University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE PROBLEMS OF TRANSLATING COLLOCATIONS: A TRANSLATION FROM FRENCH INTO ENGLISH OF AN EXTRACT FROM ‘GUIDE JURIDIQUE ET FISCAL DES ASSOCIATIONSAU TOGO “TOME II BY ELIZABETH ESI ANAMOAH (10155881) UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF DR. C.K.M. BADASU THIS THESIS/DISSERTATION IS SUBMBITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA TRANSLATION DEGREE MARCH 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Elizabeth Esi Anamoah, hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own research and practical work, done in the Department of French and submitted to the University of Ghana, Legon, in line with the requirements for the award of the Master of Arts degree in translation. Contributions, ideas of others and quotations used in this research work have been duly cited. This work has not been previously submitted, in part or whole, to the University of Ghana or to any other university for the award of the degree and I remain responsible for any of its shortcomings. ……………………………………………….. Date………………………………... Elizabeth Esi ANAMOAH (10155881) (Student) We hereby declare that the preparation and presentation of the work herein have been carried out according to the laid down procedure for the supervision of projects by the University. ………………………………………………… Date……………………………… Dr. C.K.M. BADASU (Supervisor) ............................................................ Date..................................................... Dr. SEWOENAM CHACHU Head of Department University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my children. I thank them for their support and understanding. It is also dedicated to loyal friends who in diverse ways and contributions made the pursuit of my studies a success. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to those who made it possible for me to complete my dissertation. Thanks to my Supervisor for his patience in going through my work with every detail and whose contribution in encouraging me with advice and suggestions urged me to complete the work. I also thank everyone who made it possible for me to access data and information relevant to my research work and all those around me who gave me the peace i needed to successfully complete my dissertation. My gratitude is also to the staff of the University, who in various ways helped me to access equipment and library tools that were necessary for the project. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Translation has been with human interaction from the time of creation. Scholars have found it necessary to set up frameworks for the regulation of translation due to variation and the peculiarities of languages. The study examines and analyzes the problems that may be encountered in the process of translating collocations. The source text is a legal document. Chapter one looks at the history of translation and the process of organization of translation as a field of study. The implications of translation on globalization and integration of nations was also examined. Due to the increased trend of integration and need for communication among peoples of different languages, the issue of collocations and their nature were examined. Previous studies on collocations: definitions, characteristics and relevance to translation were also assessed. Chapter Two is the translation of the text “Guide juridique et fiscal des associations au Togo” Tome II. A brief introduction of the source text was done. A translation of the text which is a legal document - administrative and tax manual was done. Chapter Three analyzes and discusses the problems encountered in the translation of collocations, from the source text into the target language and solutions. Conclusions made from the study are also in this chapter. It was realized that collocations take a significant chunk of most texts. They are therefore relevant to the study of translation and to the mastery of language. Collocations were not found in the text were not necessarily monosemous. Collocations in technical text may be ambiguous and polysemous. Functional equivalence has implications in the translation of collocations in technical text. It was also realized that one needs to know the collocational ranges of lexical items, to enable make appropriate choices for a faithful translation. Keywords: Analytical study, collocations, concordance, collocational range, legal text University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................i DEDICATION.......................................................................................................... .............ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................................iii ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................iv TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................................v CHAPTER ONE .............................................................................................................................1 1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 The Statement of the Problem..............................................................................................4 1.2 Research Objectives and Purpose of the Study....................................................................5 1.3 Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................5 1.3.1 Hypothesis...........................................................................................................................6 1.4 Limitations of the Study.......................................................................................................6 1.5 Literature Review................................................................................................................7 1.6 Methodology.......................................................................................................... .......... 17 1.7 Organization of the Work................................................................................................ 19 1.8 Relevance of the Study......................................................................................................19 CHAPTER TWO ..........................................................................................................................22 2.1 Source Text........................................................................................................................22 Translation of the Source Text into English......................................................................24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................95 3.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................95 3.1 Analysis of French and English collocations from a legal text in French.........................95 3.2 Findings...........................................................................................................................104 3.3 Conclusions......................................................................................................................107 BIBLIOGRAPHY ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS GLOSSARY University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Study According to Sonia Firdaus (2012, p.277) in her article “Evolution of Translation Theories & Practice”, the process of translation started when the first human couple interacted with each other. She further asserts that, “translation became an organized discipline when the first translator, a French Humanist Etienne Dolet, formed rules for rendering of meaning of a text into another language. From then, various paradigms have provided the base for modern complicated investigation.” From the above stated, it is obvious that translation has been practised in human interaction for ages and may continue to be relevant to human activity until the end of time. It is therefore necessary for one to understand what translation is, as well as understand the linguistic tools that may impact positively on translation. In Larson’s opinion, “Translation is that which consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the RECEPTOR LANGUAGE and its cultural context” (Larson, 1984 p.3) For Seleskovitch and Lederer, To translate is to “Restituer le sens dans une autre langue, c’est le rendre intelligible sur deux plans, c’est le faire comprendre sans rendre brumeaux ce qui était clair ni ridicule University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ce qui était digne” (Restoring meaning in another language is to render it intelligible at two levels: to make it comprehensible without rendering obscure that which is clear, nor ridiculous that which is worthy (translation rendered by Ajunwa). Seleskovitch and Lederer (1986, p.62) cited in Ajunwa (2015). According to Newmark (1988, p.5) in his book “A Textbook of Translation”, translation “may mean the rendering of meaning of a text into another language in the same way that the author intended in the text”. Wright and Budin (1996, p. 16-17), posit that, though various writers in the field of linguistics call many different kinds of multiword strings collocations, purists argue that this term should be reserved for so-called combinatory phraseological units. Wright and Budin (1996) further state that combinatory forms are made up of words that frequently co-occur (i.e. “co- locate”), even if they don’t always follow each other directly in sentences. They insist that the principle of potential dislocation within the stream of discourse constitutes the essential property of combinatory forms, hence of co-location. They also make a distinction between the concepts “term” and “collocation”. They assert that “tems designate individual concepts ... whereas technical collocations identify situations or propositions that are for the most part made up of several mutually related concepts”. Budin and Wright’s designation of collocation, makes collocation relevant as a tool for the rich development of translation since “the purpose of the element of collocation “ is to firmly delineate the conceptual and linguistic space occupied by strictly defined closely associated concepts and units of knowledge”. Murici (2016) in her article, “Issues in translating legal texts” asserts that we live in a world which is globalized and where international relations are much more active than ever. As a result, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh close contacts among states, societies, people and businesses through mediation of translation has become crucial and is playing a very important role in human relations. We know that human interaction is ordered by law; therefore any transaction should consider legal implications. It is therefore necessary to examine collocations and their impact on translating legal texts, such as the source text being used for this study. The examination of collocations may ultimately minimize litigation over translated texts. It is worth noting that regional integration and globalization towards achieving development goals have given rise to the need for harmonization of policies and programs internationally. As a result, the need for faithful translation to foster wider communication and greater understanding has increased. Collocations are described as monosemous in certain literature and so will be useful in the translation of legal and technical documents. It will therefore require collocational competence to enhance the benefits of translation in a global world, since according to Murici (2016), translating legal text has become important among other domains of translation and she also notes that, there is no room for error in translation as legal consequences may result. Translating legal texts, she posits, involves complex matters and specialized terminology. The position of Ajunwa (2015) in his article “Fidelity Challenges in Translation” is worth considering by translators. He notes that though the idea of absolute exactitude may be utopian and unattainable, it is always desirable to achieve a reasonable and an acceptable level of fidelity in any translation operation whatsoever, be it … scientific and technical translation. He explains that the fidelity of a translation to its original text means the quality of its accuracy or the degree of its closeness to the original text. He further asserts that achieving this feat poses significant challenges to the translator. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From all that has been stated above, it is necessary for us to look at collocations and their relevance to translation. Larson (1984, p.155) states that collocation is concerned with how words go together. She further states that people speaking a language which is not their mother tongue often make collocational errors. These errors may be either grammatical or lexical, but either case, words are put together which do not naturally go together. Sometimes verbs and nouns are confused (p.160). This means that in translating a noun from French to English, one might have to change a noun to a verb as seen in the translation of the noun “creation d’une association” in French into the verb “form an association” because the translation of “creation d’une association” into English is preceded by the phrase “proceed to”. Mckeown & Dragomir (2000) in their handbook on a website also assert that collocations are often language-specific and cannot be translated compositionally in most cases. This raises the problem of how salient word combinations that not only denote the legal field, but also convey conventional ways of expressing a state of affairs or an action as propounded by Gloria Corpas Pastor (January, 2015) can be accurately translated from a source language into a target language. For instance, in the source text is the word combination “Formalité obligatoire”, which cannot be translated as “obligatory formality”, nor “requisite procedure”, but can be translated as “mandatory procedure”. The above reasons inform our choice of the text which is within the scope of technical and legal translation for this study. 1.1 Statement of the Problem Larson (1984, p. 156) asserts that there are certain words in any language which are “fixed combinations”. They always occur in a certain order and they always occur together. She says other languages will have completely different combinations with fixed expressions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In such fixed collocations, she notes that it is sometimes difficult to identify the meaning of the parts of the collocation. Newmark (1988, p.28) notes that a translator needs analyze a text from a translator’s point of view, which is different from a linguist’s or literary critic’s. The question then is will translation of collocations from a technical document not pose challenges because of collocational clashes? Collocational clashes are defined by Larson (1984, p.160) as collocational errors (grammatical or lexical errors) made by people speaking a language that is not their mother tongue. In other words, words are put together which do not naturally go together. 1.2 Research Objectives and Purpose of the Study The general objective of the study is to examine the collocational patterns and the problems encountered in translating collocations from French into English using an extract from“Guide juridique et fiscal des Associations au Togo” Tome II as corpus. The study seeks to assess and compare the collocations in the source and target texts; To identify types of collocations in the chosen text; To identify the problems associated with translating collocations; and To assess the concordance between collocates in the source and target text. 1.3 Theoretical Framework The term collocation is used widely and differently. Firth first brought the idea of collocations into prominence. According to Firth (1957) “you shall know a word by the company it keeps” He defines collocations as actual words in habitual company. In this study, two theories will be used to analyze collocations. These theories are the ‘frequency based approach” derived from (Nesselhauf, 2004) which describes collocations as “the co-occurrence of words of a certain University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh distance”; and the “Significance oriented approach” (Herbst, 1996) where collocation is considered as a type of word combination, most commonly as one that is fixed to some degree, as quoted in the article of Xiujuan Zhou, A Corpus-Based Study on High Frequency Verb Collocations in the Case of “Have” published in International Forum of Teaching and Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1 2016. These collocations are considered as “a composite unit which permits the sustainability of items for at least one of its constituent elements with the other elements being constant. The theories to be tested are concordance as defined by Larson (1984) as “consistent matching of lexical items”. The procedures equivalence, transposition and modulation will also be tested. 1.3.1 Hypothesis The French and English languages have reached a comparable degree of development, and collocations are language-specific, so texts can be easily and accurately translated from French into English. The French and English languages have reached a comparable degree of development, and collocations are language specific, so texts cannot be easily and accurately translated from French into English. 1.4 Limitations of the Study It is noteworthy that this translation project is a requirement for the award of a Master of Arts Degree in Translation. Time and resource constraints do not permit a much more detailed work. The scope of the work is therefore limited to a specific text.The study was limited to study of (1) dominant word (noun, adjective, participle, and verb) and a preposition or a grammatical University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh construction collocations and (2) “verb + Noun, adjective + noun, noun + verb, noun + noun, adverb + adjective, and adverb + adjective lexical collocations. The focus of the study was on special collocations identified in the source text and how they were rendered in the target text. The study was limited to the extract of 8,439, words from the legal document as the Graduate School recommends the use of a total range of words between 8000 and 8500 words for the study. This limits the length of text to be used, and which may impact on the results. This study is a case study and limits itself to the source document Guide Juridique et Fiscal Des Associations Au Togo, the target text and documents that may be available for triangulation. This is to enable the researcher identify the distinction between meaning and form, those things in language over which the speaker can exercise choice and over which no choice is available to him as stated by (Grimes 1975: 114) cited in Larson (1984). 1.5 Literature Review This study is on the problems encountered in the translation of collocations from a legal text and their implications for translation. A legal and tax guide for associations in Togo has been selected for the study due to its peculiar characteristic of a manual drawn up for the use of associations both nongovernmental and civil. Of significance is the fact that, the manual was created over two decades ago. This enables the researcher assess to what extent neologisms affect collocations and as a result how collocational competence can be relevant over a reasonable period of time. The sustenance of collocations is important for translation because of the issue of fidelity in translation. This gives reason for examining the problems that might arise in translating collocations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This literature review examines the definitions of collocations, their characteristics and categorization. This literature review also looks at the nature of the text to be studied and also examines the theories that guide the study. Various Definitions of Collocations Firth (1957) defines collocations as being “actual words in habitual company”. For instance, the word “build”, in current parlance is always in habitual company with “capacity”, and the word “empower” is in habitual company with “women”. Cowie (1981) in her article “A Corpus-Based Study on High Frequency verb collocations in the case of HAVE” sees collocations as “a composite unit which permits the substitutability of items for at least one of its constituent elements” with the other elements being constant. For instance, in the following collocations, mise au point (focusing), mise sur pied (setting up) and mise a pied (layoff), the lexical items after mise have been substituted with “au point”, “sur pied” and “à pied” for at least one of its constituents and the word “mise” has remained constant. The case of the collocations “set off”, “set out” and “set up” can also be used as an example. The word “set” remains constant while one constituent is substituted with the lexical items “off”, “out” and “up”. Nida (1982, p.198) defined collocation as “a structured combination of words with COMPATIBLE semantic components” quoted in Benson’s article Collocations and General- purpose Dictionaries. For example, the word “offer” is semantically compatible with with the word “appointment”, “satisfactory” is semantically compatible with “service” and expiry is semantically compatible with “date”. Thus, certain words are semantically incompatible with the examples indicated above. For instance, the word “give” is semantically incompatible with “appointment” and “fulfilled” is incompatible with “service” and “exhausted” is incompatible with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “date”. The word “fulfilled” if replaced with the word “satisfactory” can be semantically compatible with the word “service”. The word “exhausted” if also replaced with “expired” can be semantically compatible with the word “date”. According to Larson (1984, p.144), collocation is concerned with how words go together. “Collocations are words joined together in phrases or sentences to form semantically unified expressions”. She suggests that knowing which words go together is an important part of understanding the meaning of a text and translating it well. She also cautions that though collocations are words joined together in phrases and sentences to form semantically unified expressions, the combination which forms a semantically correct meaning in one language may not do so in another. She therefore advises translators to be constantly on the guard for idioms in the source language and translate with care so as to give the correct meaning in the receptor language. To Justerson and Katz (1994), quoted in Jia Yan Jian’s article ‘Extracting Verb-Noun collocations from Text”, collocations are recurrent combinations of words that co-occur more often than chance, collocations like terminology tend to be more lexicalized and have a somehow more restricted meaning than the surface form suggested. For instance, the following collocations have restricted meaning and mean just what they are intended to mean: par ecrit – a legal term which means “in writing” en vigueur – a legal term which means “in