findings from diverse disciplines to emphasize salient pollution problems and their consequences, together with social marketing- based strategies to address them. They come to the consensus that social marketing principles offer promise, but there is a need to investigate the utility of various theoretical foundations to aid the design and implementation of interventions. And, they offer insight towards the use of complex multi-method research to develop intuition into behaviours and segmentation-based strategies. These can aid the identification of barriers to, and enablers of, sustained behaviour change. Thus, taking into account the propositions of Liboiron and Eagle et al., and of course several others, it can be seen that the theory of change is quite crucial in broaching the topic the plastic pollution. Perls posited that change does not come when a person is it forced to be who he or she is not. Rather, change comes when a person is conscientized to be who he or she is. In the context of plastic pollution therefore, the question can be put: Who is man or woman and what is his or her relation to the use of plastics? In answering the above question, reference has to be made to the history of plastics as recounted under literature review in the next section. The evidence shows that prior to the emergence of plastics there were other means by which products were packaged, and that plastics are only a century and half old. Most particularly, they proliferated in the last half century. So, if humanity could survive before the advent of plastics, then it is possible for humanity to continue to survive 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the event that plastics vanish from the surface of the planet. Applying the theory of change simply means returning man to the era when there were no plastics and man survived. But, that is where the difficulties also arise. Can man now do without plastics in view of their widespread industrial and household uses? This brings to the fore the critical need for solutions on how plastics can be managed. There are several options including cessation in production (especially single – use plastics); recycling and incineration. The current popular method of disposing plastics which is landfilling is not environmentally friendly and poses several risks. There is need for social behavioral change. Society needs to return to the era before plastics by adopting appropriate measures that can bring plastic pollution on the environment under control. And it is for this reason that Perl‘s theory of change is applied to this study. 1.8 Literature Review 1.8.1 Historical Overview th Plastics first emerged during the middle part of the 19 century. There is a long catalogue of history regarding those who played roles to get plastics to where they are today. The history starts with Charles Goodyear and Thomas Hancock who in the 1940s got patents for the process of vulcanization of rubber. In 1862 Alexander Parkes created the first man-made plastic which 14 he demonstrated at the Great International Exhibition in London. Parkes used a material which he named ‗Parkesine‘ which was basically an organic material derived from cellulose. When 15 heated, this material could be molded and when cooled, the shape could be retained. Around the same time John Wesley Hyatt invented Cellulose Nitrate or Celluloid and Eugen Baumann 16 invented Polyvinyl Chloride or PVC. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, it was not until 1909 that Leo Hendrix Baekeland invented first true plastic Phenol- 17 Formaldehyde which he called Bakelite (or polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride). Baekeland was a chemist who originally hailed from Belgium. But, he later naturalized to become an American citizen. Prior to inventing Bakelite, he had already invented the Velox photographic paper in 1893. Regarded as the ‗father of plastics‘ the versatile inventions of Baekeland were adorned with nomenclature that included polyester, polyvinyl, polystyrene, 18 polyethylene, polypropylene, and nylon. There is no doubt that his research breakthrough laid the foundations for the plastics age. 1.8.2 Stylized Facts about Plastic Pollution The use of plastics, in the beginning, was moderate and therefore manageable until the 1950s when single-use plastics became the vogue. In 1950 the annual production of plastics was only 2 million tonnes. However, between then and now researchers estimate that more than 8.3 billion 19 tonnes of plastic has been produced. As at 2015, the world was producing about 381 million tonnes per year. Put in context, this is equivalent to the mass of two-thirds of the world population. According to Geyer et al., the cumulative production of plastic by 2015 was 7.8 20 billion. This is more than one tonne of plastic for every person alive today. Available statistics from Our World in Data shows that between 1950 and 2015 cumulative production of polymers, synthetic fibers and additives was 8300 million tonnes. Out of this figure, 2500 million tonnes (30 percent) of primary plastics was still in use as at 2015 whilst 4,600 million tonnes (55 percent) had been discarded or put into landfills. Of the remaining figure about 700 million tonnes (8 percent) was incinerated whilst 500 million tonnes (6 percent) 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 was recycled. In 2015 alone, primary plastics production was 407 million tones and about three-quarters (302 million tonnes) ended up as waste. On a continental basis, the East Asia and Pacific region dominates the world when it comes to the mismanagement of plastic waste, accounting for 60 percent of the total. South Asia ranks second but its contribution is about 5 times less with 11 percent of the total. The third is Sub- Saharan Africa (9 percent) followed by Middle East & North Africa (8.3 percent); Latin America (7.2 percent); Europe and Central Asia (3.6 percent) and North America (1 percent). In country terms, China, with the largest population, produced the largest quantity of plastic, at nearly 60 million tonnes in 2010. The United States followed next at 38 million, Germany at 14.5 million 22 and Brazil at 12 million tonnes. 1.8.4 Effects of Plastic Pollution Concerns have been raised about plastics because, worldwide, about 13,000-15,000 pieces of plastic are dumped into the ocean every day. This translates into about 6.4 million tonnes of plastic waste every year. About 100,000 marine creatures die every year from plastic entanglement. This is in addition to about 1 million sea birds that also die from plastic pollution. Ocean acidification is now becoming a major environmental challenge as scientists have 23 identified 200 areas declared as ‗dead zones‘ where no life organisms can now grow. Eriksen et 24 25 al. estimate that about 5 trillion plastic particles are drifting into the seas. ClientEarth has equally noted that plastic pollution has a non-negligible effect on climate change. This is because plastics are derived from fossil fuels and manufactured through energy-intensive processes. The processes release greenhouse gases into the environment. It is estimated that on average, each 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tonne of plastics results in 2.5 tonnes of CO2 emissions from the production process alone. Presently, plastic production accounts for between 4% and 8% of global oil consumption. Analysts believe that if current trends in production and consumption continue, the plastics sector will account for 20% of total oil consumption and 15% of the global annual carbon budget by 2050. As a matter of fact, these levels must not be exceeded in order for the internationally 26 accepted goal to remain below a 2°C increase in global warming to be achieved. 27 Barra and Leonard have forecasted that the production of plastics will reach more than 640 million metric tonnes by 2035 and almost double by 2050. In their view, the current linear production and use model of ‗take, make, use, and dispose‘ is fundamentally a driver of natural resource depletion, waste, environmental degradation and climate change. Already, the oceans are estimated to contain over 150 Mt of plastics. This is equivalent to more than 5 trillion micro (less than 5mm) and macroplastic particles. There are worries that this could triple by 2025 if no interventions are initiated and this could mean that by 2050, there will be more plastics, by 28 weight, in the oceans than fish. 29 Vikas and Dwarakish caution that offshore pollution is increasing at an alarming rate and there 30 is need for a variety of approaches to address it. In this wise, Eagle et al. have advocated the use of social marketing techniques to address environmental issues, particularly plastic purchase and disposal. They believe that the challenge with plastic pollution is more behavioural and therefore requires awareness creation for the public to appreciate the dangers of the hazard. 31 According to Li et al most plastic debris persists in the environment for centuries because of their resistance to degradation. They contend that both macroplastics and microplastics pose a 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh risk to organisms in the natural environment through ingestion or entanglement in the plastic. In 32 the perspective of Kukulka et al. micro-plastic marine debris has emerged as a major open ocean pollutant and is widely distributed across vast regions of the subtropical gyres. In their estimation, movement of plastic marine debris is governed by poorly understood geophysical processes. As a result, oceanic plastics concentrations are significantly underestimated. To this extent, they recommend that a geophysical approach must be taken in order to properly quantify and manage marine debris pollution. 33 Chae and An in their study of current trends on plastic pollution and ecological impact on the soil ecosystem found that improper dumping of used plastic wastes leads to contamination of the environment. According to them, there seems to be more focus on plastic pollution in the marine and freshwater ecosystems even though the effects of soil plastic pollution on organisms are as 34 equally devastating. Also, Derraik has noted that a lot of marine animals are mostly affected through entanglement in and ingestion of plastic litter. This, according to him, could jeopardize their survival, especially since many are already endangered by other forms of anthropogenic activities. 35 In view of the above, Xanthos and Walker have called for policy and legislative tools to reduce plastic pollution particularly single-use plastics (plastic bags and microbeads). In a study that reviewed international market-based strategies and policies to reduce plastic bags, they established that there is need for regular evaluation of the effectiveness of bans and levies on marine environments and also there is need for education and outreaches to sensitize the public. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.8.5 Recycling of Plastic Waste 36 Al-Salem et al. argue that plastic waste presents both challenges and opportunities. They prescribe four routes through which plastic waste can be treated. These include primary (re- extrusion), secondary (mechanical), tertiary (chemical) and quaternary (energy recovery) 37 schemes and technologies. Hopewell et al. identify recycling as one of the most important actions currently available to reduce the impact of plastic pollution. They contend that recycling provides opportunities to reduce oil usage, carbon dioxide emissions and other waste that require disposal. But beyond recycling, they also suggest that other waste-reduction strategies namely: reduction in material use through product reuse, the use of alternative biodegradable materials and energy recovery as fuel. 38 Lazarevic et al reveal that a number of life cycle assessment studies have been undertaken within the last 15 years. These studies compare end-of-life treatment options for post-consumer plastic waste that include techniques such as: mechanical recycling, feedstock recycling, incineration with energy recovery and landfilling. According to them, among the options available, most of the studies conclude that recycling is generally environmentally the preferred treatment option. This is especially the case when contaminated single polymer plastic waste are recycled and replaced with virgin plastic at a ratio of 1:1. The option of landfilling of plastic waste, compared with incineration, proved to be the least preferred option. Feedstock recycling and the use of plastic waste as a solid recovered fuel in cement kilns were other options that they 39 discussed. Subramanian shares the view that recycling is the best option of durable goods, such as automotive parts, carpets, electronic and appliance housings and parts. He proposes that environmental compatibility and recyclability must be considered during the designing of new 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh parts. He further proposes that life cycle analyses and management must also be studied as tools for decision making. 