Hindawi
Applied and Environmental Soil Science
Volume 2018, Article ID 1057242, 12 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1057242
Research Article
Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Different
Land-Use Systems: A Case Study of CO2 in the
Southern Zone of Ghana
Dilys Sefakor MacCarthy ,1 Robert B. Zougmoré ,2
Pierre Bienvenu Irénikatché Akponikpè ,3 Eric Koomson,1 Patrice Savadogo ,4
and Samuel Godfried Kwasi Adiku5
1Soil and Irrigation Research Centre, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
2CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), International Crops Research Institute
for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), BP 320 Bamako, Mali
3Laboratory of Hydraulics and Environmental Modeling (HydroModE-Lab), Faculty of Agronomy, Université de Parakou,
03 BP 351, Parakou, Benin
4World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), West and Central Africa Regional Office–Sahel Node, BP E5118 Bamako, Mali
5Department of Soil Science, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
Correspondence should be addressed to Patrice Savadogo; p.savadogo@cgiar.org
Received 24 September 2017; Accepted 8 February 2018; Published 5 April 2018
Academic Editor: Teodoro M. Miano
Copyright © 2018 Dilys Sefakor MacCarthy et al. +is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in anymedium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
+e emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) results in global warming and climate change.+e extent to which developing countries
contribute to GHG emissions is not well known. +is study reports findings on the effects of different land-use systems on GHG
emissions (CO2 in this case) from two locations in the southern zone of Ghana,West Africa. Site one (located at Kpong) contained
a heavy clay soil while site two (located at Legon) contained a light-textured sandy soil. Land-use systems include cattle kraals,
natural forests, cultivatedmaize fields, and rice paddy fields at site one, and natural forest, woodlots, and cultivated soya bean fields
at site two. CO2 emissions were measured using the gas entrapment method (PVC chambers). Trapping solutions were changed
every 12–48 h and measurement lasted 9 to 15 days depending on the site. We found that, for the same land-use, CO2 emissions
were higher on the clay soil (Kpong) than the sandy soil (Legon). In the clay soil environment, the highest average CO2 emission
was observed from the cattle kraal (256.7mg·m−2·h−1), followed by the forest (146.0mg·m−2·h−1) and rice paddy
(140.6mg·m−2·h−1) field. +e lowest average emission was observed for maize cropped land (112.0mg·m−2·h−1). In the sandy soil
environment, the highest average CO2 emission was observed from soya cropped land (52.5mg·m−2·h−1), followed by the forest
(47.4mg·m−2·h−1) and woodlot (33.7mg·m−2·h−1). Several factors influenced CO2 emissions from the different land-use systems.
+ese include the inherent properties of the soils such as texture, temperature, and moisture content, which influenced CO2
production through their effect on soil microbial activity and root respiration. Practices that reduce CO2 emissions are likely to
promote carbon sequestration, which will consequently maintain or increase crop productivity and thereby improve global or
regional food security.
1. Introduction can add or remove greenhouse gases (GHGs) from the at-
mosphere and thereby impact on the global carbon cycle [2].
Land-use and land-cover change is among the most im- GHGs are substances believed to make the atmosphere
portant human alterations of the Earth’s land surface [1]. function like the glass in a greenhouse. +ey trap the sun’s
Conversion or overutilization of land by processes such as shortwave energy and re-emit it as heat-producing longwave
cultivation, excessive removal of vegetation, burning, tree radiation, causing an increase in atmospheric temperature
plantation, and other forms of degradation and restoration [3]. GHG emissions and their interaction with radiation are
2 Applied and Environmental Soil Science
believed to be the major cause of global climate change, dramatically alter atmospheric concentrations of CO2. +e
which has become a major threat to development and food critical factors reported to influence soil CO2 production rates
security, especially in the tropics [4, 5]. +e anthropogenic include atmospheric temperature and moisture, soil organic
gases that are primarily responsible for causing the green- matter and nutrient content, root respiration, microbial
house effect include CO2, methane (CH4), nitrous oxide processes, soil aeration, porosity and water, net primary
(N2O), sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), perfluorocarbons productivity, and vegetation type [15, 22].
(PFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). In 2010, CO2, For many years, most tropical countries such as Ghana
N2O, and CH4 accounted for 66.5%, 17.2%, and 15.4% of have considered themselves as being net carbon sinks or, at
greenhouse gases, respectively, worldwide [6]. worst, carbon neutral.+is anecdotal assertion is based on the
+e level of CO2 in the atmosphere is estimated to have low level of industrialization in these countries. But given the
been ∼280 ppmv on average during the preindustrial period extensive land-use change occurring in many tropical
before rising from ∼315 ppmv in 1957 to ∼356 ppmv in 1993 countries including deforestation and land degradation
when more accurate monitoring began [7]. +e current rate through poor management and periodic bush fires, it is
of increase of ∼1.5 ppmv/yr is due to the combustion of fossil conceivable that their GHG emissions are increasing [23].
