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COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN SANITATION PROGRAMMES
AT ASHAIMAN
BY
ADDO KWASI NYARKO
THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 
GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE 
MASTER OF ARTS IN ADULT EDUCATION
DECEMBER, 2004
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'? 37943 J
( b (
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DECLARATION
I hereby certify that this dissertation is my original research work conducted between 
September 2003 and December 2004 under the guidance o f  my supervisor.
Except for literature cited which served as information, this dissertation has never been 
presented in part or in whole to any other university for an award o f  a degree.
Addo Kwasi Nyarko 
(Student)
P
Albert K. D. Amedzro 
(Supervisor)
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Hannah Afua Danquah and children Paa Yaw, 
Awurakua and Brother for their patience and understanding inspite o f  the inconvenience 
o f  not physically always being available during the course o f  the study.
Special dedications also goes to my late mother, Beatrice Nyarko at Nkwatia-Kwahu who 
gave me sound financial and moral support when I was at University o f  Ghana, but 
departed before my graduation from the University.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to extend my since thanks and appreciation to my supervisor Mr. A.K.D. Amedzro 
o f  the Institute o f  Adult Education whose critical questioning helped me to clarify my 
ideas in the execution o f this study. My sincere thanks also go to the officers in charge of 
environmental sanitation at Tema Municipal Assembly sub-zonal at Ashaiman for 
availing themselves to be interviewed.
I am also indebted to Mr. S.K. Wayo, officer in-charge o f  Ashaiman Zonal Council for 
assistance given me. My special gratitude goes to Mr. Osei Tutu o f RIPS for helping to 
summarize my data for analysis. I render sincere thanks to Mr. W. O. Asare (I.A.E) for 
reading through some o f my scripts.
I cannot forget sister Caroline Asiedu-Danquah o f Distance Education (I.A.E) for typing 
my proposals and Mrs. Irene Boakye-Yiadom also o f  Distance Education who 
meticulously typed this dissertation. I am thankful to my family for creating peaceful 
atmosphere at home for this work to be executed.
Finally, my thanks go to all the numerous course mates for their moral support and 
encouragement. I am however singularly taking responsibility for any deficiencies o f  this 
study.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Declaration...............................................................................................................................  1
Dedication................................................................................................................................  ii
Acknowledgement................................................................................................................  iii
Table o f  Contents................................................................................................................... iv
List o f  T ab le s ......................................................................................................................... xi
List o f  F igures.......................................................................................................................... xiii
Abstract..................................................................................................................................... xiv
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Background to the study........................................................................................... 1
1.2 Historical Perspective o f  Ashaiman......................................................................... 6
1.3 Statement o f  the Problem ........................................................................................... 8
1.4 Purpose o f  the Study ...............................................................................................  9
1.5 Research Objectives.................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Research Questions......................................................................................................  10
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1.7 Significance o f the Study.............................................................................................  1 u
1.8 Theoretical Framework................................................................................................. H
1.9 Presentational and Analysis o f  Data.............................................................................  12
Chapter Two: Review of the Literature
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................................  13
2.2 Participation...................................................................................................................  13
2.3 Community Participation.............................................................................................  14
2.4 Environmental Sanitation............................................................................................  16
2.5 Methodologies o f  community Participation o f  Sanitation Programmes
in selected communities..............................................................................................  22
Chapter Three: Methodology
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................................................  27
3.2 Population........................................................................................................................  27
3.3 Sample F ram e .................................................................................................................  27
3.4 Sample D esign .................................................................................................................  28
3.5 The Study Sample............................................................................................................ 29
3.6 Research Design..............................................................................................................  29
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3.7 Research Instrument....................................................................................................
3.8 Pilot Study.....................................................................................................................  30
3.9 Administration o f  questionnaire and interview schedule.....................................  30
3.10 Sources o f  D ata.............................................................................................................. 31
3.11 Data Organization/Presentation/Analysis................................................................  32
C hap ter Four: P resen ta tion  and  Analysis of D ata
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 34
4.2 Demographic Characteristics o f  Respondents.......................................................  34
4.3 Sex..................................................................................................................................  35
4.4 Age Distribution..........................................................................................................  35
4.5 Marital Status................................................................................................................ 36
4.6 Occupation..................................................................................................................... 37
4.7 Educational Background............................................................................................. 38
4.8 Determination o f the State o f Environmental Sanitation in Ashaiman  39
4.8.1 Source o f  Water..............................................................................................  39
4.8.2 Types o f  Toilet Available.............................................................................  40
4.8.3 Waste D isposal............................................................................................  46
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4.9 Forms o f Environmental Sanitation Programmes and Challenges
Communities Face........................................................................................................ ^3
4.9.1 Organized Sanitation Programme.............................................................  47
4.9.2 The Stage at which the Participate ............................................................... 48
4.9.3 Why there are no Sanitation Programmes on going ................................  49
4.9.4 Presence o f  Sanitation Programme Committee.......................................  50
4.9.5 Women Representation in Sanitation Committee....................................  51
4.9.6 Days set Aside fo r  Communal Labour.......................................................  52
4.9.7 Community Organization..............................................................................  53
4.9.8 Sex Composition in Terms o f  Decision Making........................................  54
4.10 Involvement o f  Youth in Decision Making...............................................................  51
4.11 Active role played by the Youth..................................................................................  52
4.12 Level o f  Participation and Communal Sanitation Activities..................................... 53
4.13 How Sanitation Programmes are Financed....................................................................  54
4.14 Constraints in Terms o f Financing..................................................................................  55
4.15 How Sanitation Could be Tackled in Ashaiman...........................................................  56
4.16 Cross Tabulation o f Demographic characteristics with level o f  participation
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in communal sanitation activities...............................................................................
4.17 Assessment o f  the Institutional Arrangements................................................................. 64
4.18 Tema Municipal Assembly (TMA)....................................................................................  64
4.19 B IS ............................................................................................................................................ 65
Chapter Five: Discussion on Findings
5.1 Introduction.............................................................................................................................  66
5.2 Age Distribution.....................................................................................................................  66
5.3 Occupation................................................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Educational Background........................................................................................................  67
5.5 Determination o f the State o f Environmental Sanitation in Ashaiman.........................  67
5.6 Source o f  w ater........................................................................................................................  67
5.7 Types o f  Toilet Facilities Available....................................................................................  69
5.8 Waste Disposal......................................................................................................................  69
5.9 Forms o f  Environmental Sanitation Programmes and Challenges
Communities Face..................................................................................................................  69
5.10 Organised Sanitation Programmes.......................................................................................  70
5.11 Stage at which they Participated........................................................................................... 71
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5.12 The Reasons why there are no Sanitation Programmes going on .............................. 71
5.13 Presence o f  Sanitation Programme Committee............................................................. 72
5.14 Women Representation in Sanitation Committee..................................................  72
5.15 Days set Aside for Communal Labour...................................................................... 73
5.16 Community Organization............................................................................................. 73
5.17 Sex Composition in terms o f  Decision M aking.......................................................  74
5.18 Youth Role in Decision Making..................................................................................  74
5.19 Level o f  Participation in Communal Sanitation Activities...................................  75
5.20 How Sanitation Programmes are Financed................................................................ 76
5.21 Constraints in Terms o f Financing............................................................................... 76
5.22 Assessment o f  the Institutional Arrangements and the Sustainability
o f these Arrangements..............................................................................................  77
Chapter Six: Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 79
6.2 Summary......................................................................................................................... 79
6.3 Research Objectives.................................................................................................... 79
6.4 Major Findings.............................................................................................................  80
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6.5 Conclusions...................................................................................................................  81
6.6 Recommendations...................................................................................................... 81
References.................................................................................................................................  84
Appendix A : Interview Schedule........................................................................................  88
Appendix B: Questionnaire...................................................................................................  93
Appendix C: Map o f Ashaiman..........................................................................................  95
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
4.1 Age distribution....................................................................................................... 36
4.2 Marital Status..........................................................................................................  37
4.3 Occupation...............................................................................................................  38
4.4 Educational level..................................................................................................... 39
4.5 Source o f  water.......................................................................................................  40
4.6 Type o f  toilet facilities available.........................................................................  41
4.7 Disposal o f  W aste....................................................................................................  42
4.8 Organized sanitation programme.........................................................................  43
4.9 The stage at which they participate........................................................................  44
4.10 Why no sanitation programme on going...............................................................  45
4.11 Women representation in sanitation committee.....................................................  47
4.12 Days set aside for communal labour........................................................................  48
4.13 How the community organized communal labour...............................................  49
4.14 Sex composition in decision making.......................................................................  50
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4.15 Active role played by the youth.......................................................................  "
4.16 The Level o f  participation in communal sanitation activities by respondents... 53
4.17 How sanitation programmes could be tackled...........................................................  57
4.18 Cross tabulation Education Level & Participation in Communal
sanitation activities.........................................................................................................  58
4.19 Occupation and level o f  participation in communal activities................................ 59
4.20 Age and level o f  participation in communal activities.............................................  60
4.21 Electoral Areas and level o f  participation in communal activities........................  61
4.22 Sex and level o f  participation in communal activities.............................................  62
4.23 Marital status and level o f  participation in communal activities........................... 63
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
4.1 Sex...........................................................................................................................  35
4.2 Sanitation programme committees..................................................................  45
4.3 Youth in decision making..................................................................................  54
4.4 How sanitation programmes were finance....................................................... 55
4.5 Constraints..............................................................................................................  59
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ABSTRACT
The study was set to find out community participation o f  sanitation programmes at 
Ashaiman. A  sample o f  98 community members were selected through systematic 
random sampling technique from three out o f  eleven electoral areas and questionnaires 
were administered to five and officials from TMA sub-zonal office at Ashaiman.
The major findings were that:
1. Most o f  the respondents were youth below 30 years who were mostly single.
2. The youth in the communities were not involved in any decision-making in terms 
o f  planning o f  sanitation programmes.
3. Structures had not been put in place to facilitate community participation in 
sanitation activities.
4. There were a lot challenges in terms o f  how to mobilize members o f  the 
community for communal labour.
5. Absence o f  number o f  Non-Governmental organizations and other civil society in 
organization o f  sanitation programmes.
The study concluded that in most communities in Ashaiman, there were no defined on­
going sanitation programmes. Finally, it is recommended community members and civil 
society organization should be mobilized to participate in sanitation programmes at 
Ashaiman while sanitary sites in the hands o f private individuals must have permanent 
structures to establish small recycling plants to recycle waste dumped in the sites.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
The most immediate environmental problems in the world are the ill-health and 
premature death caused by biological agents in the human environment; in water, food, 
air and soil.
Each year, they contribute to the premature death o f millions o f people (mostly infants 
and children) and to the ill-health or disability o f  hundreds o f  millions more.
The problems are more acute in low and middle income nations where;
1. Four million infants or children die every year from diarrhea diseases largely 
through contaminated food or water.
2. Two million people die from malaria every years and 267 m illion are infected.
3. Hundreds o f  millions o f  people suffer from debilitating intestinal parasite 
infections.
In addition, all countries have serious environmental health problems affecting them;
1. Hundreds o f  millions o f  people suffer from respiratory and other diseases caused 
or exacerbated by biological and chemical agents in air, both indoor and outdoor.
2. Hundred o f  millions are exposed to unnecessary chemical and physical hazards in 
their workplace, home or wider environment (WHO, 1992).
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In most urban centres in developing countries people live and work in unsanitary 
conditions. Between one-third and two-thirds o f  the population live in housing units that 
are poor in quality. Houses often constitute temporary structures which provide 
inadequate protection against excessive high temperatures.
Moreover, urban communities are characterized by insufficient space (relatively to the 
number o f  people living there) and inadequate provision for pipe-borne water supplies, 
the removal o f  excreta, household liquid, solid waste and all-weathered roads and 
footpaths.
There is the presence o f  disease causing agents (pathogens) in the immediate 
surroundings because o f  lack o f basic infrastructure and services -  sewers, inadequate 
provision o f  drainage and irregular or no services to the disposal and collection o f solid 
waste. Inadequate supplies o f water, overcrowding and cram living conditions increase 
the transmission o f  airborne infections and those passed by human contact, and increase 
the risk o f  accidents.
In Accra, Ghana, an interview with 1000 households undertaken in 1991 found out that 
only 35 percent o f  residents had pipe borne water in their houses. Most o f  the rest relied 
on private or community standpipes or vendors although a small percent have to rely on 
open waterways, rainwater collections and wells. Over 80 percent o f  the lowest quartile 
had to fetch water compared with 10 percent o f wealthiest group (Songsore and 
McGranahan 1998).