40 Dintcheva et al. performed an experiment by recycling plastic waste coming from separate collection of packaging film. The materials they used were a blend of low density and linear low density polyethylene and after recycling they showed mechanical and rheological properties depending on the processing conditions and apparatus. They found out that high processing temperature and high residence times strongly enhance the degradation processes. This reduces the mechanical properties, in particular the elongation at break. They concluded that a possible use of this recycled plastic is for the production of low pressure pipes except that their properties are lower than those of virgin pipe grade polyethylene. Through the introduction of additives like antioxidants, inert fillers and impact modifiers, they were able to improve the mechanical properties close to those of virgin pipe grade polyethylene. Thus, recycling remains one of the most important options available for the management of plastic pollution as the recycled product can be put to other uses. It is, however, regrettable that recycling at the moment is not the topmost method for the disposal of plastic waste. According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) only 9% of plastic waste get recycled. The data shows that about 12% get incinerated while the remaining almost 80% end 41 up in landfills. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.9 Methodology Making the right choice of methodology in every research is important. This is because the methodology plays a significant role in determining the outcomes. A researcher, basically, has 42 three methods namely qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods to choose from. Rahman prescribes the use of qualitative research methods where a researcher intends to elicit deeper insights, explore respondents‘ behaviour, perceptions, feelings, and understanding. At the same time, he admits that qualitative research has some inherent weaknesses, including the fact that 43 smaller sample sizes are often used and it is time-consuming. Carr, on the other hand, contends that quantitative methods are objective, formal and uses systematic processes with numerical data to quantify or measure phenomena and produce findings. It has the advantage of using deductive processes to test or examine cause and effect relationships. However, Rahman believes that quantitative research methods only take snapshots of a phenomenon. In other words, they are 44 not in-depth and often tend to overlook respondents‘ experiences. 45 As noted by Kelle the nature of research questions in a study largely influences the research methodology. For this reason, this study adopted a qualitative approach. It involved a field research that was carried out in the month of July 2019. Due to the technical nature of the subject, purposive sampling techniques were used to select officials from the Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Zoomlion Company Ltd as well as a fisher-folk at Jamestown in Accra. According to 46 Mckenna and Main selecting key informants for a study can be very helpful. This is because key informants can provide invaluable knowledge and information related to a topic under research. They, however, caution that informants must be carefully selected because their 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 perspectives on issues may not generally hold true for everyone in the community. For this study, seven key informants were selected and they were interviewed separately using semi- structured questionnaires. The use of semi-structured questionnaires is recommended by DeJonckheere and Vaughn because in their view, the method allows the researcher to collect open-ended data and be able to explore participant thoughts, feelings and beliefs about a particular topic. This enables the interviewer to delve deeply into personal and sometimes 48 sensitive issues. 1.9.1 Sources of Data The sources of data for this study were two-fold: primary and secondary. The primary data for this study was obtained through interviews that were conducted with key informants as explained in the preceding section. For the secondary data, libraries on the campus of University of Ghana including the Library of the Legon Centre for International Affairs and Diplomacy (LECIAD) and Balme Library and Library of the Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies were consulted. This is addition to relevant literature that was retrieved from the Internet. 1.9.2 Data Analysis Primary data for this study was analysed using narrative analysis techniques in view of the fact that the methodology used was purely qualitative and it also involved interviewing some respondents who spoke in their native language. For the secondary data, they were evaluated for their relevance for this study. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.9.3 Ethical Issues in Research High ethical standards were observed in the conduct of this study. All secondary data used are duly cited and referenced. For the interviews, the names of the respondents are not published because of the need to protect their identity. But, it is important to mention that the respondents participated freely and gave responses under no inhibitions whatsoever. Where there was need 49 for the interviews to be recorded, the consent of the respondents were sought. Resnik advises that it is always important for researchers to observe ethical standards in order to promote public trust, confidence and support for research. 1.10 Arrangement of Chapters This study comprises four chapters. The first chapter gives a general overview of the study including the background to the research problem; problem statement; research questions; objectives; significance of the study; scope and limitation of the research; theoretical framework; literature review; methodology; sources of data; data analysis; and ethical issues in research. The second chapter discusses multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) and how they are used by international organizations to manage global environmental issues. The third chapter presents the main findings of the study by analyzing the primary information obtained through interviews and secondary data obtained through desktop research. Finally, chapter four presents a summary of the findings and conclusions of the study as well as recommendations. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Endnotes 1 This refers to a period in time in which human activity will have the most impact on the environment and climate. 2 UN Environment: Our planet is drowning in plastic pollution, https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beat- th plastic-pollution/accessed on 10 July, 2019. 3 Parker, Laura. “The World’s Plastic Pollution Crisis Explained.” nationalgeographic.com,https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/plastic-pollution/ 4 th Ritchie, Hannah and Roser, Max. ―Plastic Pollution.‖ Retrieved from ourworldindata.org on 20 May, 2019. 5 What is plastic solution?: It‘s cheap…It‘s disposable…It‘s toxic https://www.theworldcounts.com/stories/What-is- th Plastic-Pollution, accessed on 17 June, 2019. 6 Ibid 7 Ackah, Ruth, Carboo, Derrick and Gyamfi, Eva Tabuaa. ―Challenges of plastic waste disposal in Ghana: a case study of solid waste disposal sites in Accra. Elixir Mgmt. Arts 49 (2012) 9879-98855. 8 Fobil, J. N and Hogarh, J. N. ―The Dilemmas of Plastic Wastes in a Developing Economy: Proposals for a Sustainable Management Approach for Ghana.‖ 9 Boamah, Linda Appiah. ―The Environmental Sanitation Policy of Ghana and Stakeholder Capacity: A Case Study Of Solid Waste Management In Accra And Koforidua.‖ 2011, pp. 8-45. 10 Wacker, John, ―A definition of theory: research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations management‖ Journal of Operations Management, Vol. 16, Issue 4, 1998. 11 Fritz, Perls, Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy, London: Sage, 1993. 12 Liboiron, Max, ―Redefining pollution and action: The Matter of plastics‖, Journal of Material Culture, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2016. 13 Eagle, Lynn.Hamann Mark. Low, David R. ―The Role of Social Marketing, Marine Turtles and Sustainable Tourism in Reducing Plastic Pollution.‖ Marine Pollution Bulletin, Vol. 107, Issue 1, June 2016. 14 Bellis, Mary. ―A Brief History of the Invention of Plastics retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of- th plastics-1992322, accessed on 20 April, 2019. 15 Ibid 16 Ibid 17 Baekeland, Leo Hendrix. ―The Synthesis, Constitution, and Uses of Bakelite.‖ J. Ind. Eng. Chem.190913149-161 , 1909. 18 Friedel, Robert. "The plastics man; Leo Baekeland's conquest of an unyielding, brittle resin led to nylons and Tupperware." Science '84, vol. 5, 1984, p. 49+. Academic OneFile, Accessed 15 July 2019. 19 Our planet drowning in plastic pollution https://www.unenvironment.org/interactive/beat-plastic-pollution/, th accessed on 19 May, 2019. This article was first published in 2018. 20 Ritchie, Hannah and Roser, Max. ―Plastic Pollution.‖ https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution 21 Ibid 22 Ibid 23 th Plastic Ain‘t so Fantastic, http://oceancrusaders.org/plastic-crusades/plastic-statistics/accessed on 18 May, 2019. 24 Marcus, Eriksen, Lebreton, Laurent C. M., Carson, Henry S., Thiel, Martin, Moore, Charles J., Borerro, Jose C., Galgani, Francois, Ryan, Peter G., and Reisser, Julia. ―Plastic Pollution in the World's Oceans: More than 5 Trillion th Plastic Pieces Weighing over 250,000 Tons Afloat at Sea‖ accessed on 19 May, 2019 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111913 25 Client Earth. ―Risk Unwrapped: Plastic Pollution as a Material Business Risk.‖ 2018, pp. 3-23. 26 Ibid 27 th Barra, Richardo. Leonard, Sunday. ―Plastics and The Circular Economy.‖ 54 GEF Council Meeting, A STAP Document. 2018, pp. 4-18. 28 Ibid 29 Vikas, M., and Dwarakish, G.S (2015). Coastal pollution: a review. Aquatic Procedia, 4, 381 – 388, 2015. 30 Eagle, L., Hamann, M., and Low, D.R. ―The role of social marketing, marine turtles and sustainable tourism in reducing plastic pollution. Marine pollution bulletin, 107 (1), 324 – 332, 2016. 31 Li, W.C., Tse, H.F., and Fok, L. ―Plastic waste in the marine environment: A review of sources, occurrence and effects. Science of the Total Environment, 566, 333-349, 2016. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Kukulka, T., Proskurowski, G., Moret-Ferguson, S., Meyer, D. W., and Law, K.L. ―The effect of wind mixing on the vertical distribution of buoyant plastic debris. Geophysical Research Letters, 39(7), 2012. 33 Chae, Y. and An, Y.J. ―Current research trends on plastic pollution and ecological impacts on the soil ecosystem: A Review.‖ Environmental Pollution, 240, 387-395, 2018. 34 Derraik, J.G. ―the pollution of the marine environment by plastic debris: a review. Marine pollution bulletin 44(9), 842-852, 2002. 35 Xanthos 36 Al-Salem, S.M. Lettieri, P. Baeyens, J. “Recycling and Recovery Routes of Plastic Solid Waste (PSW): A Review.‖ Waste Management, Vol. 29, Issue 1, 2009. 37 Hopewell, Jefferson. Dvorak, Robert. Kosior Edward. “Plastics Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities.‖ th https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rstb.2008.0311 accessed on 17 May, 2019. 38 Hopewell, Jefferson. Dvorak, Robert. Kosior Edward. “Plastics Recycling: Challenges and Opportunities.‖ Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Volume 55, Issue 2, December 2010. 39 Subramanian, P. M. “Plastics Recycling And Waste Management In The US.‖sciencedirect.com https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-3449(99)00049-X 40 Dintcheva, TzankovaN. Jilov, N. La Mantia, F. P. ―Recycling of Plastics From Packaging.‖sciencedirect.com https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(96)00232-7 41 “Improving Plastics Management: Trends, Policy Responses, And The Role Of International Co-operation And Trade.‖oecd.org https://www.oecd.org/environment/waste/policy-highlights-improving-plastics-management.pdf 42 Shidur, Rahman.