fuels, cement production, and land-use conversion [3]. +ere are relatively few studies estimating GHG emissions in
Agriculture accounts for approximately 10–12% of total sub-Saharan West Africa, especially within the agricultural
global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs, which amounts to sector, and likewise, comparative studies across major land-
60% and 50% of global N2O and CH4 emissions, respectively use types are scarce. Consequently, the majority of practices
[8]. In tropical countries, a great amount of the CO2 and techniques for adaptation to climate change that are now
emissions steams from vegetation removal, burning and being advocated [24, 25] are largely based on knowledge
decomposition, and soil carbon loss due to cultivation and generated in other parts of the world. +e GHG inventory
soil degradation [9]. +e CH4 and N2O emissions emanate initiative of Ghana’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
from marshy fields such as those found in lowland rice uses the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
production systems, but also from animal production sites. guidelines to estimate GHG emissions from several sectors
Recent results of a meta-analysis of N fertilizer effects on such as agriculture, forestry waste, animal manures, methane
GHG emissions showed that the N fertilizer-induced N2O emissions from cattle, and lowland paddy rice fields [26].
emission factor during the rice growing season was 0.21% for Findings from these estimates as well as those from the
continuously flooded rice systems and 0.40% for fields with Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Centre (CDIAC) (http:
drained periods [10]. Much of the historical emissions of //www.cdiac.org) indicate that per capita carbon emissions in
GHGsmay be attributed to fossil fuel burning [11]. Land-use Ghana are on the increase. As stated by Milne et al. [27],
change accounts for recent increases in emissions from a general weakness in these estimations is the heavy reliance
fertilizer application, lowland rice fields due to fertilizer on lower tier IPCCmethodologies. Estimates by Ghana’s EPA
applied in water, and domestic animals such as cattle [12]. also show a gradual increase inGHG emissions with projected
By far, agriculture and forest waste constitute the largest further increases based only on “best guesses” or by the use of
sources of GHG emissions from tropical countries such as emission factors (EFs) published by the IPCC [26]. Actual
Ghana [13]. Agriculture and climate change are inextricably measurements to validate these estimates or EFs are lacking.
linked. Nelson [14] observed that “Agriculture is part of the +us, there is an urgent need for more assessments of eco-
climate change problem, contributing about 13.5% of annual system responses to land management (andmismanagement)
GHG emissions (with forestry contributing an additional in order to improve decision-making regarding climate
19% compared with 13.1% from transportation).” Agricul- change adaptation and mitigation. +is study sought to ad-
ture is, however, also part of the solution, offering promising dress some of these identified knowledge gaps. It aims to
opportunities for mitigation through carbon sequestration, measure the CO2 emissions resulting from some of the major
improved soil and land-use management, and biomass land-use systems operating within the coastal savanna
production [14]. +e release of CO2 from soil is the largest agroecological zone of Ghana.
source of carbon emissions to the atmosphere [15]. Soil CO2
emissions and production are the result of complex in-
teractions between climate and soil biological, chemical, and 2. Materials and Methods
physical properties [16, 17].
Soil surface CO2 production is a major component of the 2.1. Study Area Description. +e CO2 emissions experiment
biosphere’s carbon cycle because it may constitute about three was carried out between July and November in 2012 at two
quarters of total ecosystem respiration [18]. In recent years, locations with different land-use systems in the Coastal Sa-
soil CO2 production has been the subject of intense studies vanna agroecological zone of Ghana.+e first site, the Soil and
because of its potential role in amplifying global warming Irrigation Research Centre (SIREC) at Kpong, University of
[19].+e rate of soil CO2 production is dependent on land-use Ghana, is located within the lower Volta basin (Figure 1). +e
and land management systems [20]. In Ghana, common 1,036 ha SIREC site is located at latitude 6° 09′ N and lon-
land-use systems include forestry, upland agriculture, paddy gitude 00°04′ E, with an altitude of 22m asl (Table 1). +e
rice, and animal husbandry [21]. Understanding the controls second site, the Legon research farm, University of Ghana
on soil CO2 emissions is critical because relatively small (main campus, Accra), is located at latitude 5°66′ N and
changes in soil CO2 fluxes from these land-use systems may longitude 00°19′ E, with an altitude of 88m asl. +e general
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 3
1°0′0′′W 0°0′0′′ 3°0′0′′W 0°0′0′′
N Brong Ahafo Burkina Faso
W E
Upper East
Upper West BeninS Ashanti
Northern
Côte Togo
Volta d’IvorieHo
Brong Ahafo Volta
Eastern Ashanti
Eastern
Western Greater Accra
Koforidua Sirec, Kpong Central
uinea
Gulf o
f G
Greater Accra 3°0′0′′W 0°0′0′′
Legon farm, Accra
Accra
Central
of Gui
nea
Gulf 
Cape Coast i
0 10 20 40 60 80 c O
Km cean
1°0′0′′W 0°0′0′′
Project site Eastern region
Regional capital Volta lake
Greater accra region Sea
Figure 1: Map of Ghana showing study areas: SIREC-Kpong and University of Ghana main campus, Legon-Accra.
Table 1: Main characteristics of the experimental sites.