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/ater distribution system to low-income areas is more vulnerable to contamination and 
uality o f  water in low income earning brackets is generally worse than areas with indoor 
lumbing (Amuzu and Leitman 1994).
'or sanitation, 36 percent o f the 1000 households interviewed in 1991 had flush toilets 
vith 41 percent using pit latrines, 20 percent using pan, or bucket latrines and four 
>ercent do not have access to toilet. Nearly three-quarters o f  the lowest income quartile 
share toilet facilities with more than 10 people in Accra (Songsore and McGrahanan 
1998). Open defecation is a common practice with people using various means, including 
the wrapping o f  human excreta in polythene bags (commonly referred to as “precious 
package”) for disposal o f  waste.
Many residents in Accra resort to defecating along beaches, water courses and gutters 
(Bogrebon 1997). The vice President Aliu Mahama since his inception into office in 2001 
had launched a campaign and education with numerous adverts on radio, television and 
print media for people to develop positive attitude towards the management o f  sanitary 
conditions in Ghana.
Since he was sworn into office as the new Mayor o f  Accra Metropolitan Assembly, Mr. 
Adjiri Blackson has promised to use voluntary clean-up campaign as one o f  his major 
strategies to get Accra clean. Similarly in Kumasi, the planning committee o f  5th 
anniversary celebration o f  Otumfuo Osei Tutu ascention to the throne announced the 
institution o f  weekly clean-ups throughout Ashanti Region as part o f  the anniversary 
celebration. President Kuffour also tasked engineers in the country to come up with
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practical solutions to address the numerous problems associated with waste generation 
and management in the country (Editorial Daily Graphic, 18th March 2004).
Daily Graphic publication o f  March 29, 2004 also featured an editorial on the spirit o f  
voluntarism as means o f  mass clean-up in our cities and towns engulfed with filth. 
Similarly, GTV commentary on Saturday 10th July 2004 also featured how solid waste 
can be recycled in Ghana o f  which composting o f  organic component o f  the waste had 
been recommended.
In Ghana, various attempts had been made by various district assemblies to incorporate 
and implement proper sanitary laws. These laws are in statutory books which can be 
found in Tema Municipal Assembly and Tema Development Corporation which have 
oversight responsibility o f  Ashaiman, the study area.
The study area Ashaiman do not have enough sanitary site in most o f  the suburbs, this 
because they lack space to construct these sites.
Most o f  the street are also not accessible hence they could not create sanitary sites. 
Ashaiman have 28 suburbs. Each o f  the suburb is suppose to have at least two refuse 
containers making total o f  56. As at the time o f  the research Ashaiman had only six 
provided by  the Assembly.
There were only two institutions which were participating in sanitation programs in the 
whole Ashaiman. These were Tema Municipal Assembly and IBIS
An estimated distance between sanitary sites were beyond 3 kilometers. The Tema 
Municipal Assembly did not have cesspit emptiers for whole o f  Ashaiman Township and
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therefore have to rely on other Assemblies. W ith regard to how refuse was collected in 
Ashaiman, the authority said they had given the collection o f refuse exercise to one 
private contractor who used only three vehicles instead o f  nine for the collection o f  refuse 
for both house to house and the refuse dump sites.
Addo, (1995) realized that the rate at which the waste were disposed at Ashaiman do not 
match its effectiveness o f  management, resulting in excess accumulating o f  waste which 
poses health hazards and several diseases like diarrhoea, cholera and infectious hepatitis.
Moreover, the accumulative o f  refuse serves as receptacle for dogs, rats, mosquitoes, 
m ice and cockroaches which are often a nuisance and carriers o f  various deadly disease.
Human excreta accumulated for a very long time and also scattered in open spaces poses 
a threat to health. Some o f these excreta gets in broken pipes and can result into the 
outbreak o f typhoid fever. Cholera is also a common disease where toilets are left 
unmanaged in the open, as is happening in Ashaiman. According to Addo (1995) liquid 
waste were also thrown into the ditches, streets and potholes which causes breeding o f 
mosquitoes and frogs which causes diseases and nuisance.
Carbon monoxide which result from incomplete combustion o f  fossils fuels and emission 
o f  smoke by vehicles and other machinery virtually also affect the atmosphere.
There is problem o f visual impairment resulting from accumulation o f  incomplete 
combustion o f refuse. Before refuse is burnt, wind and rain and carry these pieces o f  
paper, polythene bags and peels, scattering them over a wide area. Structures like 
buildings which are always around the refuse dump point within Ashaiman face various 
gangs o f colours on building due to carbon concentration from the smoke o f  the burning
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refuse. Closer houses usually have grey colours and turn to reduce varying shades o f  grey 
color as distance increases from the refuse points. Defecating in unbuilt sites within the 
town creates an eye sore when it rains.
Moreover regular stagnant o f  liquid waste in major gutters are very bad. Most o f  these 
gutters contain carcasses o f  various domestic animals. The gutters do not have slabs so 
everything is seen by the pedestrians as he/she goes about. There are also the problems o f 
olfactory disturbances resulting from irregular emptying o f  septic tanks due to high cost, 
delay in emptying and with continual use o f  toilets leads to overflow o f tanks, excreta 
then spill out producing offensive smells. This issue is very acute in the periods when 
taps are not flowing and there are no existence o f water reserviours.
In Ashaiman, a lot o f  people patronize the free range (bush) defecating, therefore such 
areas produce stink scent which is very serious at dawn and late evenings. The situation 
worsens when it drizzles. Inability to close chambers o f  household latrines and irregular 
use o f  lime in KVIP’s also produce such offensive smells.
1.2 Historical Perspective of Ashaiman
The name Ashaiman had been derived from Nee Ashai who became popular because his 
village used to be the resting place for those who plied between Tema and Dodowa on 
market days. In the 1960 Census, present Ashaiman listed as Tema junction consisted o f  
mostly Gas. The growth o f  the town had been rapid due to the construction o f  Tema in 
1951 (Addo, 1995).
The development o f  Ashaiman is the responsibility o f  Tema Development Corporation 
(TDC). Since in 1952, the corporation is supposed to provide housing and other related
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facilities like Tema. However, TDC outright negligence and inadequate planning process 
has allowed Ashaiman to grow out o f control.
This was evident by the committee o f enquiry into alleged irregularities and malpractices 
in the affairs o f  TDC in 1970. It was realized that the corporation was not in control o f 
number o f  allocated plots, and the number o f  authorized and unauthorized structures in 
Ashaiman from which TDC derived revenue.
It was realized that most building plots were haphazardly allocated by  different people 
w ithin and outside the corporation. In most cases, records were not kept. Where records 
were kept too, they were not adequate. In 1965, the Board o f  Directors o f  TDC decided to 
react to this negligence o f  duties. They, therefore, built 192 housing units in 1966. They 
also established a sub-office o f  its estate development department at Ashaiman as a 
means o f  checking further development, but in reality, it was meant to intensify the 
collection rates.
Evidence on planning and implementation o f  those programmes proved that there was not 
much thought given to the balance and integrated policy to lay proper foundation upon 
which future developments o f  Ashaiman could be based. Already, migrants in search o f  
jobs during the construction o f  Tema township and habour were attracted to Ashaiman 
due to relatively cheap accommodation. Landlords, therefore, built dwellings in a 
haphazard manner, not bounded by any building regulation. This action continued up to 
1966 when TDC realized these unauthorized houses would be subjected to demolition 
without compensation.
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A committee o f  enquiry that visited Ashaiman township in 1970 had this to say: Our 
visit to the township confirmed beyond doubt that Ashaiman has been grossly neglected. 
We were even surprised that no epidemic o f  communicable diseases has broken out yet 
having regards to unsanitary conditions under which the people lived” (Amarteifio, 
1996). It was also important to note that Ashaiman was considered a temporary 
settlement for non-indigenes like Ewes, Adangbes, Mole-Dagbani, Malians, Denkyiras, 
Nzemas and Asantes. Therefore, it is not surprising that no solid foundation had been laid 
for the future development o f  the township by way o f basic public and social facilities.
1.3 Statement of problem
Ashaiman is located at the Tema municipality and worse hit by urbanization problems. 
The rapid growth o f  the population in Ashaiman is very significant. Between 1948 to 
1984 the population rose from 185 to 49, 427 (Pop. Census 1948, 1984). The town 
recorded an increase o f  1124 percent in its population between the period 1984 to 1960. 
In 1948 the population constituted 7.2 percent o f  total Tema district, but by 1984 its 
percentage share had increased to 26 percent. In relative terms, the population o f  
Ashaiman was increasing at faster rate than that o f  the whole Tema district (Addo, 1995). 
Between 1960 and 1970 the population growth rate was 31.7 percent and the town ranked 
second among 20 urban towns in Ghana. The number o f  migrants kept on increasing as 
reflected on the room occupancy rate. Houses o f  five rooms which were occupied by six 
people before 1980 had increased to 16 people before 1995. The number o f  migrants in 
Ashaiman reflected on 1984 population census where Ashaiman ran forth among five 
regional capitals. The situation was not different from the 2000 population census. 
According to the 2000 census report, population o f  the whole Tema district was 506, 400
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and Ashaiman alone was 150,312 constituting 30% o f the whole population o f  Tema 
district. Urbanization is a phenomenon with implications such as overcrowding in 
houses, social vices, traffic congestions, slum development, pollution and waste 
generation. Ashaiman which experiences urbanization at very fast rate also grapples with 
the problem o f waste management and indiscriminate disposal o f  waste.
Looking at the history o f  the town as temporary settlement, most facilities were not put in 
place both by public and private interest to take care o f  waste produced. It is for this 
reason that the study is being conducted to find out to what extent the people in 
Ashaiman are participating in sanitation programmes?
1.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose o f  the study is to find out if  there are sanitation programmes in Ashaiman. 
The role the community plays in disposing o f such sanitation programmes and the 
institutional arrangement for mobilizing members o f  the community would be found out 
and the state o f  the environmental sanitation would be discharged.
It tends to determine and assess the management procedures and community participation 
strategies o f  sanitation in Ashaiman.
1.5 Research Objectives
1. To determine the state o f  environmental sanitation in Ashaiman,
2. To determine the types o f  environmental sanitation activities the residents 
participate in,
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3. To find out the challenges the community face in terms o f  environmental 
sanitation program planning,
4. To assess the institutional arrangements for environmental sanitation 
programming in Ashaiman;
5. To find out how the youth are involved in sanitation programmes;
1.6 Research Questions
1. What is the state o f  environmental sanitation in Ashaiman?
2. What forms o f environmental sanitation programmes are taking place in 
Ashaiman?
3. How are the community members mobilized for sanitation programme planning?
4. What problems are the residents facing in terms o f  sanitation programme 
planning?
5. What are the contributions o f identifiable groups or institutions towards sanitation 
programmes in Ashaiman?
6. Is there a committee constituted to oversee sanitation programmes?
1.7 Significance of the Study
It is hoped that the study would address numerous problems the residents face in terms o f 
participating in community sanitation programmes. The findings o f the research are 
pertinent for health planners and for the mass media in the dissemination o f  information
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towards improvement o f  sanitation in Tema Municipality. Furthermore, it is hoped the 
study would enable policy makers, donors and program planners to create awareness 
about sanitation programmes and how they should be implemented in communities.
The research findings would also encourage researchers to carry out similar studies on 
community participation in sanitation programmes in similar communities in Ghana. The 
study will also throw light on the role played by the Tema Municipal Assembly in the 
prevention o f  water and excreta related diseases in Ashaiman.
1.8 Theoritical Framework
The theatrical framework adopted for the study was participatory democratic theory 
which was propounded by Rousseau and Mill (1931). The theory gives power equally to 
all manner o f  people when they have been empowered.
Through participatory democratic theory social goals could be set by the members o f  the 
society so as to minimize benefits to all members o f  the society and to meet their needs 
and aspirations. Community participation in community programmes first serves as a 
means o f  mobilizing under-utilized resources, and secondly it is a source o f  knowledge, 
both corrective and affirmative o f  democratic development and social justice (UN/ESA 
1975).
Thus, this theory routed in the belief that there is a great human potential for dealing with 
problems in their own social environment. The people, therefore, have capacity to be 
responsible for their own lives and were prepared to demonstrate this i f  they given 
opportunity to employ their capabilities.
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Therefore, where members o f  the community are able to identify programmes that are 
beneficial to their lives and intended to improve their welfare, they willingly come out in 
their numbers to participate fully.
