University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES MARKET SYSTEMS OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPs) AND THEIR ROLES IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION - A CASE STUDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT, GHANA BY KUMADEY CHURCHILL (ID# 10598976) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES (IESS) JULY 2018 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis consists of data that is based on my own research with steady guidance from my supervisors, and no part of this work except the references which have been accordingly acknowledged belongs to anybody. I also declare that no prior publications of parts or whole of this thesis has been made nor presented elsewhere for any award. --------------------------------- KUMADEY CHURCHILL (CANDIDATE) This thesis is hereby submitted for examination with the approval of the following supervisors: -------------------------------------------------- Dr. ADELINA MENSAH (Principal Supervisor) ---------------------------------------------------- Dr. BENJAMIN D. OFORI (Co-Supervisor) I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I wish to dedicate this work to my mother, Ms Rose Amosalae Akunkuanab for her boundless love, dedication and commitment towards my wellbeing. ‘I love you mom’. II University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work was carried out under the Adaptation at Scale in Semi-Arid Regions project (ASSAR). ASSAR is one of four research programmes funded under the Collaborative Adaptation Research Initiative in Africa and Asia (CARIAA), with financial support from the UK Government’s Department for International Development (DfID) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Canada. The views expressed in this work are those of the creators and do not necessarily represent those of DfID and IDRC or its Board of Governors. I wish to thank the entire Adaptation at Scale for Semi-Arid Region (ASSAR) team for their immense support and help. I also wish to thank Mr. Abdul-Karim Abdul, Pufaa Felicia Esinam (Mrs.), Mr. Yussif, Alabira Abubakari, Miss Joyce Mugambe, as previous research works by them in this field has served as a foundation and guide for me to build upon. Special thanks also go to my able supervisor’s Dr. Adelina Mensah (Principal Supervisor) and Dr. Benjamin D. Ofori (co-supervisor) for their support and tireless supervision of this work to completion. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Local and indigenous communities depend on Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) in a variety of ways. However, the absence of ready markets for these products limits their livelihood support potential and capacity to support environmental and climate change adaptation efforts. This study examined how the five livelihood capitals i.e. Financial, Social, Physical, Natural and Human (including market access, value chain and product quality standards) affect marketing systems for NTFPs and influence climate change adaptation in the Lawra District, Upper West Region of Ghana. Employing a mixed methods approach, this study focused on the following objectives: (i) Identify barriers and or enablers that affect market systems of NTFPs in the Lawra District using correlation and chi square test; (ii) Assess the influence of market access for NTFPs on climate change adaptation; (iii) Conduct a profitability analysis across the value chain for one economically important NTFPs; and (iv) Evaluate quality standards of selected economically important NTFPs for international export. Using correlation and chi-square tests, the relationship between the five livelihood capitals and volumes of NTFP harvested in 2017 were carried out. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to assess market access (Availability of Transportation) and volume of NTFPs, profitability analysis to assess profitability across a selected NTFP (Shea butter), pesticide and quality analysis for a selected NTFP were also carried out. Results indicated that various livelihood capitals and volumes of NTFP collected show a positive and negative correlation for natural and financial capital, respectively, but with no significance for the remaining livelihood capitals. There was, however, a positive linkage for market access and the volumes of NTFP collected. The profitability analysis of the shea product across its value chain indicated a significant decrease in profits up the value chain from harvesting to processing. Shea butter samples from a household in the Lawra District fell below quality standards for export as chlorpyrifos pesticide residue were above acceptable levels while a sample produced from a women’s groups passed all quality standards. Despite overall benefits of actions that improve living standards, the quality control measures employed in processing Shea butter in households and profits across the shea value chain do not enhance market systems, hence do not also complement climate change adaptation efforts. The study, however, recommends that improvement in market access would significantly improve 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh market systems and would complement climate change adaptation efforts since it would increase the appreciation for indigenous products in in relation to their market value. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 3 ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... 4 TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................................ 6 LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. 12 CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................... 17 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 17 1.1 Background..................................................................................................................... 17 1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 18 1.3 Overall Objective ............................................................................................................ 20 1.4 Specific Objectives: ......................................................................................................... 20 1.5 Research Question .......................................................................................................... 20 1.6 Hypothesis ...................................................................................................................... 21 1.7 Justification of Study ...................................................................................................... 21 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 22 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................ 22 2.0 Overview ........................................................................................................................ 22 2.1 Literature Review and Key Concepts .............................................................................. 22 2.1.1 Climate Change ........................................................................................................... 22 2.3 Vulnerability ................................................................................................................... 22 2.4 Vulnerability and Livelihood ........................................................................................... 25 2.5 Livelihood ....................................................................................................................... 25 2.6 The concept of Resilience ............................................................................................... 27 2.7 The concept of Adaptation ............................................................................................. 28 2.8 Non Timber Forest Products (NTFP)................................................................................ 29 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9 Market Systems .............................................................................................................. 32 2.10 Value chain (VC) ........................................................................................................... 33 2.11 Governance Structure ................................................................................................... 35 2.11.1 Governance and coordination ................................................................................ 35 2.11.2 Value Chain Upgrading ........................................................................................... 35 2.11.3 Smallholder Farmers .............................................................................................. 35 2.12 Market Access .............................................................................................................. 35 2.13 Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and Livelihood .................................................... 37 2.14 Climatic Change and its Effects on NTFP ....................................................................... 38 2.15 The Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) .............................................................................. 39 2.16 Household and Economic benefits of Shea Nuts and Butter (Vitellaria Paradoxa) ....... 40 2.17 Quality Control Standards ............................................................................................ 41 2.17.1 Shea Nuts ............................................................................................................... 41 2.17.2 Shea Butter ............................................................................................................ 44 2.18 Factors affecting quality of Shea Kernel and Butter ...................................................... 44 2.17.2 Shea Butter ............................................................................................................ 46 2.18 Factors affecting quality of Shea Kernel and Butter ...................................................... 46 2.2 Conceptual and Frameworks Employed ......................................................................... 47 2.2.1 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SL) .............................................................. 47 2.19.2 Value Chain Analysis (VCA) ..................................................................................... 51 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................ 53 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 53 3.1 Study Area ............................................................................................................... 53 3.1.1 Geographical location ........................................................................................... 53 3.1.3 Climate..................................................................................................................... 53 3.1.2 Vegetation ............................................................................................................... 53 3.1.4 Geology and Soil....................................................................................................... 54 3.1.5. Relief and Drainage ................................................................................................. 54 3.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 56 3.2.1 Research Design and Data Sources ........................................................................... 56 3.2.2 Data Collecting Instruments ..................................................................................... 56 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.3 Calculation of Sample Size ........................................................................................ 57 3.2.4 Sampling Method ..................................................................................................... 58 3.2.5 Data analysis ............................................................................................................ 59 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 61 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 61 4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 61 4.2 Biodata of Respondents and Community ....................................................................... 61 4.2.1Marital Status ........................................................................................................... 62 4.3 Livelihood Capitals.......................................................................................................... 64 4.3.1 Human Capital ............................................................................................................. 64 Table 4. 3: Cross Tabulation : Number of Educated People per HH Lawra District .............. 65 4.3.2 Social capital ............................................................................................................ 65 4.3.3 Physical Capital ........................................................................................................ 67 4.3.4 Natural Capital ......................................................................................................... 68 4.3.5 Financial Capital ....................................................................................................... 70 4.4 Market Access ................................................................................................................ 74 4.4.1 Means of Transportation .......................................................................................... 74 4.4.2 Availability of Transportation ................................................................................... 74 4.4.3 Market Information .................................................................................................. 75 4.4.4 Market Levies ........................................................................................................... 76 4.5 Marketing NTFPs ............................................................................................................ 76 4.6 Harvesting and Processing NTFPs ................................................................................... 78 4.6.1 Harvesting ................................................................................................................ 78 4.6.2 Processing ................................................................................................................ 80 4.7 Perception on climate change ........................................................................................ 80 4.8 Value Chain Analysis ....................................................................................................... 82 4.8.1 NTFP Actors and Use in the Lawra District ................................................................ 82 4.9 Profitability Analysis ....................................................................................................... 83 4.9.1 Shea Kernel Production cost ..................................................................................... 83 4.9.2 Shea butter production Cost .................................................................................... 84 4.9.3 Profits by various actors ........................................................................................... 87 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10 Quality Standards for Shea Butter ................................................................................ 