―The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in Methods and Language ―Testing and Assessment Research.‖ Journal of Education and Learning, Vol. 6, No. 1, Canadian Centre of Science and Education, 2017. 43 Carr, Linda T. ―The strengths and weaknesses of qualitative and quantitative research: what method for nursing.‖ Journal of Advanced Nursing, Vol. 20, No. 716-721, 1994. 44 Ibid. 45 Kelle, Udo. ―Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in research writing: purposes and advantages‖. Qualitative Research in Psychology, Vol. 3, Issue 4, Taylor and Francis Online, 2008 46 McKenna, Stacy A, and Deborah S Main. ―The Role and Influence of Key Informants in community-engaged research: a critical perspective.‖ Sage Journals.Vol.11, Issue 2, 2013. 47 Ibid. 48 DeJonckheere, Melissa, and Lisa M Vaughn. ―Semi-structured interviewing in primary care research: a balance of relationship and rigour.‖ Vol. 7, Issue 2, 2018. 49 Resnick, David B, and Adil E Shamoo. ―What is Ethics in Research and Why is it important.‖ National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Oxford University Press, 2015. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF MULTILATERAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS 2.0 Introduction This chapter discusses Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) and how they are used by international organizations to manage global environmental issues. It starts with the United Nations (UN) since it is the overarching international organization responsible for global governance. The role the UN plays in maintaining global peace and promoting sustainable development is highly significant. Therefore, the chapter opens with an overview of the UN and its main organs. It then narrows down to some five MEAs which are critical in the management of issues that have to do with environmental pollution in general and plastic pollution in particular. 2.1 United Nations Environment Programme The UN body responsible for the environment is the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), established in 1972 and headquartered in Nairobi, Kenya. The mission of the UNEP is to ―provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without 1 compromising that of future generations.‖ The UNEP sets the global environmental agenda and promotes coherent implementation of the environmental dimension of sustainable development 2 within the UN system. It also serves as an authoritative advocate for the global environment. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some of the most important achievements of the UNEP include assisting the world to become climate neutral in 2008 and achieving 3% year-on-year greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions 3 reduction as of 2010. Climate neutrality refers to a situation where environmental activities do not put a strain on the climate or where CO₂ emissions are reduced to the barest minimum and all remaining CO₂ emissions are offset with climate protection measures. In other words, where 4 the activities do not create greenhouse gases (GHG). Since 2015 the UNEP has concentrated on consolidating the gains on systematic environmental management. In August 2015, for example, the UNEP signed the organization‘s Environmental Policy and developed an Environmental Management System (EMS) for its operations. The UNEP EMS is aimed at creating awareness and communicating its activities to its staff. The EMS policy defines the scope and boundaries in the efforts towards reducing global environmental footprint, through the establishment of a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented set of processes. Five main areas identified by the EMS include: greenhouse gases emissions; energy use and management; waste generation and management; fresh water use and 5 management; and staff awareness. 2.3 Multilateral Environmental Agreements Multilateral Environmental Agreements feature prominently in the work of the UN. MEAs have been formulated by the UN under International Environmental Law (IEL) which is ―a branch of public international law - a body of laws created by states for states to govern problems that arise 6 between states.‖ International environmental law is ―concerned with the attempt to control pollution and the depletion of natural resources within a framework of sustainable 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 development.‖ International environmental law covers topics including population, biodiversity, climate change, ozone depletion, toxic and hazardous substances, transboundary water pollution, and conservation of marine resources. Some of the major MEAs facilitated by the UN and UNEP include the following: i. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987 ii. United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) iii. Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992, and Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity, 2000 iv. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992 (UNFCCC) v. Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989 vi. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997 vii. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 1994 (UNCCD) viii. Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of International Watercourses, 1997 ix. Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998) x. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001) For the purposes of this study, five MEAs that bother directly on pollution are discussed. These include the UNCED, Kyoto Protocol, Rotterdam, Stockholm and the Basel Conventions. For 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contextual purposes, it is important to discuss each of them separately and also sequentially (in terms of relevance to the study) rather than chronologically. 2.3.1 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit) The first major global environmental conference organised by the UN was the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Dubbed the ―Earth Summit,‖ it was attended by as many as 30,000 delegates from 176 countries 8 according to Freestone. The attendees included 103 heads of state or government, international 9 and national non-governmental organization (NGO) representatives and some 6,000 journalists. The unique feature of the Earth Summit was that it was the first time world leaders paid heed to agitations and advocacies by environmentalists that environmental problems around the globe required a more international holistic approach rather than a national piecemeal approach. Many analysts described it as overwhelmingly successful as the chairman of the summit, Maurice Strong, proved capable leadership in rallying world leaders to make measureable commitments 10 to the environment. The Rio summit set the tone and platform for future global engagements on the environment. Ranee and Panjabi in their book, ―The Earth Summit at Rio: politics, economics and the environment‖ argue that the successful expansion of international environmental protection laws at the summit required the corresponding creation of a new world economic order that narrows 11 the gap between rich and poor countries. In another article titled, ―Can International Law Improve the Climate – An Analysis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Signed at the Rio Summit in 1992‖ authored by the same Ranee and Panjabi, the duo 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 13 contended that the Rio Declaration was ambiguous and the Agenda 21 was also going to be 14 extremely costly to implement. Nevertheless, the post-Rio era has witnessed a proliferation of several MEAs that have been intended to address some of the gaps in the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 as will be seen later. 2.3.2 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change A second MEA that is worth discussing is the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change which was adopted in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into force in 2005. It is probably the most controversial of all the MEAs. Part of the controversy stems from the fact that the protocol differentiates the responsibilities of the signatory states according to their levels of development. The assumption is that less developed countries emit less GHG and so more responsibility is placed on the industrialized countries that have been 15 emitting GHG in the last two centuries. The six greenhouse gases listed in Annex A of the Kyoto Protocol are Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O), 16 Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF). The functioning of the Kyoto Protocol is premised on commitments made by countries. The first commitment period was from 2008 – 2012. During this period, 37 industrialized countries and the European Community committed themselves to reduce GHG emissions by an average of 5% against 1990 levels. During the second commitment period, from 2013 – 2021, the Parties have committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18% below 1990 levels. The composition of 17 Parties in the second commitment period, however, is different from the first. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Freedman and Jaggi in a study that evaluated disclosures on pollution and greenhouse gases by firms domiciled in countries that have ratified the Kyoto Protocol found out that those firms have higher disclosure indexes as compared to firms in other countries. The study analyzed disclosures that were made in the annual reports, environmental reports, and websites of 120 of the largest public firms from the chemical, oil and gas, energy, and motor vehicles and casualty insurance industries. The firms were selected based on their revenues and the study used content analysis to construct weighted and unweighted disclosure indices. The study further found out that larger firms disclose more detailed pollution information than the smaller ones. Also, it was established that multinational firms that operate in countries where the Protocol has been ratified but have their head offices in countries that have not ratified the protocol had the lowest disclosures. The controversies surrounding the protocols erupted with China and India being classified as developing countries and therefore not required to strictly comply with the commitment made by the 37 industrialized nations. The United States has consequently refused to ratify the protocol while Canada has since 2011 renounced it as unworkable. The European Community has, however, ratified it as well as the Russian Federation giving hope that as negotiations continue, 19 all countries will eventually come on board. It is extremely important to mention, at this stage that, during the COP 21 summit that was held in Paris, France, the UNFCCC participants signed the "Paris Agreement" which effectively replaced the Kyoto Protocol. They agreed to limit global warming "well below" 2 degrees, and below 1.5 degrees above pre-industrial levels where 20 feasible. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.3 Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade The Rotterdam Convention was developed by the UNEP and the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) to promote voluntary information exchange on hazardous chemicals. It commenced with the launch, by the FAO, of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides in 1985 and the establishment of the London Guidelines for 21 the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade in 1987 by the UNEP. During the Earth Summit officials adopted Chapter 19 of Agenda 21. They called for a legally binding instrument on the voluntary Prior Informed Consent (PIC) procedure by the year 2000. This led to the FAO Council (in 1994) and the UNEP Governing Council (in 1995) mandating their Executive Heads to launch negotiations. The talks commenced in March 1996 and they were concluded in March 1998, after seven meetings of the Inter-Governmental Negotiation 22 Committee and two years in advance of the deadline set by the UNCED. Eventually, the text of the Rotterdam Convention on the PIC Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade was opened for signature during the Conference of Plenipotentiaries that was organised in Rotterdam, Netherlands, in 1998. Over 170 countries designated some 265 national authorities to act on their behalf in accordance with the administrative functions required by the Convention. It entered into force in 2004 and became legally binding on its Parties. Thus, the convention evolved as a framework addressing international trade in hazardous chemicals through the operation of the Interim PIC Procedure on 23 a voluntary basis. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.4 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants The World Health Organization (WHO) states that Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are of a ―global concern due to their potential for long-range transport, persistence in the environment, ability to bio-magnify and bio-accumulate in ecosystems, as well as their significant negative 24 effects on human health and the environment.‖ The WHO states further that ―humans are exposed to these chemicals in a variety of ways: mainly through the food we eat, but also 25 through the air we breathe, in the outdoors, indoors and at the workplace.‖ The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was, thus, formulated as a response to the global concerns about POPs. The process began in 1995 when the Governing Council of UNEP requested that an international assessment process be undertaken of an initial list of 12 26 POPs. The Council‘s request tasked the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) 27 to develop recommendations on international action on POPs. The IFCS in 1996 came to the conclusion that available information was sufficient to demonstrate that international action, including a global legally binding instrument, was required to minimize the risks from the 12 28 POPs. The 12 POPS can be categorized in three as follows: Pesticides: aldrin, chlordane, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mirex, toxaphene; Industrial chemicals: hexachlorobenzene, polychlorinated biphenyls); By-products: hexachlorobenzene; polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans and PCBs). 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Based on the progress of the work that was done by the IFCS the Council invited the UNEP to prepare for and convene intergovernmental negotiating committee (INC), with a mandate to prepare an international legally binding instrument for implementing international action on POPs. This was to initially commence with the 12 POPs. It also requested the INC to establish an expert group to develop a criterion and a procedure for the identification of additional POPs in the future. The group completed its work in 1999 and the Convention was adopted and opened for signature at a Conference of Plenipotentiaries in Stockholm, Sweden. It entered into force in 29 2004. 2.3.5 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal was formulated in 1989 and came into force in 1992. The history of the Convention can be traced to the 1980s when cross-border transport of hazardous waste caught created a global furore. This was after some ―toxic ships‖ were denied permission to land at ports where they could offload their poisonous cargoes. Two infamous toxic ships that particularly made front-page headlines around the world were Karin B and Pelicano. It is important to recount the events surrounding these two ships in view of the precipitous roles they played in the adoption of the Convention, just a year after they occurred. Karin B, originally from Italy, in 1988 deposited some toxic waste in Nigeria. But when environmentalists in Nigeria, and elsewhere around the world, protested against the dumping of the waste, the Italian government ordered that it should be retrieved. On its way back to Europe, the ship first attempted to dock at Spain but it was refused access to the port. Then it moved to 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh France where it also denied access. Later, the United Kingdom, West Germany and Netherlands all denied the ship permission to land. Finally, it had to return to Italy after one month of 30 wandering. For Pelicano, the ship which was originally called Khian Sea, offered to take up 10,000 tonnes of incinerated ash from Philadelphia after the state ran out of landfill sites in 1986. The ship headed to Bahamas where it had intended to offload the waste but it was denied entry. It then headed to Bermuda, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Guinea-Bissau and the Netherland Antilles where it was refused permission to offload. To the relief of the ship‘s captain, however, the Haitian government gave it permission to offload cargo at one if its beaches believing they were fertilizer. Later, when the government found out about the true nature of the goods (about 4,000 tonnes of it) and ordered the ship to reload them, the captain managed to abscond with the ship and changed its name to Felicia in Yugoslavia and later to Pelicano in Singapore. When the captain was arrested, he admitted in Court in 1992 that he disposed of the remaining cargo in the 31 Indian Ocean. Protests against the two ships came about as a result of the fact that, by the 1980s controls on environmental regulations had become tighter in all industrialized countries. This exposed countries in Africa, Asia, and Eastern Europe which had weak regulations to become dumping sites for waste from the industrialized world. These shipments of waste were dumped indiscriminately causing severe health problems including poisoning the land, water and air for decades or centuries. International environmental non-governmental organizations (INGOs) like 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Greenpeace International intensified their campaigns for environmental justice and that is what led countries to negotiate the Convention under the UNEP. Under the Convention, some examples of wastes regulated include biomedical and healthcare wastes; used oils; used lead acid batteries. Others include POP waste. POPs persist for many years in the environment. They bio-accumulate (meaning they threaten humans and animals at the top of the food chain) and end up causing a wide range of health effects. Other wastes include Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) which are compounds used in industry as heat exchange fluids. This may occur in electric transformers and capacitors, and also as additives in 32 paint, carbonless copy paper, sealants and plastics. 2.3.5.1 Key Achievements and Challenges of the Convention 33 Kummer in a review of the Convention in 1988 indicated that, perhaps, one of the most important achievements of the convention can be traced to the processes that led to its formulation. According to her, the entire process took about 18 months to complete and this 34 shows how important the convention is. Kummer‘s viewpoints are shared by Hackett who agrees that the UNEP was able to forge an agreement among nations over issues that were 35 extremely contentious. Portas also shares the view that the Convention emerged at a critical point in history when globalization was blossoming in the early 1990s. In his assessment, he believes that the Convention came in the nick of time to protect humanity from what could have been a catastrophic mismanagement of hazardous waste. It has helped the world to deal with industrial waste, electronic waste, household waste and quite significantly the singling out of 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh plastic waste for special attention at the last Conference of the Parties (COP 14) as will be discussed in the next section. Some challenges in the implementation of the Convention as highlighted by Portas include the fact that its enactment coincided with a period in which technological advancement was climbing 36 up towards unprecedented heights. Commitment from the highly advanced countries, therefore, was initially difficult. As a matter of fact, the United States has still not ratified the agreement, 37 alongside Haiti. Yang and Fulton argue that the reason why the United States has not ratified the agreement on the Convention is not because of Washington politics, as some suggest. Rather, in their opinion, it is due to concerns that the country may not be able to meet full compliance of the tenets of the Convention. In this wise, they suggest that the United States should aim at substantial compliance, instead, and ratify the agreement. Besides the United States, it is also troubling to note that some countries which have ratified the Convention have also been violating it, as was recently pointed out in a legal opinion from the Pacific Centre for Environmental Law and Litigation Law Corporation that Canada‘s refusal to repatriate 103 shipping containers of garbage that was illegally dumped in the Philippines in 2013 and 2014 constitute a violation of 38 the Convention. There are several milestones which have been reached including the 1995 adoption of the Amendment to the Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (―the Ban Amendment‖) and the recent amendment to introduce plastic pollution (2019). 2.3.5.2 Basel Convention: Plastic Pollution Amendment 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Flowing from the previous section, and dwelling on the research questions of this study, it is now essential to highlight one of the major outcomes of the 2019 Conference of Parties to the Basel Convention (COP 14) that was held in Geneva, Switzerland. This is in relation to the amendment that was introduced in respect of plastic pollution. It is quite gratifying to note that 187 countries that participated in the conference approved new amendment which will regulate the movement of hazardous plastic waste from one country to another, and also regulate in-country use of 39 plastics to combat the dangerous effects of plastic pollution. As noted in chapter one, the issue of plastic pollution is of grave concern because of the effects on aquatic life in the oceans. And, on this basis, it was most regrettable that the United States was not party to the new regulations. However, despite the non-signing of the US, it will still be bound by the law because all the signatory states are required to comply with the regulations when dealing with non-signatory states. The implications for the United States are that it will not be able to continue to dump plastic waste in countries such as Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and other Asian states. Under 40 the amendment, plastic waste is divided into three general categories:  ―Clean‖ plastic ―waste‖ that has been sorted prior to export that has been prepared to specification and is suitable for immediate recycling with minimal further mechanical preparatory treatment processes, if any;  ―Other‖ plastic waste, which contains mixed plastics or other wastes or is contaminated and is subject to the control system of the Basel Convention;  ―Hazardous‖ plastic waste, which is contaminated with (Annex I) constituents to the extent that it exhibits (Annex III) hazardous characteristics and is subject to Basel Convention controls. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The amendment was quite significant because poor countries which hitherto served more or less as dumping grounds for plastic waste from industrialized countries have now been empowered to receive prior information and also to give their consent before shipments can be made. The amendment, specifically, seeks to prevent rich nations from exporting contaminated plastic waste to poor developing nations under the guise of recycling. 2.4 Sustainable Development Goals 41 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) do not form part of MEAs but they are worth discussing here because quite a number of them touch on the environment (either generally or specifically). For example, in general terms, Goal 13 talks about the need for global action on climate change which affects the environment. Even more specifically on the topic under discussion, Goals 6 and 14 talk about Water and Sanitation and Life under Water, respectively. As explained earlier, plastic pollution has become a major sanitation issue with the ever- increasing production of single-use plastics. These plastics end up in the oceans, affecting life under water. It is for this reason that studies on plastic pollution are now gaining currency. The relevance of the SDGs demonstrate that, even without MEAs, if countries, including the United States, as well as other states, not complying with the MEAs, committed themselves to the SDGs, it should be possible for plastic pollution to be brought under control. Countries must, therefore, be encouraged to commit themselves fully to attaining the SDGs. 2.5 Conclusion This chapter has looked at some MEAs which are pertinent for the current study on plastic pollution. What has come out clearly is that there is no shortage of frameworks for the 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh management of global environmental concerns. From the Earth summit, through the Kyoto Protocol and the Basel Convention, it is evident that the UN has been at the forefront of global efforts to deal with environmental issues. It is important to underscore the fact that the continuous existence of human life, wildlife and marine life all depend on the environment. There is no way sustainable development can be achieved without deliberate efforts to safeguard the environment for future generations. Given the debilitating effects of plastic pollution, the recent amendment is definitely in the right direction. For countries like Ghana, this is the time to take action and the next chapter of this study is dedicated to interrogating how the country is combating the plastic pollution menace. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Endnotes 1 United Nations Environment Programme. ―Why Does UN Environment Matter?‖ unenrivonment.org https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment/why-does-un-environment-matter 2 Ibid 3 th United Nations Environment Programme. ―Achievements.‖ unenvironement.org accessed on 20 May, 2019. https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment/sustainability/achievements/un-environment-achievements 4 ―What Is Climate Neutrality?‖ myclimate.org https://www.myclimate.org/information/faq/faq-detail/detail/News/what-is-climate-neutrality/ 5 United Nations Environment Programme. ―Achievements.‖ unenvironement.org https://www.unenvironment.org/about-un-environment/sustainability/achievements/un-environment-achievements 6 The University of Melbourne. ―Public International Law: International Environment Law.‖ unimelb.libguides.com st http://unimelb.libguides.com/internationallaw/environmental, aacessed on 21 May, 2019. 7 Ibid. 8 Freestone, David. ―The Road From Rio: International Environment Law After The Earth Summit.‖ Journal of Environmental Law, Vol. 6, No. 2, 1994. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 Panjab, R. K. L. The Earth Summit in Rio: politics , economics and the environment, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997. 12 The Rio Declaration was signed by 170 countries after the Rio Summit. It contained 27 principles that were intended to guide countries on issues of sustainable development. 13 Agenda 21 was the Action Plan that was drawn to guide implementation of the recommendations from the Rio Summit. 14 Lal, RaneeKhooshie Panjabi. ―Can International Law Improve the Climate - An Analysis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Signed at the Rio Summit in 1992.‖ scholarship.law.unc.edu accessed th on 29 May, 2019. 15 United Nations Climate Change. ―What Is The Kyoto Protocol.‖ unfccc.inthttps://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 Freedman, Martin.; and Bikki, Jaggi. ―Global Warming, Commitment to the Kyoto Protocol, and Accounting Disclosures by the Largest Global Public Firms From Polluting Industries.‖ International Journal of Accounting, Vol. 40, No. 3, 2005. 19 CNN Library. ―Kyoto Protocol Fast Facts.‖ edition.cnn.com https://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/26/world/kyoto- protocol-fast-facts/index.html 20 Ibid 21 Rotterdam Convention. ―History Of The Negotiations Of The Rotterdam Convention.‖ http://www.pic.int/TheConvention/Overview/History/Overview/tabid/1360/language/en-US/Default.aspx 22 Ibid 23 Ibid 24 World Health Organisation. ―Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP).‖https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/chemical-risks/pops/en/ 25 Ibid 26 History of the negotiations of the Stockholm Convention: The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted on 22 May 2001 and entered into force on 17 May 2004. 27 Ibid 28 The 12 initial POPs under the Stockholm Convention Initially, twelve POPs have been recognized as causing adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem and these can be placed in 3 categories: http://chm.pops.int/TheConvention/ThePOPs/The12InitialPOPs/tabid/296/Default.aspx 29 Ibid . 30 Greenhouse, Steven. ―Toxic Waste Boomerang – Ciao Italy!‖ New York Times, September 3, 1988. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Clary, Mike. ―Wanted: Final Resting Place for Huge Trash Pile.‖ L. A. Times, March 18, 2001. 32 Basel Convention. ―The Basel Convention At A Glance.‖ http://www.basel.int/Portals/4/Basel%20Convention/docs/convention/bc_glance.pdf 33 Kummer, Kathrina. ―The Basel Convention: Ten Years On.‖ Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 7(3):227 - 236 · December 2002 34 Hackett, P. David. ―An Assessment Of The Basel Convention On The Control Of Transboundary Movements Of Hazardous Wastes And Their Disposal.‖ American University International Law Review Vol. 5, Issue 2, 1990. 35 Portas, Pierre. ―Commentary: The Basel Convention, Back To The Future.‖ Sustainable Development Law & Policy, Vol. 6, Issue 3 Spring 2006: Sound Chemicals Management 36 Ibid 37 Yang, Tseming.; Fulton, Scott C. ―Breach Avoidance Or Treaty Avoidance?: The Problem of Over-Compliance and U.S. Ratification of the Basel Convention On Hazardous Wastes.‖ Santa Clara Digital law Commons, 2015. 38 Legal Opinion Finds Canada In Violation of Basel Convention.‖ https://ipen.org/news/legal-opinion-finds-canada- th violation-basel-convention, accessed on 28 May, 2019. 39 Picheta, Rob.; Dean, Sarah. ―Over 180 Countries - - Not Including The U.S. - -Agree To Restrict Global Plastic Waste Trade.‖ https://edition.cnn.com/2019/05/11/world/basel-convention-plastic-waste-trade-intl/index.html 40 Toto, DeAnne. ―New Rules Place Restrictions On Global Plastic Scrap Trade.‖ nd https://www.recyclingtoday.com/article/basel-convention-restrictions-on-plastic-scrap-trade/ accessed on 2 June, 2019. 41 UNDP Ghana. ―Sustainable Development Goals.‖ http://www.gh.undp.org/content/ghana/en/home/sustainable- nd development-goals.html, accessed on 2 June, 2019. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE AN ASSESSMENT OF THE CAPACITY OF GHANA TO MANAGE PLASTIC POLLUTION 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents the main findings of the study. With a blend of primary information obtained through interviews and secondary data obtained through desktop research, the chapter discusses Ghana‘s response to the global efforts to deal with plastic pollution as well as the country‘s capacity to deal with the menace. In addition, it also looks at the country‘s response, so far, to the menace of plastic pollution as well as its effects on the environment. Seven respondents were interviewed for this section of the study. They included four public officials and three private citizens as was noted in chapter one. 3.1 Ghana and the Global Response to Plastic Pollution The discussion from chapter two shows that there is a huge global response towards environmental issues generally and, quite recently, plastic pollution in particular. Majority of the respondents who were interviewed mentioned the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions as the main international MEAs that deal with plastic pollution. The views of the respondents were then sought on whether Ghana is sufficiently complying with these international MEAs in order for the country to be able to deal with plastic pollution. The first respondent to be interviewed was emphatic that Ghana is not observing these treaties due to lack of political will. A second respondent also indicated that Ghana is not observing these Laws and conventions satisfactorily. They all explained that the country has weaknesses in 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh implementing its internal laws and, consequently, that is affecting the domestication of international laws. However, a third respondent held a different position. He observed that: Ghana is observing these conventions to an extent. For example we have now passed the hazardous or E-waste bill. We are yet to fully implement them. The private sector is doing a lot and MESTI is also doing a lot of advocacy. A fourth respondent gave a detailed response: In order to observe these conventions, there must be domestication, which means that we must internalize the intent and objectives of the convention by legislating, making policies and implementing activities on the ground. So Ghana being a party to the Basel convention has ratified the convention and is beginning to make a number of laws. For example, the E-waste and Hazardous waste Law, and may further even develop specific laws for just plastics. These will ensure that the objectives of the convention are translated down to realize them on the ground. It is instructive to note that Ghana has since 2016 passed a law for the management of hazardous and e-waste. According to a Government of Ghana website: The passage of the Act is also in fulfillment of Ghana’s obligations under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste , the Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade as well as the Stockholm Convention on 1 Persistent Organic Pollutants. Thus, in terms of framework, Ghana has responded adequately. What is required now is the will power to implement the laws. And now that the Basel Convention has been amended to include plastic pollution, specifically, it is about time government responded with a specific national law to that effect. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Ghana’s Capacity to Deal with Plastic Pollution The 1992 Constitution, under the Directive Principles of State Policy, in chapter six, Article 39, clause 9, places a burden on the state of Ghana, working in concert with international bodies, to protect the environment. It states that, ―the State shall take appropriate measures needed to protect and safeguard the national environment for posterity; and shall seek cooperation with other states and bodies for purposes of protecting the wider international environment for mankind.‖ Article 41 (k) also places a responsibility on all citizens of Ghana that, whiles enjoying their rights and freedoms they must ―protect and safeguard the environment.‖ The above constitutional provisions, therefore, require Ghana to, among others, enact laws and also participate in the formulation of MEAs to protect the environment. In response, the country has passed series of laws and regulations for the control and management of the environment. Broadly, they are categorized under: ―air pollution; coastal and marine environment; energy and mineral resources; flora and fauna; human development and settlement; hazardous substances/chemicals, land management; noise control; solid waste management; and water 2 management and pollution.‖ Generally, the Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994(Act 490) is the main law governing environmental protection in Ghana As part of its functions, the agency is mandated ―to secure by itself or in collaboration with any other person or body the control and prevention of discharge of waste into the environment and the protection and improvement of the quality of the 3 environment,‖ It is further mandated ―to prescribe standards and guidelines relating to the 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh pollution of air, water, land and any other forms of environmental pollution including the 4 discharge of waste and the control of toxic substances.‖ When it comes to the management of solid waste, there are three basic regulations namely, Abandoned Property (Disposal) Act ,1974; Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999, (LI 1652) and the Local Government Act (1994), Act 462. Specifically, on waste, Ghana has since 2016 passed the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act (Act 917) and the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Regulations (LI 2250). 3.2.1 Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) The Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI) has its antecedents to the Ministry of Environment and Science that was created in 1993. It is one of the ministries that have undergone several transformations. For example, in 2006, Environment portfolio was made part of the Local Government Ministry while the Science portfolio was added to the Education Ministry. In 2009, it was reconstituted as Ministry of Environment, Science and 5 Technology (MEST) and later in 2013 the Innovation portfolio was added. The mission of the Ministry is to ―promote sustainable development by deepening and strengthening market driven Research and Development (R & D) for sound Environmental Governance, Science, Technology and Innovation through intensive awareness creation, 6 collaboration and partnership.