Sites
Characteristics
Kpong, SIREC Legon, University of Ghana
Coordinate 6°09′ N 00°04′ E 5°66′ N 00°19′ E
Altitude (m) 22 88
Rainfall (mm) 800–1326 900–1010
Temperatures (°C), min (mean) max 22.1 (27.2) 33.3 21.5 (27) 30.9
Relative humidity, % 70–100 70–100
Soil type Typic calciustert Ferric Acrisol (sandy loam)(tropical black clay, Akuse series) mineral with argillic horizon, Toje series)
Vegetation Grassland Scanty savannah
Slope (topography) Gentle (1–5%) Gentle (1–2%)
topography of the SIREC-Kpong site is gently sloping with total rainfall occurs in the major rainy season and 30% in the
slopes ranging from 1 to 5%. e Legon-Accra site has minor rainy season. e rainfall distribution at the Legon site
a gentle, undulating relief with slopes ranging from 1 to 2%. is similarly bimodal, with a mean annual rainfall range
e Kpong site has an annual rainfall of 800–1326mm, of 900–1010 mm. Prolonged heavy rain is occasionally
which is bimodal and characterised by a major rainy season experienced in themajor rainy season fromMarch/April to June
(March–July), a short period of drought in August, a minor whilst the minor rainy season begins from September/October
rainy season (September–November), and another period of to December. Temperatures at both study sites are warm.e
drought (December–February) (Table 1). About 60% of the mean maximum and minimum temperatures at the Kpong
5°0′0′′N 6°0′0′′N 7°0′0′′N
5°0′0′′N 6°0′0′′N 7°0′0′′N
6°0′0′′N 9°0′0′′N
6°0′0′′N 9°0′0′′N
Atla
nt
4 Applied and Environmental Soil Science
Kpong Legon
Figure 2: Layout of identified land-use systems used for the study.
site are 33.3°C and 22.1°C, respectively, and 30.9 and 21.5°C, which is categorized as a vertisol [29]. +ese are generally
respectively, at the Legon site. +e relative humidity for the deep black soils that contain more than 30% clay which is
night time to the early hours of the day for both sites ranges often dominated by smectite mineralogy [30]. Generally, the
from 70 to 100%.+e afternoon relative humidity ranges from clay content is very high in vertisols, and the dominant clay
20% to 65% throughout the year. minerals are 2 :1 type minerals (smectite and montmoril-
+e vegetation at the Kpong site is limited to grasses and lonites). At the Legon site, the soil is derived from a ferru-
slow-growing, deep-rooting tree species. +is is due to the ginized weathered country rock, the Togo quartzite schists.
soil’s high clay content, and its shrink-swell characteristics It is classified as a ferric acrisol (sandy loam), which is
and structure, combined with the climate effect (Table 1). a mineral soil with a characteristic argillic horizon [31].
+e main features of the natural vegetation in these soils are Locally, it is classified as a Toje series [32].
tolerance to drought, as well as development of deep roots to
overcome root damage as a consequence of the annual
cracking of the soil.+e Legon site is covered with lush grass, 2.2. Experimental Layout for Sampling of Carbon Dioxide
thicket patches, and shrub vegetation community with little Fluxes. Data were collected following a stratified random
litter falls. Only a small amount of organic matter can sampling approach. +e sites sampled were stratified into
therefore accumulate and the humus top soils are poorly land-use types and within each land-use type or strata,
developed. +e soil at the Kpong site is an alluvial material sampling for carbon dioxide was randomly done at three
derived from the weathering of garnetiferous hornblende replicate locations. At the Legon site, the studied land-use
gneiss (Table 1). It is classified as Typic calciustert [28]. systems were woodlot (Leucaena leucocephala), cultivated
Locally, it is the tropical black clay called Akuse series [28] maize (Zea mays) field, and a natural forest stand. At the
Woodlot Lowland rice
system paddy field Cattle kraal Forest land use Cultivated 
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 5
Kpong site, four land-use systems, namely, cultivated soya for the CO2 trapped from the atmosphere. Measurement
bean (Glycine max) field, natural forest, cattle kraal (an duration ranged from 9 to 15 days depending on the site. For
enclosure for cattle and other domestic animals), and each land-use system at the Kpong site, the trapping solutions
lowland (paddy) rice field were considered (Figure 2). were changed following these arrangements: (I) twice daily
At the Kpong site, the soya beanwas at the flowering stage. from the 19th to the 24th of July 2012 (12h interval at 5:30 am
+e soil did not receive any form of amendment (e.g., mineral and 5:30 pm for 6 days); (II) once daily from the 24th to the
fertilizer or manure). +e land management system practiced 27th of July 2012 (24 h interval at 5:30 pm for 4 days); and
includes ploughing with a tractor a week prior to sowing. +e (III) once every two days from the 27th July to the 2nd of
soya bean crops were under rainfed conditions throughout August (48 h interval at 5:30 pm for 7 days). For each land-
the growing season. +e natural forest is at least 50 years old use system at the Legon site, the trapping solutions were
with the dominant tree species comprising Cassia fistula L., changed once daily (24 h) from the 28th of October to the 5th
Ehretia anacua I. M. Johnst., and Azadirachta indica A. Juss. of November 2012 (9 days). +e trapping chambers were
+e forest floor was covered by a thick mat of leaf litter and placed at the same location after each measurement duration.
twigs. +e paddy field was under constant irrigation with After exposure of the alkali, the vials were removed, imme-
about 5 cm head of flood water. At the time of sampling, the diately covered with lids (air-tight seal), and taken to the
rice plants were at their emergence stage. laboratory for analysis. +e evolved CO2 was determined by
Management of the paddy includes fertilization with urea back titration using a phenolphthalein indicator.