87 4.11 Pesticide Analysis Results .......................................................................................... 88 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 92 DISCUSSION. ................................................................................................................. 92 5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 92 5.2 Livelihood Capitals.......................................................................................................... 92 5.2.1 Human Capita .......................................................................................................... 92 5.2.2 Social capital: ........................................................................................................... 92 5.2.3 Financial Capital: ...................................................................................................... 93 5.2.4 Natural Capital: ........................................................................................................ 93 5.2.5 Physical capital ......................................................................................................... 94 5.3 Profitability Analysis ....................................................................................................... 94 5.4 Quality Parameters ......................................................................................................... 94 5.5 Pesticide Analysis ........................................................................................................... 94 5.6 Climate change and Its effect on NTFP ........................................................................... 95 5.7 Market Access ................................................................................................................ 95 5.8 Market Systems for NTFP in the Lawra District............................................................... 95 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 97 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................ 97 6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................... 97 6.2 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................... 97 6.3 Conclusions..................................................................................................................... 98 6.4 Recommendations. ......................................................................................................... 99 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................ 125 Appendix A ......................................................................................................................... 125 Appendix B.......................................................................................................................... 143 Appendix C.......................................................................................................................... 144 Appendix E .......................................................................................................................... 147 Appendix F .......................................................................................................................... 150 Appendix G ......................................................................................................................... 152 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix I ........................................................................................................................... 154 Appendix J .......................................................................................................................... 155 Appendix K .......................................................................................................................... 156 Appendix M ........................................................................................................................ 158 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Fig 2. 1 Value chain analysis ......................................................................................... 34 Fig 2. 2 Map of the shea tree distribution across Africa .................................................. 40 Fig 2. 3 Sustainable livelihood framework ..................................................................... 50 Fig 2. 4 Shea Value Chain ............................................................................................. 51 Fig 3.1 Study map of Lawra District………………………………………………. Error! Bookmark not defined. Fig 4. 1 Marital status households in Lawra District………………………… 63 Fig 4. 2 Age distribution of HH heads in the Lawra District ........................................... 63 Fig 4. 3 Distribution of how water is drawn for irrigation .............................................. 69 4. 4 Distribution of Various groups in the Lawra District ............................................... 71 Fig 4. 5 Ease of accessing loans from in Lawra District ................................................. 72 Fig 4. 6 Ease of paying back loans in Lawra District ...................................................... 72 Fig 4. 7 Distribution for means of transportation to the market ...................................... 74 Fig 4. 8 Distribution for availability of transportation to the market ..... Error! Bookmark not defined. Fig 4. 9 Chain Actors and Value Addition for NTFP in the Lawra District ..................... 83 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 2. 1: Some Plant NTFP in the study area .............................................................. 30 Table 2. 2: Some animal NTFP in the study area............................................................ 30 Table 2. 3: Quality Parameter for Shea nuts ................................................................... 42 Table 2. 4: Grading parameters for unrefined shea butter ............................................... 46 Table 4. 1: Bio Data of Respondents .............................................................................. 61 Table 4. 2 Cross Tabulation: Variation in Age Among Communities ............................. 64 Table 4. 3: Cross Tabulation : Number of Educated People per HH Lawra District ........ 65 Table 4. 4:List of Social Groups in Lawra District ......................................................... 66 Table 4. 5: Group Involvement by Sex............................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 6: Social Group Involvement Membership by sex ............................................ 67 Table 4. 7: Sources of financial income for Lawra District............................................. 70 Table 4. 8: Correlation test results for livelihood capitals and volume of NTFP (Shea Nuts) ...................................................................................................................... 73 Table 4. 9: Accessing market information in the Lawra ................................................. 76 Table 4. 10: : Limitation in livelihood capitals for NTFP marketing ............................... 78 Table 4. 11: Percentage of HH involved in the collection of the most popular NTFP ..... 79 Table 4. 12: Family involvement in the collection, processing or marketing of NTFP .... 79 Table 4. 13: Perception on Climate Change and availability of NTFP ............................ 81 Table 4. 14: Processing Cost of shea Kernels ................................................................. 83 Table 4. 15 :Cost of Shea kernel in the Lawra District ................................................... 84 Table 4. 16: Cost for Shea butter production by Women’s Groups (WG) and House Holds (HH) in the Lawra District: 2016-2017 .................................................................. 85 Table 4. 17: Average cost of materials for processing a bag of shea kernel into shea butter .............................................................................................................................. 86 Table 4. 18 Cost component for shea kernel traders (Aggregators): 2010-2012 .............. 86 Table 4. 19: Average price of shea butter in Lawra District ............................................ 87 Table 4. 20: Profit margins of chain actors/bag: 2010-2012 ........................................... 87 Table 4. 21: HH Shea Butter Sample Results ................................................................. 88 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 22: Womens Group Shea Butter Sample Results Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 23 : HH Shea Butter Pesticide Analysis Results ............................................... 88 Table 4. 24: Women’s Group Pesticide Analysis Results . Error! Bookmark not defined. Table 4. 25 List of Institution at work in the lawra District ............................................ 91 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Shea Butter Moulded into Balls For sale ......................................................... 158 Plate 2: Woman retuning from the harvest of Dawadawa ............................................. 158 Plate 3: Focus group discussion in Brewong .................................................................. 90 Plate 4: Packageed shea butter by womens Group in Lawra District for sale .............. 1580 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ASBI - American Shea Butter Institute CBA - Cost Benefit Analysis CEA - Cost Effective Analysis CFC - Common Fund for Commodities CFSVA - Ghana Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis COVOL - Cooperative Office for Voluntary Organization CUA - Cost Utility Analysis DFID - Department for International Development EPA - Environmental Protection Agency FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization FFA - Free fatty acid FGD - Focal Group Discussions FIP - Forestry Investment Program GM - Gross Margin GMA - Gross Margin Analysis GSA - Global Shea Alliance HH - House Hold IPCC - Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change MoFA – Ministry of Food and Agriculture MRL - Maximum Residue Limit NBCSSB - National Board for the Commission of Small Scale Business NBMs - Niche-Based Models NBSSI - National Board of Small Scale Industries NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation NTFPs - Non-Timber Forest Products PBA - Partial Budgeting Analysis REDD - Reducing Emissions due to Deforestation and forest Degradation SL - Sustainable Livelihood Framework 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences UEMOA - Union Economique Monétaire Ouest Africaine UNDP - United Nations Development Program UNEP - United Nations Environmental Program UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VCA - Value Chain Analysis Framework 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are materials of biological origin that can be obtained from forests, farms and domesticated trees (Melese, 2016). They can be classified into food, fodder, medicines, perfumes and cosmetics, dying and tanning materials, utensils and handicrafts, construction materials, ornaments and exudants (FAO, 1995; Shiva and Verma, 2002). Examples include fruits, nuts, vegetables and game. The world trade of NTFPs is estimated at US $ 25 billion (FAO, 2014) NTFPs contribute significantly to rural household's livelihood in the African semi-arid tropics (Heubach et al. 2011). They provide rural livelihoods with consumables such as energy, nutrition, medicine and building materials. As a source of income, they also act as insurance in times of challenges (for example, failure of crops) (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003b; Shackleton et al. 2007). It is estimated that 80% of people in developing nations depend on NTFPs (FAO, 1995), contributing to reducing poverty, enhancing food security and improving livelihoods (Marshall et al. 2006). In sub-Saharan Africa, significant proportions of household incomes are from NTFPs. A number of studies show that it contributes 15% of total subsistence and cash income in Malawi (Kamanga et al. 2009), 10% of households' total food consumption in the Republic of Congo (De Merode et al. 2004), 27% of the income in Northern Ethiopia (Babulo et al. 2009), and up to 35% of the average rural income in Zimbabwe (Cavendish, 2000). In Ghana, about 20-25% of the economically active population derives income from NTFP related products (Ahenkan and Boon, 2008; Townson, 1995). Ecosystem services from forest functions associated with NTFPs include carbon storage, nutrient cycling, erosion control, hydrological regulation, plants, animals and biodiversity (Nina and Kontoleon, 2016). The association between NTFPs and forest sustainability and its services can be very much appreciated in projects like Reducing Emission from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) (Melese, 2016). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The world’s biggest challenge today is climate change which continues to deepen inequality and is expected to increase the numbers of vulnerable and poor people (Chaudhury, 2017). Vulnerability to climate change can be defined as the degree of stress humans and ecosystems undergo in response to the various impacts (Adger et al. 2007). Societies have certain inbuilt mechanisms to deal with climate change, however, adaptive capacities are not the same across countries, within societies and gender (Adger et al. 2007). People depending on forest and weather-related activities are the most vulnerable (IPCC, 2014), especially the poor, marginalized and women since they are mainly dependent on primary resources (Adger et al. 2007; Bombo, 2011). Adaptation to climate change can be defined as efforts made to increase resilience to counter impacts of climate change in human, ecological and physical systems (Adger et al. 2007). NTFPs have acted as safety nets for rural people (Nkem et al. 2010). Income from NTFPS like wood, food products, medicines and charcoal for energy purposes have contributed to adaptation efforts (Nkem et al. 2010) . These have also enabled parents to meet the educational needs of children which would help them secure jobs in future to take care of their parents hence promote adaptation efforts (Tieguhong and Ndoye, 2007). Unfortunately, data on the economic importance of NTFPs for livelihood is mostly obtained from tropical systems where income from the timber industry completely outweighs its benefits (Issaka, 2018). Since trading of NTFPs increases the availability of income during difficult times to enable poor rural folks to purchase food and other necessities, it is important that it is considered more than a safety net but as an active part of the economy (Issaka, 2018; Shackleton, 2014). 