1.9 Presentation and Analysis of Data
The study is organized into six chapters; the introduction; review o f literature; research 
methodology; presentation and analysis o f  data findings; discussion o f findings; 
summary, conclusions and recommendation.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Literature is reviewed under the following themes:
1. Participation
2. Community participation
3. Environmental sanitation
4. Methodologies o f  participating in environmental sanitation programmes in 
selected countries
2.2 Participation
The term participation has different meanings for different people. In some cases, 
participation is promoted to build local capacity and self-reliance. But in others, it is used 
to justify the intention o f  control o f  state. It has also been used to devolve power and 
decision making away from external agencies as well as to justify external decisions. But 
more often than not, people are asked or dragged into participating in operations o f  
interest to them in the very name o f participation (Rahnema 1992).
“Participation” and “participatory” however appeared as development jargons in the late 
1950s by social activities and filed workers who joined the development bandwagon in
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he bid to help the oppressed” unfold like a flower from the bud. To them they attribute 
nost failures in development projects and programmes to the fact that the population 
concerned in such programmes were often kept out o f  the processes relating to the 
design, formulation and implementation. These activists, therefore, advocated the end o f  
top-down approach to community development projects and programmes and rather the 
inclusion o f  participation and participatory methods o f  interaction as essential 
components o f  any development project or programme.
However, it has been found out that, where local people were actively involved and 
actively participated in projects and programmes much more was achieved. Field 
workers, planners and non-governmental organization had, therefore, reached the 
consensus to adopt “participation” as a basic policy measure in international development 
strategies.
Participation is, therefore, the most accepted concept which even Third World repressive 
leaders such as Pinochet and Mobutu had tried to promote as one o f  their pillars or policy 
objectives in their governance.
2.3 Community Participation
Midgley (1986) points out that community participation denotes the involvement o f 
people in community affairs. However, Diaw (1992) views it as giving equal opportunity 
to groups and movement to increase and have greater resources.
Schubeler (1996), however, emphasized on infrastructure, the process where people as 
consumers and producers o f infrastructure services and as citizen influence the flow and 
quality o f infrastructure services available to them.
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Diaw (1992) defines community participation as process o f  action by  local people to 
reflect their own interest or to contribute their energies and resources to the system, 
which governs their lives. Samuel (1987) said local people should influence the direction 
and execution o f  development and execution o f  development and not merely receiving 
benefit o f  projects. Lisk (1981) and Diaw (1992) see community participation as 
successful partipatory package, which enables people to plan, select, implement, and 
monitor programmes, which will give people a sense o f  pride, confidence and 
responsibility (Lisk, 1981).
The common elements that often occur in write up o f  authors are involvement o f  local 
people in decision making, voluntary services, sharing benefits o f labour, sustainability 
and equitable growth and development. The “Beneficiary Communities” are, therefore, 
responsible for the programme or project such as community water and sanitation 
designing, implementation, maintenance o f projects, monitoring and evaluating o f  
projects or programmes.
It is, therefore, gratifying that community participation is one o f  the basic development 
goals (Dunkan, 1970 cited in Amoah, 2001). Advocates o f  community development 
have, therefore, put forward the following arguments as the merits o f  community 
participation.
Hay Jr. et al (1990) stated that it helps to bring about the voluntary mobilization and 
application o f  previously untapped local resources, skills and energies for the purpose o f 
improving the quality o f  life o f  the entire community.
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Community participation allows people to express their needs, problems, priorities and 
allows technocrats to obtain information about a community, their needs and attitudes 
without which development programmes are likely to fail in a given community.
Community participation had also been argued out to respond to the need for 
governments. For instance, to bring about effective decentralization in order to facilitate 
local decision-making, introduce effective production at local level and establish local 
level planning mechanisms in which people can freely and effectively participate in 
community programmes.
2.4 Environmental Sanitation
Sanitation refers to the maintenance o f  safe and easily accessible means o f  disposing o f 
human excreta, garbage and waste related disease. A WHO committee at its first meeting 
on environmental sanitation in 1990 defines environmental sanitation to include control 
o f  community water supply, excreta, waste water disposal, refuse disposal, vectors o f  
disease, housing conditions, food supplies and handling, atmospheric condition and the 
safety o f  working environment (Ofosu-Mensah, 2004).
Evans (1953) cited in Ofosu-Mensah (2004) also defined sanitation as an art by which 
laws o f  health are applied to a hundred o f  people in the same place, that is to the 
community. This dealt with public health-usually “government undertaking”. Sanitation, 
therefore, involves techniques o f  making people, living in the same place, abide by rules 
and regulations relating to their health.
Monney (1988) reviewed waste management in Ghana and discussed the possible areas 
recycling could be possible. He described solid waste and its management within the
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country. Goals o f  recycling and reasons why these have not been realized were also 
highlighted. Stock exchange for waste was introduce and the conditions for efficient 
recycling o f materials were mentioned.
Ofosu-Mensah (2004) also reported that findings, after visiting various web sites o f  some 
developing countries like Ghana, indicated that waste stock exchange has not caught up 
very well. However, many o f  such countries have developed and are implementing solid 
management programmes.
Malaysia in 1994 initiated the privatization o f  the country’s waste management by 
issuing a call for proposals. This decision was made as part o f  the Malaysia Vision 2020 
initiative which focuses on having the country evolve into a fully industrialized one by 
year 2020 while protecting public health, environment and sustainable utilization o f 
natural resources. This concept identifies industries and institutions producing various 
types o f  waste (solid, gas and liquid) and industries which can use the waste as primary 
and secondary material.
Ofosu-Mensah (2004) stated that in Ghana, the same concept had been discovered by a 
consultancy firm in Accra called WAMSCO, adopted by Ghana government as 
environmentally sound technology. The project Gulf Current Large Marine Eco-system 
(GCLME) is expected to set up a pilot demonstration project, a waste oil treatment plan 
in Tema to make use o f  large quantities o f  oil waste from vessels that dock in Tema port 
and land based source o f  waste oil. The project would also set up other treatment plants 
such as sawdust to briquette, (waste plastics recycling, waste paper and waste gypsum).
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The project is expected to minimize industrial wastes by using them in other industries as 
raw materials to reduce pressure o f  our limited land fill site and refuse dumps.
Similarly Ghana’s Environmental Action Plan (EAP, 1998) had put environmental issues 
on priority agenda o f  which an estimated amount o f 41.7 billion cedis ($21m) which is 
equivalent o f  4 percent Ghana Gross Domestic Product had been estimated to be the cost 
imposed on Ghanaian economy as a result o f environmental degradation in sectors such 
as agriculture, forestry, hunting industry and mining. The plan is expected to adopt a 
strategy relating to protection o f the environment and better management renewable 
resources (Ofosu-manu, 2004).
Many countries throughout the world have also embarked on the principle o f  4R ’s -  
Reduce, Rescue, Recycle Recovered in waste management.
According to (Ofosu-Mensah, 2004) the principle aims at reducing, avoiding or 
eliminating processes that generate hazardous waste rather than controlling, treating or 
managing them. One o f the best known examples o f  household waste recycling and 
disposal that can be applied to other places in the world is that o f  “Ontario’s bluebox” 
programme which served more than 22 million household in Ontario province. According 
to the programme, household in participating municipalities were given blue plastic 
boxes in which to collect recyclable waste. Once per week special recycling crew 
collected these recyclable materials from the blueboxes. Participation in Ontario’s 
bluebox has been very good and been able to divert 200,000 tones or more in 1989 
recycled.
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Armah (1987) pointed out that as far back as 1976, refuse accumulation was in Accra 
metropolis and the problem was acute in low income, high population density areas like 
Chorkor, Korle Gonno and Accra New Town. The problem was, however, low in high 
income, low population density areas like Cantonments, East Legon, Airport Residential 
area and some communities in Tema. Doe and Peprah (1988) also revealed that urban 
areas have been the main sources o f  waste production in recent times which have been 
major problems o f city authorities.
Donkor (1991) added that, apart from population explosion contributing to waste 
management problems, issues like absence o f  cost recovery, tariffs, poor participation o f 
houses to house collection and non-payment o f  waste collection fees by household in 
cities also contributed to waste management problems.
Benneh (1993) also came up with the results o f  study o f  household environmental 
problems in Accra. These were water, sanitation, solid waste and household air pollution. 
He said that serious sanitation problems o f Accra were as a result o f overcrowding. He 
asserted that communal toilet facilities were inadequate, so open defecation was common 
in density populated areas such as Mamobi, Sukura, Alajo and Nima.
He said that solid waste has become one o f  the most intractable environmental 
management problems which posed health risk for children most especially. He, 
therefore, viewed the problems as interrelated and that only an integrated approach could
effectively deal with them. He recommended and effective co-ordination among key
y
governmental and non-governmental institutions.
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University o f  Ghana and Stockholm Environmental Institute (1995) identified problems 
from household environment in Greater Accra Metropolitan Assembly (GAMA) and 
discussed them from marine to air pollution. According to them, poverty, demographic 
growth, economic fluctuations and fiscal austerity were placing a considerable strain on 
household environment in Ghana. Problem considered include water, sanitation, solid 
waste, pest and pesticides, food contamination and household air pollution . Attention 
was, however, given to health and environment. They also summarized the institutional 
context within which household environmental management took place. Some o f the 
policies were discussed briefly.
Lack o f readily available water, o f  sewers or other systems, o f  safety disposal o f  human 
waste, o f  drainage system, rubbish collection and basic measure to prevent diseases and 
provide health care resulted in very large health burdens.
Many health problems were linked to water, its quality, the quantity available, the case 
with which could be obtained and the provisions made for its removal were highlighted 
by Jorge et al (2001). Aboagyewaa (2004) reported technical discussions at the 44th 
World Health Assembly that environmental conditions were favourable for the spread o f 
communicable diseases which included insufficient and unsafe water supplies, poor 
sanitation and inadequate damage o f surface water, poor personal and domestic hygiene, 
inadequate housing and overcrowding.
She said many o f these were not due to lack o f  facilities and services but bad human 
behavior, often culturally based as very important factor. For example, new migrants
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might persist in unhygienic traditional practices such as using o f  surface water or dealing 
with faeces in ways that were unsuitable to towns and cities.
WHO report (1992) discussed that unsanitary disposal o f  infected human feaces leads to 
the contamination o f  ground and sources o f water. It further stated that the situation 
provided the sites with opportunity o f  certain species o f  flies and mosquitoes to lay their 
eggs breeds to feed on the exposed materials and carry infectious.
A number o f  diseases relating to excreta and waste water affected a lot o f  people in 
developing countries and these could be communicable and non-communicable. She 
stated that those diseases which its incidence could be reduce by the introduction o f  safe 
excreta disposal causing intestinal infections and helwith infections which include 
infection on typhoid, dysentery, diarrhoea, hookworm infections, filarises and 
schistosomiases are the commutable diseases from chemical composition o f  waste water 
and pathogen content that affect crop growth and consumers o f  such crops. The 
accumulation o f nitrate in both ground water and surface waters affect human health. 
(Methaemoglobinaenia in infants Thompson . 2004).
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i Methodologies of Participating in Environmental Sanitation Programmes in 
Selected Countries 
>.I Tanzania
Tanzania, Biogas technology had been introduced by the Central Government to 
tvem the small scale industrial organizations in early 1970s. According to Thompson 
004), the main objective was to promote Reversible energy sources in response to crisis 
suiting from increase in Fossil fuel. Furthermore biolatrine had been introduced in 1987 
■ improve health through better sanitation hygienic as well as to provide effluents to be 
sed as fertilizers in their agricultural sector.
ladequate facilities for disposal o f  waste were a major threat to health. The threat 
iclude the spread o f infections diseases which often resulted in the death potential labor 
orce and loss o f productive capacity due to illness o f  such labor force. This therefore 
varranted for the biogas technology by the Tanzania government..
furthermore, African Development Foundation (1996) took research in the context o f 
snvironmental sanitation and co-ordinated biolatrine technology with that o f  biogas. The 
method used included seminars, symposiums, newspapers, radio programmes and 
discussions with stakeholders mostly livestock and agriculture officers.
The foundation had written several project proposals to prospective donor agencies on 
biolatrine for private organizations, churches and governmental institutions. The selection 
o f beneficiaries was made taking into consideration the institutional needs, safe handling 
o f  waste and the extent to which they might serve as demonstrations to others.
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Government officials were involved in the programmes as a means o f  providing financial 
assistance for the sustenance o f  programmes.