two and six weeks after planting.+e kraal was a semi-intensive
cattle raising system with a stocking density of one cow per
3.0m2. +ey were fed mainly on grasses (Brachiaria mutica 2.4. Soil Characteristics Sampling and Analyses. +e main
Stapf, Ischaemum spp., Axonopus compressus P.Beauv., soil characteristics with potential to influence CO2 emissions
Paspalum spp., Panicum maximum Jacq.,Melinis minutiflora were also measured. Prior to the beginning of the study, soil
P.Beauv., Pennisetum spp., Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex samples were taken by augering to a depth of 0–0.15m at
A. Rich.) Stapf.,Digitaria decumbens Stent, and Eragrotis spp), three random positions in each of the land-use systems at
legumes (Calopogonium mucunoides Desv., Centrosema both study sites. Air-dried samples were bulked (for each
pubescens Benth., Pueraria phaseoloides Benth., Stylosanthes land-use), crushed, and then sieved through a 2mm sieve for
gracilis Kunth (GCI), Mimosa pudica L., and Stizolobium characterization. +e soil samples were analyzed for texture,
aterrimum Piper & Tracy), and fodder (Gliricidia sepium pH, C, and N using the modified Bouyoucos hydrometer
(Jacq.) Kunth, Atriplex spp, Kochia sedifolia F. Muell., and method [35], an electrode pH meter, the Walker and Black
Ficus spp.). Soils within the kraal are covered with cattle method, and the Kjeldahl method, respectively.
dung mixed with their urine. Soil temperature and soil moisture content were mea-
At the Legon site, the cultivated maize field was har- sured at the same time duration as gas sampling during the
vested prior to the sampling campaign. +e field has been whole experimental period at the Legon site (only). Soil
continuously under maize cultivation for more than five temperature was measured at a depth of 5 cm using a digital
decades. Weeding is done by hand, and dead weeds and probe (pH/mV/C meter, RS232). Moisture content was
stovers from previous maize crops are left on the soil surface. determined by sampling with a core sampler and oven°
+e 20-year-old Leucaena leucocephala woodlot was adja- drying at 105 C for 24 hours. Daily ambient air temperature
cent to the cultivated maize field. Originally, this site was and precipitation data (that can also influence soil tem-
cultivated before its conversion to a woodlot for the pro- perature and moisture) were obtained from the weather data
duction of fuelwood.+e soil surface was covered with a thin station at SIREC, Kpong.
layer of leaf litter. +e natural forest was over 60 years
old and consisted of plant species such as Zanthoxylum 2.5. Statistical Analysis. +e soil and environmental vari-
zanthoxyloides, Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Dichrostachys ables data were assessed using the dispersion and analysis
glomerataChiov.,Antiaris toxicaria Lesch.,Uvaria siamensis of variance methods to relate differences to land-use sys-
(Scheff.), Panicum maximum Jacq., Byrsocarpus coccineus tems [36]. Analysis of variance was performed on soil CO2
Schumach. &+onn., Canthium orthacanthum Robyns, and production rates on each sampling date separately, to assess
Cissus petiolata Hook.f. (personal observation). +e soil differences between land-use systems and times during the
surface was covered by a thick mat of leaf litter and twigs. day. Regression analysis was also used to determine the
relationship between CO2 production rates and environ-
mental parameters (temperature and moisture) as
2.3. Measuring Soil CO2 Production. +e gas entrapment expressed for each land-use system. To predict CO2 pro-
method described byHutchinson andMosier [33] and Sullivan duction based on soil temperature, we used an exponential
et al. [34] was used. Transparent polyvinylchloride “PVC” equation as suggested by Davidson et al. [37] and Raich &
chambers were inserted 2 cm into the mineral soil at the three Potter [38]. For soil water, we used a quadratic relationship
random locations. A 10ml solution of 3M NaOH was dis- between production and water content [37]. Statistical
pensed into a vial and placed under the plastic chamber to trap differences were considered significant at p≤ 0.05. In ad-
CO2 evolving from the soil. Additional vials containing 10ml of dition, the statistical package Statistix version 9.0 was used
3M NaOH placed in the transparent PVC with their lids on to to test differences in means using the Tukey range test
exclude CO2 evolved from the soil served as controls to account procedure at a significance level of p≤ 0.05. Analysis of
6 Applied and Environmental Soil Science
Table 2: Initial soil chemical and physical properties of land-use systems at SIREC-Kpong (A) and Legon, University of Ghana (B).
Land-use systems pH (1 :1) soil : H2O SOC (%) OM (%) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Textural class
A.
Cultivated 6.95 (0.2) 0.96 (0.08) 1.65 (0.13) 29.40 (3.40) 13.80 (1.0) 56.80 (1.3) Clayey
Forest 7.10 (0.1) 2.23 (0.18) 3.84 (0.30) 24.05 (1.10) 16.95 (0.5) 55.00 (1.5) Clayey
Kraal 7.95 (0.35) 4.32 (0.42) 7.43 (0.70) 27.50 (1.50) 15.90 (1.0) 56.60 (0.8) Clayey
Lowland 7.10 (0.2) 0.59 (0.04) 1.01 (0.07) 19.80 (1.60) 22.20 (1.6) 58.00 (1.1) Clayey
B.