1.2 Problem Statement In Ghana, a 1ºC rise in temperature and a 20 to 30 % decrease in rainfall has been established over the past 40 years, with more expected changes for coming years (Anim- Kwapong and Frimpong, 2005; EPA, 2000; Kuuzegh, 2007). This makes the country particularly vulnerable to climate change with established negative impacts on agriculture, fisheries, water resources, land, health and energy, mainly due to poor or inadequate 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adaptive measure to address the climate related challenges (EPA, 2000; Kuuzegh, 2007; Anim 2005). This is already evident in the northern regions of Ghana, which is the most vulnerable region of the country where drought, floods and bushfires are already having adverse effects on livelihoods (Akudugu and Alhassan, 2012; Etwire et al. 2013; Stanturf et al. 2011). Located here are millions of poor and marginalized peasant farmers who rely heavily on nature for their daily survival (Frank and Penrose, 2012). The Upper West Region, located in the northern part of Ghana, remains the poorest region with 70.7% of the population living in poverty. It has also recorded the lowest annual household expenditure and per capita of ¢ 5, 991 and ¢ 1, 476 (1,235 and 305 United States Dollars (USD)) respectively (GSS, 2014b). More than 80 % of the population is engaged in subsistence agriculture as a source of livelihood (GSS, 2014b). In the advent of climate change, agricultural systems would be adversly affected (Gain et al. 2016). However, NTFPs have been observed to be resilient to climate change with more people are depending on them for food. An extensive study of NTFPs was carried out in the Lawra District of the Upper West Region, where over 78 types were identified (Abdul, 2017). Although up to 57% of the households receive less than USD 206 as annual household income, NTFPs contribute only 1.1 % to the total household income due to poor pricing, while middlemen and aggregators gain the benefits (Abdul, 2017). Residents used 32.9% of NTFPs for food with the most common and useful being Taame (Shea tree), Dooro (Dawadawa), Tokpara (Baobab), Suge/Suga, Ore (Yellow Berry), Gaa (Ebony tree), Korenye (Bush Guinea Fowl) and Kyei (squirrel). About 80 % of identified NTFPs in the District were also not sold for cash but rather used domestically. Generally, basic marketing challenges, ranging from poor pricing, access to markets, market-information and low capacity, limit the economic potential of NTFPs. Most interventions for promoting NTFP are not business driven and market focused (Steel and Webster, 2001), making them unsustainable. Marketing is identified as the greatest challenge confronting the NTFP industry in Ghana (Anokye and Adu, 2014). The use of market systems as a tool under climate change would 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh therefore support adaptation options available to the most vulnerable and poorest majority in Africa (Nkem et al. 2010). Improved market systems therefore offer an important opportunity for supporting adaptation efforts through revenue mobilization. This thesis therefore seeks to assess how improvement in livelihood standards, market access and product quality standards in the Lawra District can enhance market systems of NTFPs thereby contributing to increased adaptive capacity of its residents. 1.3 Overall Objective The overall objective of this study is to evaluate how marketing systems of NTFPs can support climate change adaptation in the Lawra District of Ghana. 1.4 Specific Objectives: The specific objectives are to: 1) Identify barriers or enablers that affect market systems of NTFPs in the Lawra District. 2) Assess the influence of market access for NTFPs on climate change adaptation 3) Conduct a profitability analysis across the value chain for one economically important NTFP 4) Evaluate quality standards of the selected economically important NTFPs for international export 1.5 Research Question To address the specific objectives, the research will address the following questions: 1) How do various livelihood assets, i.e. Human, Social, Physical, Financial and Natural capital, influence market systems of NTFPs? 2) How can market access to NTFPs be enhanced to support climate change adaptation? 3) What is the profitability of trading in a selected NTFP across the value chain? 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4) Are the quality parameters of trading in a selected NTFP in line with international standards for export? 1.6 Hypothesis Null Hypothesis 1) People or groups with more assets base are better placed to use markets as a climate change adaptation strategy. 2) People and groups with market access are better placed to use improved markets as a climate change adaptation strategy. Alternative Hypothesis 1) There is no relationship between possessing certain assets and improving markets as a climate change strategy. 2) There is no relationship between market access and improving markets as a climate change adaptation strategy. 1.7 Justification of Study Climate change related impacts will exacerbate the already harsh living conditions (Ahenkan and Boon, 2008; Robledo, et al. 2012) in the Lawra District; and there is an urgent need to address the vulnerabilities of its people. An important connection has been established between climate change, ecosystem services (i.e. NTFPs) and livelihoods in many African countries (Bass, et al. 2010; UNEP, 2006). The addition of local value, choosing the right marketing strategy, making information available to producers, capacity building of local people in technology, and additional capital would address many of the challenges in developing NTFPs as a safety net. Rural folks, especially women and children, are the most vulnerable to climate change. They stand to be the greatest beneficiaries of improved market systems for NTFPs since they are marginalized (Sharma and Bhatt, 1982). The results of this study will contribute towards efforts in the form of policies and local actions to assist the poor and marginalized benefit from markets and enhance their adaptation efforts. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Overview This section explores terms, concepts and themes of this thesis in literature. It discusses the concepts of climate change, vulnerability, market systems and Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). These related ideas helped define the scope of the study. 2.1 Literature Review and Key Concepts 2.1.1 Climate Change The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Article 1, defines climate as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods (UNFCCC, 1992). The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate change as a measurable change in the average variable of its property that would usually last for a few decades. It further emphasizes that climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use (IPCC, 2014). This thesis will adopt the IPCC (2014) definition since it is more holistic in covering the definition of climate change by incorporating into it both natural and human factors. This human factor is however fiercely debated in today’s world with a divide even denying the existence of climate change (Norgaard, 2011). 2.3 Vulnerability The term vulnerability has also been defined by the IPCC's Third Assessment Report as the degree to which an environmental or social system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with, adverse effects of climate change, including climate variability and extremes. (IPCC, 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2001). The vulnerability concept first emerged in the development debate in the 1990’s (Chambers, 1994). It is important to note that the term is context specific and may not be the same in different places or communities (Brooks et al. 2005). However, the level of development generally is always an influencing factor of regions even in varying socio- economic contexts (Brooks et al. 2005). An important feature of vulnerability is that it is affected by biophysical as well as socio economic factors of the region (Adger and Kelly, 1999). Measuring or analyzing vulnerability is an interdisciplinary activity (Antwi et al. 2012). Vulnerability assessment is therefore an ongoing process on temporal and spatial scale and can be characterized as a function of the exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity of the system (McCarthy et al. 2001). According to O’Brien et al. (2004), exposure is defined as the degree of climate stress upon a particular unit of analysis; it may be represented as either long-term changes in climate conditions, or by changes in climate variability, including the magnitude and frequency of extreme events. Characterizing exposure in the vulnerability context usually considers the stressors and the entity undergoing the stress (Polsky et al. 2007; Turner et al. 2003). Exposure always takes into consideration the frequency of the stress ( Polsky et al. 2007). Sensitivity is how the system responds to stress i.e. positive or negative and can be affected by social, economic and cultural factors (IPCC, 2001). Climate change, variability and its related vulnerabilities have had significant effects on the livelihood of people who live sub-Saharan Africa ((Niang et al. 2014; Dube et al. 2016). A recent study by Zereyesus et al. (2017) shows that up to 40% of households in the northern parts of Ghana experience mild to severe forms of hunger. This can usually be more severe in the dry season. Furthermore, up to 88% of households in the northern part of Ghana, 62% of which are smallholder farmers and 49% are considered poor, depend on subsistent agriculture as their main livelihood activity, however, crop failure due to erratic rainfall threatens them (McKinney, 2009). It is estimated that about 90%, 80% and 70% of people in the Upper East, the Upper West and the Northern regions respectively are considered to be poor (Ghana Statistical Service, 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2000). Antwi et al. (2017) also identified that agriculture-dependent households in the northern part of Ghana are prone to socioeconomic and climatic factors as stressors that influence systems. Some socioeconomic stressors such as high cost and poor access to farm inputs, labour shortages and population growth were reported while drought, high temperature, floods and erratic rainfall were identified as key climatic stressors. According to Antwi et al. (2012), using multi-scale, multi-indicators of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity to assess the vulnerability of crop to drought produced in the ten regions of Ghana, discernible geographical and socioeconomic pattern were established, with the Northern, Upper West and Upper East regions emerging as the most vulnerable and with the lowest adaptive capacity. This was again attributed to low socioeconomic development because the economies were mainly dependent on rain-fed agriculture with inherent low soil fertility in the region. Moreover, among the three regions in the northern part of Ghana, the Northern Region is the most vulnerable and exposed considering climate change and variability due to lack of information about disasters, fluctuations in precipitation and temperature, illiteracy, large family sizes and inadequate access to medical care (Hahn et al. 2009). The Upper West Region is the most sensitive region to extreme climatic events most likely due to inadequate access to food and water resources (Hahn et al. 2009). The Upper East Region is also the most vulnerable region in terms of adaptation capacity of households attributed mainly to the high rate of out-migration in the region. Like the other regions in the north, rainfall in the Upper West region has been unpredictable and characterized by a single rainfall pattern, which starts late and ends early (Derbile et al. 2016). According to McKinney (2009), 16% of households in the Upper West suffer from food insecurity one of the highest in the country, this has contributed to 38% of community members migrating down south to seek non-existing greener pastures. It also not uncommon for people to suffer floods at the peak of the rainy season when the Begre and Kompienga Dams are spilled by neighbouring Burkina Faso which affects many farmlands (Kankam-Yeboah et al.. 2010). Variability in recent climatic conditions of the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh region coupled with bad weather prediction of rainfall has substantially increased climate- related risk and hazards hence crop failure and the loss of livestock (Andreini et al.. 2000). 2.4 Vulnerability and Livelihood According to Gbetibouo et al.. (2010), the vulnerability of a farming region to climate- related impacts could be related to the level of socioeconomic development of that region. It is also related to the development and socio-economic status of a particular group or community (Ribot et al. 1996). A region’s ability to cope or counter climate-related impacts is dependent on the region or community’s assets or entitlement they gather to reduce the vulnerability (Moser, 1998). It is a well-established fact that individual capitals i.e. financial, human, natural, physical, and social capitals can influence the ability of a region to cope with the impacts of climate change (Sen, 1981). 2.5 Livelihood Livelihood could be defined as ‘‘activities, entitlements and assets by which people make lives’’ (Chambers and Conway, 1992). Ellis (2000) also asserts that livelihood consists of assets which are ‘natural, human, physical, financial and social capital’, and are managed by ‘institutions and social relations’ that determines the standards of living by individuals and households. Building livelihood is a dynamic and continuous process, which could change from season to season and years since assets are dependent on environmental factors like floods and droughts, which have the tendency to worsen (Ellis, 2000). A livelihood is sustainable when the assets are rebust can withstand the stress and shocks from the environment while not depleting its natural resource potential (Chambers and Conway, 1992). The term thus implies that livelihoods should be secure, tough, resistant and robust in the face of both internal and external shocks or stresses (Scoones, 2009). The Brundtland Commission on Environment and Development adopted the term sustainable livelihood to drive its poverty eradication goal (Krantz, 2001). The concept sustainable livelihood has been used by lots of development organizations like Department for International Development of the United Kingdom (DFID), the United Nations 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Development Program (UNDP), CARE, and Oxfam (Adato and Meizen-Dick, 2002). Sustainable livelihood considers livelihood in terms of people’s access to five capital assets which are (financial, physical, natural, human, and social), and how they could be manipulated and combined for livelihood by reacting with other relevant institutions. (Chambers and Conway, 1992; Carney, 1998; Scoones, 1998; Johansson, 2015). These five livelihood capitals could be stored for use in times of stress and shock (Scoones, 1998). There is usually a connection between financial and natural capital as financial can create the natural and the opposite (Quandt, 2008). A household has need of each of the capitals to remain relevant, thus human and social capitals are very necessary to explore the natural, physical and financial capitals (Jacobs et al. 2015). Unfortunately, having a stock of assets would not guarantee a household is immune to shock, for instance smallholder farmers in Kenya have easily slipped back to poverty after a number of interventions to alleviate them from poverty; especially those with low physical capital (Ulrich et al. 2012). There are also lots of dynamics and trade-offs between the five capitals for instance, financial capital can be exchanged for human capital in the form of school fees (Quandt, 2008). In addition, the capital assets can be limited by structures and processes within which they operate (Obrist et al. 2010). The five livelihood capitals tend to define the world of an individual and household, they are not only inputs but also outputs (Bebbington, 1999). Some benefits of the sustainable livelihood approach are its multidimensional asset base (Krantz, 2001) which looks at livelihood in both the historical and dynamic context (Rakodi, 1999). However, it does not look at power relationship and politics (Scoones, 2009), macro-economic factors and conflict (Serrat, 2010), long term change (Scoones, 2009), and is run by experts (Jones and Tanner, 2015). 