force” Faire état de – a collocation which means “to state” S’inscrire en faux – a legal term which means “to lodge a complaint” It can be inferred from the above stated definitions and notions of collocations, that most studies have examined the subject of collocations in relation to the teaching, learning and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh acquisition of collocations. Studies have however, not shown the manner in which collocations are identified. It is no doubt that after years of studies in grammar school, one can easily identify “nouns”, “verbs”, “adjectives” and “adverbs” How do I identify collocations when their description fits “idioms” and are sometimes even in the form of “phrases”. It is therefore noteworthy that collocations can be confirmed as such from dictionaries or customised databases. For instance, how do I know that the lexical items “Yours faithfully” is or is not a collocation? Wright and Budin 1996, pp.16 -17) try to distinguish between “term” and “collocation”, but the delineations are not very clear. There are also databases of collocations in different countries, but how often are they updated? Bilingual collocations dictionary are hardly found on shelves in bookshops. A few studies have in some way looked at the importance of collocations in translation, for instance the study of Newmark (1988) in which he highlights the relevance of translation theory to the translation method appropriately used for a certain text. He asserts that the equal frequency rule – that corresponding words, where they exist – metaphors, collocations, groups, clauses, sentences, word order, proverbs etc. should have appropriately equal frequency, for the topic and register in question, in both source and target text. Newmark advises that, the source text is read for two purposes – first, to understand what it is about, second, to analyse from a translator’s point of view which is different from a linguist’s or literary critic’s. The translator needs to determine its intention and the way it is written for the purpose of selecting the appropriate translation method and identifying particular and recurrent problems. A reading of the text revealed that the text has the characteristics of an expressive, informative and vocative text. The dominant features of the text are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh expressive and informative. Thus, the translator needs to use the appropriate method that would bring out the desired response from the readership (Newmark, 1988, p.28). The text of this study is expressive because its core function is communicating authoritative statement in the form of a legal document as described in Newmark (1998, p.29). Its informative nature is informimg the readership about the standards and response required pertaining to compliance to procedures, rules and regulations. Thus, the translator needs to use the appropriate lexical items and expressions to bring out the meaning. Newmark (1998, p. 39) also notes that there are three main functions of language, the expressive, the informative (representation) and the vocative (appeal) functions. He states that the core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker and authoritative statements such as legal documents have expressive function. He also states that the core of the informative function is the external situation and the fact of the topic – manuals fall in this category. The text for this study is a legal and administrative manual and guidelines and instructions from the manual should be communicated as required. Newmark (1998, p.48) also tells us that the overriding purpose of any translation should be to achieve equivalent effect – to produce the same effect or one as close as possible to the readership of the original text. He informs us that in communicative translation of vocative texts, equivalent effect is not only desirable, it is essential, because it is the criterion by which the effectiveness and the value of translation of notices, instructions… can be assessed. He also tells us that in informative texts, equivalent effect is only desirable in respect of their possibly emotional impact, which is not possible if the source language and the target language are remote from each other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study therefore sought to observe patterns in collocations and assess whether there were collocational clashes in the process of translation. The study also assessed how collocational errors manifest in the translation of the technical and legal text into the target language. History of Collocations The term collocation is variously used in different and often grey senses in linguistic and language teaching. Firth (1957) states “you shall know a word by the company it keeps”. Firth first highlighted the idea of collocations. Since then, there have been two main views on the concept of “collocations”. One view is that collocation is the co-occurrence of words at a certain distance, form which the name statistically oriented approach (Herbst, 1996) or the “frequency based approach” (Nesselhauf, 2004) cited in Xiujuan Zhou (2016). Sinclair is a typical representative of the frequency-based approach. The other view sees collocations as a type of word combination, commonly as one that is fixed to some degree, but not completely. This view has been called “the significance oriented approach” (Herbst, 1996) or the “phraseological approach” (Nesselhauf, 2004). According to Benson, Benson, Ilson (1986) lexical collocations are formed between content words, while the grammatical collocations have to do with a content word with a function word or a syntactic structure. It is considered that these are the two basic kinds of collocations - grammatical and lexical collocations. Benson et al’s 1997 classification is that the former consists of a dominant word (noun) adjective/participle, (verb) and a preposition or a grammatical construction, for instance” building the capacity of” and the latter refers to co-occurrence of two lexical elements for instance “measuring tape”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh They distinguished lexical collocations into six types: “verb+noun”, “adjective+noun”, “noun+verb”, “Noun+Noun”, “adverb+adjective” and ‘adverb+verb”. The study will assess whether the translation of such lexical collocations sustain their structure in the translated text as previously observed in the source text. Characteristics and Nature of collocations According to Larson in her book Meaning based translation (1984, p.159), every word in a language has its collocational range (restrictions which limit the usage of the words). She notes that the collocational range of every word will be different. No two words have exactly the same collocational possibilities. For instance, the word skin can be used for humans and animals, birds and hides, but the word “feather” for only birds and “fur” for animals. One will expect that they all use the word skin but there is some overlap. In the text used for this study, the word “guide” could be translated into English as “guide” but preferred translation into English was “manual” because the source text is an administrative and tax manual. Larson therefore posits that because of these overlaps, collocational range of equivalent words between languages will not be identical. It will overlap but not match completely. She states that it will most likely match in primary usage but not in secondary or figurative usages. She therefore believes that only a native speaker of the language can judge whether or not a collocation is acceptable, especially if one is trying a new collocation (Larson 1984, P.159). Since our source text is a technical one, it is expected that the lexical items will not be of primary usage but of technical usage. The study will therefore assess the level of similarity between lexical items in the source text and their translation into the target text. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Larson (1984, p.155) also asserts that it is the collocates that determine which meaning is indicated in a given phrase or sentence. In other words, the word “part” does not have the same meaning in “Of the one part” and “Of the other part”, and the word “authorization” does not also have the same meaning in “with authorization” and without authorization” in English. Thus, due to the collocates “”Of the one” and “Of the other” we understand the meaning of the lexical item “part”. It is also the same with authorization, the collocates “With” and “Without” enables us to understand the word authorization. Larson (1988 p.160) asserts that languages do change and there is constant extension or reduction of the collocational range of a word. Newmark (1988, pp. 41- 42) warns that in many types of texts (legal, administrative, dialect, local, cultural), the temptation is to transfer as many SL (source language) words into the TL (target language) as possible. For instance the words “sans ecrit” can only be translated in the legal text as “not in writing” and not as “without writing”. Murici (2016) also advises that one of the tasks for a translator is to recognize linguistic uncertainty that have occurred, intentionally or unintentionally, in the original text and wherever possible, the translator should always try to clarify or make the word more precise or less ambiguous. She states that the best way to avoid polysemy is to replace ambiguous words with concrete language. Alimi (2013, p.18) cited in Murici (2016), suggests that ambiguous words should be avoided and substituted with another word which is tantamount and monosemic. From the literature cited above, it is inferred that the translation of collocations may be challenged by the use of equivalents of the source text lexical items for translation into the target text. This may impact negatively on the outcome of the translation. The study examined the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh strategies that enable eliminate ambiguity and polysemy and render appropriate and desired product from the translation of the source text. The study also assessed the concordance and accuracy of translation of collocations from the source text into the target. The text that was used for the study, is an administrative and tax manual, designed for nongovernmental associations in Togo under the Act (Decret) No. 92- 130/PMRT of 27th May 1992. The study therefore has relevance to collocation in legal texts. It was therefore necessary to look at the studies done on legal translation. Studies on Legal Translation Legal translation is a special and specialized area of translational activity. This is due to the fact that legal translation involves law and such translation can, and often does, produce not just linguistic, but also legal impact and consequence because of the special nature of law and legal language. Legal translation is a complex process that requires special skills and experience on the part of the translator to produce such translation (Murici 2016). The study assessed the ease with which collocations in the source text (a legal document) are translated into English, as well as the impact on the quality of translation. Defintion of Legal Translation Murici (2016) defines legal translation as “the rendering of legal texts from the source language into the target language.” Simmonaes in her article “Challenges in legal translation”, states that “legal translation is a specific type of translation for special-purpose, differing from other Language for Special Purposes (LSP) translations in that law is in the language”. She further notes that legal translation is inherently linked to the particular legal culture of its source text which more often than not is different from the legal culture of the target text. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Types of Legal Translation Legal translation can be classified into following categories. “There is the legal translation for normative purpose. It refers to the production of equally authentic legal texts in bilingual and multilingual jurisdictions of domestic laws, international legal instruments and other laws. Often such bilingual or multilingual texts are first drafted in one language and then translated into another language or languages. They may also be drafted simultaneously in both or all languages. In either case, the different language texts have equal legal force and one is not superior to another irrespective of their original status”. (Murici, 2016). Examples of these legislation are the bilingual jurisdictions of Cameroun. Canada and Hong Kong, and the multilingual jurisdictions of NATO, ECOWAS, EU and UN. Then there is the legal translation for informative purpose, with constative or descriptive functions. This includes translation of statutes, court decisions, scholarly works and other types of legal documents if the translation is intended to provide information to the target readers. This is mostly found in monolingual jurisdictions. Such translations are different from the first category where the translated law is legally binding. In this category, the source language is the only legally enforceable language while the target language is not. (Murici, 2016). The source text falls under this category because the legal document is intended for associations in a monolingual jurisdiction of Togo. The translation is intended to provide information to associations and individuals in Ghana but is not legally enforceable in Ghana. Legal text types University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Simmonaes (2016) states that legal texts is a broad category, which has to be defined more narrowly drawing on some classifications found in recent literature, keeping in mind that classifications are always made for a particular purpose. Among some of the studies on legal texts are that of Hickey (1998, 224) retrieved from Simmonaes (2016) in which legal texts are demarcated according to (1) the purpose of the text (making or amending the law or regulating relationships between persons) (2) the text type (being informative, normative or coomunicative) and (3) language use and style and (4) reference to the declarative and encyclopaedic knowledge. Murici (2016) asserts that legal translation refers to the rendering of legal texts from source language into target language. She highlights that the purposes of the target language text can be classified into the following categories – legal translation for normative purposes and legal translation for informative purposes. According to Murici, “legal translation for normative purposes refers to production of equally authentic legal texts in bilingual and multilingual jurisdictions of domestic laws, international legal instruments ad other laws. Often such bilingual or multilingual texts are first drafted in one language and then translated into another or other languages. In either case, the different languages texts have equal legal force and one is not superior to the other, irrespective of their original status. Examples of such are legislation in bilingual jurisdictions such as Canada, Hong Kong and Cameroun and multilingual legal instruments of the United Nations (UN) and multilingual laws of the European Union (EU). Here the communicative purposes of the source language and the target language are identical. Further, she explains that there is the legal translation for informative purposes, with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh constative or descriptive functions. The translation is intended to provide information to target readers. This is mostly found in monolingual jurisdictions. In this case the source language is the only legally enforceable language while the target language is not. It may be for informative purpose or benefit of foreign languages” (Murici, 2016). Radegundis (2009) looks at how cultural elements in technical texts are handled. She informs that linguistic manifestations of culture in texts range from word level, to syntax, to style, to text and to the pragmatic social function. She states that texts are generally standardized for their function. Different legal structures can have an impact on the text level, and needs sufficient sufficient background knowledge of the translator to solve problems. From the foregoing, it is agreed that legal text need to be standardized and also need to have restrictive meanings to avoid ambiguity and polysemy. It is therefore necessary that legal texts are examined to ascertain the frequency of collocations in legal text and how collocational competence can impact positively on the translation of legal texts. Owing to this, this study found it necessary to ascertain the association of collocations with legal text, their characteristics and the possible solution to their translation and their implications for translation. The Literature confirms that collocations are a pervasive phenomenon and pose challenges to learners and translators. It is also noted that translation of legal text is “inherently linked to the particular legal culture of its source text, which more often than not is different from the legal culture of the target text”. The aforesaid informs the necessity to investigate the problems encountered in translating collocations from technical and legal text. 1.6 Methodology University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The case study design was used for this corpus-based research. The study was done between May 2018 and March 2019. The contrastive analysis was used. The need for this type was to enable ascertain the frequency of collocations in the texts to be studied and understand the attributes of both the source and target texts. This was done by determining whether an association exists between the lexical item in the source text and the target text. The source text was read several times to understand what the text was about and know the category of text. From the initial reading which Larson (1984, p.53) refers to as exegesis, I realized that the text is a procedural discourse as described by Larson (1984 p.399). The text can also be described as a normative and informative legal text as classified by Murici (2016). Subsequent readings of the text confirmed that the text as both technical and administrative. The technicalities were informed from the terminology of the text. For instance, the term “indemnité compensatrice” translated as compensatory damages is a legal and technical term. The text is administrative because it has certain cultural traits – the format of appointment letter for fixed term had a standard layout which demands compliance both in the French format and English format. The letter must first be dated in a specific form, have a salutation and the contents must include conditions of appointment, designation, duration, work hours, remuneration and benefits due the employee. The phaticism “Yours faithfully” was not translated lexically but according to the form used in the different languages. The words “Yours faithfully” is seen as a collocation because the collocates “faithfully” and “sincerely” implies varied meanings when used as designation. “Yours sincerely” is used when the salutation states the name of the recipient for instance “Dear Mrs Tamakloe”, while “yours faithfully” is used when the salutation is very formal as prescribed “Dear Sir” or Dear Madam”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh An initial draft translation of the text was done and an extraction of collocations from the text was done to ascertain the meanings of the words and their possible translation in English. Then, the list of words and collocates were analyzed within the context of the text, to ascertain the matched meanings from dictionaries and reference tools such as tenancy agreements and appointment letters. An evaluation of the translation was done and then further consultation from memory databases from the net and law dictionaries was done. Other complementary methods including the analysis of machine translated documents, the use of technical literature and the use of various documents such as technical and professional reference tools were used to ascertain the relationships between the variables in the source and target texts. Data used was the text from an extract from “Guide juridique et fiscal des Associations au Togo” Tome IIand the translated text. Key verification tools used were The English Law Dictionary, the Robert and Collins Bilingual Dictionary, the tenancy and labour acts, machine translation, computer assisted memories for translation and human translation. The simple random technique was used; various types of collocations were sampled. Considerations for selection were linguistic and non-linguistic characteristics. 1.7 Organization of the work This translation project is divided into three main chapters. Chapter one introduces the reader to the study thus providing them with the background to the project work, the general objectives from which flow the specific objectives of the research. The relevance of the study, limitations of the study, then the literature review which provides an insight on other researchers’ ideas about the subject matter of collocations. This is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh followed by methodology which is the procedure and process of the study, an analysis of the source text and finally the organization of the project work. Chapter two contains the actual translation – the source text (French) into the target text (English) juxtaposed in corpora alignment to allow for easy reading, comparison and analysis. The translation is preceded by a description of the source text. Chapter three contains the analysis and discussions on the translation project as well as conclusions of the study. The concepts to be tested are concordance as defined by Larson (1984) as “consistent matching of lexical items”. The equal frequency rule of Newmark will be tested. 1.8 Relevance of the study Results of the study of Anari & Ghaffarof (2013) in their article “The Effect of Collocational Competence on Translation Accuracy of Translation Trainees” indicated that there is a significant relationship between the receptive knowledge and productive knowledge of lexical collocations and grammatical colligations and the accuracy of the translation. Lexical priming, according to Khamkein (2015), refers to when we are primed (readied by oour prior experience of words) to expect words to be in the units of other words (their collocations) and also expect words to appear in a certain grammatical situation (grammatical colligations) and in certain positions in text and discourse (their textual colligations). Khamkhein suggests that collocations are seen to be closely related to the psychological phenomenon of priming that arises from a language speaker’. Khamkein’s assertion therefore informs us that collocations are language-specific and culture specific. For instance, the translation of the word combination “rupture de contrat” from French into English as “breach of contract” or “termination of contract” will depend on the cultural context and the register in English. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Justerson and Katz (1994) retrieved from Yan Jian’s article; collocations are recurrent combinations of words that co-occur more often than chance. Collocations like terminology tend to be lexicalized and have a somehow restricted meaning than the surface form suggested.. From the above observations, there is no doubt that the acquisition of collocational competence is relevant to the minimization of ambiguity and polysemy in the use of lexical items in technical and administrative text. For instance, collocational competence will enable a person to accurately translate “abandon de poste” to “vacation of post”. This is because the word “abandon” has similar meanings in French and English. The fact is in English the phrase “abandon a post” does not sound natural. Vacation of post is what is used for a worker who quits his post without notice. The study will enable students appreciate the relevance of collocations in technical text and help build a glossary of collocations from the technical and administrative text. It will also help to ascertain the validity of the assertion that collocations are important and play an essential role in language learning as suggested by Xiujuan Zhou (2016) in his article. This case study is important to translation studies at this point in global history due to the globalization and integration of systems, which require the accurate communication of policies and information worldwide. It has been noted that collocations are important and play an essential role in language learning. This requires a common understanding of concepts and notions and how, these are labelled. According to (Howarth, 1996) quoted from the International Forum of Teaching and Studies, Vol. 12 No. 1 2016, “collocates have received increasing attention in language in recent years. They are important and play an essential role in language learning. He asserts that it is found that verb + S noun collocations are frequent and among the most difficult for the learner. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study will help build a glossary of legal text collocations that will help students who are interested in learning language in the area of technical collocations. The study will also assess the validity of the assertion of Larson (1984) that languages do change and there is constant extension or reduction of the collocational range of a word. CHAPTER TWO Translation project 2.0 Introduction In this chapter, the source text was translated from French to English and the focus is the translation of collocations in an administrative manual from French to English. Collocations in the source text have been emboldened and the translation into English has also been emboldened. In some cases, whole paragraphs have been emboldened not because they are collocations but because the the collocations do not immediately follow each other but are separated by other University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh content words, and also because the entire clauses or paragraphs enable easier translation as it enables a clearer meaning of the context and scope of the text. The formatting of the translation does not flow in a regular pattern because there are various documents formatted in various forms. 2.1 Source Text Non-governmental organizations have for the past few decades been very instrumental in developmental activities in the North and the South. For instance, CUSO which was known as Canadian University Service Organization has been very instrumental in placing cooperants and volunteers from Canada to states in Africa for technology transfer and also for enhancing social justice among African populations through training of civil society organizations and associations. CUSO has her programmes under the management of Voluntary Service Overseas (VSO), a British nongovernmental organization. Within the increasing relevance of nongovernmental organizations and civil society organizations and associations, these organizations tended to perform administrative and bureaucratic functions including that for Farm based organizations and community based organizations with proven efficiency in their development agenda. It became necessary for the organizations that depended on public and donor funds to regularize their activities and be accountable. The managers of such associations had to know and apply the rules of engagement including the use of accounting principles and the management of human resource, to maintain order. As a result, CUSO as an organization on 27th may 1992 agreed to be subject to the law of the Government of Togo No. 92-130/PMRT, which regulates the NGOs rules of cooperation between the non-governmental organizations and the government. The text is a legal and tax University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh manual for the non-governmental associations in Togo and is in two volumes. An extract from the second volume is being used as the source text. As a legal guide (manual) the discourse genre is procedural and hortatory. The source text consists of 8,439 words. The entire volume is divided into three chapters. Chapter one is on work contract, chapter two is on tenancy contract and chapter three is on insurance contract. The source text treats chapters one and two from pages 13 to 53 in accordance with the rules of translating a maximum of 8500 words. This study starts with an introduction, objectives of the study, theoretical and conceptual framework, limitations of the study, literature review, methodology, findings, conclusions and recommendations. Translation of Source Text into Target Language SOURCE TEXT (FRENCH) TARGET TEXT (ENGLISH University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GUIDE JURIDIQUE ET LEGAL AND TAX MANUAL FOR FISCALE DES ASSOCIATIONS ASSOCIATIONS IN TOGO, AU TOGO VOLUME II TOME 11 (Contrats – Comptabilité – Contracts – Accounting – Taxation Fiscalité) CUSO TOGO CUSO TOGO INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION C’est bien souvent dans l’euphorie que Founders are spurred on to form an les fondateurs procèdent à la création de association because of the legitimacy l’association, galvanises par la noblesse and sustainability of goals, without et la hardiesse des objectifs sans se considering potential operational soucier des difficultés qui pourraient challenges. The current proliferation of surgir en cours de fonctionnement. associations reveals this lack of L’actuelle floraison d’associations consideration, though; it could be proof témoigne un peu de cette insouciance of the emergence of democracy. Socio- même si par ailleurs, elle pouvait economically, associations has proven to constituer la preuve d’une certaine be strong intervention tools with great ouverture démocratique. Sur le plan potential for the fostering of goodwill social et économique, l’association peut and mobilizing of resources. Thus, they se révéler un formidable outil relieve the state and districts of some d’intervention avec un énorme potentiel developmental obligations. These de mobilisation de bonnes volontés et de associations have proven to be equally University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ressources pour relayer l’Etat et les highly efficient and effective in the use collectivités locales dans les taches de of resources. développement avec autant d’efficacité et beaucoup moins de moyens. En matière culturelle, elle a déjà fait ses preuves. However, il n’est pas rare que However, these ventures often end l’aventure tourne court face à la dure abruptly due to the stark reality of réalité de la vie associative. Les bonnes associative life. The goodwill is gradually volontés se lassent peu à peu devant lost in relation to the scale of l'’ampleur des tâches administratives et administrative tasks and deteriorates into s’épuisent dans une gestion improvisée. a makeshift management. That is enough Cela suffit largement à administrer, s’il proof that goodwill should come with en était encore besoin, la preuve que les organized management. This applies bonnes volontés doivent s’accompagner especially to associations that receive d’une gestion rigoureuse et méthodique. funds from private or public organizations C’est particulièrement vrai pour les to carry out their projects and must associations qui reçoivent des fonds des therefore be accountable. The managers organismes privés ou publics pour and association members ought to know réaliser leurs projets et qui doivent de ce and apply the required rules of fait, en rendre compte. Les dirigeants et accountability and human resource les membres des associations doivent management because unregulated connaitre et appliquer les règles University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh élémentaires de comptabilité de gestion management kills trust and creates du personnel car la gestion fantaisiste tue internal rift. la confiance et crée des tensions internes. Un premier tome de ce guide axe The first volume of this manual focuses principalement sur la création de mainly on the formation of associations l’association avec supplément de brèves with additional brief information on their indications sur le fonctionnement avait operations, with the goal of providing them pour objectif de fournir aux associations the necessary legal information in respect les informations juridiques nécessaires of the law and routine operations of au respect de la loi et au fonctionnement associations. normal des organes. Aujourd’hui, Today, the aim is to dwell further on the l’ambition est d’aller plus loin dans les subjects tackled and the endorsed matières abordées et dans les solutions solutions. Further, to propose to members retenues. Aller plus loin en proposant and managers of associations, a reference aux membres et aux dirigeants des tool of adequately precise and detailed associations un outil de référence components, which would help to resolve comportant des éléments suffisamment most of the operational problems. précis en détaillés susceptibles de les aider à résoudre la plupart des problèmes de fonctionnement. Conçu pour rendre service, ce guide se Designed for providing service, this veut plutôt pratique, il ne nourrit donc manual’s prime aim is strictly practical. aucune ambition théorique. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tenant compte du fait que les The manual has two parts, taking into associations sont de plus en plus account that, associations are amenées à effectuer des opérations increasingly geared to perform economic économiques en vue d’atteindre les tasks towards attaining statutory goals. objectifs statutaires, le présent guide comporte deux parties : • La première partie est purement • • The first section is clearly legal and juridique, elle présente avec uses illustrations to enhance, through illustrations a l’appui (modèles de (model letters and contracts) the main lettre et de contrat) les principaux contracts that an association usually contrats que l’association conclut draws up - employment contracts, habituellement : le contrat de travail, lease contracts and insurance le contrat de location d’immeuble et policies. le contrat d’assurance. • La deuxième partie consacrée à la  The second part which focuses on comptabilité et à la fiscalité, expose accounting and taxation, explains the les principes de base, fournit les fundamental principles and provides indications sur la manière d’organiser information on the organisational et de gérer les comptes d’une structure for managing the accounts of association de dimension moyenne et medium scale associations and treating traite ensuite des questions fiscales tax issues while rejecting some en rejetant quelques idées reçues sur recommendations on the exemption of l’exonération des associations. associations University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PREMIERE PARTIE SECTION ONE LES CONTRATS DE CONTRACTS OF THE ASSOCIATION L’ASSOCIATION C’est par la conclusion des contrats que It is through the drawing up of contracts l’association noue des relations avec ses that the association builds relations with partenaires internes et externes dans le her local and foreign partners within the cadre de son activité. Les contrats d’une framework of her business. The contracts association sont très nombreux, leur of an association are very many, their importance et leur contenu sont importance and contents are varied. variables. Parmi les contrats les plus Among the most frequent contracts, some courants, certains paraissent seem practically indispensable to the pratiquement indispensables au operation of the association. They are: fonctionnement de l’association. Il s’agit : • du contrat de travail (chapitre1) • • Employment contracts (Chapter I) • du contrat de location d’immeuble • Lease contract (Chapter II) (chapitre II) • et du contrat d’assurance (chapitre  Insurance policies (Chapter III) III). Chapitre I. CHAPTER ONE LE CONTRAT DE TRAVAIL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh L’association qui emploie des salariés ne The association, that hires staff, is not bénéficie pas d’aucun statut particulier, protected by any special statute/law. The les rapports nés à cette occasion entre relations borne between the association l’association et ses employés sont régis and her employees are regulated by the par le code du Travail, la législation sur Labour Act, the legislation on social la sécurité sociale et la Convention security and the collective bargaining Collective Interprofessionnelle du agreement of Togo. These relations are Togo. Ces rapports sont également also subject, where necessary, to the soumis s’il y a lieu à la Convention collective bargaining agreement of the Collective la branche d’activité sector activity concerned e.g. collective concernée (exemple Convention bargaining agreement ………… of Collective ……………. Du ………….) …………. and internal regulations of the et au règlement intérieur de l’entreprise. enterprise.. L’article 1er du Code du Travail de 1974 Article 1 of the Labour Act of 1974 dispose que ce code « régit les rapports provides that this Act “regulates the professionnels entre employeurs et professional relations between employers travailleurs. Dans une association le and employees” personnel est en principe engage par le In an association, the personnel is in Président ou son délégué. A cette principle hired by the Managing Director occasion, il sera conclu ce qu’on appelle or his representative. In this case, it will un contrat de travail c’est-à-dire un be agreed that an “Employment accord de volontés entre l’employé et Contract” means an agreement to l’employeur qui s’engagent consent between an employee and an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mutuellement l’un a offrir ses services employer, in which they mutually commit et l’autre à lui payer la contrepartie de that X offers X’s services and Y offers to ses services, le salaire. pay to X a consideration for his services, the salary. Déjà, au niveau du recrutement, In practice, in recruiting staff, the l’association doit veiller à ce que tout se association should ensure that all is done passe dans les règles de sorte que la vie within the law such that the occupational professionnelle se déroule sans life runs without any misunderstanding malentendu et que la rupture du contrat and that the termination of work contract de travail ne nuise pas aux intérêts de does not adversely affect the interests of l’association. the association Ces préoccupations amènent à envisager Three points are considered: trois (3) points : • Le recrutement du personnel • • The recruitment of salaried salarie ; employees • Le déroulement de la vie • The span of occupational life professionnelle ; • La rupture du contrat de • The termination of work contract travail. Il conviendra d’ajouter un It is necessary to add a fourth point quatrième point relatif aux bénévoles qui pertaining to volunteers who may not be sans être lies a l’association par un linked to the association by work contract University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contrat de travail collaborent tout de but all the same contribute to her même à son activité. business. LE RECRUTEMENT DU THE RECRUITMENT OF PERSONNEL SALARIE SALARIED STAFF Cette opération consiste à susciter et à This activity consists in creating a pool of recueillir les candidatures des personnes applicants who are deemed eligible for a qui s’estiment compétentes pour un poste given post. Article 7 of the collective donne. L’article 7 de la Convention bargaining agreement of Togo provides Collective Interpersonnelle du Togo that “the employment of individual dispose « l’engagement individuel des workers is done in writing in accordance travailleurs a lieu par écrit conformément with legal provisions and regulations in aux dispositions légales et force.” The recruitment is thus done règlementaires en vigueur Le individually and through the establishment recrutement se fait donc of an employment contract. individuellement et par la conclusion d’un contrat de travail. La possibilité de cumul d’une fonction The possibility of combining the roles of salariée par les dirigeants an employee and managerial ones by managers Les statuts imposent habituellement la The statutes usually compel the flexibility gratuite des fonctions d’administrateur of administrative functions but do not mais n’interdisent pas qu’un forbid that a director can combine his role administrateur puisse cumuler les with that of an employee of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fonctions avec celles de salarie de association. It is therefore necessary that l’association. Il faudra alors que la the role of the employee is of actual fonction salariée corresponde à un employment, is clearly distinct from the emploi réel, se distingue nettement de la role of the manager and puts the fonction de dirigeant et mette administrator in a subordinate state vis-à- l’administrateur dans un état de vis the association subordination vis-à-vis de l’association. D’une manière générale, les décisions As practice, the decisions on recruitment de recrutement doivent s’inscrire dans must be within the scope of general une politique d’ensemble. Ces décisions policy. These decisions aim at granting the viseront à donner à l’association les association the requisite means for the moyens nécessaires à la réalisation des achievement of set goals in the legislation objectifs fixés dans les statuts et précises and defines where appropriate the goals le cas échéant, dans le cadre d’un projet within the framework of a specific particulier. project. Souvent les parties au contrat, Often, the contracting parties, the l’employeur et le salarie, conviennent employer and the employee, agree before avant de s’engager définitivement de they wholly consent to resort to probation. recourir à une période d’essai. 1 – L’engagement à l’essai Probation Définition : La Convention Collective Definition: The collective bargaining Interprofessionnelle prévoit que (article agreement provides in Article 9 that “any 9) « tout travailleur recrute est soumis à worker employed is subject to a probation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh une période d’essai dont le but est de of which the goal is to allow his employer permettre à son employeur de se rendre to evaluate his capacity to perform in a compte de son aptitude à remplir de satisfactory manner the tasks to the post façon satisfaisante les taches qui applied for. It is obvious that this correspondent à l’emploi postule ». Il est evaluation period will not be forever. The évident que cette période d’observation Labour Act of Togo sets a general rule ne peut durer in définitivement. Le Code clearly stating that the subjection to Togolais du Travail pose une règle probation cannot be for a period beyond générale en énonçant que l’engagement the defined duration for evaluating the à l’essai ne peut être conclu pour une person to be employed durée supérieure au délai nécessaire pour mettre à l’épreuve la personne à engager. • Le déroulement de l’essai The Probation Period Les modalités d’application de cette The laid down procedures are in Article 9 règle sont contenues dans l’article 9 de la of the collective bargaining agreement. Convention Collective. Ainsi, la durée de Thus, the duration of probation is set at: la période d’essai est fixée à : • Un mois, renouvelable une fois • One month, renewable once (deux mois maximum) pour les maximum of two months for ouvriers, employés et assimilés; labourers, workers and other categories University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Trois mois renouvelable une fois (six • Three months renewable once, mois maximum) pour les agents de maximum of six months for maitrise, techniciens et assimilés supervisors, technicians and other • Six mois non renouvelable pour les categories cadres et assimilés • Six months non-renewable for • Huit jours renouvelables une fois senior staff and other categories pour les travailleurs payes à l’heure. • 8 days renewable once for hourly Pendant l’essai, l’employeur ne peut workers refuser de payer l’employé, il doit au During probation, the employer cannot contraire lui garantir le salaire minimum refuse to pay the employee, he shall de la catégorie professionnelle de instead grant him the minimum salary of l’emploi à pouvoir. his professional grade at the granting employer. • La fin de l’essai • The End of Probation Sauf abus, au cours de la période In cases of abuse during the probation, the de l’essai il est loisible aux parties de parties are allowed to end the employment rompre la relation de travail sans préavis relations without notice nor compensation. ni indemnités. At the end of the agreed period, if the A la fin de la période convenue, probation is not successful, the two parties si l’essai ne s’avère pas concluant, les relieve themselves consensually as their deux parties se donnent mutuellement relations end there. On the other hand, congé: leurs relations s’arrêtent là. En when the employment is confirmed (this revanche, lorsque l’engagement est could happen before the end of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confirmé (cela peut arriver même avant probation), confirmation could be done in la fin de l’essai) il peut l’être par écrit writing after evaluation by the human après contrôle du service de la main resource department. Article 161 of the d’œuvre. L’article 161 du Code du Labour Code actually prohibits any direct Travail interdit en effet tout recrutement employment, that is to say, without input direct c’est-à-dire sans l’intervention du contribution of the human resource service la main d’œuvre ou de ses department or the branches of the bureaux régionaux. Cette procédure association. This cumbersome procedure trop contraignante est très peu suivie en is seldom followed in practice. pratique. In principle, written confirmation is not En principe, l’écrit n’est pas exigé sauf required except for fixed term contract pour le contrat à durée déterminée et and for probation. pour l’engagement à l’essai. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Les formalités lors du recrutement Procedures for appointing staff Quelques formalités doivent être Certain procedures must be followed accomplies au moment du recrutement. during appointment. The worker should Le travailleur devra produire: provide • Un casier judiciaire de moins de trois • A police clearance of less than three mois months • Un déclaration de résidence • A proof of place of permanent habituelle residence, • Un acte de naissance ou toute piece • A birth certificate or similar en tenant lieu document. • A ces documents s’ajoutent, s’il y • Former employment references or a lieu, les certificats d’emplois certificates should be added to to the anterieurs ou les diplômes above-mentioned documents, where obtenus. Le candidat a un poste possible. sera en outre soumis a un examen • The applicant to a post would also médical. undergo a medical examination. • La fin de l’essai • • The end of probation Sauf abus, au cours de la période Except for excesses, during the de l’essai il est loisible aux parties de probation, the parties are allowed to end rompre la relation de travail sans préavis the employment relations without notice ni indemnités. nor compensation. A la fin de la période convenue, At the end of the agreed period, if the si l’essai ne s’avère pas concluant, les probation is not successful, the two parties University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh deux parties se donnent mutuellement relieve themselves consensually as their conge: leurs relations s’arrêtent là. En relations end there. On the other hand, revanche, lorsque l’engagement est when the employment is confirmed this confirmé (cela peut arriver même avant could happen before the end of the la fin de l’essai) il peut l’être par écrit probation, confirmation could be done in après contrôle du service de la main writing after appraisal by the human d’œuvre. L’article 161 du Code du resource department. Article 161 of the Travail interdit en effet tout recrutement labour code actually prohibits any direct direct c’est-à-dire sans l’intervention du employment, which means, employment service la main d’œuvre ou de ses without input contribution of the human bureaux régionaux. Cette procédure resource department or the branches of trop contraignante est très peu suivie en the organization. In practice, this very pratique. restrictive procedure is seldom followed. En principe, l’écrit n’est pas exigé sauf In principle, written confirmation is not pour le contrat à durée déterminée et required except for fixed term contract pour l’engagement à l’essai. and for probation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Schéma d’une lettre d’engagement à durée déterminée Date M…………………. Je vous confirme les conditions de votre engagement au service de notre association. L’engagement prend effet le ………………….. (date) Vous êtes engagé(e) en qualité de ……………………………………………………… pour tenir emploi de ……………………………………………… Le présent contrat est conclu pour l’exécution des travaux suivants ; (description sommaire des taches) pour une durée …………………………………………………………….. (renouvelable – non renouvelable). Vous bénéficierez du statut résultant des conventions collectives qui sont applicables à votre profession et au personnel de votre catégorie professionnelle. Votre rémunération mensuelle brute est de ……………………………………………… Votre horaire est celui en vigueur dans l’établissement. Fait à …………………………………. le ……………………… Layout of appointment letter for fixed term Date Dear Sir/Madam, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I wish to confirm the conditions of your appointment with our association The appointment takes effect from the ……. (date). You are appointed as ………………. (designation) with your duty station as (department) This contract is for the execution of the following tasks (job description) for a renewable or nonrenewable duration of ……………… You are covered by the collective bargaining agreement applicable to your profession and to staff of your grade. Your monthly gross salary is …. (amount) Your work hours are those in force in the association. Done on ………. of the month……………., (year Pour faciliter le recrutement, To facilitate the recruitment, the l’association gagnera a établir à association will do the profile of l’avance le profil du candidat à recruter the applicant in advance, en tenant compte des objectifs, des considering goals, the foreseen prévisions d’évolution de poste, de grades to the post, the requisite qualités exigées pour la tenue du poste et qualifications for the post and the de l’équipe déjà en place dans laquelle le existing team with which the candidat viendra s’insérer. candidate will work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 – La rédaction du contrat de travail 2 - The drawing up of the contract Après l’engagement, il importe After appointment, it is important de procéder le plus tôt possible à la to proceed as soon as possible to the rédaction d’un contrat de travail ; un drafting of an employment document contenant les éléments contract; a document containing suivants : une description sommaire des the following elements: a brief job taches (une description plus détaillée description (a more detailed pourra y être annexée), la durée de la description may be attached), the fonction, le montant du salaire, les duration of the post, the gross or net avantages sociaux, les heures du travail salary, the fringe benefits, the etc….. Certains de ces éléments hours of work etc ... Some of these présentent un grand intérêt. components are very important • La durée du contrat The Duration of the Contract  La distinction des contrats quant à * The difference in contracts as to leur durée their duration Il est important de savoir si la durée est It is important to know whether the déterminée ou indéterminée duration is definite or indefinite The duration is fixed term when the La durée est déterminée lorsque les parties provide in the contract a parties prévoient dans le contrat une specific date on which the date précise à laquelle l’employée cesse employee stops work (copy of toute activité (exemplaire à applicant’s performance l’achèvement des travaux pour lesquels evaluation for the work for which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh le travailleur a été recruté). La durée d’un the worker was recruited). The tel contrat ne peut excéder deux ans. duration of such a contract may not exceed two years. Le contrat est à durée indéterminée The contract is for an indefinite quand le travailleur a été engagé sans period when the worker has been condition particulière concernant la hired without any special durée. Dans une telle hypothèse, il va conditions regarding the duration. assumer ses fonctions tant qu’aucun In such a case, he will assume évènement venant de lui (décès, responsibility as long as no event incapacité, démission) ou de son coming from him (death, employeur (cessation d’activité, incapacity, resignation) or his licenciement…) ne viendra y mettre fin. employer (closure of business, Il faut ajouter que le juge assimile un dismissal ...) ends it. It should be contrat à durée déterminée ayant fait added that the judge will consider a l’objet de renouvellements successifs a fixed-term contract which has been un contrat à durée indéterminée subject to subsequent renewals as an indefinite contract. SCHEMA DE CONTRAT A DUREE DETERMINEE (Sans terme précis) Entre les soussignes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh L’Association ………………………….. dont le siège est à …………………………. Représentée par M………………………………. Et M…………………………………………..demeurant ……………………………….. Il a été convenu ce qui suit : Article 1er : Engagement L’Association engage M…………………………………………………..en qualité de ………………………………………………………………………………. dans le cadre d’un contrat à durée déterminée à compter du ………………………………. Cet engagement est conclu conformément aux dispositions de la Convention Collective Interprofessionnelle du Togo. Article 2 : Objet Cet engagement est conclu : • (soit) en raison de l’accroissement temporaire d’activité résultant de (préciser) • (soit) en raison de l’absence pour cause de (maladie par exemple) de ………. employé en qualité de • (soit) dans le cadre de la réalisation du projet…………………………………… Remarque : Il est important de retenir l’objet qui correspond précisément à la situation. Article 3 : Durée Sous réserve du résultat de la visite médicale décidant de l’aptitude de M……………… au poste proposé et d’une période d’essai de ………………… mois de travail effectif au cours de laquelle il pourra prendre fin à tout moment, le présent engagement conclu pour une durée d’au moins ………………………mois aura pour terme University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • (soit) la fin de la saison de….. • (soit) la fin de l’absence de M……………………….. • (soit) l’achèvement du projet ci-dessus mentionne. Article 4 – Fonctions M……….. exercera les fonctions de…………………………………………. A ce titre M……………………………….. sera notamment charge de ………….sous la supervision de ……………………………………………………………………. Article 5 : Rémunération En contrepartie de son activité, M…………………….. percevra un salaire fixe mensuel brut de …………………..F CFA pour un horaire hebdomadaire de ………….. heures M……………… bénéficiera en outre de : • …………………………………………………………………………… • ……………………………………………………………………………. Préciser les diverses primes, indemnités et avantages en nature dont bénéficie le salarie. Fait à ……………. le……………… en double exemplaire M………………………………… L’Association…………………………. FORMAT OF A FIXED TERM CONTRACT (Without specified terms) Between the undersigned: The Association .............................. ................................whose head office is situated at ..................................................................Represented by M..................................... and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh M ................................................ ... residing at............................................................... It has been agreed as follows: Article 1: Appointment The Association appoints M......................................................... .as. ............................ under a fixed-term contract from .................................................................................... This appointment is made in accordance with the provisions of the Togolese collective bargaining agreement. Article 2: Purpose This appointment is made: - either for the temporary increase in business resulting from (specify) - or for the purpose of the absence due to (illness for example) of .......... employed as agreed or for the completion of the project .......................................... NB: It is important to state the subject and specific purpose. Article 3: Duration Subject to the results of the medical examination which determines the suitability of Mr .................. for the position offered and a probation period of ..................... months of actual work during which it may be terminated at any time, this appointment is made for a period of at least ........................... month (s) and will end - either at the end of the season of .... - or at the end of the absence of M ........................... - or on the completion of the above mentioned project. Article 4 - Duties M .......... will perform the duties of ................................................. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For this position M .................................... ... will be in charge of ......................... under the supervision of …………………………………………………………… Article 5: Remuneration For his service, M ........................ ... will receive a gross monthly salary set at ..................... ...F CFA for a weekly schedule of ............ ..hours M .................. will also receive: - ....................................................................................... - ........................................................................................ Clearly state the bonuses, allowances and fringe benefits to be enjoyed by the employee. Done at ……………. the……………… in duplicate copy M ....................................... The Association.................................... • Les obligations des parties Obligations of the Parties *Les obligations du salarié * The obligations of the employee Le salarié doit occupier à la date The employee must assume duty on the convenue l’emploi qu’il a accepté de agreed date. For the employee, assuming façon ferme et definitive. Occuper un duty means performing duties under the emploi se traduit pour le travailleur par supervision of his/her employer. He l’accomplissement de certaines taches performs the work for which he is paid sous l’autorité de son employeur. Il fait and at the places and hours stated in the le travail pour lequel il est payé et aux contract. The employee cannot refuse to lieux et heures mentionnes dans le perform the duties pertaining to his contrat. Le salarié ne peut refuser employment. He has the moral University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d’exécuter les taches entrant dans le responsibility to remain loyal to his cadre de son emploi. Il a l’obligation employer and to satisfactorily perform morale de rester fidèle a son employeur his work qualitywise. et d’accomplir un travail satisfaisant sur le plan qualitative. *Les obligations de l’employeur * The Obligations of the Employer L’employeur fournit le travail, ce travail The employer allots work; this work doit correspondre à l’emploi occupe par must relate to the job held by the worker. le travailleur. Si l’employeur ne If the employer does not fulfill this s’acquitte pas de cette obligation, le obligation, the employee who avails salarie qui s’est tenu à sa disposition sans himself/herself to the employer without recevoir le travail pourra demander receiving the work may claim réparation de préjudice ainsi subi. compensation for the harm thus suffered. L’employeur est tenu d’appliquer The employer is obliged to apply all legal l’ensemble des dispositions légales et and regulatory provisions governing règlementaires régissant les relations de labour relations. These include hours of travail. Cela concerne notamment la work, weekly rest, freedom of durée du travail, le repos hebdomadaire, association and health and safety la liberté syndicale et les conditions conditions. d’hygiène et de sécurité. *Le Salaire Salary L’employeur doit également verser le The employer is required to pay salary in salaire en plus des divers avantages dont addition to various benefits to which the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bénéficie le travailleur. Il délivre employee is entitled. He issues in conformément dispositions de l’article compliance with provisions of article 29 29 de la Convention Collective of the Collective Bargaining Agreement Interprofessionnelle un document a document known as pay slip or salary appelé bulletin de paye ou fiche de advice. This individual personal paye. Ce document individuel comporte document shows the nature and sum of la nature et le montant de tous les all the emoluments due the worker. It is émoluments du au travailleur. Il est desirable that the various deductions souhaitable que les differentes retenues show on the salary advice in order to operees figurant sur le bulletin de pay de avoid any disputes. facon a eviter les contestations. Selon le Code du Travail (article 95) le According to Article 95 of the Labour salaire doit être payé en francs CFA cela Code, the salary must be paid in CFA signifie que même s’il est stipule dans le francs, which means that even if the contrat un paiement en monnaie contract stipulates payment in foreign étrangère, le salarie peut refuser la currency, the employee may refuse the monnaie en question et exiger des currency in question and demand CFA francs CFA. francs. Le montant du salaire ne doit en The salary amount must in no case be aucun cas être inférieur au SMIG lower than the minimum-indexed wage - certaines professions disposent de grilles certain professions have salary scales salariales annexées aux conventions attached to the collective bargaining collectives les régissant. Le salaire étant agreements governing them. The salary University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh la contrepartie du travail: tout temps de being the compensation for work, any travail non exécuté justifie une absence from work justifies a réduction proportionnelle c’est-à-dire proportionate reduction, that is to say a une amputation du gain d’un montant reduction of the salary by an amount correspondant au temps perdu. proportionate to the lost time. S’agissant de la périodicité, il faut se référer aux usages en vigueur Regarding the periodicity, it is necessary dans la profession. Cependant, le salaire to refer to the practices in force within mensuel est le mode le plus répandu. the profession. However, the monthly Lorsque le salaire est mensuel la loi salary is the most common mode. When exige qu’il soit verse au plus tard huit the salary is monthly, the law requires jours près la fin du mois de travail qui that it be paid no later than eight days donne droit au salaire. before the end of the month of work, En plus du salaire, diverses which gives right to salary. primes sont versées au salarie, elles In addition to the salary, various viennent augmenter le salaire de base. allowances are paid to the employee; they Ce sont notamment : increase the basic salary. • la rémunération des heures These include: supplémentaires ; - overtime pay; • l’indemnité de déplacement ; • la prime de panier ; - travel allowance; • la prime d’ancienneté ; - bracket or grade allowance; - seniority allowance; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • les autres primes ou indemnités - other special bonuses or allowances to particulières a la fonction the post (eg, protection allowance) or the (prime de salissure par exemple) ou industry concerned; (hardship bonus for à la branche d’activité considérée ; instance) (prime de pénibilité par exemple) The employer is also required to pay L’employeur est en outre tenu de social security contributions (pensions, payer les cotisations sociales work accident, etc.) (retraites, accident de travail etc.) SCHEMA DE FICHE DE PAYE University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Association ……………. Mois de ………………………………………… B.P. ……………………. No rue ………………………. Nom et Prénom de l’employé……………… Salaire de base Indemnité de Autres avantages Total ------------------------------- Cotisations CNSS……………………………………… Impôts (IRPP TCS ISN) ………………………………. Remboursements …………………………………….. Total des retenues ------------------------------------- Autres avantages non imposables ……………………… Total net à payer _________________________ Date ………………………………….. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TEMPLATE OF SALARY ADVICE Association ................ Month of ………………………………… P. O. Box ......................... Street Address ............................ Name and surname of the employee .................................... Basic salary Allowance Other benefits Total ------------------------------------------------ Social Security contributions ................................................ Taxes (Individual income tax) ............................................. Refunds .............................................. Total deductions ---------------------------------------------- Other non-taxable benefits .................................. Net amount payable _________________________ Date ....................................... ... University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le Code du Travail impose aux The Labour Code compels employers to employeurs l’obligation de reporter sur un state on a payroll the various items on registre des salaires, les diverses payslips. mentions des bulletins de paie. En fait, l’exécution des In fact, the fulfillment of the obligations obligations que fait naitre le contrat de arising from the contract as drawn up will travail ainsi conclu sera le plus souvent most often be spread over a long period of échelonné sur une longue période, c’est-à- time, ie it will give rise to a dire qu’elle va donner lieu à une véritable realoccupational life. vie professionnelle. II LE DEROULEMENT DE LA II THE CONDUCT OF VIE PROFESSIONNELLE OCCUPATIONAL LIFE Hormis le versement periodique des Apart from the periodic payment of salaires au salarié en contrepartie de salaries to the employee in exchange for l’accomplissement des taches qui lui sont the performance of the duties assigned to confiees, l’employeur doit lui accorder him, the employer must grant him regular regulierement le repos et consenter la rest and agree to the suspension of the suspension du contrat dans certaines contract in certain circumstances. circonstances. 1 – Le repos du travailleur 1 - Staff Leave Principe : En plus des repos Principle: In addition to daily and weekly quotidien et hebdomadaire, le salarié a rest, the employee is entitled to a period of droit à une période de plusieurs jours several consecutive days allowing him to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consécutifs lui permettant de se détendre : relax: it is the right to leave. An employee, c’est le droit au congé. Le travailleur qu’il whether a labourer or a senior staff soit ouvrier, employé ou cadre acquiert le member, earns the right to paid annual droit au congé annuel paye à la charge de leave at the cost of his employer after one son employeur après un an de service year of actual service. effectif. Notion : Le congé annuel payé se Notion: Paid annual leave is different from distingue des conges spéciaux ou special leave or leave granted to employees particuliers qui sont accordés au salarie in accordance with the law and collective conformément à la loi et aux conventions bargaining agreements for family reasons collectives pour des évènements (birth, marriage, death) for activities of familiaux (naissance, mariage, décès) general interest (for instance, participation pour des activités d’intérêt général in the management of social groups,) and (participation à la gestion des organismes for professional or union training. sociaux par exemple) et pour la formation professionnelle ou syndicale. Durée et époque : la durée du congé est Duration and span: the duration of the de deux jours et demi par mois de travail leave is two and a half days per month of effectif soit 30 jours par an (article 117 du actual work, i.e 30 days per year (Article Code de Travail (Labour Act). Cette durée 117 of the Labour Act). This approved légale peut être majorée au profit du leave period may be increased in favor of salarie. La date du conge est fixée par the employee. The date of the leave is set l’employeur car celui-ci est maitre de by the employer because he/she is the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l’organisation de son entreprise. Un director of the organization/company. A salarie ne saurait, de sa propre volonté, salaried employee cannot, on his own remettre en question les dates fixées pour volition, question the dates set for him to la prise de son congé annuel deux go on his annual leave. Two ways are formules sont généralement utilisées pour generally followed to determine the leave déterminer la période: le conge par period: the creating of leave roster of the roulement du personnel ou la fermeture personnel or closure during the off peak totale pendant la saison creuse. Le season. Splitting of leave is possible with fractionnement est possible avec the authorization of the employer. l’autorisation de l’employeur. En Generally, leave allowance is paid at the général, l’indemnité est versée au moment time of departure for leave. It cannot be du départ en conge cela ne saurait demanded by the employee because it is constituer une exigence du salarie car elle only due in arrears at the end of the leave. n’est due qu’à terme échu c’est -dire à la fin du congé Montant de l’indemnité : cette indemnité Sum of the allowance: the said paid leave dite de conges payes est en principe égale allowance is in principle equal to one- au douzième de la rémunération totale twelfth of the total remuneration received perçue au cours de la période pendant during the period in which the employee laquelle le salaire a acquis son droit au earned his right to leave. The remuneration congé. La rémunération comprend le comprises the basic salary and all the salaire de base et toutes les primes et various bonuses and allowances paid in indemnités diverses qui sont versées en return for the work. This excludes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contrepartie du travail. Cela exclut les additional payments representing accessoires représentant un reimbursement of expenses (examples: remboursement de frais (exemples : les amounts representing professional fees, sommes représentatives de frais benefits in kind). professionnels, les avantages en nature). Pour le calcul de la durée du congé annuel, To calculate the duration of annual leave, les absences pour accident du travail ou absences for accidents at work or for pour maladie professionnelle, les périodes occupational diseases, maternal leave for de repos de la femme en couches et les nursing mothers and absence for sickness absences pour maladie dument constatée duly certified by a licensed doctor are not par un médecin agrée ne sont pas prises taken into account. en compte. 