Cultivated 4.95 (0.2) 0.70 (0.08) 1.20 (0.14) 61.98 (1.40) 10.52 (1.2) 27.50 (1.2) Sandy clay loam
Forest 5.5 (0.3) 2.42 (0.18) 4.16 (0.30) 60.95 (1.27) 12.80 (1.7) 26.25 (0.8) Sandy clay loam
Woodlot 5.10 (0.2) 1.55 (0.11) 2.67 (0.19) 60.42 (0.92) 14.58 (1.1) 25.00 (1.0) Sandy clay loam
Soils were sampled at 0–0.15m depth; SOC soil organic carbon; OM organic matter; standard deviation in parenthesis.
40 0.14
38 0.12
36 0.1
34 0.08
32 0.06
30 0.04
28 0.02
26 0
Sampling time Sampling time
Cultivated Cultivated
Forest Forest
Woodlot Woodlot
(a) (b)
Figure 3: Variation of soil temperature (a) and soil moisture content (b) from di£erent land-use systems at Legon farm.
variance was performed with Genstat statistical software measurement time frame. e average annual temperature
(Genstat version 9.2). in Kpong is 26.6°C. e total rainfall at the Kpong site was
714mm in the season where measurements were made.
3. Results During the measurement time frame, Ÿve rainfall events
were recorded (i.e., 14.4, 46.6, 52.0, 3.6, and 0.5mm),
3.1. Soil and Environmental Variables. Table 2 summarizes amounting to a total of 117.1mm. Soil temperature varied
information on the physical and chemical characteristics between 28.95 and 36.6°C during the study period at the
of the land-use systems at the Kpong and Legon sites, Legon site (Figure 3(a)).
respectively, prior to commencement of the experiment. Temperatures were particularly high for the cultivated
e high clay content of the soils at the Kpong site land-use system, whereas low soil temperatures were
conŸrms their vertic characteristic, whereas soils at the recorded in the forest land-use. Under the cultivated land-
Legon site are predominantly sandy. e average pH of use, soil temperatures peaked during the second and Ÿfth
the Kpong site’s vertisol soil is 7.0, described as neutral sampling time and then decreased gradually to 34.7°C. For
except for soils from the cattle kraal in which the pH was the woodlot system, soil temperature increased gradually
approximately 8.0 (alkaline). e Legon site’s alŸsol soil is from 30.57°C to 32.7°C during the Ÿrst and third sampling
strongly acid. e organic carbon (OC) content di£ered times. A sudden decrease in temperature then occurred on
with each land-use system. e OC content of this site’s the sixth sampling time after which it up-surged to 35°C and
kraal and forest soils is high. At the Legon site, the OC of again decreased sharply to 29.37°C. Low soil temperatures
the cultivated Ÿeld is low. e OC content of the forest were found in the forest land-use, with a temperature
¤oor is high (2.42%), whereas in the woodlot the OC is average of 32.6°C. A maximum temperature of 33.9°C was
medium (1.55%). measured during the fourth sampling time. e temperature
e total rainfall during the year of study (2012) at the then dipped to 28.95°C during the last sampling time.
Legon site was 594.7mm (minor season), with only one e moisture content of the Legon site’s forest soils was
small rainfall event (i.e., 5.1mm) occurring during the relatively higher compared with the moisture contents of
Soil temperature (°C)
28-Oct
29-Oct
30-Oct
31-Oct
01-Nov
02-Nov
03-Nov
04-Nov
05-Nov
Soil water content (gg–1)
28-Oct
29-Oct
30-Oct
31-Oct
01-Nov
02-Nov
03-Nov
04-Nov
05-Nov
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 7
Irrigation
450
a a
400 a a a
a a a350 b b a ab b a a b a300 a b b b
250 bb b
c b b
c c a a
200 b b bc cb a
150 cb c c c c d
100 d c c
c c cc d c b
50 d d d ccd d
0
Cultivated Kraal
Forest Paddy rice
Figure 4: Temporal CO2 emission from di£erent land-use at Kpong site.
the cultivated and woodlot system soils (Figure 3(b)). e paddy Ÿeld but increased with time. e lowest CO2
cultivated land-use recorded a low moisture content. e emission of 5.8mg·m−2·h−1 was from the forest land-use at
woodlot and cultivated Ÿeld initially recorded high moisture the beginning of the measurement. is peaked to
contents of 0.124 and 0.097 gg−1, respectively, compared to 112.8mg·m−2·h−1 during the daytime and dipped to
0.089 gg−1 from the forest soil. Moisture content decreased 25.6mg·m−2·h−1 during the night time. Again, CO2 emission
sharply to 0.065 and 0.038 gg−1 for the woodlot and culti- ascended to 228.6mg·m−2·h−1 in the next sampling time and
vated Ÿeld, respectively, during the second sampling time. In gradually decreased to 165.6mg·m−2·h−1.e cultivated Ÿeld
most cases, woodlot soils stored much more moisture than initially emitted 14.0mg·m−2·h−1 CO2, but this gradually
cultivated soils. e moisture content of forest soils decreased increased to 176.6mg·m−2·h−1, after which it decreased to
gradually with time but was higher compared to the other 95.8mg·m−2·h−1. e CO2 production then up-surged to
land-use systems. 198.8mg·m−2·h−1 and Ÿnally decreased to 84.2mg·m−2·h−1.