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 The concept of Resilience Walker and Salt (2006) define resilience as the ‘‘capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic function and structure.” The two main reasons for building resilience are; to prevent a system from moving to extreme levels during a change thus preserving components of the system that builds resistance and allow a system to rebirth and reorganize after a disruption (Walker et al. 2002). The concept of resilience is a great tool for finding adaptive change that maintains sustainability since it makes it possible to investigate how to maintain equilibrium during a change process (Berkes et al. 2003). Asking the ‘resilience of what’ and ‘resilience for whom’ question is key in building effective resilience’ (Lebel et al. 2006; Walker and Salt, 2006; Nelson and Stathers, 2009). The concept of livelihood resilience has been developed to counter arguments raised by resilience thinkers and this has been defined as ‘‘the capacity of all people across generations to sustain and improve their livelihood opportunities and well-being despite environmental, economic, social, and political disturbances” Tanner et al. (2015; 23).This places people at the centre of building the resilience and engages human agencies (Tanner et al. 2015). There is a difference between livelihood resilience and social resilience; social resilience can be defined as a community’s ability to cope with social, political and environmental stress (Cote and Nightingale, 2012). This is increased through effective risk management, disaster mitigation plans, insurance packages and access to information (Cutter et al. 2008). Measuring resilience directly is a daunting task with many concepts on how to carry out the process (Carpenter et al. 2001; Carpenter, Westley, and Turner, 2005; Walker and Salt, 2006). Since resilience is not directly measurable, most of the above approaches substitute indicators of resilience which are quantifiable (Jones and Tanner 2015). Most researchers have their own methods for determining indicators of resilience. For example, Carpenter et al. (2005) used four general methods to ascertain pointers for resilience. These are stakeholder assessments, model examinations, historical reporting, and case study contrasts. There are no regular procedures for finding pointers to resilience however, a systematic method should ensure that major social and ecological components of resilience 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are covered. This thesis would adopt the sustainable livelihood framework to help determine indicators for building resilience. The five livelihood capitals have been used in this case as those indicators. Resilience is a major aspect of sustainable livelihoods and vice versa (Thulstrup, 2015). 2.7 The concept of Adaptation Adaptation in the context of human dimensions of global change usually refers to a process, action or outcome in a system (household, community, group, sector, region, country) in order for the system to better cope with, manage or adjust to some changing condition, stress, hazard, risk or opportunity’ (Bary and Jonathan; 2006).The above definition was targeted at dealing with the negative consequences of climate change. Brooks (2003,) said it is an ‘adjustment in a system’s behavior and characteristics that enhance its ability to cope with external stress’. Smith et al. (2000), in a climate change context said it is the adjustments in ecological socio-economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli, their effects or impacts. Pielke (1998), also in the climate context, defines adaptations as the adjustments in individual groups and institutional behavior in order to reduce society’s vulnerability to climate. In another climatic context, (Adger et al. 2007) defined it as the efforts made to increase resilience in order to counter climate change in human, ecological and physical systems. Bary and Jonathan (2006) believe the term adaptation has its roots from the natural sciences of evolutionary biology. Though disputed, it is referred to as genetic or biological traits that make it possible for living things to cope with hush environmental conditions to reproduce (Futuyama, 1979; Winterhalder, 1980; Kitano, 2002). Application in human terms is traced to cultural ecologist and anthropologist Julian Steward, who used ‘‘cultural adaptation’’ as ‘‘one by which groups of people add new and improved methods of coping with the environment to their cultural repertoire’’ (Denevan, 1983). However, the IPCC (2007) defined it as the adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exploits beneficial opportunities. The definition was further modified in 2014 by the IPCC to include interventions by human systems. It further emphasis’s how human interventions can be made to enhance expected climatic effects. 2.8 Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) Defining NTFPs have been met with many challenges leading to the absence of a universal definition mainly due to the clear boundaries between timber and non-timber products, the current difficulty in defining forests and the evolving nature of the concept with diverse interest (Ahenkan and Boon, 2011). The term Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) was first used in Asia by De beer and McDermott (1989) as ‘encompasses all biological materials other than timber; which are extracted from forests for human use’. The authors discovered a limitation with their definition so they later went on to emphasize that timber was managed by industries to cater for the needs of people outside the forest while NTFP were extracted by forest people with indigenous technology for their own use (Belcher et al. 2003). De Beer and McDermott (1989) went on further to clarify their definition of the term forest; which they referred to as ‘natural ecosystem in which trees are a significant component’. However, forest products are derived not only from trees but also from all plants, fungi and animals. Since then lots of other terms have been introduced for NTFPs such as 'non- wood goods and benefits', 'non-wood goods and services', 'other forest products', 'secondary forest products', 'special forest products', 'wild crafted products', 'biodiversity products', 'natural products', 'minor forest products', 'non- timber forest products', 'non-wood forest products', 'forest products other than wood/timber' and 'tree-crops’ (Belcher et al. 2003) In 1992, Chandresekharan, proposed a new definition for NTFPs asnon-wood forest products that include all goods of biological origin, as well as services, derived from forest or any land under similar use, and exclude wood in all its forms’. In 1995, the FAO (Food and Agricultural Organisation defined NTFP as Non-wood forest products consisting goods of biological origin other than wood, derived from forests, other wooded land and trees outside forests (Kumar et al.1999). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To simplify the definition of NTFP, five elements that matter most include; the nature of the product - whether it is a non-industrial timber or wood products, the source of the product - from a tree plantation, managed agro-forestry parkland or natural forest, the nature of production - collected from the wild or includes domesticated products like cocoa and timber, the scale of production - investment capital, and the ownership and distribution of benefits (Ros-Tonen 1999; Belcher 2003; Marshall et al. 2005; Jean and Patrick 2002). Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are defined in this thesis as materials of biological origin that can be obtained from forests, farms and domesticated trees (Melese, 2016). Some major NTFP located in the Lawra District are in the table below Table 2. 1: Some Plant NTFPs in the study area SN LOCAL NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAMES 1 Taame Vitellaria paradoxa 2 Dooro Parkia biglobosa 3 Suge/Suga Lannea acida 4 Ore Physalis peruviana 5 Gaa Diospyros crassiflora 6 Kazuge Gardenia ternifolia 7 Tokpara/Tou-tee Adensonia digitata 8 Goue Ceiba pentamdra 9 Kalezur Gardenia temitolia 10 Gogoh Acacia nilotica Source: Abdul, 2017 Table 2. 2: Some animal NTFPs in the study area SN LOCAL NAME 1 Onsagra 2 Kur 3 Kyera 4 Zupon 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Derbaa 6 Ong 7 Kure 8 Woula 9 Song 10 Sansire Source: Abdul, 2017 Currently, NTFPs are sold informally without labels and marketed individually by farmers without marketing skills leading to a lot of uncertainties in the marketplace (Marshall et al. 2006). Moreover, agricultural intensification is taking a tow on them, trace levels of insecticides and pesticides have been a challenge that confronts the industry. In 2017, over 5 million United States Dollars was lost by the shea nuts industry due to trace levels of Pirimiphos-Methyl (Bokpe, 2017). Commercializing NTFPs have been approved by conservations and development-oriented organizations as a good source of income for the rural poor (Schreckenberg et al. 2006). Hormmas (1992), has however expressed reservation about commercialization. He argues that it could lead to the overexploitation of the wild populations to extinction becoming like cocoa and rubber (Homma, 1992). This also has the tendency to put out small-scale producers especially local people out of business (Schreckenberg et al. 2006). NTFPs have limited access to global markets; this is mainly due to the absence of product innovation and development coupled with high transportation cost (Marshall et al. 2006). The potential of NTFPs to help rural dwellers has been challenged recently by Angelsen and Wunder (2003) who claim it is a poverty trap. Largely, commercialization is to blame, which usually limits rural people. This, however, does not imply NFTPs have not contributed to reducing poverty (Ros-Tonen and Wiersum, 2003). 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9 Market Systems Before defining market systems, a working definition for markets for markets need to be established. A market is a platform or place for the exchange of commodities. Though markets are strategic tools to bridging socioeconomic gaps, they have not received the needed attention to enable us to harness their full potential (Vargo et al. 2017). Our markets are also thought to be out of equilibrium with previous models ignoring the dynamics of everyday life (Vargo et al. 2017). Little to no attention has been given to the formation and dynamics of markets (Buzzell, 1999). Some which may include climate change, vulnerability, disruptive technology and breakthrough ideas. These have a very strong power to shift market forces in a completely different direction making them more sustainable and enhancing a safer environment. According to Kjellberg et al. (2013), ‘current concepts have agreed markets are malleable, dynamic and subject to other factors. In effect, markets are plastid (Alderson, 1957). There is therefore for a systems perspective of markets. A marketing system is “complex social networks of individuals and groups linked through shared participation in the creation and delivery of economic value through an exchange” (Layton, 2015). We cannot ignore the fact that development of market systems has social structure and organizations as its bedrock (Layton, 2015). It also highlights the institutional roles which create the conditions of exchange in the markets while promoting a multidisciplinary platform of different ideas blended to yield practical solutions (Vargo et al. 2017). A system approach to markets promises a multidisciplinary approach that would build genuine models to work on our dynamic business world with a complete, relational and process oriented perspective to markets (Vargo et al. 2017). The twentieth century has ushered in a new era of thinking moving away from the dominant mechanistic and reductionist view which is the foundation of science to the holistic and organismic (Capra and Luisi, 2014; Vargo et al. 2017). This approach of thinking has been applied in fields including computer science, management, geography and ecology (Bailey, 2009; Barnett, 2006; Rubenstein-Montano et al. 2001) 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Whereas previous research on markets limits its scope on buyers and sellers, there is an urgent need to consider the broader picture of all stakeholders especially the most vulnerable (Ford et al. 2011; Håkansson and Snehota, 1989). The bias of traditional markets has also been criticized for its micro-level engagement hence a need for multiple level engagement relationships would create market systems dynamic (Giesler and Fischer, 2017). Macro-marketing scholars have been pushing for a system view of marketing that is different from the conventional theory of resource allocation (Meade and Nason, 1991; Shapiro, 2006). This is because inefficiency in market structures could cause commodities to lose value even before they reach their final destination. Improving market structures would benefit the vulnerable through avoiding incurred losses and damage hence increases profits. There are concerns that improved market systems might result in overharvesting, break down resilience and affect net productivity and ecological composition ratios (Nkem et al. 2010). In addition, not everybody may benefit, especially the poor and marginalized in local communities (Nkem et al. 2010; Scherr et al. 2003). 2.10 Value chain (VC) Schmitz (2005) has defined it as a partnership involving a group of companies that seek to take advantage of market demand. Kaplinsky (2000) also suggests that it is a set of activities that transforms a raw product into a useful commodity for use by clients. All the above definitions involve the transformation of products from one form to another. This thesis would therefore align itself with the definition from Kaplinsky (2000) on Value Chain (VC) since it is within the scope of the study. Kaplinsky and Morris (2001) and Berg et al.. (2008) have described the value chain with a focus on both a narrow and broad approach. The narrow approach is described as activities performed inside the firm to attain certain results and may include conception and design, acquisition of inputs, production, marketing, distribution etc. However, the broad approach looks at the complex activities implemented by various factors such as primary producers, processors, traders, service providers, retailers etc. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There is a difference between VCA and VC, VCA breaks down the chain into its fundamental parts in order to better understand the structure and functioning of the distinct parts of the chain. (UNIDO, 2009). Value chain analysis could start with chain mapping which is scientifically mapping the players in production, distribution, marketing and sale of a product (Sanogo, 2010). The mapping can include properties of various actors, profit analysis and flow of products through various markets (Sanogo, 2010). There are generally five dimensions when it comes to analyzing value chains, these include; the technical structure, the chain actors, the territorial, the input-output and governance structure (Gereffi, 1994) as cited by Kodigehalli (2011). The above dimensions address questions like how the production process works, who is involved in each stage, place each stage occur, linkages between the and beneficiaries of the stage (Kodigehalli, 2011). Having the answer to these questions enhances successful and possible integration of the poor population (Kodigehalli, 2011.) Input supply Produ ction Processing Marketing Consumption Fig 2. 