2 – La suspension du contrat de travail 2 - Suspension of the Employment La suspension se définit comme Contract l’interruption pendant un certain temps Suspension is defined as the interruption des effets du contrat de travail sans qu’il y in a certain period on the goals of the ait rupture. Ce mécanisme évite la rupture contract of employment without any dans l’intérêt des parties, chacune d’elles breach. This process eliminates a breach se trouve dispensée des obligations qui lui in the interests of the parties. Each of them incombent: l’employeur ne paie pas de is relieved of the obligations incumbent on salaire, l’employé n’accomplit pas les him: the employer does not pay a salary, taches constituant son emploi. the employee does not perform the tasks defined as his job. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Il faut préciser que la suspension It is noteworthy that the suspension can ne peut intervenir que pour certaines only happen for certain reasons clearly causes bien précises telles que : stated as: • la maladie ; - sickness; • la maternité ; - maternity; • la grève ; - strike; • la mise à pied ; - layoff; • la fermeture temporaire de l’entreprise - the temporary closure of the business En réalité, le salarie ne perd pas In fact, the employee does not totally lose totalement son salaire sauf en cas de grève his salary except in case of strike and et de suspension pour faute du salarie. suspension due to a fault of the employee. Dans tous les autres cas une allocation In all other cases an allowance may be paid pourra lui être versée. to him/her. Au terme de l’évènement ayant At the end of the event that caused occasionné la suspension (par exemple le suspension (for example the sick employee salarie malade est guéri) l’employeur a is cured) the employer is obliged to re- l’obligation de redonner au salarie son engage the employee, his refusal amounts emploi, son refus équivaut à une rupture to a breach of the employment contract. du contrat de travail. III LA RUPTURE DU CONTRAT DE III TERMINATION OF THE TRAVAIL EMPLOYMENT CONTRACT Elle peut intervenir de plusieurs It can take various forms. The parties may manières. Les parties peuvent mettre fin terminate the contract by mutual consent: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh par consentement mutuel au contrat de it is about amicable termination also travail : il s’agit d’une rupture amiable known as termination through the consent encore appelée rupture d’accord parties. of parties. In this case, the employer and Dans ce cas, l’employeur et le salarie the employee freely agree on the terms of conviennent librement des modalités de la the termination. In the case of an employee rupture. C’est l’hypothèse de l’employé who leaves his job on the stipulated date in qui quitte son emploi a la date prévue au the contract. In this case, the protection of contrat. Ici, la protection des parties the parties especially the employee is not notamment du salarie ne s’impose pas. mandatory. It is necessary but to a lesser Elle s’impose mais dans une moindre extent in case of resignation. On the other mesure en cas de démission. En revanche, hand, this protection becomes necessary cette protection apparait essentielle when the termination takes the form of lorsque la rupture prend la forme d’un dismissal by the employer. licenciement par l’employeur. 1 – La démission 1 - Resignation Notion de démission : le salarie qui en Concept of resignation: the employee who toute liberté refuse de continuer willingly refuses to continue the execution l’exécution du contrat de travail n’a pas en of the employment contract in principle, principe à bénéficier d’une quelconque does enjoy any protection: he only regains protection : il ne fait que reprendre sa his freedom. liberté. Forme de la démission : La loi ne Form of Resignation: The law does not soumet la cessation du contrat par le subject the termination of the contract by University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh salarie a aucune règle de forme. Il importe the employee to any form of regulation. It cependant que la volonté du salarie soit is important, however, that the will of the clairement exprimé. C’est ce qui justifie employee be clearly expressed. This is la règle posée par l’article 16 de la what justifies the provision in Article 16 of Convention of the collective bargaining the collective bargaining agreement of agreement du Togo selon lequel ‘la partie Togo according to which 'the party who qui prend l’initiative de la rupture du initiates the termination of the contract contrat doit notifier sa décision par écrit à must notify the other party in writing of its l’autre partie avec mention obligatoire du decision and must state the reason for the motif de la rupture » termination. L’employeur qui est informé An employer, who is informed of the verbalement de la décision de démission decision to resign verbally, must require doit exiger du salarié une confirmation the employee's written confirmation in écrite de sa main. La lettre pourra être his or her handwriting. The letter may be libellée comme suit : worded as follows: Modèle de lettre de démission Je soussigné(e) …………………………… déclare donner ce jour le …….. ma démission. La rupture de mon contrat sera effective à l’issue d’un préavis de …………….mois, soit le ……………………………………………………………….. Fait à ………………….. le …………………… Signature University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sample of resignation letter I, the undersigned ................................. wish to inform you of my resignation on this day ...... ... The termination of my contract will be effective at the end of a notice of ............... month, being ........................................................................ ... Done at ..................... ..on ........................ Signature Démission implicite : Certains cas Implied Resignation: Some cases may peuvent poser problème lorsque pose problems when the employer has not l’employeur ne s’est pas entouré de ces taken precautionary measures. The précautions. Ainsi l’absence en soi ne absence itself does not mean a resignation; signifie pas une démission, il en va it is different from a prolonged absence différemment d’une absence prolongée without authorization, which can mean a sans autorisation qui révèle un abandon de vacation of post. Similarly, the judge poste. Dans le meme sens, le juge estime considers that the fact that a worker leaves que le fait pour un travailleur de quitter son his work, asks for his statement of account, travail, en demandant son compte, en moves out his possessions and withdraws emportant ses affaires et en s’abstenant de his services, is resignation. reprendre le travail constitue une The resigning employee must respect the démission. notice of resignation (see below). He is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le salarié démissionnaire doit entitled to the leave of absence respecter le préavis de démission (cf. compensation paid for the leave granted for Infra). Il a droit à l’indemnité the year. compensatrice de congé payé pour le temps de congéacquis au titre de l’année. Démission forcée : Il peut arriver Forced Resignation: It may happen that que le salarié prétende avoir été contraint à the employee claims to have been forced to la démission par son employeur. Par resign by his employer. For example, exemple, à la suite d’un grave désaccord, following a serious disagreement, the l’employeur l’a obligé à signer une lettre de employer forced him to sign a letter of démission. Il apparait dans une telle resignation. In this case the employee has hypothèse au salarié d’apporter la preuve to provide evidence of this undue influence de cette contrainte, le juge peut retenir à by his employer, the judge can bring against l’encontre de l’employeur un licenciement the employer subtle dismissal through déguisé. undue influence. Démission abusive: le travailleur a la Wrongful Resignation: the employee has liberté de rompre son contrat de travail, il the right to end the employment contract. ne doit cependant pas en abuser. Si les He does not however have to abuse it. If circonstances de la démission font the circumstances of the resignation appear apparaitre de la part du salarié une volonté on the part of the employee as willingness de nuire a son employeur, celui-ci a la to harm his/her employer, the employer has faculté de demander au juge de condamner the option to plead to the judge to award le salarié fautif à des dommages-intérêts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compensatory damages with interests against the offending employee. La femme enceinte et le travailleur en Pregnant women and workers on strike grève ne peuvent faire l’objet d’un may not be dismissed except for gross licenciement sauf faute lourde. negligence or serious misconduct. La protection du travailleur est également The protection of the worker is also done réalisée par : through: • une procédure de licenciement ; - a dismissal procedure; • un contrôle des motifs de licenciement ; - a review of the reasons for dismissal; • l’indemnisation du travailleur licencié ; - compensation for the dismissed worker; • et la délivrance d’un certificat de travail. - the provision of employers reference or testimonial. • La procédure de licenciement • The dismissal procedure La procédure comporte deux actes The procedure involves two important importants : la notification et le actions: notification and prior notice. préavis. • La notification : The notification : Définition : La notification est le Definition: The notification is done to fait de porter à la connaissance du salarié brings to the notice of the employee the la décision de licenciement. Les modalités decision to dismiss. The procedures vary University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh varient suivant qu’il s’agit d’un depending on whether it is an individual licenciement individuel ou d’un dismissal or a group dismissal. licenciement collectif. Licenciement individuel: Ce Individual dismissal: This dismissal licenciement concerne un seul salarié a la concerns only one employee at a time. fois. L’article 16 de la Convention Article 16 of the collective bargaining Collective Interprofessionnelle en fixe les agreement of Togo sets the rules. règles. Selon ce texte, l’employeur doit Pursuant to this Act, the employer must informer le salarié de sa décision de le inform the employee of his decision to licencier. Il s’agit d’une formalité dismiss him. This is a mandatory obligatoire qui s’effectue par lettre procedure which is carried out by recommandée avec accusé de réception ou registered letter with acknowledgment of par lettre remise en main propre au receipt or by hand-delivered letter to the destinataire devant témoin ou contre reçu addressee in the presence of witness or against receipt En règle générale et conformément aux As a rule and in accordance with the prescriptions de l’article 34 alinéa 2 du provisions of Article 34 paragraph 2 of the Code du Travail, tout licenciement doit être Labour Act, any dismissal must be confirmé par écrit au travailleur dans les confirmed in writing to the worker within huit jours qui suivent. Copie en sera eight days. A copy will be addressed to the adressée à l’inspecteur du travail et au labour inspectorate and the Head of the chef du service de la Main d’œuvre. Human Resource Department. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Modèle de lettre de licenciement M…………………. Nous sommes au regret de vous notifier par la présente votre licenciement pour …………………………………………………………… (indiquer le motif ou les motifs) La date de réception de cette lettre fixera le point de départ du préavis de ………… (préciser selon le cas, le nombre de jours ou de mois) au terme duquel votre contrat de travail sera définitivement rompu. Nous vous précisions cependant que nous vous dispensons de l’exécution de ce préavis et que vous percevrez donc une indemnité compensatrice correspondant en même temps que le solde de votre compte qui vous sera adressé prochainement (cette clause de dispense de préavis est facultative). Veuillez agréer Monsieur ……………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sample of a dismissal letter Dear Mr. / Mrs. We are sorry to hereby notify you of your dismissal for..................................................................... (Indicate reason or reasons) The date of receipt of this letter will set the starting point for the notice of............ (Specify depending on the case, the number of days or months) at the end of which your contract will be terminated. However, we wish to inform you that we waive prior notice and that you will therefore receive a compensatory indemnity at the same time as the balance on your account that will be sent to you shortly (this notice waiver clause of prior notice is optional). Yours sincerely, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Licenciement collectif Group Termination Pour ce qui est du licenciement With regard to group termination, the rules collectif, les règles sont plus compliquées. are more complicated. First, it is Tout d’abord, il faut noter qu’il y a noteworthy that a layoff is done where licenciement collectif lorsqu’en raison there is reason to reduce business activity d’une diminution d’activité ou d’une or for internal restructuring. The réorganisation interne, l’employeur est employer then resorts to the outright conduit à procéder au licenciement layoff of several employees. simultané de plusieurs salariés. L’employeur doit à cet effet établir The employer must establish a schedule of l’ordre des licenciements en tenant compte the terminations taking into account the de la qualification professionnelle, de professional qualification, seniority and l’ancienneté et des charges de famille des the family responsibilities of the workers travailleurs (article 21 Convention (reference to Article 21 of collective Collective Interprofessionnelle du Togo) Il bargaining agreement of Togo). The en informe ensuite les représentants du employer then informs the worker personnel qui lui présentent leurs representatives who make suggestions. suggestions. La dernière étape considère The final step is for the employer to notify pour l’employeur à notifier le projet de the Labour Inspectorate of the proposed licenciement à l’Inspection du Travail. layoff. Schéma de projet de licenciement Sketch of layoff project for economic pour motif économique reason University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 – Raisons d’ordre économique ou 1 - Economic or technical reasons technique justifiant le justifying the termination: the employer licenciement: l’employeur pourra recourir may resort to figures to substantiate à des éléments chiffrés pour étayer ses her/his reasons motifs 2 – Nombre total de salaries dont le 2 - Total number of employees whose licenciement est envisage layoff is envisaged 3 – Catégories et qualifications 3 – grades and professional qualifications professionnelles et ordre des licenciements and schedule of layoffs 4 – Calendrier des licenciements : 4 - Calendar of layoffs: specify the dates préciser les dates envisagées envisaged 5 – Avis des représentants du 5 - Opinion of staff representatives after personnel après consultation. consultation. Modèle de lettre d’information de l’Inspection du Travail Monsieur l’Inspecteur, En application de l’article 21 alinéa 4 de la Convention Collective Interprofessionnelle, nous vous informons de notre décision de procéder a des licenciements pour cause économique. Vous trouverez ci-joint un projet comportant toutes informations exigées par les textes en vigueur. Veuillez agréer, M………………………..l’expression de mes salutations distinguées. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Layout of a letter informing the Labour Inspectorate Dear Mr. Inspector, Pursuant to Article 21 paragraph 4 of the Collective Bargaining Agreement of Togo, we inform you of our decision to proceed with redundancies for economic reasons. You will find attached a project containing all the requisite information required by the Acts in force. Yours faithfully Ces formalités accomplies, Once these formalities are through, the l’employeur attendra quinze (15) jours employer waits fifteen (15) days before avant de prendre une décision taking a definite decision. He has to définitive, il devra observer également examine for each individual employee pour chaque salarié la notification the notification provided for individual prévue pour le licenciement individuel. layoff. *Le préavis ou délai-congé Notion de préavis : La partie * The Prior notice or deadline qui a décidé de mettre fin au contrat Concept of prior notice: The party who doit prévenir à l’avance l’autre partie has decided to terminate the contract pour lui permettre de se préparer à la must notify the other party in advance to rupture : le contrat va se poursuivre enable him to prepare for the dismissal: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh jusqu’à l’expiration d’un délai qu’on the contract will continue until the appelle délai-congé ou préavis. Cela expiry or deadline. This means that signifie que durant le préavis les during the prior notice period the obligations réciproques des parties mutual obligations of the parties persist. persistent. Durée du préavis : Selon la Convention Collective Duration of prior notice: According to Interprofessionnelle (article 17) la Article 17 of the collective bargaining durée minimum du préavis est égale à : agreement, the minimum notice period  quinze jours pour les travailleurs is: permanents à l’heure ; • un mois pour les travailleurs payes - fifteen days for permanent hourly au mois ; workers; • trois mois pour les agents de - one month for monthly salaried maitrise, cadres et d’autres workers; catégories. - three months for supervisors, officers Il s’agit bien comme le texte and other categories. l’indique d’un délai minimum, cela laisse la faculté aux conventions As stated in the Act on minimum collectives par branches ou aux duration, which provides the option to contrats individuels de prévoir un branch associations or individuals to préavis plus long. decide to envisage a longer notice period? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le préavis commence dans tous les cas à partir du jour de la The prior notice starts in most cases notification de la rupture. Au cours de from the day of notification of la période, le travailleur averti de son termination. During this period, the prochain licenciement doit bénéficier employee is informed about his/her d’une autorisation d’absence de 2 dismissal and ought to benefit from heures par jour de de 2 jours par leave of absence from work for two semaine. Cette situation peut se hours a day or two days a week. This révéler gênante pour l’employeur qui situation can worry an employer who préfèrera souvent offrir au travailleur often prefers to offer the employee une indemnité compensatrice. compensation. La faute privative de préavis : The Offence of deprivation of Prior Notice: Lorsque la rupture de contrat est When the termination of a contract is provoquée par la faute grave d’une des caused through the serious misconduct of parties l’autre partie qui se prévaut de one of the parties. The other party who cette faute n’a pas à respecter le anticipated this act does not have to accept préavis. On parle de faute privative de prior notice. Deprivation of prior notice préavis c’est-à-dire celle qui par sa occurs when a notice by its nature makes nature rend impossible la continuation it impossible to continue the contract. du contrat. The Reasons for Dismissal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Les motifs de licenciement An indefinite contract can always cease Le contrat de travail à durée by the will of one of the parties, in indéterminée peut toujours cesser par la particular of the employer. The latter thus volonté de l’une des parties, notamment has a right to dismissal, the exercise of de l’employeur. Celui-ci dispose ainsi which has two limitations: d’un droit au licenciement dont l’exercice connait deux limites : - First, one needs a reason to justify the • d’abord, il faut un motif pour termination of the work contract. This justifier la rupture du contrat de reason should be notified in writing to the travail. Ce motif doit être notifié par employee about to be dismissed; écrit au salarie sur le point d’être licencie ; Also, the reason must be real, and it must • ensuite, le motif doit exister be legitimate; réellement, et il doit être légitime ; - lack of a reason or its illegitimacy • l’absence de motif ou son caractère may render the dismissal unfair. illégitime peut rendre le licenciement abusif. The Legitimate Reason *Le motif légitime A reason for dismissal is legitimate and Il y a motif légitime justifiant le justifiable when the employee fails to licenciement chaque fois que le meet his responsibility for the travailleur a manqué à l’une des continuation of the contract. Besides, obligations découlant du contrat. Outre certain peculiar situations such as the quelques formes particulières comme withdrawal of consent through official University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh par exemple le retrait d’agrément par administrative procedure decision, the décision administrative, la notion de notion of legitimate reason are in three motif légitime se rattache main categories : principalement à trois catégories de motifs : • The reduction of infrastructure • La réduction d’effectifs dans is economic reason le cadre de l’organisation économique et technique de l’entreprise ; c’est le motif • The incompetence of the économique ; employee is for professional • L’inaptitude du travailleur : reasons c’est le motif • The discipline of the enterprise professionnelle ; is for human resource reasons • La discipline de l’entreprise: c’est le motif personnel. 