‖ Its vision is to make Ghana ―attain sustainable development through the utilization of Science, Technology, Innovation of wealth creation and sound 7 environmental governance in a modern and competitive economy.‖ 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 Environmental Protection Agency The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was created in 1994 by Act 490. It was established to replace the erstwhile Environmental Protection Council (EPC) under the Environmental Protection Council Decree1974 (NRCD 239). The EPA is responsible for regulating the environment and ensuring that Government policies on the environment are implemented. The mission of the EPA is to ―co-manage, protect and enhance the country's environment, in 8 particular, as well as seek common solutions to global environmental problems.‖ It aspires to accomplish this mission, ―inter alia through research, scientific, technological and innovative 9 approaches, good governance and partnerships.‖ In addition, the vision of the EPA is to be ―an Agency dedicated to continuously improving and conserving the country's environment in which all sections of the community value the environment, strive to attain sustainable development, effective and efficient resource management based on good environmental governance, taking 10 into account social land equity issues.‖ 3.2.3 Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources (MSWR) The Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources (MSWR) was established in January 2017. It is one of the newly created ministries in the history of the Fourth Republic. It was carved out of the Ministry of Water Resources, Works and Housing (MWRWH) which previously oversaw the water portfolio and the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD) which 11 used to be in charge of the sanitation portfolio . The vision of the Ministry is to ensure ―sustainable water and environmental sanitation for all‖ while its goal is ―to contribute to improvement in the living standards of Ghanaians through increased access to and use of safe 12 water, sanitation and hygiene practices and sustainable management of water resources.‖ 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It can be observed from the above that Ghana has adequate institutional arrangements and frameworks to deal with the menace of plastic pollution. But, some respondents who were interviewed for this study are of the view that the country has been ineffective in deploying these institutions and laws. When asked whether the country has specific laws to deal with plastic pollution, this is what one of the respondents said: Honestly, what I can say is that we don’t have a stand-alone law that deals specifically with plastics. But, if you look at the existing laws, e.g. the Constitution of Ghana, there is a section that deals with waste mismanagement. And plastic waste is part of the waste that we generate. It means plastics must also be managed responsibly. The 2010 Sanitation Policy of the MLGRD talks basically about waste management, looking at solid and liquid waste management. And then the EPA Act. We are supposed to manage our environment in a sustainable way. Anything that is a nuisance environmentally, we have a responsibility by that law to make sure that we manage it. But, in what may appear like a rebuttal, another respondent said: We either don’t have it or they are not being enforced because we don’t feel the effects of such laws. If they exist, the government should speedily enact them. Also, foreigners who set up companies and use plastics indiscriminately make me feel that if there are laws, then the laws are too relaxed. When they were asked specifically whether the country can ban the use of plastics, opinions were divided. Four answered ―yes‖ while three answered ―no‖. The public officials toed the line of the Minister that the use of plastics is so pervasive in the economy that it cannot be banned outright. One respondent, however, disagreed. He retorted that it can be done except that, the politicians just don’t want to do it. Quizzed further about why the country is not effectively implementing its laws on the environment, he once again blamed the politicians. He said: If waste is managed properly and more dustbins are made available at the city centers and at the beaches the littering will reduce. People caught littering should be arrested and severely fined. This can only be achieved if the government shows enough political will and commitment. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In a counter view, another respondent rather blamed the public for the menace. To his mind, the problem is more attitudinal than governmental. He explained: First and foremost, it is attitudinal; the attitude of all of us. We haven’t come to that realization that polluting the environment goes a long way to affect all of us, directly or indirectly. We have health implications from everything that we do to negatively impact the environment. Secondly, I also think people believe that, once they pay money to waste management companies, then it is their right to dispose waste anyhow. On the other hand, another respondent was of the view that the issue has more to do with enforcement. He gave his opinion as follows: The problem with implementation is enforcement. How to enforce them is a challenge and then finance is also a challenge. If we had funding we would have set up huge recycling plants. These things are not a problem if we have money. Technology isn’t home based and so the lack of it is a challenge. Added to that is human attitude and lack of public awareness on the dangers of improper waste disposal and its non-degradable nature. One of the respondents enumerated some of the challenges to include inadequate storage and disposal facilities for plastics, unwillingness for citizens to change their behavior, ineffective enforcement of environmental and plastic laws. But, another respondent had an entirely different response. He was of the opinion that the challenge facing the government in implementing the laws is data related. He explained that there are challenges with the data on the inventory of plastics circulating in the country because most plastics in the country are imported. Recycling, as identified by one of the respondents, is one of the strategies by which Ghana can deal with plastic pollution. But, regrettably, recycling in Ghana is still in its embryonic stages. There are only a handful of companies that are currently operating in that sector and they include 3G plastic limited company (Tema), GP Waste Recycle Co.Ltd (Kpone), Polytex Ind.Ltd 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 (Industrial Area), Geocrestco.Ltd (Kwabenya) and Nelplast Ghana limited (Ashaiman). As mentioned already, their combined capacities account for just about 2% recycling of waste in the country. A company that is presently investing heavily in the sector is Zoomlion Company Limited which operates the Accra Compost and Recycling Plant (ACARP), established in 2012 as an integrated waste processing and recycling company. Located at AdjenKotoku, ACARP was established to receive, sort, process and recycle solid and liquid waste and produce organic manure for agronomic purposes in Ghana and West Africa. According to their website, their mission is ―to provide an effective integrated processing, management and recycling of solid and liquid waste, for economic and social good in an environmentally sustainable manner, thereby producing compost and other products for the Ghanaian and African economies.‖ The company recycles about 80% of waste that it collects and has a processing capacity of 600 tonnes per day. The company is building a second plant in the Ashanti Region known as the Kumasi Compost and 14 Recycling Plant (KCARP) which is about 90 per cent completed. Another facility deployed by Zoomlion is the recently commissioned an Integrated Recycling and Compost Plant (IRECOP) in Accra which is expected to serve areas including Mamprobi, Chorkor, Laterbiokorshie, Kantamanto, Agbogbloshie (Old Fadama), James Town, Ussher fort, Graphic Road, Korle Bu, Korle Gono, AshieduKeteke in the Greater Accra region. The plant is worth $20 million and it is in partnership with Komptech Austria. IRECOP uses a hybrid system which makes it run on generator and electricity. It has a receiving bay that is able to hold about 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1,200 tonnes of waste for three days‘ production. The company plans to open similar plants in all 15 the 16 regions across the country. 3.3 Ghana’s Response to Plastic Pollution In a study conducted by Miezah et al., using selected households in each region to obtain data on rate of waste generation, physical composition of waste, sorting and separation efficiency and per capita of waste, they discovered that rate of waste generation in Ghana was 16 0.47 kg/person/day. This means that, with an estimated population of 30 million, Ghana generates an average of 14,100 tonnes of waste per day. The study further found out that nationally, biodegradable waste (organics and papers) was 0.318 kg/person/day and non- biodegradable or recyclables (metals, glass, textiles, leather and rubbers) was 17 0.096 kg/person/day. It was further established that organics and plastics constitute the top two places in household waste at 61% and 14% respectively. The rest are paper (5%), metals (3%), 18 glass (3%), leather ((1%) rubber (1%), textiles (1%), inert (6%) and miscellaneous (5%). In the 1990s, Ghana had about 21 landfill sites. But all these have now been covered because the lifespan of a landfill site is about two years. This has raised very serious concerns about waste 19 management in the Metropolitan Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs). Presently, there are only two landfill sites that receive waste from the Greater Accra Region. The first is the Kpone landfill site which receives about 2, 500 tonnes of waste a day and the second is the Nsumia Waste Disposal Site (about 680,000 cubic metres), located in the Nsawam-Adoagyiri 20 Municipality off the Accra Nsawam highway. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are a lot challenges with landfill sites because they soon become a nuisance for nearby residential communities. For example, residents of Oblogo in the Ga South Municipaltiy for 21 several years demonstrated and protested against the dumping of refuse in their area In Kumasi in March 2019, residents near the Oti landfill demonstrated over poor management of the facility 22 and blocked access to it. This has made the use of landfill sites sustainable as a waste management method. As a matter of fact, plastic pollution is presently assuming alarming proportions in Ghana. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) says that Ghana currently produces about 1.7 23 million tonnes of plastic waste annually. Out of this amount only 2% gets recycled. 24 Mohammed has noted that the plastic pollution in the environment gets compounded during heavy rains. This is because the rains wash the plastic bottles, bags, and sleeves into road‐ side gutters and water bodies. This results in urban floods and transmission of vector-borne diseases such as malaria. In addition, he says that plastic littering has debilitating consequences on agriculture and water sources. 25 In 2015, according to Chasant, Ghana generated about 302,192 kg plastic waste per day. Out of this, about 81% was inadequately managed (meaning the remainder ended up in uncontrolled landfills). This is due to the fact that the country has serious problems with municipal waste management services and so community residents regularly burn plastic waste in the open, releasing highly toxic chemicals such as dioxins and furans into the environment. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 But, besides local production of plastics, Oppong-Ansah indicates that about 2.58 million metric tonnes of raw plastics are imported into the country every year. Out of this amount about 73 percent ends up as waste while only 19 percent gets re-used. In a study that was conducted at Glefe, a coastal suburb of Accra, Oppong-Ansah estimated that about 1,500 households along the 27 beach can contribute as much as 1.3 million pieces of single-use plastics to the sea each month. The situation is so alarming that Cindy Badu, a senior official of the EPA, recently cautioned that if the situation is not checked, in the not too distant future, the sea will be filled with more 28 plastics than fishes. In view of the gravity of the situation, there have been calls on the government to consider banning the use of plastics to follow the examples of Rwanda, Kenya and Tanzania. However, the government has a different response. According to the Minister of MESTI, Professor Kwabena Frimpong-Boateng, the government has no immediate plans of banning the use of plastics. Speaking at a press conference on Tuesday, July 2, 2019, the sector Minister said: A year and a half ago, we were under pressure to ban plastics in Ghana because certain countries in Africa had banned plastics so we should do the same. We think that we should be very careful in the way we do that. Because if you ban something 29 and you’re not able to monitor and police it, what do you do? In the view of the Minister, plastic use has become so entrenched that an outright ban may not be beneficial for the country. He stated:We think that the wholesale ban will not be in the interest of Ghana, because plastics are used everywhere. In the hospitals, in homes, in industries and agriculture and so on…The problem is that plastics are not bad but its management is 30 problematic.‖ The Minister added that: We may start by banning things that we may not need, example, plastic bags, chewing gum, plastic cutlery, straw, and so on…we should learn how to manage 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh plastics in its life cycle. When we do that it would be a very good thing. We would be able to create jobs, create employment and also clean our environment” the 31 minister added. Proposing solutions,the Minister announced that: Government has now set up the plastic levy. A bank account has been opened at the Bank of Ghana and the people who import plastics will have to pay some small levies which will be credited to this account and that money will be utilized in doing a lot of things that we want to do; plastic recycling and so on. But some analysts have expressed concerns about the feet dragging of government on the issue of whether or not plastics should be banned. Chasant, for example, argues that the statement from the Minister demonstrates institutional weaknesses. He says: This is the thinking: Since we know we cannot 'monitor' and 'police' a ban on plastics in Ghana, lets settle for the easiest solution - collect a 'small money' from plastic importers, set up a special office, create a space, and pay people to try to 32 sort it out. Everything should be fine in the end. In the view of Mohammed, Ghana is reluctant to place a ban on plastics probably because of the vibrancy of the plastic manufacturing sector. He reveals that statistics indicate that the plastic manufacturing sector provides more than 17,000 direct employment with more than GH¢25 33 million in state tax revenue annually. He contends that the idea of charging levies have proven not to be workable because in 2011 the government instituted a 10% Environmental Excise Tax (EET) payable by plastic manufacturers. The intent was to set up a Plastic Levy Fund Authority (PLFA) to use the funds to address the menace of plastics in the country. However, till date it is 34 not clear what has become of the PLFA. The respondents were also asked to share their thoughts on alternatives that are available should the country ever take a step towards banning plastics. One responded as follows: 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh We can go back to the paper bags, fabric carrier bags with handles on them, which you can take for shopping, bring back and wash, iron and re-use. Jute bags or cane baskets can also be used for shopping to replace the single use plastics used for packaging at the markets. Levies must also be placed on single-use plastics to discourage its use. The cost of plastics must be increased because plastics are basically free. I feel it is high time the government put levies on plastics, especially the PETs. Another respondent recommended that glass bottles should replace plastic bottles. Also, the era of needing new glass bottles to make a new purchase should be re-visited. Plastic bottled beverages should be banned completely. Other respondents recommended bioplastics. Taking into consideration references that were made about the attitudes of citizens in plastic pollution, the respondents were also asked to suggest ways in which citizens can contribute in the management of plastics. They all recommended attitudinal change. One said: For citizens, we need change of attitude. We should be each other’s keeper. We need to learn to separate waste in our homes. For example, there are people who want to buy the used plastics but cannot do so if they are soiled and not separated. Then there are proper disposal practices which we must all inculcate. Another respondent that: Individuals can sort their waste in their homes. We should not throw rubbish away indiscriminately. If there are any designated bins along the roads, let’s just walk and put them in there. Let’s talk to ourselves and neighbours in the communities. Let’s talk to the members of the churches and mosques. Let’s train children in schools as they are young and they can take the message home to their parents and practice them. A respondent called on citizens to reduce the use of single use plastics such as straws, plastic bags, take-out food containers and switch to re-usable containers. But, another respondent declared that citizens will only cooperate if the seriousness of plastic pollution is presented to 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them with the right understanding. If positive, they can create a community team to help solve the problem. But, one of the respondents refused to accept that the problem is from citizens and so he rather called on citizens to ―voice their frustrations at the district level through their assembly members, District Chief Executives (DCEs) and Members of Parliament (MPs). 3.4 Effects of Plastic Pollution The respondents were also asked to share their experiences about the kind of effect that plastic pollution is having on them. All the respondents indicated that they are currently being affected by the plastic menace in the country. Of them explained this way: Plastic pollution affects all of us. Whatever problem I am having as a result of plastic pollution, any other person in my environment will also be affected. When drains in our communities choke and water cannot run freely, it causes flooding due to the backlash. This does not affect only one person; but, rather, all persons within that catchment. Another respondent sharing his thoughts revealed the following: Plastics pollution affects me and any other person in many ways. Once the environment is polluted, there are consequences for that. For example, when plastics find their way into the sea, and the fish eat them, and consume the toxins, we suffer for it. If plastics choke the gutters and there is a flood, we suffer for it just the same way we suffer when they choke the landfills. Plastics don’t degrade and keep occupying space. They also pollute the soil and affect its fertility in terms of agriculture. Two other respondents agreed with the earlier respondents that indeed plastics are a menace. One of them indicated that when plastics are burnt, they produce emissions which are a health hazard. The other added that plastics create filth, choke culverts, and breeds diseases causing insects and microorganisms. We are all prone to diseases as a result of excessive littering and environmental pollution. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the perspective of one of the respondents, plastic waste clogs sewers and creates breeding grounds for mosquitoes while another respondent shared the perspective that when plastics are burnt it leads to the emission of poisonous gases which are not wholesome for human health. Another respondent also shared his perspectives and insightfully explained that: Plastic waste became more of a nuisance between 2000 and 2002. Since then, there has been a reduction in the volume of our catch and it has progressively gotten worse. This is because rocks at the bottom of the sea contain seafood for fish. When plastics are dumped they cover the surfaces of these rocks, hence fish either starve to death or swim to deeper waters to find food. 35 From the above it can be understood how the plastic menace is accounting for low catch at sea. Towards the end of the interview sessions, all the participants were given the opportunity to give their concluding remarks in order to address any issues that had not come up during the interviews, but were of a concern to them. Four of the respondents seized the occasion to speak to make suggestions on how the plastic menace can be contained: One of them called for a clear government policy plastic waste. He suggested that there is need for a clear government policy direction on plastic waste. It should be structured in nature and be a clear and sustainable policy. A second respondent expressed concerns about the impact that plastic pollution is having on the lives of fisher folks. He lamented: Generally, our quality of life has been significantly and negatively affected by the use of plastics. Sometimes it takes months to get a catch and when they’re finally ready to be sold, they’re not fresh or attractive and do not fetch the best prices. The third respondent opined: 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plastics have become very prominent in our society due to convenience and durability. It makes life convenient and easy for people. So there are many people interested in using them. W must have systems in place to address the challenges that come with them. To do this, the value chain of plastics must be examined. Right from how it is made, how it moves from the factory to the market, how it is used therefore the promotion of a secular economy is the surest way of ensuring that such a problem is solved. The fourth respondent wrapped up this way: In a nut shell, we should all be more responsible about the way we even generate waste. If we generate so much then, it becomes too expensive to even manage. And if we’re looking at plastics in particular, if you think you don’t have a need for the number of plastics you’re given at any point in time, don’t take them. Why go shopping and return home with twenty plastic bags? Even if it’s just one bag, it should be a bag that can be reused. This will reduce the quantum of plastic waste we generate. So for even the little that we generate, we can have a recycle facility that can take care of that. A take back scheme can also be introduced to encourage people to return used plastics for a reward. 3.6 Conclusion This chapter has looked at plastic pollution in Ghana. It has been established that indeed plastic pollution is a major problem in the country. It is polluting the environment by choking drainage systems and causing diseases. It is also affecting marine life and the livelihood of fisher folks. However, in the face of these issues the government has announced that it has no immediate plans to ban the use of plastics because of their pervasive use in the economy. It also came to light that the country recycles just about two percent of the plastic waste that it generates. This raises very serious concerns about the future of plastics in Ghana. Even though the country is signatory to several international MEAs, including the Basel Convention, it does not seem to have the capacity and political will to enforce these laws. Putting everything together, it can be concluded that the country lacks the capacity to effectively manage the menace of plastic pollution. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Endnotes 1 Parliament passes law to control hazardous and E-Waste http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media- nd center/news/2915-parliament-passes-law-to-control-hazardous-e-waste, accessed 2 June, 2019. 2 Environmental Protection Agency, ―Ghana legal environment information‖. th http://www.epa.gov.gh/ghanalex/acts/index.html Accessed on 11 January, 2019 3 Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994, (Act 490). http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/gha13234.pdf accessed th on 11 January, 2019 4 Ibid. 5 Profile: Ministry of Science, Environment, Technology and Innovation, http://mesti.gov.gh/profile-2/, accessed on rd 3 July, 2019. 6 Ibid 7 Ibid 8 Profile: Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation (MESTI), op. cit. 9 Ibid. 10 Ibid. 11 rd About Us: Ministry of Sanitation and Water Resources http://mswr.gov.gh/about-us/, accessed on 3 July, 2019. 