1 Value chain analysis Source: Adopted from GTZ, 2004 as cited by Schipmann (2006) As illustrated above, the technical production process is usually categorized in five stages i.e., input supply, primary production, processing, marketing and consumption. Input supply is the first stage and could involve the production and the processing of raw materials like grains and vegetable. Actors usually involve small holder farmers and entrepreneurs with production facilities. Processing of raw materials is ideal if raw form of products has no market value. This is later followed by marketing and then transportation to place of consumption. The territorial structure is “the geographic concentration or dispersion of production and marketing” (Stamm, 2004). This identifies the place of the activity whether in the local or international scale. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.11 Governance Structure Governance Structure in VC is often seen as who and who does not partake in the chain, ruling out parameters of inclusion or exclusion, directs activities in the chain and also monitors performance in the chain. (kaplinskyet al. 2000). 2.11.1 Governance and coordination Kaplinsky and Morris (2000) used the term coordination to describe activities of non- market related activities that go on between firms in different areas or external (e.g. NGOs) and internal chain parties. Gibbon (2001) also describes it as the removal of barriers to market entry thus enhancing driving agents that reduces the cost risk and increases reliability and sales in businesses 2.11.2 Value Chain Upgrading This is can be defined as a process where actors and firms make themselves more relevant in a chain through value addition that makes them indispensable, hence making more profits (Stamm, 2004). It also involves the acquisition of technology and market linkages making the firm or actor more competitive (Kaplinsky and Morris, 2000). This can take the form of process, product, functional and channel upgrading (Dunn et al. 2006): 2.11.3 Smallholder Farmers There are different definitions for smallholder farmers in Ghana. Ekboir et al. (2002) defined a smallholder farmer as a small-scale farmer whose land size is less than five hectares while MoFA (2011) has limited the land size to less than two hectares. This thesis adopts the MoFA (Ministry of Food and Agriculture) definitions since it is an authority in the country. 2.12 Market Access Market access is defined taking into consideration three properties - the physical (distance and costs), market structures (the relationship between farmers, intermediates and 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consumers) and producer skill, information and organization (factors that could affect market prices). Also according to Mugambi, (2013), market access is defined as the ‘ability of a person from a household to make it to the marketplace taking into consideration the distance covered, time taken, road type, transport and transportation facility, market information demand, supply and price of commodities, rules and regulation and storage facilities used’. Market information is one of the most important factors that drive market access. Research works points to the immense benefits availability of market information can have on market access, this brings about market linkages and reduces the cost of doing business (Gani and Adeoti 2011; Musah 2013; Zamasiya et al. 2014; Siziba, et al. 2011). There is also an established positive relationship of how cooperate groups promote the exchange of ideas, experiences, skills finances and knowledge which helps improve market access (Gani and Adeoti 2011; Musah 2013). Institutional interventions like extension services also help in education with relevant and timely information improving market access up to three times (Gani and Adeoti,2011) and (Zamasiya et al. 2014). Moreover, access to credit facilities (Musah and Bonsu, 2013), larger family sizes and formal education (Gani and Adeoti 2011), youthfulness (Randela 2008), available land size (Ohen et al. 2013), quality and available of market infrastructure (Ohen et al. 2013), short distance to market centers (Hlongwane et al. 2014) and having a means of transport generally impact market access positively (Jagwe et al. 2010). In contrast, Siziba et al. (2011) found out larger household sizes and access to credit hampered market access. Larger household sizes were attributed to the low availability of marketable surplus but the writer could not explain access to credit. Musah et al. (2013) also discovered a negative relationship for education and youthfulness in relation to market access. According to the writer, educated people had full-time jobs and older people were more food security conscious than the youth. Zamasiya et al.. (2014) also found a direct relationship between distance and market access; it offered higher prices and volumes. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.13 Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and Livelihood The contribution of NTFPs to livelihood is obvious with lots of literature to support this fact. The three main benefits of NTFPs to households are; it supports household subsistence or consumable needs like energy; acts as safety nets in times of need; the possible provision of cash from its sale (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003; Cavendish, 2002; Chileshe, 2005; Shackleton et al. 2007; Heubach et al. 2005).NTFP extraction is suitable for rural people since it is less labour intensive, requires less technology, skills and are readily available (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). Heubach et al. (2005) examined income from NTFPs and dependence of different socio- economic groups. Results indicate that households with low levels of income have high NTFP income share making them more dependent on them, however the more privileged, especially men, could gain more value than others mainly because they enjoyed greater access. (Belcher et al. 2014) also revealed that majority of NTFPs are consumed by local people. Overall, the collection and use of these NTFPs helps to support their livelihood. Many activists are of the view NTFP harvested could be the foundation to livelihoods and the environment while creating reserves. (Ruiz-Pérez and Arnold, 1996; Salafsky et al. 1993). A new drive to alleviate poverty by the international community is causing local governments to give NTFPs considerable attention for a number of reasons. These are: I. They are readily accessible to the rural poor (Saxena, 2003) II. Harvesting NTFP is more environmentally friendly (Myers, 1988) III. It is an incentive for locals to conserve the forests (Evans, 1993; Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). Shackleton and Shackleton in 2004 investigated the importance of NTFPs for rural livelihood security and as a safety net. Their research highlights how the use of NTFP is a very important and a necessary component in diversifying the livelihood base of most rural folks but of little necessity to planners and decision makers. It also talks about how a free resource from the environment can be converted into cash; though it often starts as an emergency net, it soon evolves into permanent livelihood option. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Attention has been drawn on how only depending on local markets could reduce the value for NTFP, reduce its role in the support of livelihood and hence the marginalization of low- income people involved in its trade (Shackleton et al. 2007). Shackleton et al. (2007) also suggested that in other to minimize livelihood risk due to dependence on local markets, a diversification choice that combines the strong local and export market is a better option. It is also important to realize that NTFPs do not only benefit the rural but also the urban poor therefore research and policy should be modified to draw attention to this gap since this can work to help poor urban folks Stoian (2005). Generally, financial gains from NTFPs tend to be very modest thus they have very little potential to alleviate poverty and do not attract substantial investment. However, an accumulated value of these small scale NTFPs are substantial in supporting millions of livelihoods in the value chain (Alexiades and Shanley, 2004; Shackleton et al. 2007). In Ghana, the economic and commercial benefits of NTFPs are greater than timber (FIP, 2012). Though there is increasing appreciation for the rural subsistence and development of NTFPs, research and policy has not explored the contribution to livelihood in the northern parts of Ghana and records are inadequate (Issaka, 2018). Unfortunately, data on the economic importance of NTFPs on livelihood is mostly taken from the tropics where income from the timber industry completely outweighs it (Issaka, 2018). Since trading in NTFPs makes cash available during hard times for poor rural folks to purchase food and other necessities, it is important to view it beyond a safety net but as an active part of the economy (Issaka, 2018); Shackleton, 2014). In a study conducted by Issaka (2018), he confirmed that NTFPs contribute significantly to livelihood in Northern Ghana as well as account for up to 30% of household income. 2.14 Climatic Change and its Effects on NTFP It is important to note that several gaps exist in the literature on the effect of climate change on NTFPs. The African continent is currently experiencing changes in climatic conditions with expected effects on key ecosystem provisioning services (IPCC 2007; Sala et al. 2000; MA, 2005). Effects of these are expected to be hush because of low adaptive capacity. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Unfortunately, spatial visualization and regional mapping of key ecosystem services are lacking (Chen et al. 2009). This makes a possible projection of the impact of climate change on NTFPs very difficult if not impossible. Currently, methods like the Niche-Based Models (NBMs) can be used to estimate possible changes, this also known as “bioclimatic envelope models” (Guisan and Zimmermann, 2000). Heubes et al. (2012) investigated climate change impact on economic benefits derived from Adansonia digitata, Parkia biglobosa, and Vitellaria paradoxa in Benin. The study projected a 1- 50 % loss on value flow of the three NTFPs mainly due to climate and land use change by 2050. It also reported that increasing temperature affected occurrence probability of species negatively. In other to counter the projected changes it was proposed that parklands of the affected tree species should be cultivated to handle the projected loses (Heubes et al. 2012). However, Abdul, (2017) found out that the recent change in weather patterns generally had no significant effect on NTFPs in the Lawra District. Heubes et al. (2012), have projected negative impact on economic returns of the three most widely used NTFPs in the northern part of Benin (V. paradoxa, P. biglobosa, and A digitata) by 2050 due to climate change related issues. Van Dijk (1999) in his survey conducted in Cameroon on local people also mentioned climatic stress as one of the responsible factors responsible for reducing access to NTFPs. According to Arnold and Pérez (2001), local people who usually depend on forest products have evolved their living patterns to be in equilibrium with nature. It should however be understood that they are not acting to conserve them but as a result of the regenerating power of the resource and their low population densities of human communities (Grenand and Grenand, 1996). 2.15 The Shea Tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) The shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) can only be found in the savanna and dry forest areas of The Sudan (Rousseau et al. 2015). Shea covers a 5,000 km range across West Africa (as shown in Figure 1). The trees are usually not plated by natives but sorted, saved and protected (Boffa, 1999; Chevalier, 1946; Lovett and Haq, 2000; Vuillet, 1915 as cited by 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rousseau et al. 2015). Shea trees parklands are most dominant in Burkina Faso (Fischer, 2011). Women and children from May to August collect fruits from trees and process them into shea nuts, which can be purchased by international and local companies. Lots of nuts continue to be sold for export. However, shea butter produced (Elias and Carney, 2007) from nuts still remains the main lipid source for local dietary needs (Crélerot, 1995; Lamien et al. 1996). Fig 2. 2 Map of the shea tree distribution across Africa Source: Sallé et al. 1991 2.16 Household and Economic benefits of Shea Nuts and Butter (Vitellaria Paradoxa) Shea is one of the most important and readily available NTFPs in the savannah (Abdul, 2017). Though not yet domesticated, they play important roles in sustaining livelihood of rural people (Agene, 2015). The shea kernel consists of a green fleshy mesocarp mass of high nutritional value of about (0.7-1.3g) of protein and 41.4g of carbohydrates as cited by (Agene, 2015). This forms a part of the diet of rural people; children and women eat the fruit raw while the processed crude oil is used for food (Ferris et al. 2001). In most northern villages where refined oil is not available, shea oil is the only available source of cooking oil (Ferris et al. 2001). Shea 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh butter oil is an important income source for households when traded and has even proven to be more profitable than brewing and farming of crops like maize and groundnuts (Ferris et al. 2001). Financial gains made from shea belong to women though most of their labor in other areas are managed and overseen by household heads (Ferris et al. 2001). Waste water from shea butter production is used as waterproofing agent for doors walls and bee hives since it contains fat residue; making compost for and used as light pesticide in subsistence farming in Ghana (Scholz., 2009). The crude butter can serve cosmetic, anti- inflammatory and curative purposes for rheumatic, joint pains and burns. Low quality butter could also be used in soap making; either for sale or domestic us in Ghana (Scholz., 2009). Traditionally, the butter is also used in rituals and salves for newborn babies (Scholz., 2009). Shea tree leaves serve as medicine for stomach-aches and prepare vapour baths against headaches (Scholz., 2009). Branches are hanged on the threshold to provide protection for babies when mother are leaving the home and to cover dead bodies prior to burial (Scholz., 2009). Shea roots are also used as chewing sticks or ground and administered orally to cure jaundice, stomachaches and diarrhea in Nigeria (Scholz., 2009). In the savannah-region its wood is also used as building materials and increasingly serve as fuel which is causing a decrease in the population of trees from deforestation (Walter et al. 2003) 2.17 Quality Control Standards 2.17.1 Shea Nuts Quality of shea butter is dependent on the quality of kernel collected from field and the processing of the butter (Anchirinah et al. 2012). Many campaigns have been run by advocacy groups to establish standards for shea nuts and butter (Agene, 2015). Some organizations like the Global Shea Alliance (GSA); The African Organization for standardization and Food; Cooperative Office for Voluntary Organization (COVOL) (Ferris et al. 2001) have come out with some standards to educate buyers and to drive the market for shea nuts. Free Fatty Acids (FFA) <8%, Moisture content <10%, Oil content > 47%, shea kernel is graded as Grade A, B and C depending upon the levels of free fatty 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh acid, peroxide value, moisture the amount of impurities (GSA 001, 2013). The table below indicates shea nuts grading parameters according to the GSA. Table 2. 