2.5.2 Dhaka Bangladesh
Dhaka is one o f  the urban cities in the world with an estimated population o f  over six 
million and produces over 3000 tones o f household waste.
Less than half o f  the waste are collected by Dhaka city corporation while the rest remains 
on road sides, open drains and low lying areas. “Tokai” known as scavengers search for 
materials which can be recycled or reused and sell them to enterprising local people who 
arranged for the material to be sorted out, cleaned and then sold to recycling factories. 
The process demonstrates that waste has value in Dhaka.
Since 1995, “Waste Concern” a local non-governmental organization embarked on 
community-based composting project, to promote the concept o f  the 4 R s’ Reduce, 
Reuse, Recycling and Recover waste in the city. “Waste Concern” later on realized that 
household waste accounted over 70 percent o f total waste which they realized could be 
effectively converted into valuable compost in order to prolong the land fill sites and 
reduce cost o f  disposal o f  waste.
The project involved setting up o f numerous small-scale enterprises in different 
neighborhoods to go round house to house to collect waste, compost the waste collected 
and then market the compost and the recyclable materials.
The success o f  the project permitted the Central Government to promote the “waste 
concern” to extend their activities to other five cities in Bangladesh with an external
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funding from United Development Programme. The central government on her part 
provided them with land, water and electrical connections to set up more community 
based composting plants. The plant had been able to convert more than 70 percent o f 
household waste into valuable compost. The success o f  the Programme required the 
partnership o f  the public sector, private sector and civil society organizations.
The “Waste Concern” therefore, set up community waste management committees and 
provide them with technical assistance to help them manage, operate and maintain 
services. The members, mostly women, were trained in collection, waste separation, 
composting and marketing. After one year o f  community mobilization and training the 
projects were then handed over to the local community while Waste Concern monitored 
the project for three years (Footsteps 2004).
The process involved each household paying between 20-35 cents per month which 
covered the salaries o f  waste collectors, part-time drivers who drove the van which 
collected the rubbish, operations and maintenance cost. Once the waste has been 
collected it was taken to the nearby composting plant. The organic waste was then 
converted into compost using methods that reduced bad smells, since the composed 
plants were located in residential rather than industrial locations.
The compost was then separated into fine and coarse grades and packed into 50kg bags 
which were sold between $2.50-4.50 while rejected materials after sorting the waste were 
dumped into land fill sites by Dhaka City Corporation.
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The project has influenced people to rent their houses and excess display o f  dustbins 
which often became full and became environmental nuisance. These were reduced 
drastically by the activities o f  the “waste concern” (Footsteps, 2004).
2.5.3 The Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) -  Karachi-Pakistan
Orangi is made up o f  1.2 million inhabitants, in an unauthorized settlement. There was no 
public provision for sanitation. Therefore, most o f  its residents used bucket latrines 
whose contents were emptied into unpaved lanes running between houses. More affluent 
households had however, constructed pit latrines but were filled up after few years in use 
while others living near creeks had constructed their own sewage pipes which were 
emptied into these creeks.
Hassan (1999) noted that residents had little incentive to improve their situation and the 
effort o f  getting local government agencies to lay sewage pipes in the community was too 
much for them, for they felt these were the duties o f  the central government to be 
provided free o f  charge for the them.
Through community participation a local organization. Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) was 
established in 1980 spearheaded by Dr. Akhtar Hammeed Khan who realized that, i f  all 
local people were fully involved, more appropriate sanitation could be installed in 
Orangi. Through research effort by OPP it came to light that most o f  the residents were 
aware appropriate sanitation on property and health. They, however, could neither adopt 
conventional systems nor have the technical organizational skills to adopt any alternative 
options available to them.
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Several meetings were, therefore, held for 10-15 houses which were adjacent to each 
other on the side o f  the lanes in the community to sensitize them on the importance o f 
keeping improved sanitation in the community. Where the community came into 
consensus they elected their own leaders on pilot basis. These leaders then applied for 
technical assistance. W ith the support o f  the community’s own contribute in monetary 
from sewers were installed in the community for proper management o f  waste at minimal 
cost to 'th e  beneficiaries, who were mostly low income earners who could not single- 
handedly pay for the construction o f  their own sanitary latrines and sewerage lines.
Hassan continued to explain that through community participation, people adopted 
simplified designs and used standardized steel mould o f sanitary latrines and manholes 
which cost them only one-third o f the private contractors rate or one-sixth the cost o f  the 
state’s construction. W ith time residents on the other lanes after seeing the results 
achieved at the pilot sites or communities also sought OPP’s support to develop their own 
sewers. Sanitation committees were formed where women were very active and many 
were elected as leaders who encourage their colleagues to sustain the sanitation 
programme (Hassan, 1999 in Jorge, 2001).
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CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter gives information on the research methodology adopted for the study. It 
comprises, population, sample frame, sample design, electoral areas, study sample, 
research design, research instrument, pilot study, administration o f  questionnaire and 
interviewed schedules, sources o f  data, organization, presentation and analysis.
3.2 Population
The target population o f  the study consisted all residents in the Ashaiman for the past one 
year. Adults o f  both sexes and both literate and non-literate in the all electoral areas form 
the population o f  the study.
3.3 Sample Frame
A map o f Ashaiman consisting all suburbs were obtained from Tema Development 
Corporation and Statististical Services Department for the purpose o f  the study. Area site 
plans for each suburb in each electoral area were obtained from the TDC. This assisted in 
identifying respondents easily. The names o f  all the electoral areas were obtained from 
the zonal council office o f  Ashaiman -  sub zonal office o f  TMA. This assisted the 
researcher to identify respondents easily by going to the right suburb in the electoral areas 
in Ashaiman.
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Sample Design
Probability sampling design was used for the study. The study area was made up o f  28 
suburbs under eleven electoral areas. In order to make the study more meaningful the 
electoral areas were classified into 3 groups according to the sanitation facilities they 
have in each electoral area.
ELECTORAL AREAS
GOOD AVERAGE BAD / POOR
1. OBAKATSE 4. MAN MOMO 8. TSENA GBE
2. NIGHT MARKET 5. MANKYE MAN 9. TABOO
3. N il MAN 6. TULAKU 10. ZONGO LAKA
7. ASENSU 11. MARKET SQUARE
Through simple random sampling, three o f the electoral areas were chosen, one from 
each o f  the categories, that is Obakatse, Asensu and Market Square. Thirty three houses 
each were selected from Asensu and Market Square while thirty two was selected from 
Obakatse. The first house in each electoral area was randomly selected using the house 
numbers.
Through systematic sampling technique a caretaker or landlord is selected from the tenth 
house in each electoral area to constitute the respondents. A draft map o f the town was 
used to ensure wider coverage.
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3.5 Study Sample
In all 98 residents were sampled from three electoral areas.
Asensu -  33 
Market Square -  33 
Obakatse - 32
The smallness o f  the number selected was based on the homogeneity o f  the suburbs in 
these electoral areas sharing similar environmental problems. Moreover four officials 
from environmental sanitation unit o f Ashaiman sub-zonal office o f  Tema Municipal 
Assembly and one officer from the zonal council office were among those who 
participated in the study.
3.6 Research Design
The survey research design was used. This was appropriate method since the unit o f 
analysis under study was the individual but results were to analyze in groups. It was also 
the best method available to the researcher as was interested in original data for 
describing the population which was too large to be observed as a case for this study.
According to Smith (1975) this method is extremely efficient in terms o f processing large 
data at relatively cheap cost at the shortest possible time in addition to the high 
standardization it provides. Cross-sectional survey was used because o f  the homogeneity 
o f  the population who shared common environmental problems.
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3.7 Research Instrument
The research instrument consisted o f structured questionnaires and interview schedules.
The questionnaire which consisted o f  both open-ended and close-ended questions were 
designed for officials in-charge o f  environmental units o f Ashaiman sub-zonal office 
under Tema Municipal Assembly (TMA) since they were literate. The questions were to 
assess institutional arrangement for environmental sanitation programmes in Ashaiman 
and how sustainable these arrangements were.
The interview schedules were however designed for respondents who were mostly not 
literate to address issues like the level o f  community participation in terms o f  sanitation 
or communal activities, the state o f  environmental sanitation in Ashaiman, demographic 
characteristics o f  the respondents, forms o f  sanitation programmes and Sanitation 
challenges communities faced.
3.8 Pilot Study
To test the level o f  community participation in sanitation programmes, five people were 
interviewed in the community and one official from TMA.
3.9 Administration of Questionnaires and Interview Schedules
In all three people administered the interview schedule, the researcher and two trained 
research assistants. Pilot test was done, hence some words were worded to suit the 
research objectives. Procedure for selection o f  houses were discussed as well as the 
respondents needed to answer questions. They were resourced with area map o f  the 
electoral area assigned to the three persons, pens, pencil eraser and umbrella.
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Thirty five interview schedule forms were given to each three people for administration. 
Friday evening and Saturday were set aside for the exercise. This is because most the 
respondents had closed from their place o f  work and started enjoying their week-ends.
Those who administered the interviewed were able to speak the English language and 
two other languages identifiable to the electoral area assigned to them. Some o f the 
respondents however reluctant to answer the question but they were made to understand 
that it was for research purposes.
Accessibility to some houses was difficult because the area map and what was on the 
ground did not tally with some o f houses in the suburbs. This was so partly because 
unapproved extension workers in some houses and illegally and unauthorized structures. 
Those who administered the questionnaire were assisted by some o f the opinion leaders 
who gave direction as to the numbering o f  the houses and co-operation from the 
residents. In terms o f the officers, the questionnaires were given to them and was 
collected after three days.
3.10 Sources of Data
Data were collected from both primary and secondary sources, the later including 
libraries and internets, statistical service department, editorials o f  some newspapers 
related to area o f  study was read as those related to the research. Some o f the opinion 
leaders also helped in terms o f  their experience and suggestions on the research.
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3.11 Data Organization, Presentation and Analysis
Data organization involves the various ways through which information is gathered from 
the field is put into meaningful way for easy comprehension. The data was organized 
using structured interview schedules and questionnaires.
Each interview schedule and questionnaire was edited to determine the validity or 
otherwise o f  information provided before it was analyzed. In editing for consistency, 
comparison was done in respect to answers required to the one respondents gave. Those 
with faulty responses were cross-checked with other related details to ascertain the 
validity o f  questions asked by the researcher. Certain detailed information left out by the 
respondents were filled by the researcher, for completeness.
In editing for accuracy, correctness to answers were checked in terms o f  wording 
language and arrangement o f  thoughts from the respondents. After editing, coding was 
done. This is the most convenient way o f representing information so as to facilitate 
enumeration. In coding numbers and letters were used in place o f  words. W ith respect to 
closed ended question to facilitate coding, coding scheme was used. In the case o f open 
ended questions however, first, respondents view became primary view while like and 
unlike responses were grouped accordingly.
After coding, the responses were then classified and tabulated through the use o f 
statistical tables and graphs as means of data presentation. Each table was then given 
suitable heading which appeared at the top with concise description o f  content. Each table 
and figures are numbered consecutively.
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Sample bar graphs and pie chart were also used to give pictorial view o f the data 
collected from the field survey.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA 
4.1 Introduction
This chapter focuses on the presentation and analysis o f  data collected from randomly 
selected three electoral areas in Ashaiman, the study area. The data is analyzed under the 
following variables;
1. Demographic characteristics
2. Determination o f state environmental sanitation in Ashaiman
3. Forms o f environmental sanitation programmes and challenges the communities 
faced.
4. Cross tabulation o f demographic characteristics with level o f participation in 
communal sanitation activities by respondents.
5. Assessment o f the institutional arrangements and the sustainability o f  these 
arrangement.
4.2 Demographic Characteristics
This section tries to solicit information on sex, age, marital status, occupation and 
educational level o f the respondents.
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4.3 Sex
This was to help us know the gender situation in the community in terms o f community 
participation in the sanitation programmes.
■ Female
■ Male
Figure 4.1 Source: field Survey, 2004
Figure 4.1 shows that out o f 98 respondents who were randomly selected 53 percent were 
males while 47 percent were females.
4.4 Age Distribution
This section was to solicit the ages o f respondents
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Table 4.1: Age Distribution
Age - Group Frequency Percentage
Below 30 years (Youth) 58 59.1
30 -  49 years (Middle age) 30 30.7
50 + (Old age) 10 10.2
Total 98 100.0
Source: field Survey, 2004
As Table 4.1 above shows, most o f the respondents were in their youthful age, forming 
more than half o f  the total respondents. They are below 30 years.