1 Le motif personnel économique 1 - The Economic Reason Il révèle divers aspects mais Economic reasons take different forms, aboutit presque toujours à une but manifest most of the time in compression de personnel. reduction of staff. Il peut s’agir notamment : They may include: • d’une baisse d’activité ; - a decrease in business; - termination of a project when the employee was hired for such project University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • de l’achèvement d’un projet lorsque le travailleur a été - Closure of business; engagé pour ce projet ; - bankruptcy. • de la cessation d’activité ; 2 - The Professional Reason • d’une faillite. It is linked to the quality of work 2 – Le motif professionnel performed by the employee; it sometimes Il est lie à la qualité du travail results from his physical incapacity and effectue par le salarie, il résulte parfois more often from his professional de son inaptitude physique et plus ineptitude. This may include: souvent de son inaptitude - professional incompetence and lack of professionnelle. Il peut s’agir capacity; notamment : - lack of professional ethics; • d’incapacité et d’insuffisance professionnelles ; - negligence and professional • du manque de conscience misconduct. professionnelle ; 3 - The Personnel reason • les négligences et de fautes This reason results from the conduct of professionnelles. the worker, it may include: 3 – Le motif personnel Ce motif résulte du comportement - acts of indiscipline: repeated absences, du travailleur, il peut s’agir unjustified delays, refusal to observe notamment : instructions or security measures etc ... ..; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • de faits d’indiscipline : absences répétées, retards - bad behavior: acts of violence, injustifiés, refus d’observer insubordinations, destruction of les instructions ou les equipment, drunkenness; mesures de sécurité etc….. ; • mauvais comportements : actes de violence, - indiscretions: rape, embezzlement or insubordinations, misappropriation destructions de matériel, état d’ébriété ; • indélicatesses : viols, malversations. La perte de confiance : Le motif The Loss of Trust: The personnel reason personnel revêt parfois un aspect sometimes takes on a particular aspect. It particulier c’est le cas de la perte de is the case of the loss of trust entailed by confiance entrainée par la mésentente, the misunderstanding, the indiscretion or l’indiscrétion ou encore la suspicion legitimate suspicion. légitime. La faute : Plus fréquemment le motif The offence: More frequently the personnel reste liée à l’idée de faute dont personnel reason remains linked to the la gravite est variable. Si une faute offence of which the seriousness is varied. grave légitime le licenciement, une If a serious misconduct legitimizes the faute lourde modifie le mécanisme de dismissal, a serious misconduct changes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh protection du travailleur licencie : c’est the nature of protection for the dismissed le cas de la faute privative de préavis. worker: It could be in the instance of lack of prior notice. De façon générale, la faute Generally, offence of absence of prior privative de préavis s’entend des notice denotes non-fulfilment of infractions disciplinaires, des contractual obligations and misconduct manquements caractérisés aux of staff with sanctions. obligations contractuelles et a un comportement personnel particulièrement blâmable. Elle rend impossible sinon préjudiciable It makes it impossible if not harmful for à l’employeur la continuation des the continuation of the contractual relations pendant le temps limite du relations during the duration of the prior préavis. notice. La qualification de faute lourde The determination of serious offence of privative de préavis revient au juge, il deprivation of prior notice is up to the n’est pas prudent pour un employeur de judge. It is unreasonable for an employer priver spontanément le travailleur to spontaneously deprive a dismissed licencie du préavis ou de l’indemnité employee of prior notice or compensation compensatrice de préavis à moins qu’il in lieu of prior notice. This makes it ne soit en présence d’une faute de exceptionally serious offence. If the gravité exceptionnelle. Si la faute alleged offence is light or imaginary, there alléguée se révèle légère ou imaginaire, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh elle risque de remettre le licenciement is a possibility of challenging the en cause. dismissal. *Le licenciement abusif ou illégitime * Wrongful or Unfair Dismissal Le motif inexact : Le An unjustified reason: The dismissed travailleur licencie a la possibilité de employee has the opportunity to challenge contester le motif avance par son the reason advanced by his employer to employeur pour justifier le justify the dismissal. He can claim that the licenciement. Il peut prétendre que le reason is unjust, false and only made motif est inexact, faux, ce n’est en upon a pretext. For example, the réalité qu’un prétexte. Par exemple, employer invokes an act of indiscipline l’employeur invoque un fait when in reality the dismissal is intended to d’indiscipline alors qu’en réalité le sanction a trade union activity. licenciement vise à sanctionner une activité syndicale. Misdemeanour: The employee may also La faute légère : Le salarie argue that the misconduct against him peut aussi faire valoir que la faute qu’on cannot justify dismissal, in other words, lui reproche ne saurait justifier un that the penalty is disproportionate to the licenciement, en d’autres termes, que la offence, the employer has abused his right sanction est disproportionnée par to dismiss. rapport à la faute, l’employeur a abuse de son droit de licencier. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le juge saisi apprécie souverainement The judge can in his own discretion look les circonstances de fait et se forge sa at the circumstances of the facts and conviction. S’il estime que le motif decide on the matter. If he believes that n’est pas légitime alors, l’employeur the reason is not legitimate, then, the peut être condamné a des dommages- employer can be ordered to pay intérêts. compensatory damages with interests. Cela étant il s’avère plus Being so, it is very reasonable for the prudent pour l’employeur de se employer to look at all the facts of proofs, préconstituér la preuve de tous les all offences of his employees as well as manquements de ses salariés aussi bien the rules of conduct and responsibilities aux règles de la discipline qu’aux in the employment contract. obligations du contrat de travail. • L’indemnisation du travailleur Compensation for the Dismissed licencié Employee La rupture du contrat de The termination of the work contract by travail par l’employeur cause un trouble the employer causes problems for the au travailleur c’est ce qui justifie le droit employee. It is that which justifies the qu’il a de percevoir certaines right to certain compensation. indemnités : • Indemnité de licenciement ; • Severance pay; • Indemnité de congé paye ; • Compensation for outstanding leave University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • L’indemnité compensatrice • Compensation in lieu of de préavis ; notice *L’indemnité de licenciement : * Severance pay: Le droit à l’indemnité : The Right to Compensation: L’indemnité de licenciement The termination benefits are defined as a par définition un caractère compensatory: the employee has right to indemnitaire : le travailleur y a droit it even if the dismissal is legitimate and même si le licenciement est légitime et the employer has complied with prior que l’employeur a respecté le préavis. notice requirement. Pour bénéficier de cette indemnité To benefit from this compensation, the le travailleur doit avoir accompli dans worker must have completed at least one l’entreprise une durée de service au year's service in the company. moins égale à un an. L’article 22 alinéa 9 de la Article 22, paragraph 9 of the collective Convention Collective bargaining agreement states that the Interprofessionnelle précise que le employee loses this right through the travailleur perd ce droit en cas de faute commitment of serious offence or gross lourde. negligence. Le montant de l’indemnité est calculé The sum of the compensation is sur la base du salaire réel. calculated on the gross of the net salary.. Calcul : cette indemnité se calcule Calculation: this benefit is calculated on en fonction du salaire global mensuel the basis of the average monthly total moyen des douze derniers mois University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d’activité qui ont précédé la date de salary for the last twelve months of licenciement. activity preceding the date of . Le salaire global comprend : • Le salaire de base brut ; The net salary includes: • Les primes et indemnités - gross basic salary; n’ayant pas le caractère de - Premiums and allowances not having the remboursement de frais ; nature of reimbursement of expenses; • Les gratifications n’ayant pas un caractère discrétionnaire. - Bonuses not accorded through discretion. 1 – Calcul du salaire global moyen des douze derniersmois *Période concernée : 1991 1992 J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D ___________________________________ 1 12 mois *Salaire total perçu au cours de la période Il faut suivant les principes retenir toutes les prestations constituant une contrepartie du travail et exclure les indemnités ayant le caractère de remboursement de frais. Dans le cas de Mr A……..seule le prime d’ancienneté sera retenue. *Salaire du 1er septembre 1991 au 31 décembre 1992 50.000 x 4 = 200.000 F University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Salaire du 1er janvier au 30 aout 1992 (salaire de base + prime d’ancienneté) 60.000 + 5.000 = 65.000 x 8 = 520.000 F Total : 520.000 + 200.000 F = 720.000 F *Salaire global moyen :720.000 = 60.000 F 12 2- Ancienneté : Mr. A ……… a travaillé pendant 3 ans et 6 mois Pour les 3 ans, il a droit a 30% du salaire global moyen par année soit : 60.000 x 30% = 18.0000 F par année Pour les trois ans : 18.000 x 3 = 54.000 F Pour les six mois : 18.000 F x 6 = 9.000 F 12 Montant total de l’indemnité de licenciement : 54.000 F + 9.000 F = 63.000 F Le calcul de l’indemnité de conge paye M.A ……… a par hypothèse bénéficie de son congé annuel pendant les trois ans. Cela étant, il ne bénéficiera plus d’indemnité pour cette période. En revanche, pour les six mois, il peut prétendre a une indemnité, (calcule au prorata) Il acquiert 2 jours et demi de conge par mois de service. 6 mois x 2,5 j =15 jours de congé Le montant de l’indemnité sera celui de l’allocation-conge dont aurait bénéficié le travailleur s’il avait pris ses quinze jours de congé. Soit salaire de base 60.000 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Prime d’ancienneté 5.000 65.000 65.000 x 15j = 32.000 F 30j * Period in question: 1991 1992 J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D ______________________________________________________________________ 1 12 months * Total salary paid during the period It is necessary to follow the principle of including all the payments being compensation for work and exclude the allowances being refund for fees. In the case of Mr A ...... .. only the seniority bonus will be retained. * Salary from 1 September 1991 to 31 December 1992 50,000 x 4 = 200,000 F Salary from January 1st to August 30th, 1992 (basic salary + seniority bonus) 60,000 + 5,000 = 65,000 x 8 = 520,000 F University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Total: 520,000 + 200,000 F = 720,000 F * Average net salary: 720,000 = 60,000 F 12 2- Seniority: Mr. A ......... worked for 3 years and 6 months For 3 years, he is entitled to 30% of the net average salary per year, ie: 60,000 x 30% = 18.0000 F per year For three years: 18,000 x 3 = 54,000 F For six months: 18,000 F x 6 = 9,000 F Total amount of severance pay: 54,000 F + 9,000 F = 63,000 F The calculation of the leave allowance paid Mr. A ......... has in this case benefited from his annual leave during the three years. That being the case, he will no longer receive compensation for this period. On the other hand, for the six months, he can claim an indemnity, (calculated pro rata) He acquires 2 and a half days of leave per month of service. 6 months x 2.5 days = 15 days off The amount of the indemnity will be that of the leave allowance, which the worker would have received if he had taken his fifteen days' leave. Or base salary 60,000 Seniority Award 5,000 65,000 65,000 x 15d = 32,000 F 30days University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh L’indemnité compensatrice de préavis Compensation in lieu of Prior Notice Tout se passe comme si le salarié It is as if the terminated employee had licencié avait travaillé durant le temps de worked during the notice period. Article 19 préavis. L’article 19 de la Convention of the Collective Bargaining Agreement Collective Interprofessionnelle le précise : le states that the amount of the indemnity montant de l’indemnité « correspond à la "corresponds to the remuneration and rémunération et aux avantages de toute benefits of any kind that the worker would nature dont aurait bénéficié le travailleur have received during the period of notice pendant la durée du préavis restant à courir remaining if he had worked. s’il avait travaillé. Selon l’article 24 du Code General Pursuant to Article 24 of the General Tax des Impôts, l’indemnité de licenciement Code, severance pay is not subject to the n’est pas imposable a l’impôt sur les revenus personal income tax (IRRP) except for the des personnes physiques (IRRP) sauf pour la fraction representing a share of premiums, fraction représentante une cote part des gratuities and other benefits acquired by the primes, gratifications et autres avantages employee when leaving the company. acquis par le salarie lors de son départ de l’entreprise. Calcul de l’indemnité compensatrice de préavis En clair, cela signifie que l’indemnité de Mr. A comprend le salaire de base et toutes les primes ou indemnités. Soit salaire de base 60.000 Prime d’ancienneté 5.000 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Indemnités de logement et de transport 10.000 Montant total 75.000 Calculation of the compensatory indemnity of notice Clearly, this means that Mr. A's compensation includes base salary and all bonuses or allowances Or base salary 60,000 Seniority Award 5,000 Housing and transport allowances 10,000 Sum total 75,000 Ce montant est à rapporter à la durée du préavis. Par hypothèse M. A n’est pas ni un cadre ni un agent de maitrise, sa durée minimale de son préavis est d’un mois soit une indemnité de 75.000 F. Montant total des indemnités de rupture • Indemnité de licenciement ……………………………..63.000 • indemnité de conge-payé……………………………….65.000 • indemnité compensatrice de préavis…………………..75.000 Total ………………………………203.000 This sum is put under the prior notice period. The assumption is Mr. A is neither a supervisor nor an officer; its minimum duration for prior notice is one month being compensation of 75,000 F. Total sum of termination benefits 63,000 Compensation for paid leave 65,000 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Compensation in lieu of notice 75,000 Total 203,000 • Certificat de travail - Employer’s Reference L’employeur, outre le « paiement des In addition to the "payment of fees", the droits » devra délivrer au travailleur licencié employer shall issue an employers’ un certificat de travail qui contient reference to the employee, including notamment les informations relatives à information on the employer and the l’employeur et au salarié ainsi que les dates employee, as well as the dates of entry d’entrée et de sortie et la nature de l’emploi and exit and the type of the post occupé. occupied. L’employeur pourra se ménager The employer can initiate a means of un moyen de preuve de la remise matérielle proof of the physical delivery of the sums des sommes représentant les indemnités de of the severance pay. To do this, he will rupture. Pour ce faire, il va demander au ask the employee to issue him on the spot salarie de lui délivrer sur le champ lors du during the final settlement of his account, règlement ultime de son compte, un reçu a receipt for balance also called a pour solde appelé encore reçu pour solde de settlement account. tout compte. Ce reçu doit être établi en double This receipt must be drawn up in exemplaire et porter la mention bon pour duplicate and marked as “in settlement” solde de tout compte apposée de la main thumbprinted and signed by the même du salarié et suivie de sa signature. Il employee. It must also include in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh doit également comprendre en principe tous principle all the elements of les éléments de rémunération dus au salarie. remuneration due to the employee. The Ce dernier a la possibilité de contester le latter has the option of challenging the reçu. receipt. IV LE CAS PARTICULIER DES IV THE SPECIAL CASE OF THE COLLABORATEURS COOPERANTS OF THE BENEVOLES DE ASSOCIATION L’ASSOCIATION • Notion de bénévolat 1- Concept of Volunteering La collaboration est bénévole The cooperation is voluntary when a lorsqu’un membre de l’association ou un member of the association or a third party tiers participe au fonctionnement ou à participates in the operation or formation l’animation de l’association sans contrepartie of the association without compensation ni rémunération sous quelque forme que ce or remuneration in any form whatsoever. soit. Le bénévolat exclut également tout lien Volunteering also excludes any de subordination entre le bénévole et les hierarchical relations between the dirigeants de l’association. cooperant and the leaders of the association. 2 – Absence de rémunération et de lien de 2 - No Remuneration and hierarchical subordination relations Le collaborateur n’en perçoit The employee receives no cash aucune rémunération en espèces : il ne remuneration: he receives no salary in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh perçoit ni salaire, ni honoraires ni cash, fees or bonuses. He/She also does gratifications. Il ne bénéficie pas non plus de not benefit from meals, accommodation repas, d’hébergement, de véhicule qui or a vehicle, which constitutes in-kind constitue des avantages en nature ayant la benefits in the nature of a salary. The nature d’un salaire. L’existence de la existence of legal subordination is the subordination juridique résulte de la result of the interaction of several conjonction de plusieurs éléments tels que la elements such as the submission to soumission a des directives et a des contrôles directives and controls (eg hourly (exemple horaires impose) et l’intégration a imposed) and integration into a service un service organise par l’association (mise à organized by the association (provision disposition de locaux, de moyen ou de of premises, resources or staff). personnel). 3 – Remboursement des frais 3 - Reimbursement of Expenses Le collaborateur bénévole ne reçoit The cooperant does not earn a salary, but pas de salaire mais rien ne s’oppose à ce qu’il is not forbidden from a refund of the obtienne le remboursement des frais qu’il a expenses he has incurred for the dû engager pour l’association. Ces frais ne association. These expenses should not doivent pas dissimuler des salaires mais be seen as salary but must be real constituer des dépenses réellement effectuées expenses made and justifiable. The total et justifiées. Ils seront rembourses pour leur expenses will be reimbursed upon montant sur présentation de factures submission of receipts as proof. justificatives. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chapitre II LE CONTRAT DE Chapter II PROPERTY LEASE LOCATION D’IMMEUBLE AGREEMENT Généralités et définition :Les Type and Definition: It is a fact that associations, il est vrai, sont parfois associations, sometimes own their propriétaires de leurs locaux mais il est plus premises but it is more common for them fréquent pour elles de recourir à la location to resort to renting premises. One speaks d’un immeuble. On parle de bail ou d’après of tenancy or lease according to the civil le code civil, de louage de chose. C’est un code, of renting things. It is a contract by contrat par lequel l’une des parties s’oblige à which one of the parties is obliged to faire jouir l’autre d’une chose pendant un enjoy from the other a thing for a certain certain temps, et moyennant un certain prix time, and for a certain price that is que celui-ci s’oblige à lui payer (article 1709 incumbent on the one enjoying and du code civil). paying him/her as in article 1709 of the code civil. Ce contrat met en présence deux parties : This contract concerns two parties - on d’une part le bailleur ou loueur de the one hand the lessor or renter of the l’immeuble d’autre part le locataire ou premises on the other hand the tenant or preneur. Il est caractérisé par deux éléments: lessee. It has two components - the le droit qu’a le locataire d’user de la chose: tenant's right to use the property: the le droit de jouissance et l’obligation qu’il a right of enjoyment and the obligation to de payer un loyer en contrepartie de ce droit. pay rent for the right of enjoyment. The Ce sont là les obligations des parties que parties will fulfil their obligations for a celles-ci vont accomplir pendant une certaine certain period. This analysis reveals two University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh durée. Cette analyse fait apparaitre deux essential characteristics - the obligations préoccupations essentielles ce sont: les of the parties and the duration of the obligations des parties et la durée du bail. lease. LES OBLIGATIONS DES PARTIES THE OBLIGATIONS OF THE PARTIES Le bail est formé lorsque l’accord des The lease is drawn up when the agreement parties s’est fait sur les éléments essentiels. ; of the parties is made on the rrequisite le local et son utilisation ou sa destination, le components - the premises and its use or montant du loyer et la date d’entrée purpose, the sum of rent and the date of jouissance. A partir de cet instant, chacune commencement of enjoyment. Apart from des parties s’engage vis-à-vis de l’autre à this moment, each of the parties undertakes remplir un certain nombre d’obligations. vis-à-vis the other to fulfill a certain 1 – Les obligations du bailleur number of obligations. Le bailleur remplit trois obligations 1 - The obligations of the lessor principales, il doit délivrer la chose louée, The lessor fulfills three main obligations; l’entretenir et en garantir la paisible he must handover the rented property, jouissance pendant la durée du bail. maintain it and guarantee its quiet enjoyment during the term of the lease. • L’obligation de délivrance The obligation to handover Principe : selon l’article 1720 alinéa Principle: according to Article 1720 1er du code civil, « le bailleur est tenu de paragraph 1 of the Civil Code, "the lessor délivrer la chose en bon état de réparation de is bound to deliver the thing in a good toute espèces ». Cela signifie que le bailleur state of repair of any type". This means University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh doit permettre au locataire de prendre that the landlord must allow the tenant to possession des locaux loués au moment take over possession of the rented convenu par les parties : la remise des clés premises at the time agreed by the constitue une des manifestations de la parties: the handover of keys is a proof of délivrance. La loi précise que le bailleur doit the handover. The law specifies that the mettre à la disposition du locataire des locaux lessor must make available to the tenant en « bon état de réparation de toute espèce. “premises in good state of repair of any En d’autres termes, toutes les réparations de kind”. In other words, all repairs of any remise en état de toute nature et tous les kind and all the finishing work of an travaux de finition d’un immeuble inachevé unfinished building are the responsibility sont à la charge du bailleur au moment de of the lessor at the time of entry. l’entrée dans les lieux. Aménagements de l’obligation : Maintenance of the Premises: Les deux parties ont cependant la Both parties have the option of possibilité de prévoir au contrat une clause providing for a clause in the lease qui dispense en partie le bailleur de agreement which exempts in part the l’obligation de délivrer en bon état: il suffit lessor from the obligation to deliver in pour cela que le preneur décide bien good state: it is sufficient for lessee to connaitre les lieux et qu’il accepte de les acknowledge that he knows the premises prendre dans l’état dans lequel ou ils se well and accepts to take it in the state in trouvent au moment de la conclusion du which he finds it where it is located, at contrat. Si le local loue n’est qu’en voie the time of finalizing the contract. If the d’achèvement, le contrat peut prévoir que le rented premises are in the process of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh locataire fera des travaux et que ces dépenses completion, the contract may provide seront déduites du loyer. that the lessee will do the work and that the expenses will be deducted from the rent. • L’obligation d’entretien The obligation to maintain Contenu de l’obligation: En cours de Content of the contract: During the lease bail (pendant la durée du contrat), les (during the duration of the contract), the réparations sont reparties entre bailleur et repairs are shared between lessor and locataire. Le bailleur (article 1720 code civil) lessee. The lessor in accordance with doit effectuer « pendant la durée du bail Article 1720 of the Civil Code must carry toutes les réparations qui peuvent devenir out "during the lease period all repairs nécessaires, autres que locatives » De façon that may become necessary, other than générale, est considérée comme locative, une rental". Generally, it is considered as réparation qui ne touche ni à la structure ni rental, a repair that does not affect the aux éléments essentiels de l’immeuble loué. structure or the essential components of Toute autre réparation pèse sur le bailleur. the rented building. Any other repairs are borne by the lessor. Aménagements conventionnels : Ici Non-contractual renovations: As in the comme en matière d'obligation de délivrance, matter of obligation to handover, the les parties ont la faculté de se répartir les parties have the option to share the cost réparations. Ainsi le bailleur peut charger le of repairs. Thus, the lessor can make the locataire de certaines ou de toutes les lessee bear some or all the repairs. He réparations lui incombant. Il pourra en may in return agree to a decrease in rent. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contrepartie consentir une diminution du montant du loyer. Sanctions en cas d’inexécution : que Penalties for Non-performance: what se passe-t-il lorsque le bailleur n’exécute pas happens when the lessor fails to fulfill its ses obligations ? Le locataire a plusieurs obligations? The lessee is availed of solutions : several solutions: • il peut demander au juge d’ordonner - he can ask the judge to order the l’exécution forcée c’est-à-dire execution, that is to say execution by exécution par recours à la force resort to coercion by a public agency; publique ; • il peut aussi solliciter une résiliation -he can also ask for a cancellation, that is c’est-à-dire une rupture pour to say breach for non-performance; inexécution ; • une troisième solution consistera pour le A third solution will be for the lessee to locataire à se faire autoriser en justice à be authorized by court to make repairs at procéder aux réparations au frais du the expense of the lessor, in which case bailleur, dans ce cas, il déduit les he deducts the sums spent for the repairs sommes dépensées pour les réparations from the rent; du montant du loyer ; • le locataire peut réclamer des - the lessee can claim damages if he dommages-intérêts s’il prouve que le proves that the lack of maintenance défaut d’entretien lui a causé un has caused him harm, for example: the préjudice, par exemple : le refus de refusal to repair the roof has caused University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh réparer la toiture a occasionne des pertes losses of equipment stored in the de matériel stocke dans les locaux loues. rented premises. 1. La garantie de paisible a) The Guarantee of Quiet Enjoyment jouissance Le bailleur ne doit pas The lessor must not prevent the lessee s’empêcher le locataire de jouir de la chose from enjoying the rented property. The louée. Obligation est faite au bailleur de lessor is obliged to refrain from any s’abstenir de toute ingérence dans la sphère interference in the privacy of the lessee. privée du locataire. Par exemple, il fait For example, he has the locks changed changer les serrures à l’insu du locataire. Le without the knowledge of the lessee. The bailleur n’a pas non plus le droit d’imposer lessor also has no right to impose on the au locataire des travaux qui troubleraient la lessee any work that would disturb the jouissance des lieux sauf lorsque les travaux enjoyment of the premises except when en question constituent des réparations the work in question constitutes urgent urgentes. repairs. Cependant, le bailleur ne peut pas être tenu However, the lessor cannot be held pour responsable des troubles de personnes responsible for disturbances of persons étrangères au bail, c’est le cas par exemple du outside the lease; this is in the case of for voleur qui dévalise le locataire. instance a thief who breaks into the premises of the lessee. 2 – Les obligations du locataire The obligations of the Lessee Le locataire doit avant toute chose The lessee must first pay the rent and the payer le loyer et les charges, il doit ensuite charges, he must then respect the agreed University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respecter l’usage convenu des locaux loues et use of the rented premises and at the end à la fin de bail il est tenu de les restituer en of the lease he must return them in good bon état. condition. • L’obligation de payer le loyer et les The obligation to pay rent and settle bills charges This is the fundamental obligation on the C’est l’obligation fondamentale assumée par lessee. The principle is that the parties le locataire. Le principe est que les parties willingly set the amount of rent at the fixent librement le montant du loyer au time of the finalization of the contract; moment de la conclusion du contrat, il there is no regulation in Togo pertaining n’existe pas au Togo, une règlementation du to the ceiling amount for rent. montant des loyers. The same principle applies during the Le même principe s’applique au cours du contract, the parties may provide for a contrat, les parties peuvent prévoir une periodic review, in the current state of the révision périodique, en l’état actuel de la regulations, it seems more prudent for a réglementation, il apparait plus prudent pour tenant to accept the current clause of un locataire de n’accepter la clause de revision of the lease that two révision en cours du bail qu’en deux circumstances: lease of a certain duration circonstances : bail d’une certaine durée 3 3 years and more and in case of ans et plus et en cas d’amélioration ou improvement or expansion of the rented d’agrandissement des lieux loues. La fixation premises. The fixing of a new rent also d’un nouveau loyer intervient également lors intervenes during the renewal of the du renouvellement du bail. lease. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The payment date is usually in the La date de paiement figure généralement contract, the payment can be monthly or dans le contrat, le paiement peut être mensuel quarterly. In default of payment, the ou trimestriel. A défaut de paiement, le lessor may plead with the judge to order bailleur peut demander au juge de prononcer that cancellation before the agreed date. la résiliation, c’est-à-dire la rupture du bail It may be remembered that a clause in the avant la date convenue. Il arrive souvenir contract provides for the termination as qu’une clause du contrat prévoie la résiliation soon as rent is not paid on a specified des qu’un loyer n’a pas été paye a une date date. However in practice the tenant most prédéterminée. Cependant dans la pratique often enjoys extensions to dates of le locataire bénéficie presque toujours de payment.. When the lessor does not claim délais supplémentaires. Lorsque le bailleur the rent for 5 years, he will not be able to ne réclame pas le loyer pendant 5 ans, il ne do it anymore; there is a dictate of the pourra plus le faire, il y a prescription. law. La caution The Security (Guarantee) Il est loisible au bailleur It is open to the lessor to require at the d’exiger au moment de la conclusion du bail time of the finalization of the lease the l’engagement d’une caution ou le versement commitment of a security or the payment d’une somme à titre de garantie. of a sum as security. • L’obligation de respecter la a) The obligation to respect the agreed destination convenue purpose Cela signifie que le locataire This means that the lessee cannot change ne peut modifier l’usage prévu au contrat : the use of the premises provided for in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ainsi un local loue à usage d’habitation ne the contract Tthus rented premises for peut être affecte à l’exploitation d’un residential use cannot be used for commerce. Cela voudra dire également que commercial purposes.. This will also le locataire ne peut plus modifier la substance mean that the lessee cannot change the de la chose louée (percer un mur, abattre une substance of the rented thing (break a cloison) sans l’autorisation du bailleur. wall, cut down a partition) without the • L’obligation de restituer les locaux en authorization of the lessor. bon état (b) The obligation to return the premises Le locataire doit restituer la chose telle in good condition and repair. qu’il l’a reçue. Cela suppose qu’il remplisse The lessee must return the thing as it was une obligation d’entretien et de réparation, received. This assumes that it fulfills an il ne sera cependant pas tenu de réparer ou obligation of maintenance and repair, de remplacer ce qui est abime par vétuste, however he/she will not be required to usure normale et légitime ou cas de force repair or replace what is damaged majeure. through obsolescence, normal and legitimate wear or circumstances A la fin du bail, le bailleur peut beyond his control. prétendre que son local a subi des At the end of the lease, the lessor can dégradations, pour en faire la preuve claim that his property has been contraire, il suffira pour le locataire de damaged, on the contrary, it will be comparer l’état des lieux initial (établi au sufficient for the tenant to compare the moment de la remise des clés) et l’état des initial inventory (established at the time lieux final. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of handing over the keys) and the final state of premises. Cas particulier de l’incendie: en cas The case of fire: In case of fire during the d’incendie en cours de bail le locataire lease, the lessee assumes a great assume une lourde responsabilité dans la responsibility in so far as he is presumed mesure où il est présumé responsable sauf responsible unless he can prove that the s’il arrive à prouver que l’incendie est dû à fire is due to a case beyond his control or un cas de force majeure ou qu’il a été that it was from a neighbouring house. communiqué par une maison voisine. Cette The proof being difficult to provide, the preuve étant difficile à rapporter, les lessee should subscribe to a fire locataires ont intérêt à souscrire un contrat insurance policy in taking out fire d’assurance incendie pendant la durée du insurance during the lease. bail. II LA DUREE DU BAIL II THE DURATION OF THE LEASE En dehors des baux spéciaux comme Apart from special leases such as the le bail commercial soumis à des règles commercial lease which is subject to particulières protégeant le commerçant, la special rules protecting the trader, the durée du bail n’est pas fixée par la loi : le duration of the lease is not set by law: the bailleur et le locataire la fixent selon leurs lessor and the lessee set it according to intérêts. Cependant les baux perpétuels sont their interests. However perpetual leases interdits, aucun bail ne peut être conclu pour are prohibited, no lease can be finalized une durée dépassant 99 ans. for a period exceeding 99 years. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • La distinction des baux quant à leur 1- The difference among leases as to as durée to their duration In general, the law distinguishes between De façon générale, la loi distingue le term lease and indefinite leaseholds. This bail à durée déterminée et le bail à durée distinction is important especially when indéterminée. Cette distinction est it comes to terminating the lease. importante surtout lorsqu’il s’agira de la a) The indefinite lease rupture du bail. It is one in which the parties have not • Le bail à durée indéterminée fixed the duration. This implies Il est tout simplement celui dont les important consequences for the tenant: parties n’ont pas fixe le terme. Cela entraine the landlord can terminate the contract as une conséquence essentielle pour le he wants and when he wishes without locataire : le bailleur peut mettre fin au respecting any formality whatsoever contrat comme il veut et quand il le souhaite except perhaps the prior notice of 1 to 3 sans respecter une formalité quelconque sauf months as usually practised. The lessor peut-être le préavis de l à 3 mois suivant les has the power to compel the tenant to usages qu’on observe dans la pratique ici. Le leave the premises by resorting to bailleur a le pouvoir de contraindre le eviction. locataire à quitter le local en recourant à une To leave the termination at the wish of expulsion. the lessor can cause problems for the Laisser la rupture au bon vouloir du tenant who is unexpectant of such a bailleur peut etre source de problèmes pour situation. The reason for which it is le locataire qui ne s’attendait pas a une telle preferable to define duration for a lease University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh situation. Raison pour laquelle il est in a written contract is because the law preferable de prévoir une durée pour le bail considers that the lease is an indefinite dans un contrat écrit parce que la loi lease. considère que le bail sans écrit est un bail a durée determinée • Le bail à durée déterminée Term lease Ce bail fait par écrit est This lease made in writing is much more beaucoup plus rassurant pour le locataire. Le reassuring for the tenant. The contract contrat prend fin à la date ou à la survenance ends on the set date or the occurrence of de l’évènement prévue et cela sans que le a specified event and thus the lessor is not bailleur ne soit tenu de donne conge c’est-à- required to give prior notice that is to say dire d’aviser formellement le locataire. Rien to formally advise the tenant. Nothing n’empêche que le contrat se poursuivre par le prevents the contract from continuing biais d’une prorogation ou d’un through an extension or renewal. renouvellement. – La prorogation et le renouvellement - Extension and renewal • La prorogation du bail La prorogation signifie que le The Extension of the Lease bail expire continue encore pour une durée Extension means that the lease expires fixée dans un acte conclu entre les parties. for a fixed period of time in an agreement Cela équivaut en réalité à un allongement de between the parties. This is actually an la durée du bail tout simplement. extension of the lease term simply. • Le renouvellement du bail University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Le renouvellement quant à lui signifie The renewal of the lease qu’un nouveau bail a pris la place du Renewal means that a new lease replaces bail expire. Il révèle essentiellement the expired lease. It is essentially in two deux formes : forms: • Le renouvellement exprès ou Optional renewal or renewal under the renouvellement au sens strict strict conditions that the lease expires: conditions que le bail expire : les the parties may agree to set new parties peuvent s’accorder pour fixer conditions: amount of rent, duration, de nouvelles conditions : montant du distribution of repair expenses etc ... loyer, durée, répartition des dépenses de réparation etc… • Le renouvellement par tacite - Renewal by tacit renewal: It occurs at reconduction : Il se produit à la fin du the end of the lease without the need for bail sans qu’il soit besoin d’un écrit ou writing or words, simply because the de paroles, du seul fait que le preneur lessee remains and is left in possession of reste et, est laisse en possession des the premises. The lease renewed by tacit locaux. Le bail renouvelé par tacite agreement is a contract formed under the reconduction est un contrat forme aux same conditions as the preceding except mêmes conditions que le précèdent for that which concerns the duration. In sauf en ce qui concerne la durée. En fact, the tacit renewal transforms the effet, la tacite reconduction transforme fixed-term lease into an indefinite lease le bail à durée déterminée en bail à with the disadvantage that the lessor can durée indéterminée avec terminate it at any time. The parties can University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh l’inconvénient que le bailleur peut y avoid this pitfall by providing for a tacit mettre fin à tout moment. Les parties renewal for a limited period of 3 years, peuvent éviter cet écueil en prévoyant for example. une tacite reconduction par période limite à 3 ans par exemple. 3 – La cession du bail 3 - Assignment of the Lease Le locataire a la faculté de céder son The tenant has the option to transfer his bail a quelqu’un d’autre: il lui transfère sa lease to someone else - he transfers to qualité de locataire avec tous les droits et les him his status as tenant with all rights and obligations. Très souvent le bailleur restreint obligations. Very often the lessor cette faculté et la subordination à un accord subdues this option and subjects it to an exprès. express agreement. CHAPTER THREE ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE TRANSLATION OF THE SOURCE TEXT 3.0 Introduction This chapter deals with the analysis and discussion of problems encountered during the translation of the source text, focusing on the translation of collocations from a French legal manual into English. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The translation of the source text into English presented a number of challenges because of the legal and administrative nature of the source text. 3.1 Analysis of French and English collocations from a legal text in French. After a first reading of the text, it was noticed that the register of the text is administrative and legal. The tone is formal and the intention is for the readership of contractual parties and staff of nongovernmental associations in Togo. The text therefore falls under technical and administrative text, which requires the translation of technical collocations in the text. The main problem was that technical collocations in the text were not highlighted in dictionaries as collocations. They were classified as legal, business or technical terms in the bilingual dictionary. This required one to acquire a dictionary of collocations from both source and target languages, which was not easy to find. One therefore had to identify a combination of words in the text which was recurrent in both texts, understand the context and its use and find the appropriate reference material for confirmation. In the case of the expression reçu pour solde de tout compte, reference to a textbook for bilingual business students helped to provide its meaning in English as “in settlement”. The process of identifying a collocation in itself was not easy because the text was replete with specialized collocations. Collocations could be found in standard text –“More extended identical (or nearly identical) chunks of texts that recur under specific circumstances” as defined by Wright and Budin (1996, p.16). For instance, in the standard text “We wish to confirm your appointment” is the collocation “confirm appointment”. Since collocations occurred in chunks of phrases, the problem was how to identify collocates and translate them. To solve the problem, one had to refer to documents and dictionaries to find possible collocates to lexical items and their meanings. In certain cases, one had to read further paragraphs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to figure out word patterns, to understand the context and know the appropriate meaning. For instance, lexical items such as “faute legère” and “casier judiciaire”, were successfully translated, only after further reading and indepth study of the source text. Their definitions in the French dictionary “Le Petit Larousse, Illustré”, 1996, p.191, p. 431) enabled the functional equivalent translation of “faute legère” as “misdemeanour” and “casier judiciaire” as “Police clearance” respectively. Table of some lexical items that were difficult to translate and strategy used French Text English Translation How problem was solved dans la mesure In so far as Translation was found in a bilingual dictionary as the legal term and translated as such Modalites d’application Translating the collocation was 1. Applied law difficult because there were two 2. Mode of translations found – “applied enforcement law” and “mode of 3. Laid down enforcement” These terms did procedures not match the context, so the term “laid down procedures” was used to translate. Rupture de contrat 1. Breach of contract Two translations were listed 2. termination of from the dictionary. In English, contract the terms breach and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh termination have nuances and are distinguishable, so depending on the context “breach of contract” or “termination of contract” could be used. Cumul de fonction Combine roles /functions The translation of the French collocation “cumul de fonction” was difficult. The context of the text was considered and an equivalent expression combine roles was used. Adaptation was therefore used to solve because the lexical item “combine” collocates with “roles” in English.. Autant d’efficacité 1.equally high efficiency Translation was difficult and so 2. comparable efficiency was done taking into consideration the context Noblesse et hardiesse des legitimacy and Translation was done through objectifs sustainability of goals the use of visualization and modulation. Nobility connotes legitimacy and goals collocate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with sustainability and legitimacy, so consideration was given to the current trends in development administration and the term used was “legitimacy and sustainability” was seen as appropriate collocates for the lexical item “goal”. Période d’essai 1. Probation period Here the translation is probation 2. Probationary period period but the term found in the dictionary stated stage de probation as a legal term which is translated as probationary period. There is a possibility of faux amis or ambiguity here, because probation can mean the period of assessing a reformed criminal. The connective “of” is subdued. The register used in English helped to solve the problem University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Les matières abordées The tackled subjects Tackle collocates with subject and so equivalent collocation is used La vie professionnelle Occupational life Translation was done using “occupational life” Combination not found in Translation dictionary but found in wikipedia Preconstituer la preuve de tous To put together in advance Used in law especially to les manquements all proof of losses provide for a proof in anticipation of litigation Combination not found in Translation dictionary but found in the manual French for Business Bonne pour solde de toute In settlement Found in French for compte Business textbook Translation of certain lexical items was difficult. For instance, the translation of “mode d’application” was not easy because two translations were found from reference books, “Applied University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh law” and “mode of enforcement”. Both translations did not fit in the context since it had to do with administrative procedures, so “laid down procedures” was used instead. Another case was that of “rupture de contrat”. Both translations could be used in the text, because the translation “breach of contract” was appropriate for non-compliant parties in both the lease and employment contracts and was also appropriate for the termination of contract in both lease and employment contracts, when the phase of the contract is due. Also, was the translation of faute lourd or faute grave. Which was the appropriate, gross negligence or gross misconduct? The decision depended on the context and situation at hand. One other difficulty was the unfamiliar terms in English such as “noble and bold goals” from translation of the words “noblesse et hardiesse des objectifs”. The strategy used to translate them was through visualization of the current terms used in the developmental space. Though the language was institutional and technical, some of the collocations were for general use and not sophisticated, which rendered their translation easy, for instance “employé salarié” was easily translated as “salaried worker”. The difficulty was with collocations with technical meanings since one expects technical items to be monosemous i.e having one meaning only as posited by Newmark (1988). For instance, the word “competent” is used for courts “a court of competent jurisdiction” but when it is about a candidature for a post, the word “eligible” is used instead. In French, the word, “competent” can mean “capable’ or “concerned”. Collaborateurs-bénévolés is an institutional term of the association and is translated as “cooperant”. Further, due to the formal nature of the document, the phrase “de ce fait” was not translated as “from this fact” but as “for this reason” as appropriately used in formal documents. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It was revealed from the study that both the French source text and the English target text had similar collocation structures being Noun + Noun, Noun+ preposition +Noun, preposition + noun, verb + preposition, Adjective + Noun, Noun + adjective, preposition + adjective, and verb + adjective. However, in translating the collocations into the target text, they did not necesarily take the same form or structure as in the source text. For instance, the collocation “a compter du” translated as “from”, “Dans la mesure” translated as “In so far as”, “creation de l’association” in its translation transformed from noun + preposition + noun to verb + indefinite article + noun “form an association”. The Table below illustrates these observations. SOURCE TEXT ENGLISH STRATEGY USED AND TRANSLATION ANALYSIS à compter du From The translation of the phrase becomes a single word “from” à la date prévue Date provided / date The prepositions are foreseen subdued in the translation dans le même sens In the same manner / in the The lexical item “sens” same way translates to “manner” or “way”. The lexical items “in the same” sustains Au sein de l’entreprise Within the enterprise Structure sustained Sans contrepartie Without compensation Structure sustained D’une part Of the one part Structure sustained D’autre part Of the other part Structure sustained Dans la pratique In practice The preposition in is used but the article “the” is subdued A titre de garantie As guarantee A titre de translates as « as » Sans l’autorisation Without authorization Structure is sustained Dans la mesure In so far as the strategy of modulation is used for an equivalent legal term Sans écrit Not in writing Without is translated as not En cours de bail During the lease Equivalence is used Au délai nécessaire The required timeframe Equivalence is used Autant d’efficacité Higher efficiency Equivalence is used Par la conclusion d’un Through the drawing up of a “Par” is translated here as contrat contract. “through” instead of “by” University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Création de l’association Form an association The word creation changes to formation, the use of equivalence and the word of becomes an Même si par ailleurs If even in other respects Use of equivalence Mobilisation de bonnes Fostering of goodwill The word mobilisation volontés changes to fostering as the word goodwill collocates with fostering Nuise aux intérêts Adversely affects the interest Adaptation is used to translate “harm” to adversely affects Mise à pied Layoff A single term or a compound word is used Rupture de contrat Breach of contract / The term “rupture de termination of contract contrat” can be translated in two forms: as breach of contract or termination of contract. In English, the terms breach and termination have nuances and are distinguishable Cumul de fonction Combine roles / functions Cumul which is a noun is translated into the verb of combination. Adaptation is used here. Réalisation des objectif fixés Achievement of set goals The structure is sustained but reformulation is used, objectif and fixé are translated as achievement of set goals. Période d’essai Probation period Here the translation is probation period, but the term found in the dictionary stated stage de probation as a legal term which is translated as probationary period. There is a possibility of faux amis or ambiguity here, because probation can mean the period of assessing a reformed criminal. The connective “of” is subdued. Aptitude à remplir Capacity to fulfil Reformulation and Structure is sustained University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Service de la main d’œuvre Human resource department Service is translated as Department and Main d’oeuvre as Human Resource Déclaration de residence Proof of permanent Declaration is translated as habituelle residence proof and residence habituelle as permanent residence. There is the use of adaptation and transposition Acte de naissance Birth certificate adaptation is used here. Preposition is subdued. Certificat d’emplois Employer’s reference Equivalence is used here antérieurs Accomplissement des taches Performance of tasks Structure sustained Réparation de préjudice To compensate for damages Adaptation is used here The connective “of” is Relations de travail Work relations subdued in the translation Bulletin de paye Payroll Compound word used as equivalent Fiche de paye Salary advice Equivalence Émoluments de travailleur Employee emoluments Connective is subdued Amputation de gain Salary cut Equivalent legal term used Salaire de base Basic salary Equivalent term used L’indemnité de déplacement Travel and transport Equivalence used expenses La prime de panier Allowance bracket Equivalence used. Panier is translated as bracket La prime d’ancienneté Seniority allowance Equivalence is used Total de retenues Total reductions Equivalence is used Remboursement de frais Refund of fees Equivalence (Structure sustained) Total de Total of / sum of Equivalence (Structure sustained) Accident du travail Work accidents Connective subdued and transposition used Femme en couches Expectant mother / pregnant Equivalence is used woman L’intérêt des parties The interest of the parties Structure sustained Solde de votre compte Balance on your account Equivalence is used Abandon de poste Vacation of post Equivalence is used Lettre de confirmation Registered letter Equivalence is used recommandée University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh L’acte de naissance Birth certificate Equivalence is used Perte de l’emploi Loss of job Equivalence (Structure sustained) L’élaboration des règles Development / establishment Elaboration is translated as protectrices of protective laws development or establishment Another observation was that, the meanings of the combinations of words in the source text, did not necessarily produce the same meanings from the same combinations in English but had different word combinations in English, which had similar meanings with different word combinations in the source text. For instance, “Manque de conscience professionnelle” is translated as “Lack of professional ethics” in English and not “devoid of professional conscience”, “conclusion du contract” is translated as “drawing up of a contract” and not the “conclusion of a contract” or the “finalization of a contract”. Another observation made was that technical collocations, especially those that have legal and business nuances did not have similar word combinations in both the source and target text. For instance, “amputation du gain” is translated into English as “Salary cut” and not “reduction in salary” because the acceptable legal term is “salary cut” as found in the English Law Dictionary, (Colin, 1987). Other examples of this phenomenon are “S’inscrire dans” translated as “within the scope of”, and “bonne pour solde de toute compte” translated as “in settlement” as found in Le Goff (1989) French for Business. 3.2 Findings From the above stated, it was realized that the translation of collocations from the legal manual was very challenging due to the simultaneous vocative, expressive and informative University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh functions of the legal manual. For instance the lexical items “Activités d’intérêts générale” and “l’autorité de mentionnés” were very difficult to translate. It was also found that though collocations may be language-specific and monosemous, they do not usually mean the same as their lexical equivalents in the target language. Translations may have to be clarified with synonyms or transferred into acceptable technical collocatins in the target language. The issue of bilingual homonyms is pertinent to this, as mistranslations and approximations could result based on the meanings attached to certain bilingual homophones. For instance in translating “Demission abusive”, one could translate it as “abusive resignation”. Also the lexical items “date predeterminée” in French could be translated into English as “predetermined date” instead of “specified date”. It was also realized that though two languages may have reached a comparable state of development, their translation may not be necessarily easy as stated by Nida cited in Newmark (1988), but will require the knowledge of a wide range of collocations in various fields to enable the ease of translation for such languages. For instance, visualization was used as a strategy to translate “noblesse et hardiesse des objectifs” as the legitimacy and sustainability of goals” Below you will find some translations that were difficult because of the nature of the text. Source Text List of translations Chosen translation 1. Actual employment emploi réel Actual employment 2. Actual work 3. Real employment 1. Parties to the contract Parties au contrat Contracting parties 2. Contracting parties University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Allots work Fournit le travail Allots work 2. Grants a job 3. Provides work 1. In recruiting Au niveau de recrutement In recruiting 2. During recruitment 3. At the recruitment level 1. Layoff sketch Schema de licenciement Schedule of layoff 2. Layoff schedule 3. Schedule of layoff 1. Caused by Provoquée par Caused by 2. Initiated by 1. Peaceful enjoyment Paisible jouissance quiet enjoyment 2. Quiet enjoyment 1. Requisiste procedure Formalité obligatoire Mandatory procedure 2. Mandatory procedure 1. Serious offence Faute lourde 2. Gross negligence 1. Light offence Faute legère misdemeanour 2. misdemeanour 1. Alters the form of protection Modifie le mécanisme de Alters the form of 2. Modifies the form of protection protection protection University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Expressed renewal Renouvellement exprès Optional renewal 2. Optional renewal 1. Abusive resignation Démission abusive Wrongful resignation 2. Wrongful resignation Salarié fautif 1. Guilty employee Offending employee 2. Offending employee This renders the process of translating very complex though generally, it is accepted that, the process of translating monosemous words is simple and easier. The lack of lexical equivalents confirmed the lack of concordance between the source text and the target text. It was also realized that in most cases, though the structure of the collocation may be maintained for instance as verb + noun, the lexical items in the translation differed in meaning and connotation. For instance “Réalisation des objectif fixes” is translated as “Achievement of set goals” and not “realisation of fixed goals” and “dans la mesure” translated as “in so far as” and not “in the measure”. 3.3 Conclusions It was concluded from this study that, collocations are ubiquitous in both source and target texts. However, the combinations of words in the source language may take a different form in the target text language. As a result, a translator who lacks collocational competence in both source and receptor languages may interpret a foreign text incorrectly. This pitfall may be as a result of false friends or bilingual homophones – words in two or more languages that look or sound alike, but differ significantly in meaning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh If the translator lacks collocational competence pertaining to the knowledge of lexical items and their appropriate collocates, it can also adversely affect the translation of collocations seriously. Faithfulness, the level of accuracy with which a translator presents the original meaning of the source text in the target text and naturalness, the use of language patterns commonly used by readers of the translated text are highly requisite in the translation of collocations. In relation to faithfulness, the assertion of Nida cited in Newmark (1988), that languages that have reached a comparable degree of development can be easily translated, an can be supported by the fact that, the available resources such as dictionaries, professional tools and reference materials in both French and English enabled the ease in the translation of the legal document. Digital tools were very helpful in translating unfamiliar terms. Thus, one can assume that though French and English languages have reached a comparable degree of development, and though collocations are language-specific, texts can be easily and accurately translated from French to English through the use of reference tools such as dictionaries, templates, and databases, electronic and digital records and documents pertaining to language for special purposes such as French for Business. The collocational competence of the translator is essential in producing an accurate and faithful translation. However, the propositions Nida (1964, 159), cited cited in Fengling (2017), on dynamic and functional equivalence are also relevant in the translation of technical collocations. Dynamic equivalence according to Nida “aims at complete naturalness of the expression, and tries to relateto the eceptor modes of behaviour relevant within the context of his own culture, it does not insist that he understans thecultural patterns of the source language context in order to comprehend the message”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the other hand, functional equivalence was seen by Nida as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did”. Equivalence was one of the strategies that enabled understand the source text and translate. It was noted that the extension and reduction of collocational range exists and owing to that, translators need to continuously read to keep them with the trends in collocational sustainance. It was observed that the words” charge” and “eject” have gained collocational extension due to technological use of these words in the context of phones and pendrives. Inversely, the use of “in comparison with” has become obsolete and “in respect of” is gaining more usage. The use of the word “manpower” has also been subdued for the use of the term “Human Resource”. It was also realized that collocations take a significant chunk of most texts (such as in lease and employment contracts) and so are very relevant to the study of translation and also to the mastery of a language. Collocational competence was also found to have a positive impact on translation of collocations. It can also be concluded that collocations are not necessarily monosemous. They are ambiguous and one needs to know the collocational ranges of lexical items, to enable make the appropriate choices for faithful and accurate translation. The study agrees with the assertion of (Benson, 1990) cited in Gelbulch & Kolensnikora, 2012, p.23) that collocations should be defined not just as recurrent word combinations {but as} arbitrary recurrent word combinations. ____________ Bibliography Claude, le G., French for Business, Le Francais des Affaires, 1989 2nd Ed. Hatier, Paris University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Boateng, R., Research Made Easy(Pocket Edition),2017, CreateSpace, Charlestown, ISBN 1548379638, isbn 13: 978-1548379636 Gelbulch, &A Kolensnikora, O, Studies in Computational Studies, 414, Semantic Analysis of Verbal Collocations with Lexical Functions, Springer Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London, ISBN 978-3-642-28770-1 Larson, Mildred, Meaning-based Translation, 1984, University Press of America, Inc. Newmark, P. 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Sitography University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Corpas-Pastor, Gloria “English Verbal Collocations into Spanish: on distribution and other Issues, Challenges, and Solutions in Translating Study Instruments”Amanda Weeks Hal Swerissen La Trobe University John Belfrage Inner East Community Health Centre Evaluation Review Volume 31 Number 2 April 2007 153-165 © 2007 Sage Publications 10.1177/0193841X06294184 http://er.sagepub.com hosted at http://online.sagepub.com https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togo Dong Feng, Wong & Dan Shen, Factors influencing the Process of Translation, URL: id/erudite/004616 Firdaus, Sonia “Evolution of Translation Theories & Practice”, The Dialogue, Volume VII Number 3, pages 277- 294.pdf http://www.qurtuba.edu.pk/thedialogue/The%20Dialogue/7_3/Dialogue_July_September20 12 Mckeown, K. R & Dragomir, R, 2000, Handbook of Natural Language Processing, Department of Computer Science, www.slideshare.net Simonnæs Ingrid UDK [81ʼ25:340.113]:37.018.43(481) NHH Norwegian School of Economics* CHALLENGES IN LEGAL TRANSLATION – REVISITED Weeks, A. & Swerissen, H., (April 2007) “Issues, Challenges, and Solutions in Translating Study Instruments, Evaluation Revie, Volume 31 Number 2, 153-163, 10.117/019384X06294184, www.sagepub.com Dictionaries English Law Dictionary, P.H. Colin, Evans, London, 1987, ISBN 0 237 51009 X Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, Chambers, 2007, ISBN 978 0550 14210 8 Standard Le Robert & Collins English-French Dictionary, Harper Collins, Paris/Glasgow (1994), ISBN 10:0004705831 / ISBN 13:9780004705835, Hardcover Le Petit Larousee Illustré, Dictionnaire Encyclopédique, 1996, Larousse, Paris ISBN2-03-301196-8, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS FRENCH ENGLISH L’ONU – l’Organisation Internationale des UN – The United Nations Nations Unies L’UE – l’Union Européenne EU –European Union CUSO – Canadian University Serice Overseas CUSO- Canadian University Service Overseas Langues à des fins spéciales LSP – Language for special purposes OTAN – Organisation du traité de NATO- North Atlantic Treaty Organization l’Atlantique Nord IRRP - les revenus des personnes physiques Individual IncomeTax University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GLOSSARY French English Abandon de poste Vacation of post Acte de naissance Birth certificate Agent de maitrise Supervisory staff Amputation de gain Salary cut Cessation d’activité Closure of business Compression de personnel Downsizing Cumul de fonctions Combine roles / functions Déclaration de résidence habituelle Proof of Permanent Residence Diminution d’activité Cut back operations Baisse d’activite Indemnité compensatrice de préavis Payment in lieu of notice University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Lettre de confirmation recommandée Registered letter Mobilisation des bonnes volontés Fostering of goodwill Prime de panier Allowance bracket Réparation de préjudice Compensation for damages Retrait d’agrément Withdrawal of consent Rupture de contrat Breach of contract Termination of contract Sans contrepartie Without compensation Solde de votre compte Balance on your account Textes en vigueur Laws in force