3: Quality Parameter for Shea nuts Parameter Grade A (1) Grade B (2) Grade (3) Analysis Type Moisture content <8% 8%-10% >10% Moisture meter Filed testing FFA <3% 3%-8% >8% Lab Testing Impurities <0.4% 0.4%-0.5% 0.5% Weighing and Visual Inspection Oil Content >50% 47%-50% 47% Lab Testing Source: (GSA 001, 2013) Pesticide Residues Maximum residue limits (MRL) for shea nuts and butter has been set by the Commission of the Codex Alimentarius and the European Pesticides database. However, the MRL value is a product limit and not a safety limit (Codex Alimentarius Commission. 2015). Table 2.4 shows the MRL for oil seed Table 2.4: Euroepean Union Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticirds for Oil Seed TEST CONDUCTED UNIT EU MRL (SHEA NUTS) Methamidophos Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Ethoprophos Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Dimethoate Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Beta-HCH Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Delta-HCH Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Diazinon Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Fonofos Mgkg-1 0.01 (LOQ) Lindane Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Heptachlor Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TEST CONDUCTED UNIT EU MRL (SHEA NUTS) Pirimiphos-methyl Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Fenitrothion Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Malathion Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Chlorpyrifos Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Aldrin Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Parathion Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) chlorfenvinphos Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Allethrin Mgkg-1 0.01 (LOQ) Profenofos Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) p’p’-DDE Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Dieldrin Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Endrin Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Alpha- Endosulfan Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Beta-Endosulfan Mgkg-1 0.10 (Max) Endosulfan Sulfate Mgkg-1 0.10 (Max) pp'-DDD Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) pp'-DDT Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Bifenthrin Mgkg-1 0.10 (Max) Fenpropathrin Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Methoxychlor Mgkg-1 0.01 (Max) Lambda-cyhalothrin Mgkg-1 0.20 (Max) Permethrin Mgkg-1 0.10 (Max) Cyfluthrin Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Cypermethrin Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Fenvalerate Mgkg-1 0.05 (Max) Deltamethrin Mgkg-1 0.02 (Max) Source: Ghana Standards Authority(GSA) 2018 Buyers of shea are also able to determine quality standards using their own senses and the dietary facts like texture, flavour, aroma, shape, colour, calorie content, vitamins as well 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as shelf life (Norton and Sun, 2008). Quality standards have also been proposed for unrefined shea butter by organizations like The African Organization for standardization of Food and ‘ProKarité, run by World Agro-forestry Centre funded by CFC/FAO (Common Fund for Commodities/Food and Agriculture Organization) and approved by UEMOA (Union Economique Monétaire Ouest Africaine)’ (Lovett et al. 2005) as cited by (Agene, 2015). 2.17.2 Shea Butter Quality standards parameters for shea butter include moisture content, acidity, peroxide value, melting point, saponification value, iodine level, refractive index and absence of heavy metals (Megnanou and Niamke, 2013). Impact of raw material treatment has also proven to affect resulting quality of shea butter (Megnanou and Niamke, 2013). Certification of shea kernel and butter has become competitive to attract market value (USAID 2004). Table 2.5 : Grading parameters for unrefined shea butter Parameters Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Min. Max Min. Max Min. Max Moisture Content (%) - 0.05 >0.05 - 0.2 > 0.2 - 2.0 Free fatty acid (%) - 1.0 >1.0 - 3.0 > 3.0 - 8.0 Peroxide value (meq/kg) - 10.0 >10.0 - 15.0 >15.0 - 50.0 Insoluble impurities (%) - 0.09 >0.09 - 0.2 > 0.2 - 2.0 Source: Regional Technical Committee Comments on Draft Africa Regional Standard for Unrefined Shea Butter (2006). 2.18 Factors affecting quality of Shea Kernel and Butter Physical and chemical parameters, processing and storage would determine the quality and quantity of fats and oils produced per unit quantity of nuts (Obibuzor et al. 2013). Fatty acid metabolized by enzymes could also alter the nuts oil composition (Napier, 2007). Post- 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh harvest handling is the main determinant of nuts quality (Omujal, 2009). High temperature of residual water during boiling hydrolyses glycerides and oxidises unsaturated fatty acids (Kajimoto et al. 1986). According to Aculey et al. (2012), high temperature and humidity greater than 65% causes mould infection in nuts. Oxidation and hydrolysis reactions can be caused by oxygen, sun rays or any other heat source in the atmosphere (Hall et al. 1996; Megnanou and Niamke, 2013). on the other hand, microbial load and lipid oxidation is increased by high moisture content (Nahm, 2011). FFA content is generally employed as an industry standard indicating the spoilage of nuts and shea butter - it is hydrolysis of triglycerides (Fintrac, 1999). The lower the free fatty acids, the better the quality of shea butter produced. Variation in geographical locations affects fatty acid constituents and composition (Nahm, 2011). Improper storage is the primary cause of lose in quality of nuts (Hall et al. 1996). Quality of butter is improved when nuts are properly sun dried and smoking is avoided during roasting or boiling over firewood (Nahm, 2011). The peroxide value is traditional and the parameter used in determine the oxidative degradation. Using it alone as a parameter to justify edible oil quality is not possible since hydroperoxides decompose during storage (B. Matthäus, et al 2010). On the day of preparation, its commonly zero or close to it and would generally require a year from the extraction day to reach 5 – 6 meq per kg (ASBI, 2010). Buyers of shea are also able to determine quality standards using their own senses and the dietary facts like texture, flavour, aroma, shape, colour, calorie content, vitamins as well as shelf life (Norton and Sun, 2008). Quality standards have also been proposed for unrefined shea butter by organizations like The African Organization for standardization of Food and ‘ProKarité, run by World Agro-forestry Centre funded by CFC/FAO (Common Fund for Commodities/Food and Agriculture Organization) and approved by UEMOA (Union Economique Monétaire Ouest Africaine)’ (Lovett et al. 2005) as cited by (Agene, 2015). 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.17.2 Shea Butter Quality standards parameters for shea butter include moisture content, acidity, peroxide value, melting point, saponification value, iodine level, refractive index and absence of heavy metals (Megnanou and Niamke 2013). Impact of raw material treatment has also proven to affect resulting quality of shea butter (Megnanou and Niamke, 2013). Certification of shea kernel and butter has become competitive to attract market value (USAID 2004). Table 2. 4: Grading parameters for unrefined shea butter Parameters Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Min. Max Min. Max Min. Max Moisture Content (%) - 0.05 >0.05 - 0.2 > 0.2 - 2.0 Free fatty acid (%) - 1.0 >1.0 - 3.0 > 3.0 - 8.0 Peroxide value (meq/kg) - 10.0 >10.0 - 15.0 >15.0 - 50.0 Insoluble impurities (%) - 0.09 >0.09 - 0.2 > 0.2 - 2.0 Source: Regional Technical Committee Comments on Draft Africa Regional Standard for Unrefined Shea Butter (2006). 2.18 Factors affecting quality of Shea Kernel and Butter Physical and chemical parameters, processing and storage would determine the quality and quantity of fats and oils produced per unit quantity of nuts (Obibuzor et al. 2013). Fatty acid metabolized by enzymes could also alter the nuts oil composition (Napier, 2007). Post- harvest handling is the main determinant of nuts quality (Omujal, 2009). High temperature of residual water during boiling hydrolyses glycerides and oxidises unsaturated fatty acids (Yoshida et al. 1986). According to Aculey et al. (2012), high temperature and humidity greater than 65% causes mould infection in nuts. Oxidation and hydrolysis reactions can be caused by oxygen, sun rays or any other heat source in the atmosphere (Hall et al. 1996; 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Megnanou and Niamke, 2013). On the other hand, microbial load and lipid oxidation is increased by high moisture content (Nahm, 2011). FFA content is generally employed as an industry standard indicating the spoilage of nuts and shea butter - it is hydrolysis of triglycerides (Fintrac, 1999). The lower the free fatty acids, the better the quality of shea butter produced. Variation in geographical locations affects fatty acid constituents and composition (Nahm, 2011). Improper storage is the primary cause of lose in quality of nuts (Hall et al. 1996). Quality of butter is improved when nuts are properly sun dried and smoking is avoided during roasting or boiling over firewood (Nahm, 2011). 2.2 Conceptual and Frameworks Employed The conceptual Framework adopted for this thesis is Sustainable Livelihood Framework. This is adapted in order to give a systemic view to the study. The Shea Value Chain is also adopted as an Analysis Framework 2.2.1 The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SL) The first and foremost thing to note about the Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SL) is that, it is a people-centered approach built to help enhance our understanding of the livelihood of poor people by presenting the main factors that affect relationships between them (DFID, 2001). This framework shows how people manage vulnerability of climate change through adaptations strategies in their livelihood. It has been applied to livelihood in this study. Vulnerability refers to the external environment of the households and their mind-set of the environment (DFID, 2001). ‘Household livelihoods are dependent on shocks and stresses which people have little control of’ (Hoddinott, 2006). Shocks refer to unexpected circumstances which can destroy people’s properties and the source of their livelihoods, examples are wars, hash weathers and possible death of 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh breadwinners (Chambers and Conway, 1992). Stress also refers to long-term food shortages, inadequate health services and lack of potable water which may hinder adaptation efforts (Ellis, 2000). The approach is constructed on the fact that people require a range of assets to attain desirable livelihood outcomes and is particularly true for poor people since they tend to lack assets and would have to combine and manipulate what they have to attain their desirables. In the SL framework, assets are referred to as capital and are categorized into five groups. These are: 1. Human Capital: This refers to skills, experience, good health and ability to work that makes it possible for people to pursue different livelihood strategies to attain their livelihood objectives. 2. Social Capital: This is the social resources from which people draw from to attain their livelihood objectives and could include; networks, membership of organizations, entertainment and trust 3. Natural capital: These are natural resource stocks from which resource flow and services useful for livelihoods are derived, examples include lands, wildlife, water and other processes like fermentation and pollination. 4. Financial Capital: This refers to financial resources people use to attain their livelihood outcomes objectives includes and includes stocks and flows which could be used to enhance production and consumption. Examples include liquid assets and bank deposits. 5. Physical Capital: This encompasses the basic infrastructure and producers needed to complement livelihood. Examples include shelter, energy, roads, transportation and so on. Regarding structures and process, structures can be described as hardware while processes are considered software (DFID, 2001). Processes actually dictate how structures operate. Examples include policies, legislature, institutions and culture. Examples include multinational organizations like the IMF, NGOs and governmental bodies (DFID, 2001). 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Livelihood strategies could also be described as a range of engagements or decisions made by people to achieve their life goals (DFID, 2001). Livelihood outcomes are the results derived from livelihood strategies (DFID, 2001). As far as this project is concerned, the desired outcome is to improve the market systems so that the people can get more financial incentives from their NTFPs. The SL framework, when used for analysis of rural people, considers five components for investigation. These are; past, emerging environmental trends and present conditions (for instance, pollution, history, ecology, economics etc.); available livelihood assets (i.e. social, human, financial, physical and natural); processes and structures of the institution; livelihood strategies employed like migration and likely desirable outcomes with regards to the strategy (Scoones, 1998). The Lawra district being a rural community and this study seeks to investigate the emerging trend of climate change adaption, livelihood assets and institutional support for NTFPs hence the adoption of this conceptual framework. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 2. 3 Sustainable livelihood framework Source: Adopted from Balama, (2016) 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.19.2 Value Chain Analysis (VCA) VCA theoretical framework has been employed by this thesis as proposed by the DFID (2008) for staple food commodities. The theory recommended components as outlined below. The theoretical framework for this study is based on the overarching theory of value chain analysis proposed by DFID (2008) as cited by (Abubakari, 2015): i. Systematically mapping the actors and their benefit in the chain ii. Examining the role of value and quality upgrading in the chain and iii. Highlighting the role of governance in the chain The shea value chain is also employed as an analytical framework to narrow down on individual actors and how they influence the production chain. This framework is adopted from Brabeck et.al (2009). Shea nuts Shea Nut Shea Butter Shea butter collectors and Traders Processors Traders processors Fig 2. 