Soil CO2 emissions measured over a 24-hour interval
were consistent with those based on a 12 h interval. For this
3.2. CO2 Fluxes period of measurement, cattle kraal CO2 production was
followed by emissions from the forest, whereas the paddy Ÿeld
3.2.1. CO2 Emission from a Clay Soil Environment (Kpong). and cultivated land-uses emitted relatively lower CO .
Soil CO2 emissions di£ered signiŸcantly with di£erent land-
2
Overall, during the whole measurement time, the highest
use systems and for most measurement times. e highest average CO emission was observed from the cattle kraal
CO2 emission was observed from the cattle kraal, followed
2
(256.7mg·m−2·h−1), followed by the forest (146.0mg·m−2·h−1)
by the paddy rice and the forest ecosystem. Higher CO2 ¤uxes and paddy rice (140.6mg·m−2·h−1) land-uses. e lowest
occurred during the daytime (5:30 am–5:30 pm) compared average emission was observed for the cultivated land
to emissions observed at night time (5:30 pm–5:30 am). (112.0mg·m−2·h−1).
During the Ÿrst sampling time, the highest CO2 emission
of 340.5mg·m−2·h−1 was emitted from the kraal during the
night time. During the day, the CO2 production increased 3.2.2. CO2 Emission from a Sandy Soil Environment (Legon).
to 411.4mg·m−2·h−1 (Figure 4). Soil CO2 emissions from the three land-use systems at the
e CO2 emission pattern was maintained for sometime Legon site are shown in Figure 5.
but decreased gradually to 226.3mg·m−2·h−1 during the Generally, low emissions were observed in the mornings,
fourth sampling time and up-surged to 421.3mg·m−2·h−1 before peaking in the midafternoon and thereafter de-
during the Ÿfth sampling time during the day. Initially, creasing into the late afternoon (Figure 5(a)). In most cases,
the CO2 emission from the paddy Ÿeld showed non- high CO2 production was observed from the cultivated Ÿeld
signiŸcant di£erences from the kraal. A CO2 production of followed by emissions from the woodlot. Lower emissions
330.0mg·m−2·h−1 was measured during the night time and were particularly recorded from the forest ecosystem
increased to 404.3mg·m−2·h−1 during the day. e emission (Figure 5(b)).
decreased gradually to 85.3mg·m−2·h−1 after which a sharp Soil CO2 production from all of the land-use systems at
decrease resulted in a production of 31.3mg·m−2·h−1. Ÿrst sampling showed nonsigniŸcant di£erences in emissions.
e forest and cultivated land-use systems initially e average CO2 production was 31.3mg· m−2·h−1. CO2
revealed lower CO2 emissions compared to the kraal and emissions ascended gradually at the second sampling time for
Soil CO2 emission (mg m–2 h–1)
19-7/5:30AM
20-7/5:30AM
21-7/5:30AM
22-7/5:30AM
23-7/5:30AM
24-7/5:30AM
25-7/5:30AM
26-7/5:30AM
27-7/5:30AM
28-7/5:30AM
29-7/5:30AM
30-7/5:30AM
31-7/5:30AM
1-8/5:30AM
2-8/5:30AM
3-8/5:30AM
4-8/5:30AM
8 Applied and Environmental Soil Science
100 500
90 a 450
80 ab a 400
70 350
60 a b 300
50 a a a a aa a 250
40 aa b b a b a
a
a a 200
30 a ca a b 15020 100
10 50
0 0
Cultivated Cultivated
Forest Forest
Woodlot Woodlot
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Temporal (a) and cumulative (b) CO2 emission from di£erent land-use at Legon farm site.
105
0.1028x
Cultivated: CO 22 = –13769x + 1498.7x 21.167 Cultivated: CO2 = 11.433e+
R2 0.0.1671 850 R2 = 0.653= –
90 0.0711x
Forest: CO 10058x2 1417.1x 10.889 750 Forest: CO2 = – + – 2
= 30.7e
2
R2 = 0.163 R = 0.2913
0.1155x
75 Woodlot: CO 22 = 8277.4x – 1871.8x 130.5 650
Woodlot: CO2 = 8.877e
+ R2R2 0.4438 = 0.5188=
550
60
450
45 350
250
30
150
15 50
0.01 0.03 0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
Soil water content (gg–1) Soil temperature (°C)
Cultivated Poly. (cultivated) Cultivated Expon. (cultivated)
Forest Poly. (forest) Forest Expon. (forest)
Woodlot Poly. (woodlot) Woodlot Expon. (woodlot)
(a) (b)
Figure 6 : Relationship between soil water content and soil CO2 production in di£erent land-use systems on Ferric Acrisol at Legon farm,
Coastal Savanna agroecological zone of Ghana.
both the forest and woodlot land-use systems. However, e CO2 emissions from the woodlot showed a similar
a steep increase in emissions was observed from the cultivated pattern as that of the cultivated Ÿeld, but the dynamics
Ÿeld. A sudden drop in emissions to 37.6mg·m−2·h−1 was were gradual rather than steep. From 31.0mg·m−2·h−1
followed by a sharp increase to 88.0mg·m−2·h−1 which was the CO2 during the Ÿrst sampling time, the CO2 emissions
highest CO2 production recorded for this land-use. Soil CO2 increased gradually to 73.9 before decreasing sharply to
emissions then dipped to 38.4mg·m−2·h−1 and then up- 40.9mg·m−2·h−1. ereafter, a gradual decrease and increase
surged again to 78.0mg·m−2·h−1 where it Ÿnally declined in emissions was maintained until a CO2 production of
to 45.9mg·m−2·h−1 at the last sampling time. 48.3mg·m−2·h−1 was recorded at the last sampling time.