4.5 Marital Status
Married couples have the domestic role o f  taking care o f home, which often prevent them 
from engaging in a lot o f  communal activities.
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Table 4.2 Marital Status
Married Status Frequency Percentage
Married 36 36.7
Single 54 55.1
Divorced 5 5.2
Widowed 3 3.0
Total 98 100.0
Source: field Survey, 2004
Table 4.2 explains that most o f the respondents were single forming more than half o f 
the total responses (55.1 percent). This shows the eagerness o f  this category o f  people to 
respond to communal call.
The married represented 36.7 percent, divorced 5.2 percent and widowed 3.0 percent all 
falling in the minority group.
4.6 Occupation
Occupation plays a crucial role in any community development. The type o f occupation 
o f people would somehow determine their level o f  participation in any sanitation 
programme. For this reason, the occupation o f respondents was sought.
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Table 4.3: Occupation
Types Frequency Percentage
Factory hand 20 20.4
Public servant 13 13.3
Unemployed 44 45.0
Self employed 21 21.4
Total 98 100.0
Source: field Survey, 2004
Table 4.3 shows that almost half o f the respondents were unemployed (45.0%) while 
those employed represented 55 percent). Those who were factory hands (20.4%) may 
earned low incomes, likewise the public servants representing 13.2 percent.
4.7 Educational Background
The level o f  education would assist the researcher to determine how conscious people 
were and ready to involve themselves in any communal activities.
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Table 4.4 Educational Level
Educational Level Frequency Percentage
Tertiary 10 10.2
Secondary / Commercial 20 20.4
Basic Education 38 38.8
No. Formal Education 30 30.6
Total 98 100.0
Source: field Survey, 2004
According to Table 4.4 those who had Schooled up to secondary and Commercial levels 
represent 20.4%. Those with tertiary education accounted for 10.2 percent while those 
who schooled but could not reach the secondary/Commercial level basic education also 
represented 38 percent. However 30 percent did not have any formal education. The area 
studied therefore had persons with low educational levels. (69.4%).
4.8 Determination Of State Of Environment Sanitation In Ashaiman
4.8.1 Source o f Water
Sources o f  water and its availability to consumers play crucial role so far as 
environmental sanitation o f an area is concerned. It was for these reasons that sources of 
water o f  respondents were sought.
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Table 4.5 Source of Water
Source of Water Frequency Percentage (%)
Pipe 83 84.7
Well 4 4.1
Dam 7 7.1
Rain 4 4.1
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.5 illustrates that the majority o f respondents’ main source o f  water was pipe 
borne, accounting for 84.7 percent. Other sources o f water, well, dam and rain accounted 
for only 15.3 per cent o f  the total. Most o f the people interviewed, however, did not have 
pipe borne water in their own residents but patronized the services o f  water vendors.
4.8.2 Type o f Toilet A vailable
Accessibility to toilet facilities is very important when assessing the sanitary conditions 
o f a community o f  which Ashaiman is not an exception. Respondents were, therefore, 
asked to state the type o f  toilet they have access to in the community.
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Table 4.6 Types of Toilet Facilities Available to Household
Toilet Facilities Available to House hold Frequency Percentage (%)
Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit (KVIP) 21 21.4
Water Closset (WC) 19 19.4
Pit 13 13.3
Bush 16 16.3
Other 29 29.6
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
About twenty-one per cent o f the respondents had Kumasi Ventilated Improved Pit 
(KVIP) whilst 19% o f the respondents had water closets in their houses. Thirteen percent 
o f respondents stated that they use the pit latrine type o f toilet. Those who patronized 
“Bush” and other type o f  toilet facilities available came up to 45.9 per cent o f  respondent. 
Out o f  the 45.9%, most o f the respondents patronized public toilets.
In probing further, some o f the respondents who said they had KVIP and WC said they 
often did not patronize their own toilet facilities in their houses. Most o f them said their 
toilet facilities were faulty while others said they often experienced unfamiliar odour that 
compelled them not to use the facilities in their own houses. Most o f  these toilet facilities 
faced frequent closures because they were not regularly emptied when full.
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The problem o f solid and liquid waste generation and management is a very big issue. 
The views o f  respondents were solicited on the way they disposed o f  their solid waste. 
This was to determine the state o f  environmental sanitation in Ashaiman.
Table 4.7 Disposal of Waste
4.8.3 Waste Disposal
Disposal of Waste Frequency Percentage (%)
Bush/Outskirts 16 16.3
Rubbish dump 22 22.4
Front o f  house 7 7.1
Mobile refuse trucks 39 39.9
Others 9 9.2
No response 5 5.1
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.7 shows that most o f  the respondents used mobile refuse trucks to dispose their 
garbage. Almost 39 per cent have to keep the refuse till they are collected by the mobile 
trucks. About a quarter o f  the total respondents always sent their children to the refuse
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dump point to dump refuse. A third method o f waste disposal in Ashaiman was in the 
bush or the outskirts o f  the town.
4.9 Form of Environmental Sanitation Programmes and Challenges 
Communities Face
4.9.1 Organized Sanitation Programme
The question on organized sanitation programme was designed to determine forms o f 
environmental sanitation programmes going on at Ashaiman.
Table 4.8 Is there any sanitation programme in Ashaiman
Is there any Organized sanitation 
Programme?
Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes 22 22.4
No 75 76.6
No Response 1 1.0
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
According to Table 4.8, 75 o f  the residents representing 76.6 confirmed that there were 
no organized sanitation programmes going on in their suburbs; while a very few o f them, 
representing 22.4 per cent, said there were some forms o f  sanitation programmes going
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4.9.2 The Stage at which they Participated
Adarkwa and Diaw (1999) stated that community participation plays an important role in 
needs assessment in project design and implementation which are done usually through 
labour contributions in some cases. It is in this view that respondents were asked to state 
the stage at which they participated in sanitation programmes.
Table 4.9 Stages of Participation
Stages of Participation Frequency Percentage (%)
Needs assessment 11 11.2
Implementation 10 10.2
Monitoring 8 8.2
Not applicable 69 70.4
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.9 indicated that a greater number o f the respondents could not state the stage they 
participated in any sanitation programmes in Ashaiman. These respondents accounted 
for more than three-quarters o f the total respondents. Those who really participated at 
various stages accounted for only 29.6 percent. However, at the needs assessment level 
which is very crucial in promoting and sustaining most programmes and projects in our 
communities could only account for 11.2 percent.
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4.9.3 Why there are no Sanitation Programmes Going-on
In order to determine challenges respondents face in terms o f sanitation programmes, 
most o f  them said there were no sanitation programmes. This question was to elicit why 
there were no sanitation programmes going on in the community.
Table 4.10 Why no Sanitation Programmes are Ongoing
Why no Sanitation Programmes 
Ongoing?
Frequency Percentage (%)
Lack o f  individual interest 33 33.7
Lack o f  finance 15 15.3
Ignorance about the programme 25 25.5
No devoted opinion leaders 12 12.2
Not applicable 13 13.3
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Various reasons were given for non-participation in sanitation programmes. Predominant 
views o f  most o f  the respondents shown in Table 4.10 were lack o f individual interest, 
followed by ignorance, lack o f finance and devoted opinion leaders who would mobilize 
people to organize sanitation programmes in Ashaiman.
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4.9.4 Presence of Sanitation Programme Committee
Committees established in communities help in the smooth implementation of 
developmental programmes and projects. The study solicited respondents’ view as to 
whether there were any o f  such sanitation committees in the community
Figure 4.2
SANITATION PROGRAMME COMMITTEE
100
90
80
70
4> 60OD
5c 50
e i
U 40
30
20
10
0
15.7
84.3
Yes No
Response
As figure 4.2 shows many o f the respondents said there were no sanitation committees set 
up in the community to oversee sanitation in Ashaiman. There were however,
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identifiable groups such as the youth associations, keep fit clubs, market women and 
churches.
4.9.5 Women Representation
Most women had played tremendous roles in sanitation programme committees in which 
they were involved. This section, therefore, tries to see their representation in the 
sanitation committees in Ashaiman.
Table 4.11 Women Representation in Sanitation Committee
Women Representation Frequency Percentage
Less than half 11 11.2
Half 4 4.1
More than half 4 4.1
No woman 79 80.6
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.11 shows that as many as 79 out o f the 98 respondents confirmed there were no 
women in the existing sanitation committees.
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4.9. Days set aside for Communal Labour
The researcher was interested to know how often the people were able to engage in 
sanitation activities on communal basis. Table 4.13 below illustrates the responses.
Table 4.12 Days set aside for Communal Labour
Responses Frequency Percentage
When the occasion demands it 41 41.8
Not at all 12 12.2
Monthly basis 14 14.3
Weekly basis 14 14.3
No response 17 17.4
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.13 shows that most o f the respondents did not specify the exact period for 
communal activities (41.8 per cent). About 14 per cent o f  respondents said communal 
labour was organized on monthly basis whilst another 14 per cent also responded it was 
organized on weekly basis. About 12.2 per cent said no days were set aside for 
communal labour.
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For any community sanitation programme to be very effective, the way it is organized 
plays important role in its successful implementation. The table below shows the 
responses
4.9.7 Community Organization
Table 4.13 Community Organization
Organization Frequency Percentage
In Groups 20 20.4
In Zones 31 31.6
On Gender 6 6.1
In Lanes 21 21.4
No Definite Plan 17 17.3
No Response 3 2.2
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.13 shows a variety o f  responses as indicated below: In zones, 31.6 percent, in 
lanes 21.4 percent, in groups 20.4 percent, no definite plan 17.3 percent and on gender
6.1 percent, while 3.2 percent o f  respondents did not respond at all.
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4.9.8 Sex Composition in Terms of Decision Making
Respondents were asked to state sex composition o f community members in terms o f 
decision making in  sanitation programmes. This was to assist the researcher to know 
contributions o f  community members along gender roles towards communal 
development.
Table 4.14 Sex Composition In Terms of Decision Making
Sex composition in terms of decision 
making
Frequency Percentage
Only the men 11 11.2
Both men and women 45 45.9
Only the male opinion leaders 21 21.4
Others 14 14.3
No response 7 7.2
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
More than half o f  the total respondents confirmed that, i f  any sanitation programmes took 
place, both men and women were actively involved in taking decisions on the programme 
representing 45.9 per cent. However, others were o f  the view that in decision-making, 
only the opinion leaders such as the Assemblymen, landlords, zonal leaders were
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involved representing 21.4 per cent. About 11.2% also said only the men were involved 
in decision making.
4.9 Involvement of Youth in Decision Making
In determining the challenges in terms o f youth participation in sanitation programmes, 
respondents were asked if  they involved the youth in any decision-making in executing 
any communal work. These were the responses.
Figure 4.3 Youths in Decision-Making
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As figure 4.3 shows 65 percent o f  the total respondents who were asked whether the 
youth took part in the decision-making in terms o f any programmes said “No.” However, 
25 percent said “Yes” while 10 percent did not respond.
4.10 Active Role Played by the Youth
Respondents were asked to state any active role the youth played in the community.
Table 4.15 Active Role Played by the Youth in the Community
Active role played by the youth in 
the community
Frequency Percentage
Desilting sweeping and gutters 16 16.3
Doing all hard work 14 14.3
Provision o f tools 7 7.1
Financial donations 7 7.1
No roles 50 51.0
No response 4 4.2
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Table 4.16 shows that most o f the respondents indicated no roles (51.0 percent). This 
confirms the previous question which demanded the roles the youth played, in terms o f 
decision making, “No” -  response was 65.0 percent. However, 4.2 percent o f  the
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respondents did not respond while those who stated various roles the youth played came 
up to 28.6 percent.
4.11 Level of Participation in Communal Sanitation Activities by Respondents
Respondents were asked to state how often individuals engaged themselves in any 
sanitation communal activities. These were the responses.
Table 4.16 Level of Participation in Communal Sanitations by Respondents
Level of Participation in Communal 
sanitation Activities by Respondents
Frequency Percentage
No often 69 70.4
Often 14 14.3
Very often 15 15.3
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
The responses in Table 4.1 percent confirm that i f  communal cleaning activities took 
place in the various communities at all they were “not often.” “Often” and “Very often” 
responses were 14.3% and 15.3% respectively.
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4.12 How Sanitation Programmes are Financed
To know the financial constraints or challenges faced by the residents in terms o f 
sanitation activities, they were asked to state how these programmes were financed.
The pie chart below shows the responses.