12 Ibid. 13 Tiffany Akwasi., ―List of recycling companies in Ghana‖., https://yen.com.gh/110986-list-recycling-companies- ghana.html#110986accessed 15th January, 2019 14 Business Ghana, ―$20 million integrated recycling, compost plant opened-Tamale, Takoradi, Kumasi next‖ https://www.businessghana.com/site/news/general/184938/20-million-integrated-recycling-compost-plant-opened- Tamale-Takoradi-Kumasi-nextaccessed on 10th January, 2019 15 Jospong Group., ―Zoomlion Ghana Limited commissions 1st of its kind integrated recycling and compost plant‖ http://www.jospongroup.com/index.php/component/k2/item/126-zoomlion-ghana-limited-commissions-1st-of-its- kind-integrated-recycling-and-compost-plant accessed on 20th January, 2019 16 Miezah, Kodwo, et al. "Municipal solid waste characterization and quantification as a measure towards effective waste management in Ghana." Waste Management 46 (2015): 15-27. 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Business Ghana, ―$20 million integrated recycling, compost plant opened-Tamale, Takoradi, Kumasi next‖, op. cit. 20 Waste landfill, ―Accra gets new landfill site‖ http://wastelandfill.com.gh/accra-gets-new-landfill-site/index.html rd accessed on 23 July, 2019. 21 Ghana News Agency, ―Oblogo residents against dumping of refuse near Densu‖ https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Oblogo-residents-against-dumping-of-refuse-near- Densu-386146 20th July, 2019. 22 Daily Guide Network., ―Kumasi-residents-demonstrate-over-poor-management-of-Oti- landfill‖https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Kumasi-residents-demonstrate-over-poor- management-of-Oti-landfill-733048, accessed on 22nd July, 2019. 23 Mutala Mohammed., ―Solution to the plastic waste menace in Ghana: Ban or levy‖ https://www.myjoyonline.com/opinion/2019/July-22nd/solution-to-the-plastic-waste-menace-in-ghana-ban-or- nd levy.php?iRef=artMoreaccessed 22 July, 2019 24 Ibid. 25 MuntakaChasant., ―Plastic pollution in Ghana: Causes, effects and solutions‖ th https://www.atcmask.com/blogs/blog/plastic-pollution-in-ghanaaccessed 20 July, 2019 26 Albert Oppong-Ansah., ―Ghana‘s contribution to plastic waste can be reduced with the right investment‖ http://www.ipsnews.net/2018/12/ghanas-contribution-plastic-waste-can-reduced-right-investment/accessed on 15th January, 2019. 27 Ibid. 28 Philip Ankrah., ―Fix Ghana's plastic waste or there will be more plastic than fishes in the sea – EPA‖ https://www.myjoyonline.com/news/2019/March-3rd/fix-ghanas-plastic-waste-or-there-will-be-more-plastic-than- fishes-in-the-sea-epa.php accessed 15th January, 2019 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Ghanaweb., ―We‘ll not ban plastics – Government‖, https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/We-ll-not-ban-plastics-Government-760047accessed 15th January, 2019 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 MuntakaChasant, op. cit. 33 Mutala Mohammed., op. cit. 34 Ibid. 35 FishStocksinGhana‘sMarineWatersFaceImminentThreatofDepletion—USAID/GHANASFMP http://www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/media-center/news/4812-fish-stocks-inghana-s-marine-waters-face-imminent- th threat-of-depletion-usaid-ghana-sfmp, accessed on 27 July, 2019. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4.0 Introduction In this chapter, all the findings that were made in the course of the study are presented with some recommendations that would be useful for the government and also serve as pointers for future research into plastic pollution and its management or control in Ghana. 4.1 Summary of Findings Firstly, with regards to why plastic pollution is of a global concern, the study found that the last sixty years have witnessed an unprecedented increase in the production of plastics. This has created a menace, especially when it comes to single use plastics. The study also found that countries have not been able to device workable strategies to deal with the situation. This is leading to a situation where much of the plastics generated on land are finding their way into the oceans to disturb marine life. There are concerns that if the situation is not brought under control, very soon there will be more plastics in the oceans than fishes. That explains why there are concerted global efforts to deal with the plastic menace. In view of the fact that plastics are not bio-degradable, they also hurt the environment and this could lead to challenges in agriculture. Secondly, regarding global response to plastic pollution, the study found out that since early the 1990s, the UN, through some of its agencies like UNCED, has been at the forefront of global efforts to protect the environment, in general, and manage waste in particular. It was established that there are a number of MEAs that have been signed globally to ensure sustainable 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development with the environment as a reference point. So far, the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions provide a framework for the management of hazardous and e-waste. Ghana is signatory to all these MEAs and, in order to domesticate them, the country in 2016 legislated a law on hazardous e-waste. It is quite significant to note that the 2019 Basel Convention meeting (COP 14) introduced amendments, for the first time, to cater specifically for plastic pollution. It can therefore be said that there is international commitment to deal with plastic pollution except that the non-participation of some advanced countries like the United States and Canada gives cause for concern. Thirdly, in respect of Ghana‘s capacity to deal with plastic pollution, the study found that the country‘s Constitution has provisions that require that the environment must be protected for future generations. Flowing from this, the country has created some institutions and clothed them with powers to manage the environment. The country has also enacted national laws on sanitation and waste management. The challenge, however, is that the political will to implement these laws seems to be lacking. Also, there are resource constraints in terms of logistics to manage waste. Plastic waste, particularly, seems to be out of control with an ever-increasing proliferation of single-use plastics. Even though there are some efforts to recycle plastics, the current initiatives are only being promoted by private sector whose investment capacities are limited. Finally on the effects of plastic pollution, the study found that if the current rate of pollution is not checked, it could have very dire consequences on the environment. Already, the fisher folks are indicating that their nets are now catching plastics rather than fish. Also, there are a lot of 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environmental hazards associated with the burning of plastics. Again, the study also found that plastics in the environment choke gutters and this tends to breed mosquitoes that cause diseases like malaria. Due to the concerns that people have about plastics, there are concerns that they should be banned. 4.2 Conclusions This study has established that indeed there is a major global concern about the menace of plastic pollution. The upsurge in the production of plastics in the last half century has made it the most preferred material for both industrial and domestic uses. To this extent, the UN has since the last three decades led global efforts to manage the situation. A couple of MEAs have been formulated to offer countries frameworks within which to situate their domestic laws and deal with the menace. However, some powerful countries are either not complying with the MEAs or have not even signed at all. As a result, there are some who hold the view that plastics should be banned completely. Already, some countries in Africa like Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania and South Africa have taken the lead to ban the use of plastics. Others also argue that plastics themselves are not a problem but their management. These people, therefore, call for measures to ensure that waste that is created by plastics is managed properly. Ghana, as a country, belongs to this latter school of thought as the country has not been forthright in placing a ban on plastics. Public officials have called for a more cautious approach to deal with the situation in order not to cause a disruption in the economy. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Recommendations Arising out of this study, there are some important recommendations that can be made to government in view of the fact it wields the power to manage or control plastic pollution in the country. Some five recommendations are, therefore, presented below: 4.3.1 Public Education The first recommendation from this study is that there is need for mass public education the menace of plastic pollution. Through the National Commission on Civic Education (NCCE), the government must educate the populace on the harmful effects of plastic waste and how all citizens can all play a role in protecting the environment. There is need for campaigns on radio, television, print media and social media. Companies that manufacture plastics, as well as the consuming public, should be encouraged to use more easily recyclable materials that can be used more effectively. The following slogans ―Reduce, Re-use, Recycle‖ can be popularized again to support the campaign. Reduce: This has to do with employing the use of fewer plastics in the first place. This will require the use of other alternatives such as jute, paper, cloth, and other more environmentally- friendly options. Thus, the use of such options will eliminate the need to deal with the harmful effects that plastics would have created. Re-use: This has to do with plastic users being encouraged to, as much as possible, avoid the single-use of plastics. This ensures that plastics circulate for a while before they join the waste stream. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Recycling: This is the last stage and it involves the use of old products for further processes when you have already engaged in reducing and re-using. 4.3.2 Law Enforcement The government has to ensure that policies to reduce plastic pollution are enforced to make sure individuals as well as corporate bodies either play their role or pay the price. At the district and local government levels, there should be clearly defined and enforced policies regarding plastic waste management. Through Assembly Members, Members of Parliament (MPs) and Metropolitan and Municipal Chief Executives (MMDCEs), waste management laws should be fully enforced on all constituents. Equally, all laws regarding these policies should be fully adhered to. Also, the government has to demonstrate in real and practical terms the ways in which it seeks to ensure that all stakeholders play their role while playing their own role of monitoring and enforcement. Again, as peoples‘ lives change and the way companies do business changes over time, the government should ensure that laws and policies are amended to remain relevant to ensure environmental sustainability. 4.3.3 Reward Systems Thirdly, plastic-producing / manufacturing companies must be encouraged to be responsible for what they produce. This can be achieved through the setting up of ‗take-back‘ schemes, where those who purchase their products do so at a margin and are subsequently reimbursed with the margin upon returning the used item. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 Recycling There is need for government to make investments in the area of recycling. At the moment only private sector companies are involved in recycling which is not good enough. Instead of landfills, government can invest more into recycling and the acquisition of incinerating plants in order to turn waste into energy. There is a lot of potential in this area and government is seriously encouraged to focus in this sector to shore up the country‘s energy needs. Recycling plants are capital intensive and that is why the private sector alone cannot effectively invest in that sector. 4.3.5 Alternatives to Plastics Until plastics became commonplace in Ghana there were carriers such as paper bags, raffia bags, bamboo baskets, cloth bags, bottles etc. all these items were bio-degradable and so there were no challenges at all with their usage. The advent of plastics changed the availability of these items. Perhaps, it is about time government made efforts to gradually reintroduce some of these carriers in the system in order to reduce single – use plastics. 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