Soil CO2 efflux (mg·m–2· hr–1) Soil CO2 emission (mg m
–2 h–1)
28-10/6:0AM
29-10/6:0AM
30-10/6:0AM
31-10/6:0AM
1-11/6:0AM
2-11/6:0AM
3-11/6:0AM
4-11/6:0AM
5-11/6:0AM
6-11/6:0AM
Soil CO –2 –12 efflux (mg·m ·hr ) Cumulative CO2 emission (mg m–2 h–1)
28-10/6:0AM
29-10/6:0AM
30-10/6:0AM
31-10/6:0AM
1-11/6:0AM
2-11/6:0AM
3-11/6:0AM
4-11/6:0AM
5-11/6:0AM
Applied and Environmental Soil Science 9
+e forest land-use recorded quite low CO2 emissions +e soils of the studied forest land-uses contained a high
compared with the cultivated and woodlot land-use systems. amount of organic matter due to the accumulation of litter
An initial production of 31.0mg·m−2·h−1 increased to fall over time. During decomposition, microbial tissues and
49.5mg·m−2·h−1 during the fourth sampling time.+e lowest depolymerization products are produced which undergo
CO −2 −12 emission of 19.9mg·m ·h was observed on the sixth chemical stabilization through complexation with mineral
sampling time. Overall, during the whole measurement time, cations or physical stabilization by clays [44]. Since vertisols
the highest cumulative CO2 emission was observed from the contain heavy or high amounts of clay, the stabilized ma-
cultivated land (250.02mg·m−2·h−1), followed by the woodlot terials decompose about 100 times slower than the original
(228.95mg·m−2·h−1) and forest (175.31mg·m−2·h−1) land-use litter [44].+e forest soil CO2 emission at the Kpong site was
systems (Figure 5(b)). therefore low compared to emissions from the kraal.
However, the emissions were significantly higher than
emissions from the cultivated soils.
3.2.3. Soil CO2 Production, Temperature, and Moisture Cultivation of the soil increases the mineralization of
Measurements on Sandy Soil Environment. A regression the soil organic matter and hence the emission of CO2 [45].
analysis reveals significant correlations between the respi- +e decomposition of soil organic matter is increased by the
ration rate and soil temperature and moisture (p< 0.001). physical disturbance caused by soil cultivation, which breaks
+e predictive power of the model, given by R2, was low in down macroaggregates and exposes the carbon protected in
some cases. +e regression of soil temperature on soil CO2 their interiors to microbial processes [46]. In this study, the
production showed a positive correlation, with CO2 evo- low CO2 emissions from the cultivated soil at the Kpong site
lution increasing as soil temperature increased (Figure 6). could be partly due to its low organic matter content. Even
Soil temperature explained 65% of the total CO2 production though cultivation is expected to expose the organic matter
on cultivated land, 52% on woodland, and 29% on forest to microbial decomposition, the heavy clay nature of this
stand. Relationship between soil CO2 production and vol- site’s soil might have protected it.+is may have significantly
umetric soil moisture was higher in woodlot as compared reduced the cultivated field’s CO2 emissions compared with
with cultivated land and natural forest. the other land-use systems except for the paddy rice where
flooding conditions impeded CO2 emissions. At the Legon
4. Discussion site, the cultivated field contained the lowest organic matter
content, but it had high CO2 emissions compared to the
4.1. Impacts of Land-Use Systems on CO2 Emissions. Land- woodlot and forest land-uses.+ismay be due to the low clay
use and management practices may influence carbon inputs content (i.e., sandy nature) of this site’s alfisol soil which
and hence CO2 emissions [39]. Indeed, the CO2 emissions exposes the organic matter to microbial decomposition.
from different land-use systems at our study’s Kpong site Soil temperature and moisture content are abiotic factors
differed significantly. Higher CO2 emissions were particularly which influence processes that affect the dynamics of soil
observed from the cattle kraal and may be due to min- carbon. Soil microflora contributes 99% of the CO2 arising as
eralization of this land-use’s high organic matter content a result of decomposition of organic matter [47], while root
compared with the other land-use systems. Applications of respiration contributes 50% of the total soil respiration [48].
organic manure to soil can increase CO2 emissions [40]. Soil temperature affects microbial respiration, whereas soil
Indeed, after fresh organic matter input to soils, many moisture affects microbial respiration and soil respiration,
specialized microorganisms grow quickly and to accelerate and hence CO2 evolution [49, 50]. Maximum CO2 evolution
the soil organic matter leading to the priming effects [41]. was noted on the 1st and 3rd of November (at 88 and
McGill et al. [42] proposed that soluble organic C in the soil 78mg·m−2·h−1, resp.).+ismay be attributed to the increasing
is an immediate source of C for soil microorganisms, which role of root activity and organic matter decomposition in line
in turn emit CO2. Hence, large quantities of organic manure with an increase in soil temperature which peaked at 36.5 and
that are added to agricultural soils every year for supplying 35.7°C on the 1st and 3rd of November, respectively.