Figure 4.4 HOW SANITATION PROGRAMMES WERE FINANCE
45.7
8.6
0  No Response 
0  No Finance at all 
B  Voluntary Contributions
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Figure 4.4 illustrates that almost half o f the total respondents said community sanitation 
programmes were financed through voluntary contributions. This represented 45.7 per 
cent on the pie chart while few respondents said there were “No” financing at all.
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4.13 Constraints in Terms of Financing
To further know the other challenges respondents faced they were asked again to indicate 
whether there were constraints in terms o f  undertaking and financing any community 
sanitation programmes.
S3 Yes 
E3 No
m No Response
47.1%
Figure 5
Source: Field Survey, 2uu4
12.9%
CONSTRAINTS
As figure 5 explains, the respondents who stated that there were constraints constituted 
40 percent o f  the total responses while those who could not respond to the question came 
up to 47.1 percent and the “No” response was 12.9 per cent. Those with “no” response 
who were further asked why they did not respond said there was no sanitation 
programmes hence they would not be in a position to mention constraints. Some o f the 
“Yes” respondents further stated some o f the constraints as;
i. donations were not regular,
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ii. Youth clubs were wrongfully using their financial contribution for sanitation 
activities which were not their priority
iii. Opinion leader financial decision was not forthcoming.
4.14 How Sanitation could be Tackled in Ashaiman
Respondents were asked to suggest how general sanitation issues could be tackled in 
various communities in Ashaiman. The table below indicates their responses.
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Table 4.17 How Sanitation Programmes could be Tackled
Responses Frequency Percentage (% )
Mobilization o f  the youth 27 27.6
Providing education 28 28.6
Provision o f  more financial investment 12 12.2
Sanitation programme should be compulsory 8 8.2
Formation o f  committees o f opinion leaders 3 3.1
Municipal Assembly to be effective and provide 
logistics
9 9.2
Re-planning o f  the town 2 2.0
No sanitation programme can take place in 
Ashaiman
2 2.0
Provision o f  incentives 4 4.1
No response 3 3.0
Total 98 100
Source: Field Survey, 2004
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Table 4.17 shows that provision o f education for the residences was the best way to 
tackle sanitation programmes (28.6%). This was followed by  mobilizing the youth for 
communal work (27.6%). Provision o f  financial investment and incentives accounted for
12.2 per cent. Others suggested that Municipal Assembly should be effective and re-plan 
the town (11.2%). Lastly, 20% o f the total respondents said no sanitation programme can 
take place in Ashaiman.
4.15 Cross Tabulation of Demographic Characteristics with Level of Participation 
in Communal Sanitation Activities
Table 4.18: Educational Level and Participation in Communal Sanitation Activities
Participation in Communal Activities
Educational Level Not Often Often Very Often Total
Tertiary 4 (5.8%) 3 (21.4%) 3 (20%) 10
Secondary/Commercial 6 (8.7%) 7 (50.0%) 7 (46.7%) 20
Basic 31 (44.9%) 3 (21.4%) 4 (26.6%) 38
No Formal Education 28 (40.6%) 1 (7.2%) 1 (6.7%) 30
Total 69 (100%) 14 (100%) 15 (100%) 98
Source: Field Survey, 2004
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According to the table, respondents with high educational levels most often participate in 
communal activities. Participants with lower educational background hardly participate 
in sanitation and communal activities (85.5%)
Table 14.19: Occupation and Participation in Communal Activities
Occupation
Participation in Communal Activities
TotalNot Often Often Very Often
Factory hand 15(21.7%) 3 (21.4%) 2(13.3% ) 20
Public Servant 5 (7.3%) 5 (35.7%) 3 (20%) 13
Unemployed 35 (50.8%) 6 (42.9%) 3 (20%) 44
Self Employed 14 (20.3)% 0 7 (46.7) 21
Total 69 (100) 14 (100) 15 (100) 98
Source: Field Survey, 2004
According to the table, respondents who said they "very often” participate in communal 
activities constitute 15 out o f  98. The table shows that the majority unemployed 35 out o f 
44 hardly participate in communal labour than the gainfully employed. A greater 
percentage those who very often participate were the self employed.
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Table 14.20: Age (Years) and Participation in Communal Activities
Partic ipation  In  Communal Activities
Age /Y  ears Not Often Often Very O ften Total
Below 30yrs (Youth) 34 (49.3%) 10(71.4%) 14(93.3%) 58 (59.2%)
30 -  49yrs (Middle Age) 26 (37.7%) 3(21.4% ) 1 (6.7%) 30 (30.6%)
50+ yrs (Old Age) 9(13.0% ) 1 (7.1%) 0 (0%) 1 0 (10.2%)
Total 69 (100%) 14 (100%) 15 (100%) 98 (100% )
Source: Field Survey, 2004
According to the table, Respondents who often participate are the youth who form the 
majority (71.4%). In terms o f  respondents who do not often participate are those who are 
30 years and above (50.7%).
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Table 14.21: Electoral Area and Participation Communal Activities
Electoral Area
Participation in Communal Activities
Not Often Often Very Often Total
ASENSU 12 (17.4%) 8 (57.1%) 13 (86.7%) 33 (33.7%)
OBAKATSE 27 (39.1%) 3 (21.4%) 2(13.3%) 32 (32.7%)
MARKET SQUARE 30 (45.5%) 3 (21.4%) 0 (0%) 33 (33.7%)
TOTAL 69 (100%) 14 (100%) 15 (100%) (98 100%)
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Participation in communal activities in the various electoral areas shows that respondents 
in Asensu participate regularly in such activities than any o f the other areas. The worst 
affected in terms o f  participation was market square.
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Table 14.22: Sex and Participation in Communal Activities
Sex
Participation In Communal Activities
Not Often Often Very Often Total
Male 36 (52.2%) (7^0% ) (9(60%) 52 (53.1%)
Female 33 (47.8%) 7 (50%) 6 (40%) 46 (46.9%)
Total 69 (100%) 14 (100% ) 15 (100% ) 98 (100% )
Source: Field Survey, 2004
Out o f  15 respondents who said they very often participate in communal activities 9 
(60%) were male while 6 (40%) were female. According to the data neither o f  the sexes 
participate in sanitation activities than the other.
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Table 14.23: Marital Status: Participation in Communal Activities Cross
Tabulation
Marital Status
Participation In Communal Activities
Not Often Often Very Often Total
Married 28 (40.6%) 5 (35.7%) 3 (20%) 36 (36.7%)
Single 33 (47.8%) 9 (64.3%) 12 (80%) 54 (55.1%)
Divorced 5 (7.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 5 (5.1%)
Widowed 3 4. (3%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 3 (3.1%)
Total 69 (100%) 14 (100%) 15 (100%) 98 (100%)
Source: Field Survey, 2004
According to the table, the respondents who very often participate in communal activities 
are single constituting 80% o f the total respondents. The other respondents 20% 
regularly participate.
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4.1^> Assessing Institutional Arrangements for Environmental Sanitation
Programmes in Ashaiman and How Sustainable these Arrangements Were
The authorities were asked to name institutions which participate in sanitation 
programmes in Ashaiman. Two institutions were mentioned. These were Tema 
Municipal Assembly and IBIS.
4 J f  Tema Municipal Assembly
Tema Municipal Assembly organized clean-up campaigns and also helped in
environmental education. When they were asked the form clean-up campaigns took, their 
response was periodic clean-ups and house-to-house education.
When they were asked i f  their outfit carried out any follow-up activities, they said they 
organized bi-monthly fora. When the officers were asked to mention constraints on the 
part o f  activities o f  other organizations or institutions that organized sanitation 
programmes in Ashaiman, two major constraints were given:
1. Lack o f  vehicles to convey wastes
2. Lack o f  interest by the majority o f  institutions
3. They (TMA) were then asked to list three major constraints in their own 
establishments in terms o f their duties. These were :
4. Lack o f  sanitary vehicles;
Lack o f  sanitary tools; and
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' Lack o f funding for sanitary programme
4.18: IBIS - NGO
This is the second institution that engaged in sanitation programmes in Ashaiman. IBIS 
is a Danish Non-Government Organization which is interested in the new 
decentralization system in Ghana by helping in building sub-structures at the assembly 
level. They are currently operating in Gonja East, Berekum and Ashaiman.
IBIS contributed in sanitation programmes in Ashaiman because o f  the peculiar nature o f 
problems related to environmental sanitation. Their main contribution was the 
establishment o f  tools bank in Ashaiman Zonal Council.
According to Mr. S. K. Wayo, Officer-In-Charge o f  Logistic at the Ashaiman Zonal 
Council, 100 Yamaha motorbikes had been donated by the IBIS to the council to 
facilitate their operations in Ashaiman. IBIS has also provided the council with various 
tools ranging from wheel barrows, shovels, spades, rakes, brooms and safety gadgets like 
nose mask.
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CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the discussion o f  results that were made in chapter four. The 
discussions were organized to address research objectives and questions.
5.2 Age Distribution
According to the research, most o f the respondents were in their early adulthood. Table
4.1 indicated that 59.1 percent o f  the total respondents were below 30 years. These 
people were ready to support any community programmes that would be implemented. It 
confirms Havisghurt’s (1972) assertion that adults within early adult stage would be 
involved in active work.
Bischof (1976) in his analysis o f  developmental task also emphasized that adults achieve 
civic and social responsibility at the ages 20 and 29 compared to those who were above 
50 years who would like to identify themselves with social organizations such as 
churches, welfare groups, voluntary organizations as a means o f  coming into contact with 
other adults with whom they could work, and whose company they could enjoy.
5.3 Occupation
Quite majority o f  the respondents were employed represented 55 percent according to 
Table 4.3 while 45 percent were unemployed. Most o f  those who were employed 
constituted the “self-employed” who complained they did not earn enough income. This
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supported Safo-Boakye’s (1991) assertion that most o f  the residents in Ashaiman were 
low-income earners. This means they could not contribute financially towards any 
sanitation programmes or activities in Ashaiman.
5.4 Educa tiona l Background
The research showed that considerable number o f  respondents had had up to 
secondary/commercial education. This was contrary to Peil’s (1970) assertion that 42 
percent o f  total respondents (1,004) in Ashaiman had no formal education at all.
According to the research, those who had secondary/commercial education represented
20.4 percent o f  the total respondents (Table 4.4) and those who had experienced tertiary 
education were 10.2 percent while 30.6 percent had no formal education at all 
considering the age brackets o f  the respondents.
5.5 Determination of the State of Environmental Sanitation in Ashaiman
Issues discussed here were:
1. sources o f water
2 . toilet facilities
3 . disposal o f waste (solid)
5.6 Sources of Water
The survey showed that the main sources o f  water to the residents in Ashaiman were pipe 
borne water representing 84.7 percent o f the total respondents as appeared in Table 4.5.
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Caincross (1990) made the assertion that the quality o f  water available to a household can 
be important to a family health as its quality. A lot o f underground pipes had not been 
laid down before the settlements sprang in Ashaiman. When one wanted to lay pipe, the 
cost m ight be so exorbitant since many houses and stores had to be demolished before 
this could be done.
This had therefore, affected the drainage facilities for disposal o f  liquid waste and 
provision o f  water for individual household, since underground soak-away could not be 
constructed for waste water, human faces, and proper large pipes had not been 
constructed for potable water.
There were few individuals who had been able to construct such pipes on their own to 
their houses and were selling water to the residents at very high cost.
This had culminated in deplorable environmental sanitation in most communities in 
Ashaiman as there were not enough good quality pipe borne water to individual homes 
although they claimed that was their major source. Most o f  the residents had to purchase 
water from vendors who often stored them over long periods, o f  time and often after the 
quality as most storage facilities were not very good.
Most o f  the concrete storage tanks did not have good covers which often allowed foreign 
objects into the water or at times the negligence o f  the children who were sent to fetch 
water allowed tattered rags to fall inside the water unnoticed especially in the night and 
early dawn. The situation was, however, better in the new settlements but worst in the 
old settlements.
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5.7 Types of Toilet Facilities
Toilet facilities available to the residents were mostly KVIP, WC and pit latrines. 
According to the research, all those who responded had various forms o f  these toilet 
facilities.
Addo (1995) confirmed that the whole o f  Ashaiman had only 24 public toilet facilities 
out o f  which 18 were built in late 1960s and six in 1990s under Urban II Project. 
Interview with the officers in-charge o f  environmental sanitation in Ashaiman sub zonal 
office on 20/11/04 also confirmed the same story but added they had difficulty in running 
these toilet facilities hence they temporarily privatized them.