4 Shea Value Chain Source: Brabeck et.al, (2009) The shea value chain consists of a group of actors who work across the chain to keep it active. According to Scholz, (2010), they are ‘nut collectors, manual processors, women groups, small and large scale traders, industrial refiners and manufacturers.’ 1) Nut Collectors: These start the chain and is made up of mainly women and sometimes children who go to their farmlands, community lands and the wild to gather shea fruits on the ground (Scholz, 2010) ‘canvassing an area within a radius that extends between one and three kilometres from the household’ (Elias and Carney 2007; Scholz, 2010). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2) Manual Processors:After collecting the nuts some pickers go ahead to process it into butter using traditional methods, some women may pick few nuts and may therefore go ahead to purchase more from the market or neighbors in order to produce large volumes of butter (Scholz., 2009). 3) Women Groups: According to Scholz, (2010) cooperative women groups formed by Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) exist throughout northern Ghana and other African countries. Below are some of the reasons for the formation of these groups. i. collective action enhances better negotiation power and marketing ii. Division of labour and economies of scale iii. Training and enhanced output quality iv. Offers better security and support services 4) Traders: Some large-scale buyers are also exporters, they are usually equipped and employed agents across the whole of West Africa to buy and supply them with nuts (Scholz., 2009). 5) Industrial Refiners/Processors: Industrial level processing is done in West Africa and abroad from employing (hydraulic, filter, screw), expellers and chemical solvents (Hall et al.. 1996). Fractional distillation is also applied to separate the liquid oil (olein) from solid butter (stearin). Industrial processing in Ghana is done by Shebu (help from Loders Croklaan Ltd.) at Savelugu, Northern Region and Juaben Oil mills (with support from Olam) at Juaben, Ashanti Region (Lovett, 2004). 6) Manufacturers: These are the main end users in the chain and the main users are the confectionary (90-95%) and cosmetics industry (5-10%) (Elias and Carney 2007; Perakis 2009; Teklehaimanot 2004). This thesis seeks to investigate profitability across the shea value chain as the slected NTFPs due to its predominace and value over other NTFPs in the lawra district hene the adoption of framework. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Study Area 3.1.1 Geographical location The Lawra District is one of the 11 Districts in the Upper West Region of Ghana which is one of three regions located in northern parts of the country (Figure 1). It is bound to the north by Nandom District, Lambussie-Karni District to the east and Burkina Faso to the southwest. The region can be located between Latitude Latitude 10° 30′ 0″ N and longitude 2° 35′ 0″ W with a total area of 527.37 square kilometres. This makes up 2.8 percent of the Region’s total land area, which is estimated at 18,476 square kilometres. Eighty percent of the District inhabitants live in rural area with a population density of 104.1 per square kilometres (GSS, 2014a). 3.1.3 Climate The climatic condition of the region is Tropical Continental ranging between 27° C and 36° C. February to March constitutes the hottest periods in the region. Between April and – October, the blowing of the Tropical Air Mass births the wet season, hence rain. Rainfall patterns in the regions dictate seasonal migration of youth to the larger cities in search of jobs (GSS, 2014a). 3.1.2 Vegetation The Lawra District, located in the Guinea Savannah Zone, is dominated by short grass and few woody plant species. Trees like Vitellaria paradoxa and Parkia biglobosa, most commonly found in the District, are resistant to fire. The vegetation is ideal for livestock production and contributes significantly number to livelihoods. During the dry season, which is the most dominant season, rampant bush fires leave most areas patchy and usually striped off vegetation. This eventually leads to massive soil erosion. Bush burning in the region also leads to reduction in transpiration, which eventually affects the amount of 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rainfall received by the region (GSS, 2014a) 3.1.4 Geology and Soil Essentially, the rock formation of the region is Birimian with dotted outcrop of granite. The mineral potential of the District is yet to be explored. Minor minerals which may be present, include traces of gold, diamond, iron ore and minor deposits of manganese. Ground water availability in the District is very high due to facture patterns in the rocks (GSS, 2014a). The soil in the District consists of laterite soil developed from Birimian and granite rocks, which underlie the area. Strips of alluvial soils can be found along flood plains of the Black Volta with sandy loam along some tributaries (GSS, 2014a). Traditional land use practices coupled with the rainfall patterns and the soil nature have adverse effects on agriculture, which have had continuous shortfall in production of food. This drives the youth out in search of sustenance from the southern parts of the country (GSS, 2014a). 3.1.5. Relief and Drainage Few hills ranging between 180 and 300 meters above sea level are located in the District. Drained by the Black Volta to the west, the District forms a boundary with the Republic of Burkina Faso. Kamba/Dangbang, Nawer and Duodaa are among the most notable tributaries of the Black Volta in the region (GSS, 2014a). If harnessed, the water potential could offer considerable amount of jobs for the youth who mostly migrate to the southern part of Ghana during the dry season (GSS, 2014a). 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 3.1 Study map of Lawra District (Source: Abdul, 2017) 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Methodology This section bridges research questions and procedures that were employed for data collection. The approach was inspired by a six-day scoping visit to the region. Its format also intended to present a systemic approach to the subject of study. 3.2.1 Research Design and Data Sources This research adopted a mixed methods approach (Marsland et al. 2000) to address each of the research objectives, with both qualitative and quantitative methods employed in the collection of primary socio-cultural, economic and ecological data from households. Specifically, the study collected the following types of data. Socio-Economic Data: Socio-cultural and economic data were collected through Focus Group Discussions (FGD), semi-structured and structured interviews, market inventory, as well as participatory rural appraisal approaches. Secondary data from published and unpublished sources. Market data: Market information on the volumes and cost of trade for a selected NTFPs which was the most important and readily available. Based on results from the FGDs, shea butter was assessed. Biophysical Data: By employing simple random sampling shea butter samples were obtained from one household and one women’s group for pestcide analysis and to detemine the quality standards. 3.2.2 Data Collecting Instruments Socio-Economic Data: This study adopted varying data collection instruments: Household questionnaires: For quantitative data, questionnaires with both closed and open- ended questions were administered to the household heads. The questions focused on 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accessing NTFPs, present state of livelihood and capital that directly affects the household’s ability to market NTFPs. Key Informant interviews: A series of key informant interviews was conducted for expert opinions. This helped in gathering their thoughts on the functioning market in the District, their daily challenges and to propose possible solutions. Focus Group Discussions (FGD): These were conducted to gather more information from community members about present market challenges and their perceptions of what could be done about it. • Rural participatory approach: A one week scoping visit including a number of other visits to the project sites during the one year of the project made it possible to observe and interact with rural folks. Discussions with rural folks were also centred on value chain issues to help understand local challenges. Bio-Physical Data: Upon visiting the research site, the researcher bought freshly prepared 500g shea butte samples each from the open market and the Tietaa women’s group all based in the Lawra District. The samples were immediately stored in airtight polyethylene bags to prevent interference with the environment during transfer. Samples were further kept for two more months in a cool dry place to acclimatise with standard storage conditions before handing them over to the GSA to run test the test parameters on the samples. 3.2.3 Calculation of Sample Size Socio- Economic Data: The total number of households in Lawra was 9,200 (GSS, 2014a). The research assumed that at least one member of each household is involved in the marketing or trade of NTFPs in the Lawra District. The household size of 9,200 was therefore used as the sample frame for this research work to calculate the sample population of 155 (Equation 1). 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Formulae: n = !"#! (&') ……………………………………………………………..(Eq. 1) Where n= Sample size N= Sample frame (9,200) α= Margin of error (0.08/92 % confidence interval) n = ),+,,"#)+,, (,.,.') n = 154.92 ~ 155 persons 3.2.4 Sampling Method Socio- Economic Data: A multi-stage sampling technique was adopted for the study because of the heterogeneous nature of the communities under study. This ensures uniform representations of households in the community. Communities selected for the study are Kampour, Brewong and Oribili, which are major NTFPs production communities in the District (Abdul, 2017). In addition, the locations provide geographical uniformity to the study (i.e Kampour and Brewong are to the south and Oribili is to the north of the District capital Lawra). The research communities were subsequently divided into clusters by the use of major landmarks like roads since they are scattered settlements. Next, the researcher employed a purposive sampling technique to select households and household heads to answer questions. To gain an in-depth view of local matters, key informants’ interviews were also conducted. Key informants are people who are well informed about the research subject, are accessible and are willing to share their knowledge and experience on the matter (Mettrick, 1993). This involved the interview of the following resource persons; one women’s group leaders in the District, one nut-aggregator in the District, one financial institution official working the District, one shea nuts and/or butter marketing company currently operating in the 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh District, and the National Board for Small Scale Businesses and Industries (NBSSI) official from the District administrative office. These officials were interviewed purposely for key industrial facts. Focus group discussions took place among community members. This was conducted at community level to facilitate the gathering of community members on use and marketing of NTFPs. This consisted of village committee members, market women as well as opinion leaders on the research subject. A total of three FGDs were conducted, one in each community and consisting of about 15 – 20 members each. Each groups consisted of not more than five men and the rest women Bio-physical data: To obtain samples of shea butter from the research District for analysis, the researcher employing simple random process, bought a 500g portion of shea butter from the Lawra market produced by a household and another 500g shea butter produced sample by the Tietaa women’s group 3.2.5 Data analysis Socio-Economic: Qualitative data collected was subjected to content analysis. Content analysis has been defined as a systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding (Stemler, 2001). Conducted interviews i.e. Key informant and focus group discussions was transcribed manually from their audio recordings. Matrixes generated from them were used for the analysis. Similar themes emerging from the study was used for the analysis. Quantitative data obtained from the structured household questionnaire survey were summarized and coded in the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistical analysis was performed with central tendencies (means, variability and standard error), summary of data into frequency distribution tables and percentages. Chi square test (χ2) was employed to determine significant association within household 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variables. Inferential data analysis was carried out using correlation analyses to explore causal relationships. Correlation test was also employed to determine association between variables Market data: Gross Margin (GM) was used to analyse profitability. In accessing enterprise profitability, it the simplest and most common in farm management economics (Dijkhuizen et al. 1997). Gross Margin (GM) tool is appropriate for profitability in the shea value chain analysis because it only takes into account variable costs while ignoring fixed costs (Abubakari, 2015). Some variable costs in the shea value chain include the following; cost of firewood, water, transportation and milling. GM= Quantity of Shea (Bags) x (Price per Bag) – Sum of variable costs A bag of shea kernel for this study is as adopted by Abubakari, (2015), that is 90 kg with an estimated average of 33 kg of shea butter extracted per bag of shea kernel. Biophysical analysis: The results from the Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) were compared to international standards to see if they match up. For quality standards of shea butter, results were compared to the Regional Technical Committee Comments on Draft Africa Regional Standard for Unrefined Shea Butter (2006). For pesticide analysis, results were also compared to Maximum residue limits (MRL) for shea nuts and butter set by the Commission of the Codex Alimentarius and the European Pesticides database . 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the results for the study. Descriptive and inferential statistical have been employed to present the various livelihood capitals, market access, harvesting and processing of NTFPs and perception on climate change. To help comprehend the relationships among the variables, cross tabulation using chi square test and correlation analysis have been employed. A profitability analysis was also conducted to determine the profit of shea for actors across the value chain. Quality parameters and pesticide levels of shea butter sampled from a house hold and women’s group were also examined. 4.2 Biodata of Respondents and Community A total of 155 Households (HH) were interviewed, with 56.8% of the sample population being women (Table 4.1). Only 69 of the respondents (44.5%) were HH heads. Table 4.1 shows the age distribution of respondents which varies from 11 to above 61. Respondents aged between 31- 40 years represent the highest age range while those above 61 are the least. Up to 50% of respondents had spent more than 30 years of their lives in their respective communities, while only 4% had stayed in their communities for less than 10 years. Table 4. 