nutrients to crops may contribute significantly to CO2 At the Legon site, even though the forest floor had
emission. +e measured organic matter content of the a higher organic matter content than that of the woodlot, low
various land-use systems decreased in the order of kraal, CO2 emissions may be due to the low soil temperature
forest, cropped land, and paddy rice. However, the initial slowing decomposition of its organic matter. Indeed, soil
high CO2 emissions observed from the paddy rice field temperature can have a marked effect on CO2 evolution
during the 12-hour sampling time could be due to adequate from the soil [51]. Considerable variations in soil CO2
moisture content which increased microbial activity and emissions during different periods (i.e., day and night) were
hence enhanced the decomposition of organic matter. observed. Soil CO2 emissions from the various land-use
+ereafter, the emissions decreased steadily, and low CO2 systems during daytime were higher than the night time
emissions were observed during the 24- and 48-hour production. +is may be attributed to the higher soil tem-
measurement interval. +e onset of decreasing CO2 pro- peratures during the daytime measurements.
duction from the paddy rice field coincided with a period of
flooding (irrigation) of the field. During this submerged
period of paddy rice cultivation, CO2 evolution in the soil is 4.2. Temperature and Moisture Effects on CO2 Emissions. Soil
severely restricted due to the flooding condition [43]. water content and soil temperatures are known to be
10 Applied and Environmental Soil Science
important drivers of soil CO2 production, and they may with low stocking rates must be practiced. Our studied
change as a result of forest thinning [52, 53]. Similar to Tang woodlot and forest land-uses recorded relatively low CO2
et al. [54], we used both soil water content and soil water emissions. +is was despite the high organic matter content
content squared in our model. In many research studies, soil of their soils and could be attributed to the low level of soil
temperature was noted to be a strong and positive predictor disturbance in these land-uses. +is finding implies that
of soil respiration, accounting for 43–75% of the variation maintaining forest reserves and promoting agroforestry
in soil CO2 production rates [55]. On the other hand, in- systems that include woodlots is highly desirable for miti-
creasing soil moisture would increase CO2 evolution up to gating GHG emissions. We also found that CO2 emissions
an optimum level, above which it would reduce CO2 evo- from the lowland rice paddy field peaked when oxic con-
lution [51]. +e interaction of soil temperature and soil ditions were maintained. Periodic flooding of the field
moisture assumes great significance in view of global (anoxic condition) often reduced CO2 evolution; however,
warming and likely disturbance in precipitation patterns. research studies show that this condition can promote CH4
However, Kowalenko et al. [56] observed that temperature production. Due to the lack of access to a gas chromatograph
was the most dominant factor in determining CO2 evolution (GC), other GHGs such as CH4 and N2O could not be
from the soil. studied. While it is important to reduce CO2 emissions
+e regression of soil temperature on soil CO2 pro- through maintaining some head of water on the soil surface
duction (Legon site) showed a positive correlation, with CO2 (i.e., flooding), periodic drainage is also important to reduce
evolution increasing as soil temperature increased. Soil CH4 emissions.
temperature explained up to 65% (on cultivated land) of the Overall, several factors influenced CO2 emissions from
total CO2 production in the regression model. +is strong the different land-use systems in our study. +ese include
relationship between soil temperature and CO2 production inherent properties of the soils such as texture, temperature,
is expected since soil respiration rates reflect heterotrophic and moisture content which influenced CO2 production
and autotrophic activities that are highly temperature de- through their effect on soil microbial activity and root
pendent [56]. +is was reflected by the soil CO2 emissions of respiration. Soil temperature explained more than 50% of
the forest (with a low soil temperature) being low compared the variation in soil CO2 production. A temperature co-
to the emissions from the kraal and cultivated land-use efficient sensitivity Q10 of 4.1 depicts that the soil CO2
systems, of which the latter had a particularly high soil emission was controlled primarily by soil microbial activity.
temperature.+e temperature sensitivity coefficient (i.e.,Q10 Hence, development and implementation of practices
values) is a convenient index for comparing the temperature that increase tree cover to directly reduce emissions through
sensitivity of soil CO2 production. It is commonly used to carbon capture and sequestration should be of priority in the
express the relationship between soil biological activity and study area. +is will help to mitigate global GHG emissions
temperature [58]. +e Q10 values from 25 to 35°C for CO2 but importantly will also help to maintain or increase crop
emissions in this study suggests that CO2 emission was productivity and thereby improve global or regional food
controlled primarily by soil biological activity. It is estimated security.
that a 1°C increase in temperature could lead to a loss of 10%
of soil organic carbon in regions of the world with an annual
mean temperature of 25°C [59]. While in regions having Conflicts of Interest
a mean temperature of 30°C, a 1°C increase in temperature +e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
would lead to a 3% loss of soil organic carbon.
5. Conclusion and Way Forward Acknowledgments
Measurement of CO2 emissions from soils of different land-
+is research was supported by the CGIAR Research Pro-
use systems allows the understanding and accurate evaluation gram on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security
of soil management practices to reduce GHG emissions. In (CCAFS). +e authors thank the University of Ghana for
our study, soil CO emissions were significantly influenced providing land for our research and laboratory for sharing2
by different land-use systems. Soil organic matter decom- chamber caps and canisters. +e authors also thank Dr. John
position and mineralization were the main drivers of CO Meadows for proofreading and editing this paper.2
emissions. +e soil itself could serve as a source or sink of
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