5.8 Disposal of Waste
According to the research, 39.9 percent o f  the total respondents patronized the use o f 
mobile trucks for disposal o f  refuse as appeared in Table 4.7. Others patronized refuse 
dump (22.4 percent), bush, and outskirts o f their communities (16.3 percent).
Addo (1995) stated that estimated sludge accumulation alone was 695m3 per month in 
Ashaiman. This confirms the current state o f unsanitary conditions in Ashaiman coupled 
with fact that there were no defined organized communal activities going on.
5.9 Forms of Environmental Sanitation Programmes and Challenges 
Communities Face
This section discusses forms o f  sanitation programmes taking place in Ashaiman and 
challenges they faced. These were discussed under the following themes:
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1 • Organized sanitation programmes;
2. The stage at which they participated;
3. Reason why there were no sanitation programmes ongoing;
4. Presence o f  sanitation programme committees;
5. Women representation in the sanitation committee;
5.10 Organized Sanitation Programmes
The survey showed that in most communities in Ashaiman there were no properly 
organized community sanitation programmes going on. Most respondents (76.6 percent) 
confirmed this when they categorically stated that there were no such programmes going 
on to clear filth in their communities though the Tema Municipal Assembly was unable 
alone to address the issue o f  filth in the town.
However, those who responded that there were some forms o f  such programmes 
represented only 22.4 percent according to Table 4.8. Even then, they stated that this was 
not on regular basis. Respondents said most times youths from keep-fit clubs organized 
themselves periodically to desilt main gutters in their communities, dig trenches to direct 
some stagnant liquid waste, but this was not regular.
Some members o f  Christian fellowships also organized periodically to sweep the main 
streets in Ashaiman, weed around their premises and at times visit urban health centre to 
sweep and weed the place. Occasionally, schools also organized themselves during their
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annual anniversary celebrations to visit major roads and public institutions to sweep and 
bum  collected rubbish.
5.11 Stages at which they Participated
The findings indicated that as high as 70.4 percent did not know the stages they 
participated in. However, those who responded noted various options such as needs 
assessment (11.2%) implementation stage (10.2%) and monitoring (8.2%).
This contravened Adarkwa and Diaw (1999) assertions that for any meaningful 
community participation, it was very important that the beneficiaries participated in 
stages such as needs assessment, project design and implementation. This was why there 
were no sustained sanitation community participation programmes in Ashaiman, because 
there had not been any effort to find out the needs o f  the residents let alone encourage 
them to participate in them.
5.12 The Reasons Why There Were No Sanitation Programme
The research indicated that some individuals lacked interest in participating in sanitation 
activities in Ashaiman, as 33.7 percent indicated in Table 4.10. Quite a number o f 
respondents also had their own views as to why there were no sanitation activities going 
on. While some said they were ignorant about such programmes (25.5%), others 
mentioned that lack o f  finance and devoted opinion leaders.
Sarfo-Boakye (1991) indicated that levels o f  income affected people’s participation in 
environmental sanitation programmes. Eighty per cent o f  people in Ashaiman were low 
income earners, 20 per cent were medium income earners and there were no high income
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earners. This situation indicated the state at which residents were and they were thus 
interested in looking for money, neglecting their surroundings. They would even care 
less about their negative impact on their immediate surroundings let alone participate in 
any activities that would promote community participation in sanitation activities.
5.13 Presence of Sanitation Committee
Sanitation committees were regarded as mouth pieces o f  communities to address any 
sanitation programmes in the community. The research indicated that the majority o f  the 
respondents (84.3%) stated that there were no such committees in their respective 
communities. W ith the exception o f few identifiable groups such as the keep-fit clubs, 
Market Women Association, ethnic welfare associations and Christian Youth 
associations, there were no other committees in the Ashaiman township. Hence, residents 
showed apathy towards programmes, which were related to their sanitation. This 
contravenes power in participation given to the community through these committees to 
mobilize their own members.
5.14 Women Representation in the Sanitation Committees
According to the research findings, only 15.7 per cent responded positively to whether 
there were sanitation committees in Ashaiman (Table 4.11).
This supported Galtung (1980) assertion which identifies certain characteristics o f 
underdevelopment, which resemble typical social consequences caused by lack o f 
involvement o f  women in decision making process at committee levels in any country.
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5.15 Days Set Aside for Communal Labour
The research indicated that there were no specific days set aside for communal labour in 
most communities in Ashiman. According to (Table 4.12,) 41.8 percent o f  the 
respondents stated that, when the occasion demanded, such communal labours were 
organized in their surroundings.
Only few o f  the respondents stated communal activities were organized on ‘weekly’ and 
‘monthly’ basis in their respective communities. This did not promote proper community 
participation in community development as suggested by Lisk (1981) and Diaw (1992). 
They regarded well-planned community participation as successful participatory package 
which enables people to plan, select, implement and monitor programmes which give 
people a sense o f  pride, confidence and responsibility.
5.16 Community Organization
Organization in any communal work is very important. Where beneficiaries o f  any 
programme have been organized very well, sustainability is assured. The minority o f 
respondents indicated that communities were mostly organized in ‘zones’ for any 
communal work to take place (31.6 percent in Table 4.13).
Twenty percent o f  the respondents further indicated that some communities formed 
groups before any communal labour was organized. In the same way, others responded 
that clusters o f  houses were brought together for undertaking sanitation programmes in 
their communities. If  all these organizations had been well patronized, there would not 
be any environmental sanitation problems in Ashaiman. At times when such 
programmes were organized, the turnout was not very encouraging.
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5.17 Sex Composition in Terms of Decision-Making
The level o f  involvement in decision-making enhances community participation. Where 
members o f  a community actively participated in decision-making relating to their 
welfare, development goals had been achieved.
Most o f  the respondents according to the research (45.9 percent) indicated that both men 
and women had been involved in decision-making which is related to sanitation 
programmes in their respective communities.
In some other communities, they indicated that only the opinion leaders such as the 
Assemblymen, Zonal leaders and representatives o f  youth groups had actively 
participated in decision-making. Only few people said that it was only the men (11.2 
percent) who actively took decisions that related to sanitation programmes without 
considering the womenfolk.
5.18 Youth’s Role in Decision-Making
The research indicated that youth participation in most communities was quite high. 
However, they were not involved in decision-making relating to planning o f  any 
sanitation programmes in their communities.
Most o f  the respondents (65%) said the youth were not in any way involved in decision­
making that related to communal activities organized in their respective communities. 
Figure 4.3 however shows that 25 percent responded that the youth were always called 
upon in times o f  decision-making. This had, therefore, affected their role played in any 
sanitation activities in their communities.
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This was because where youth were actively involved in decision-making, they 
voluntarily came out in their numbers to support a worthy cause. Notwithstanding these 
shortcomings where the youths had been involved in decision-making they actively 
participated in communal development. The research indicated that these were some o f 
the roles youth were actively involved in, in their respective community
1. Desilting and sweeping o f  gutters,
2. Organization and doing all the hard work,
3. Provision o f  tools
5.19 Level of Participation in Communal Sanitation Activities
Responses from the research have shown that, in most communities in Ashaiman, 
communal clean up activities were not often organized as 70.4 percent o f  total 
respondents indicated in Table 4.16. This confirmed the state o f  unsanitary conditions in 
Ashaiman as the Municipal authorities could no longer contain the rate at which waste 
was generated with correspondingly unavailable logistics and resources to finance most 
o f  these sanitation activities in Ashaiman.
This confirmed Doe and Peprah’s (1988) research, which revealed that urban areas had 
main sources o f  waste production in recent times and coping with this had been a major 
problem o f city authorities.
It had, therefore, become imperative for various communities in urban centres to realize 
the need for communal labour to improve upon environmental sanitation in their 
respective neighbourhoods.
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5.20 How Sanitation Programm es are Financed
How programmes were financed could help us to know their sustainability and challenges 
in terms o f  planning and execution o f any sanitation activities in any place. The research 
indicated that there were a lot o f  challenges the residents in Ashaiman were facing in 
terms o f who to finance their activities.
As figure 4.4 shows, 45.7 per cent o f  the total respondents said in their communities they 
did voluntary contribution before any communal activities could be done, while the same 
per cent (45.7) could not respond. This shows the level o f  apathy on the part o f  the 
residents. The research also indicated that most o f these voluntary contributions were 
mostly from the dues paid by the youth clubs in Ashaiman which in actual sense were not 
meant for carrying out sanitation programmes. Thus, although there were over a hundred 
youth clubs in Ashaiman, they were not ready to contribute voluntarily for such 
programmes.
Other sources o f voluntary contributions were from few assembly members, landlords, 
landladies, leaders o f  identifiable groups and institutions which usually provided money, 
and provision o f  alcoholic drinks like ‘akpeteshie’ depending on the will o f  the 
contributors when communal activities were taking place.
5.21 Constraints in Terms of Financing
The majority o f  the respondents did not respond to the question on constraints o f 
financing. Asked why there were no constraints, most o f  the respondents were o f  the 
view that i f  sanitation programmes were going on, they would be in the position to 
identify constraints but, there were no such programmes on-going hence they could not
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identify any constraints. Those who said there were constraints in terms o f  financing 
listed some o f the following as their constraints:
1. Members (youth clubs) were not often ready to pay dues.
2. People often felt reluctant to donate money when they went round collecting them 
during communal activities.
3. There was lack o f support from opinion leaders.
4. People did not avail themselves at all for communal works.
5.22 Assessment of Institutional Arrangement for Environmental Sanitation 
Programmes in Ashaiman and how Sustainable the Arrangements were
The research indicated that there were only two institutions which organized sanitation 
programmes in Ashaiman. These were Tema Municipal Assembly and Danish Non­
governmental Organization, IBIS. IBIS had contributed a lot o f  logistics for smooth 
running o f  the Ashaiman zonal council and provision o f  tools bank for the office, where 
most youth groups in Ashaiman through Assemblymen and women came to the zonal 
council to borrow these tools for communal activities. Most o f  these tools were shovels, 
spades, brooms, brushes, and nose mask. Tema Municipal Assembly on the other hand, 
provided containers for refuse before truck came and picked their contents for disposal. 
The Assembly also looked for one private contractor, Stanley Owusu to run public toilets 
and collect house-to-house refuse.
The research indicated that although these two institutions were making efforts in terms 
o f  sanitation programmes, their participation was not the best as a result o f  lack o f
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sanitary vehicles, lack o f  sanitary tools, lack o f  funding for sanitary programmes, and 
lack o f interest by the majority o f  other institutions to assist in sanitation programmes in 
Ashaiman.
The research further discovered that there were sustained plans being put in place to 
improve on community participation in sanitation programmes as there were not enough 
personnel in the field to enforce laws and regulations regarding proper sanitation 
practices.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the summary, conclusion and recommendations for the research.
6.2 Summary
This study looked at community participation in sanitation programmes in Ashaiman. 
The purpose o f the study was to find out if  there were sanitation programmes in 
Ashaiman, the role the youth played in the programmes, institutional arrangements for 
mobilizing members o f  the community and the state o f  environmental sanitation in 
Ashaiman. A cross-sectional survey research design was used because o f  homogeneity 
of the population who showed common environmental problems peculiar to them. The 
research instrument used consisted o f structured questionnaires and interview schedules.
The questionnaires consisted o f both open-ended and close-ended questions. The sample 
size comprised 98 residents and five officials from Tema Municipal assembly, Sub-Zonal 
official, Ashaiman. The study was limited to suburbs under three out o f  eleven electoral 
areas in Ashaiman because o f  time and financial constraints.
6.3 Research Objectives
1. To determine the state o f environmental sanitation in Ashaiman,
2. To determine the types o f  environmental sanitation activities the residents 
participate in,
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3- To find out the challenges the community face in terms o f environmental 
sanitation program planning,
4. To assess the institutional arrangements for environmental sanitation 
programming in Ashaiman;
5. To find out how the youth are involved in sanitation programmes;
6.4 Major Findings
These are some o f the major findings. There were more male respondents than females. 
Most o f  the respondents were in their youthful ages below 30 years and were mostly 
single. The youth who were in the majority were often not involved in decision making 
in terms o f  planning sanitation programmes. Structures had not been put in place to 
facilitate community participation in sanitation activities in most communities as there 
were no organized sanitation committees and mobilized youth groups on sanitation 
issues. Community participation in sanitation programmes are high among high income 
earners and those who’s level o f education are higher and living in good suburbs in 
Ashaiman.
There were many challenges in terms o f how to mobilize the community members. 
Generally, loss o f  interest by individuals, opinion leaders, inadequate collaborations from 
the municipal assembly and the problems o f how to finance sanitation activities were 
constraints in the community sanitation programme. However, responses from the 
respondents indicated good suggestions as to how sanitation programmes should be 
holistically tackled in Ashaiman.
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6.5 Conclusions
The research indicated that in most communities in Ashaiman, there was no defined 
sanitation going on programme. Where there were such programmes they were in the 
form o f  desilling o f  gutters, sweeping o f streets and clearing o f  weeds around. These 
activities were not regularly carried out but occasionally youth groups such as “keep-fit 
clubs” organized them.
The research however, indicated that when the communities were well organized through 
the setting up o f  appropriate structures such as formation o f sanitation committees, 
empowerment o f  women and children through education, community participation in 
sanitation programmes would be at its best in Ashaiman.
6.6 Recommendations
The following recommendations have become necessary, from the result o f  the study:
1. Environmental sanitation policy should be enforced by the Assembly by 
institutionalizing public participation mechanisms and establishing Environmental 
Sanitation Days (ENSADA)
2. There should be proper coordination and harmonization o f sanitation plans by the 
assembly with the involvement o f the communities in partnership with their unit 
committees, assembly members, government agencies and departments. The 
participation should entail symposia on environmental health.
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Participation could also take the form o f raffles with the assembly to raise revenue 
to meet community members’ obligations on sanitation activities and awareness 
creation.
Community participation should moreover, take a form o f visual screening o f 
hygiene and sanitary status o f  all manner o f  people o f school going age from 
nursery to junior secondary schools.
TMA in conjunction with zonal councils should strictly claim back all the sanitary 
sites in the hands o f  private individuals who have not put up permanent structures 
to establish small recycling plants at these sites to recycle waste that are dumped 
in the sites.
The citizenry must be encouraged on the corrective ways o f  recycling materials 
such as old newspapers into bags, old clothes into dolls, cardboards into puzzles, 
mineral bottle tops into curtains, lorry tyres into doormats and swings under trees 
and plants.
The Tema Municipal Assembly should rigorously engaged the services o f health 
inspectors in order to help communities cultivate the habit o f  community 
participation in sanitation activities. In the same way, courts should be set up to 
prosecute offenders who do not participate effectively in programmes which are 
related to environmental sanitation in their communities.
The Assembly should set up “toilet committees” to develop toilet facilities in 
Ashaiman and intensify efforts to bring a lot o f Non-Governmental Organizations
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and factories in Tema into sanitation programmes as a means o f  re-enforcing 
institutional arrangements for participation in sanitation activities.
9. Identifiable groups like the Muslims’ Youth Association, the Christians Youth 
Associations, Ghana Private Road and Transport Union, Market Women 
Associations, ethnic welfare unions, Old boys and Girls’ Associations should all 
incorporate sanitation education in their activities in order to conscientize people 
about the need to keep proper environmental hygiene as a form o f participation in 
the community sanitation activities.
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References
Aboagyewaa A. A. (2002): Sanitation and Health Issues o f  an Urban Slum: The Case of 
West Mamobi, Accra: (Unpublished Long Essay, Institute o f  Adult Education, 
University o f  Ghana.
Acho-Chi (1998): Human Interference and Environmental Instability: Addressing the 
environmental Consequences o f  Rapid Urban Growth in Bamenda. Cameroon, 
Environmental and Urbanization. Vol. 10, No 2 ppl61 -  174.
Addo K. N. (1995): Waste Management and Environment in Ashaiman. Unpublished 
Dissertation, Geography Department, University o f  Ghana.
African Development Foundation (1996): The Use o f Effluents from Biolaterines in 
Tanzania: ADF.
Amarteifio G. W. et al Tema Manhea; A Study o f  Resettlement. Ghana Universities 
Press, 1996, Accra.
Amuzu, A. T. & Leitmann J. (1994): “Accra Urban Environmental Profile.” Cities, Vol 
11, No 1 pp5 -  9.
Babbie, E. (1989): The Practice o f  Social Research. California: Wadsworth Publishing 
Company.
Benneh G. (1993): Environmental Problems and Urban Household in Greater Accra 
Metropolitan Assembly ('GAMA'). Stockholm: Stockholm Environment Institute.
Bischof L. J. (1976): Adult Psychology. 2nd Edition, Harper and Row, New York.
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Bogrebon Allan, J. (1997), “Household demand for improved sanitation” in John Pick 
Ford and Others (Editors), Water anrl Sanitation for All Partnership and 
Innovations. Proceedings o f the 23rd WF.DC Conference. Durban, south Africa.
Bown L. & Tomori, S. H. O (1979): a Handbook Adult Education for West Africa. 
London: Heinemann Ltd.
Caimcross, Sandy (1990): “Water Supply and Urban Poor,” Gehan (1990), ‘Low Cost 
Sanitation^_and other chapters in Hardoy and Others feditors'). The Poor Die 
Young: Housing and Health in Third World Cities. Earthscan Publications,
London.
Comfort L. I. (2004): A  Study o f Environmental Sanitation Education in Selected 
Communities in the Ga District. Unpublished Dissertation. Institute o f  Adult 
Education, University o f  Ghana.
Diaw K. (1992): Citizen Participation in Planning for Growth and Development in 
Ghana... In Aryeetey (ed) 1992 Planning Africa’s Growth and Development. UK: 
Some Current Issues, pp 72 - 86
Eshius, J. & Manshcol, P. (1985): Communicable Diseases. African Medical Research 
Foundation.
Hasan, A. (1999), Understanding Karachi: Planning and Reform for the Future.” City 
Press, Karachi.
Isabel, C. (2004): Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Footsteps, a Quarterly Newspapers pp 2 -  
16.
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Jorge E. et al, (2001): Environmental Problems in Urbanizing World: Finding Solutions 
in Africa. UN & USA: Earthscan Publication Ltd.
Lisk F. (1981): Popular Participation in Planning for Basic Needs. International Labour 
Organization. Gower Publication Company, UK.
Midgley et al (1986): Community Participation. Sccial Development and the State, 
London: Methuen.
Monney J. G. (1988): Perspective o f Waste Management in Ghana Recycling Option 
Seminar on Abfall Borse Stock Exchange for Industrial Waste. Accra: Goeth 
Institute.
Ofosu-Mensah (2004): Sanitation and Waste Management in our Markets. Unpublished 
Dissertation, Institute o f Adult Education University o f Ghana.
Peil M. (1970): Social Science Research Method: A  Handbook for_Africa. Nairobi: East 
Africa Educational Publishiers.
Rahnema, M. (1992) “Participation” in w. Sachs fed') The Development Dictionary. 
London: Zed Press.
Reuben H. J. (1986) Community organization and Development. New York, Macmillan 
Publication Company.
Schubeler, P. (1996): Participation and Partnership in Urban Infrastructure Management. 
UNDP/UNCHS (Habit)/World Bank, Urban Management and Infrastructure. 19, 
World Bank, Washington.
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Smith, W. (1975): Strategies o f  Social Research. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 
N. J. USA.
Songsore J. & Gordon Mcgranahan, (1993), “Environment Wealth and Health, towards 
an Analysis o f Intra-Urban Differentials within Greater Accra Metropolitan A re^  
Ghana: Environment and Urbanization. Vol 5 No.2 Papers 10 -  24.
Songsore, J, (1992): Review o f Household Problems in Accra Metropolitan Accra.
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UN/ESA (1975),: Popular Participation in Decision-Making for Development. New 
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World Health Organization (1992): Guide to the Development o f On Site Sanitation. 
Addis Ababa.
WHO, (1992), Our Planet- Our Health, Report o f  the WHO Commission on Health and 
the Environment; Summary, WHO/EHE/92 1, Geneva
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APPENDIX ‘A’
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Respondent should be a resident in Ashaiman for the past year. The interview schedule is
designed for Research on Community Participation in Sanitation Programmes at 
Ashaiman.
SECTION ‘A’
This section o f  the interview schedule seeks to solicit the state o f  environmental 
sanitation in Ashaiman, forms o f sanitation activities residents participate and the 
challenges they face in term o f programme planning and implementation.
BIO DATA
1. What is your sex?
(a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ]
2. What is your age?
(a) Below 20 years [
(b) 2 0 - 2 9  [
(c) 3 0 - 3 9  [
What is your marital status?
] (d)
] (e)
] (f)
2 0 - 4 9  [ 
5 0 - 5 9  [ 
60+ [
3.
(a) Married [ ]
(b) Single [ ]
4. What is your occupation?
(a) Factory man [
(b) Public servant [ ]
(c) Divorced [
(d) Widow[
]
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(c) Civil Servant [ ]
(d) Unemployed [ ]
(e) Self-employed [ ]
(f) Student [ ]
5. What is your source o f water supply?
(a) Pipe [ ] (d) Rain [ ]
(b) Well [ ] (e) Other, specify....
(c) Dam [ ]
6. Do you have toilet in your house?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
7. If  yes, what type
(a) KVIP [ ] (d) Bush [ ]
(b) WC [ ] (e) Other, specify...
(c) Pit [ ]
8. Where do you dispose your waste products?
(a) In bush, outskirts [
(b) Rubbish dump [ ]
(c) In front o f  house/compound [ ]
(d) Mobile refuse trucks [ ]
(e) Other, specify........................................................
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Is there any organized sanitation programme going on in the community.
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
If no skip to question 10.
Do you take part in the programme?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
At what stage(s) in the programme do you get involved?
(a) Needs assessment [ ]
(b) Implementation [ ]
(c) Monitoring [ ]
(d) Evaluation [ ]
Why is it that there are no organized sanitation programme ongoing in the 
community?..............................................................................................................................
Is there any sanitation programme committee in the community? 
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
If  yes, what is women representation?
(a) Less than ha lf [ ]
(b) H alf [ ]
(c) More than half[ ]
(d) Other specify.............................................................................
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How many days do you set aside for community labour?
How is the community organized?
(a) In groups [ ]
(b) In zones [ ]
(C) In lanes [ ]
(d) In gender [ ]
(e) No definite Plan [ ]
(f) Other, specify...........................  .............................
What is the sex composition o f the community members 
making on the sanitation programme?
in terms
(a) Only on the men [ ]
(b) Only on women [ ]
(c) Both men and women [ ]
(d) Only the opinion leaders [ ]
(e) Others, specify.................................................................
What are the youth components in the community?
(a) Form about less than 'A o f  the community [ ]
(b) Form about Vi o f  the community [ 1
(c) Form more than Vi of the community [ ]
(d) Form about Vi o f the community [ 1
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(e) Other, specify........................................................................
19. Are the youth involved in the decision taking in terms o f  programming?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
20. I f  yes, what active role do they play in the sanitation programmes?
21. How often do you join hands in communal Sanitation activities?
(a) Not often [ ]
(b) Often [ ]
(c) Very often [ ]
(D) Other, specify............................................................................
22. How are such sanitation programmes financed?
23. Do you see any constraints in terms o f  findings?
24. Suggest how sanitation programme should be tacked in Ashaiman.
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APPENDIX ‘B’
QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire is designed for officials o f  Tema Municipal Assembly and Address: 
Institutional arrangements for environmental sanitation programme planning and how 
sustainable are the programmes on the Topic Community Participation in Sanitation 
programmes at Ashaiman.
1. Name institution(s) which are involved in sanitation programmes in
Ashaiman..............................................................................................................................
2. Is there any local collaborative groups in sanitation programme planning?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
If  No, which local collaborative group(s) can you identify?
3. If  yes, involve the community in discharge o f your duties in environmental 
sanitation programme?
4. Do you involve the community in discharge o f  your duties in environmental 
sanitation programme?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
5. If  No, state two reasons for not involving them.
(a) ..............................................................................................................
(b) ..............................................................................................................
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If  yes, what role do they play?
Who are the participants?
(a) Market women [ ]
(b) Churches [ ]
(c) Youth clubs [ ]
(d) Schools [ ]
(e) Other, specify......................................................................................
Do the institution(s) carry out fellow-up activities after the programmes?
(a) Yes [ ] No [ ]
What is the nature o f  the follow-up activities?........................................
Suggest any other means how organization(s) or institution(s) can help to carry 
environmental sanitation programmes.
What has been the constraints on the part o f  activities o f  other organizations or 
institutions?...........................................................................................................................
What do you suggest about how environmental sanitation programme should be 
carried out in Ashaiman?....................................................................................................
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