1: Bio Data of Respondents Variable Freq. (%) Sex Male 67 (43.2) Female 88 (56.8) 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Variable Freq. (%) Position in HH HH Head 69 (44.5) Non HH HEADS 86 (55.5) Age of Respondents 11- 20 17 (11.0) 21-30 31 (20.0) 31-40 49 (31.6) 41-50 33 (21.3) 51-60 21 (13.5) 61 and Above 4 (2.6) No. of years in Comm. 1-10 6 (3.9) 11-20 33 (21.3) 21-30 38 (24.5) Above 31 78 (50.3) 4.2.1Marital Status There were no recorded divorcees in the District. Of the total, 63.0% of the adult population were married and (7.07%) widowed (Fig 4.2). 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh MARITAL STATUS OF ADULTS DIVORCEDWIDOWS SINGLES MARRIED Fig 4. 1 Marital status households in Lawra District There were difficulties registering the ages of household heads since most were unschooled and did not know their ages. The ages of HH heads were therefore estimated and categorized. The average HH head is between 31-50 years, with the majority 35.5% being those between 31-40 years while 20-30 years constitutes the least number 1.3% (Fig 4. 2) AGE OF HH HEADS 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 20-30 31-40 41-50 Above 50 AGE RANGE OF HH HEADS (YEARS) PERCENTAGE Fig 4. 2 Age distribution of HH heads in the Lawra District 64 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Livelihood Capitals This section presents an assessment of the various livelihood capitals which are Human, Social, Natural, Physical and Financial. 4.3.1 Human Capital This section describes the human capital, where Household (HH) size and Educational Status were considered. 4.3.1.1 HH Size Each HH has between 1 and 27 members. The average number of persons per HH is 9 +/- 5 persons. Using cross tabulation, a chi-square test of independence was performed to understand the variation in house hold size among the three participating communities of the study. From Table 4.2, it is clear there is no significant difference between the number of HH members and their respective communities at chi-square value of 9.03 at 8 df at 0.05 (p –value of 0.340 which is greater than the significant level of 0.05). Oribili has the highest and lowest HH of 60% for 21 persons and above and 12% for 1-5 persons, respectively. Table 4. 2 Cross Tabulation: HH Sizes for Lawra District Community 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 Above 21 Brewong 11 (37.9%) 30 (38.5%) 7 (23.3%) 3 (20.0%) 1 (20%) Kampour 6 (20.7%) 29 (37.2%) 11 (36.7%) 4 (30.8%) 1 (20%) Oribili 12 (41.4%) 19 (24.4%) 12 (40.0%) 6 (46.2%) 3(60%) X2= 9.030 df = 8 P-Value = 0.340 4.1.1.2 Education Only 41.1% of the study population has had formal education, with 67.9%, 25.8% and 6.5% receiving primary, secondary and tertiary education, respectively (Table 4.3). About 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.7% of the HH members in the District are not formally educated. There is a maximum of 10 educated people per HH with an average of 4 +/- 2 persons. To help understand and better appreciate variation in the number of educated people per community, a cross tabulation with chi-square test of independence was performed on the communities at chi-square value of 28.978 at 6 df at p-value of 0.00 (which is less than 0.05) indicating significance. Brewong recorded HHs with up to 10 educated people per HH. Table 4. 3: Cross Tabulation : Number of Educated People per HH Lawra District Communities Brewong Kampour Oribili None 9 (17.3%) 2 (3.9%) 4 (7.7%) 1-3 26 (50.0%) 12 (23.5%) 57 (36.8 %) 4-6 14 (26.9%) 31 (60.8%) 18 ( 34.6%) 7-9 1 (1.9%) 8 (15.7%) 9 (17.3%) 10 2 (3.8%) 0.0% 0.0% X2= 28.978 df = 6 P-Value =0.00 Source: Field date, 2018 4.3.2 Social capital There are a number of co-operatives, self-help groups and cash collection centers in the various communities. Though there are groups that have members consisting of both sexes, there are no functional youth-only or men-only groups in the communities. Reasons some community members ascribed to belonging to the social groups, included their need for loans to assist in trade and the access they could get to immediate cash when in urgent need, such as paying school fees and bearing medical expenses. A number of women only groups which function as cash collecting centers and self-help groups in the various communities were also reported (Table 4.4). Kampour reported only four social groups 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thus the least among the communities, while the other two registered seven each. Membership of the various groups vary from a minimum of 11 to 35 members. Two out of the seven social groups in Oribili are self-help groups. The social groups in the various communities assist members with access to credit for various purposes such as trading, paying school fees and taking care of urgent family needs. Table 4. 4: Social Groups in Lawra District Community Name of Group Sex of Activity Number of Members members Kampour (4) Tietaa Yong Female Collection 25 Center Kampuosongtaa Female Collection 11 center Sungtaa Male and cooperative 20 Female TiotaaPogba Female Self-help-group 7 Oribili (7) Langtaanong Female Self-help group 10 Kobnuo Female Self-help group 20 Yelewontaanuor Male and Co-operative 20 iyini Female Zanuo Female Co-operative 35 Songzele la kpeg Male and Co-operative 35 Female Longtaanong Female Collection 35 center Kobnuo Female Self-help group 20 Brewong (7) Trotaa Male and Co-operative 25 Female Wontaa Female Collection 30 center 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Community Name of Group Sex of Activity Number of Members members Kpetaa Male and Cooperative 35 Female Sungtaa Female Collection 20 center Pagtaa Female Collection 25 center Tigtaa Female Collection 25 center Yelwon-taa Female Collection 26 center Source: Field date, 2018 4.3.3 Physical Capital HH reported diverse types and numbers of physical assets in the three communities. About 86.5% of HH had bicycles while 63% had motor bikes. Only 4% of HH in Oribili and Brewong reported having mechanized pumps for irrigation purposes. Most houses in the communities were roofed with aluminum sheets, with only 7.1% having thatched roofs. All HH reported having 1- 10 hoes and or cutlasses. HH also reported 5 +/- 2. and 3 +/- 1 hoes and cutlasses, respectively, for agricultural purposes. About 6% of HH reported having above 10 hoes while 48.4% reported having 4-6 hoes (Table 4.5). Also 8.4% of HH reported having no cutlasses while 63.9 % reported 1-3 cutlasses as indicate in Table 4.5 below. Table 4. 5: Social Group Involvement Membership by sex Number of Hoes Percentage (%) Number of cutlasses Percentage (%) 1-3 34.2 0 8.4 4-6 48.4 1-3 63.9 7-9 11.6 4-6 27.7 Above 10 5.8 Above 6 0.00 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4 Natural Capital The study communities are more rural than urban therefore inhabitants have access to vast amounts of natural resources which they leveraged to enhance livelihood. 4.3.4.1 Land Each household in the community has a parcel of land which is used for farming purposes. The size of cultivated land in the communities per HH is 7 +/- 7 acres. The land is cultivated by households during the rainy season and is the main source of subsistence in the community. During the rainy season, crops like maize, millet, sorghum, ground nuts and beans are among the most predominantly cultivated. No community member in Oribili has less than 1 acre of land while 82% of community members in Kampour have 2-5 acres (Fig 4.3). LAND SIZES PER HH 100 80 60 40 20 0 BREWONG KAMPOUR OLIBIRI 1 ACRE 2-5 ACRE 5-10 ACRE ABOVE 10 ACRE Fig 4. 3:Land Size per HH in the lawra district 4.3.4.2 Irrigation About 16% of Total HH in Oribili and Brewong reported engaging in irrigation during the 2017/2018 dry season (Table 4.6). Communities utilize rivers that run through them as water sources to irrigate their crops. Farming is only done during the dry season because 69 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water levels are high during the raining season. Farm sizes range from 0.2 to 2 acres and are found at the banks of rivers. They farm vegetables like tomatoes, pepper, cabbage, carrots, okro and sometimes legumes like beans. Kampour however does not engage in irrigation because they have no river. Almost 80% of community members involved in irrigation use buckets for harvesting water from the river, however there were reported one treadle and motorized pump for harvesting water in each of the irrigating communities (Fig 4. 4). Table 4. 6 HH engaged in Irrigation in the Lawra District BREWONG KAMPOUR ORIBILI TOTAL YES 11.5 0 36.5 16.1 NO 88.5 100 63.5 83.9 MEANS OF IRRIGATION 100% 90% 80% 70% MECHANISED PUMPS 60% TREADLE PUMPS 50% WATER CANS 40% BUCKETS 30% 20% 10% 0% OLIBIRI BREWONG KAMPOUR Fig 4. 5 Equipment used for irrigation Source: Field date, 2018 70 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.4.3 Water Resources Each of the study communities reported a minimum of five hand dug wells with one or two boreholes as the main source of potable water. About 98.1% of all HH from the three communities expressed satisfaction with them as their main source of water. However, the wells in the communities were not used for irrigation, but only domestic purposes like cooking and bathing. Available livestock in the communities also depended on them. The water sources were within range and community member did not have to travel more than 500M to access them. It was observed that community members lacked the knowledge and skills in accessing their wells for irrigational purposes. 4.3.5 Financial Capital HH members have multiple streams of income where they derived sustenance. The major sources of income include rain fed agriculture, livestock, irrigation, government subventions, sale of NTFPs, petty trading and remittances from family members (Table 4.7). Table 4. 7: Sources of financial income for Lawra District Source Mean/ (GhC) Std. Deviation Proportion of Income% Farming 1294.19 1070.27 27.35 Irrigation 1057.69 920.50 22.35 Livestock 531.14 794.30 20.12 Trading 952.00 1307.16 11.22 NTFP Sale 147.01 108.31 7.61 Pito Brewing 140.00 98.53 5.30 Remittances 250.68 137.66 3.11 Government -subventions 360.00 0.00 2.96 Total 4732.71 4436.73 100.00 Source: Field date, 2018 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There were no formal financial institutions operational in any of the three communities leaving some over 80% of HH without access to formal banking services (Fig 4. 6). However, over 18.0% of HH men and 52.0% of HH women reported involvement with self-help and cooperative groups. In these self-help groups, members made weekly contributions of between 2 to 5 Ghana Cedis (GhS). These contributions were loaned with low interest to individual group members on a quarterly basis, especially to members with urgent financial needs. Most male members of the cooperative groups reported receiving inputs like fertilizers, seeds and ploughing services from their organisations operational in the region in exchange for portions of their harvest. In Kampor, nobody had access to formal banking services while about 10% of HH reported having access to formal banking service in Oribili (Fig 4. 7). Some community members reported taking loans from other sources like family, friends and loved one’s when in urgent financial need. ACCESS TO BANKING SERVICES 100 80 60 40 20 0 BREWONG KAMPOUR OLIBIRI COMMUNITIES COMMERCIAL BANK SELF HELP GROUPS OTHER SOURCES Fig 4. 5 Distribution of Access to Banking services in the Lawra District Though most community members belonging to groups have access to loans, they expressed varying degrees of difficulty in getting access and repaying back. When asked how easy it was getting access to loans, about 70% of HHs from Kampour responded it was very difficult while 3.9 responded it was very easy (Fig 4.6). Difficulties in accessing 72 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh loans was due to limited amounts of cash that could be loaned to only a few individuals at a time. EASE OF LOAN ACCESS 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 VERY QUITE EASY QUITE VERY EASY EASY DIFFICUL DIFFICUL T T OLIBIRI 11.5 46.2 11.5 30.8 0 KAMPOUR 3.9 0 7.8 19.6 68.6 BREWONG 11.5 34.6 28.8 15.4 9.6 Fig 4. 6 Ease of accessing loans from in Lawra District Respondents also expressed varying degrees of difficulty with paying back the loans accessed. About 36.5% of community members in Oribili said it was easy while 23.1% asserted it was very difficult repaying back their loans (Fig 4.6). EASE OF LOAN REPAYMENT 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 VERY QUITE EASY QUITE VERY EASY EASY DIFFICUL DIFFICUL T T OLIBIRI 15.4 17.3 7.7 36.5 23.1 KAMPOUR 0 29.4 41.2 29.4 0 BREWONG 9.6 19.2 38.5 25 7.7 Fig 4. 8 Ease of paying back loans in Lawra District 73 PRCENTAGE (%) PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.1 Relationship between the various livelihood capitals and volume of NTFP produced. A correlation test was run between the various livelihood capitals and the volume of NTFP produced (Table 4.8). In running the correlation tests, the researcher selected factors among the capital which were possessed by all HH and standardized for that livelihood capital. This was done for evenness. For instance, in the case of human capital, HH size was preferred to educational status as not all HH had educated persons. However, for social capital, group membership still had to be used even though only 18.0% and 52.0% of HH reported men and women respectively as being part of groups. This was because group membership was the only variable reported for social capital. From the correlation test only financial capital and natural capital were significant (Table 4.7). Financial capital showed a negative correlation while natural capital showed a positive correlation. Table 4. 8: Correlation test results for livelihood capitals and volume of NTFPs (Shea Nuts) Livelihood capitals Pearson correlation coefficient p –value Human capital HH size 0.123 0.064 Social capital Group Membership -0.112 0.083 Financial capital Rain fed farming -0.78*** 0.021 Natural Land 0.395*** 0.000 Physical Hoe -0.118 0.071 *** = significance at < 0.05 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Market Access None of the three (3) study communities had their own markets. Community members therefore had to commute a minimum of eight (8) kilo-meters to the main Lawra township to market their goods. Depending on the means of travel, one could spend between fifteen (15) minutes to two (2) hours in getting to the market. This and other related factors has led to variation in market access for different community members. 4.4.1 Means of Transportation Community members employed different means of travel to the market. These included Lorries, Bicycles, Motorbikes and going on foot. About 40% of community members from Brewong travel on foot while 3.8% used motorbikes (Fig 4.8). MEANS OF TRANSPORTION TO THE MARKET 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% LORRY MOTOBIKE BICYCLE FOOT OLIBIRI 7.7 11.5 40.4 40.4 KAMPOUR 37.3 29.4 23.5 9.8 BREWONG 0 3.8 19.2 76.9 Fig 4. 9 Distribution for means of transportation to the market 4.4.2 Availability of Transportation Some community members did not have their own means of transport so they relied on public means. They therefore expressed different views about the availability of transportation to the market. In Brewong, 59.6 % of community members said they sometimes had transportation at their disposal while 3.8% did not Fig (4.9). 75 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AVAILABILITY OF TRANSPORTATION 100 80 60 40 20 0 BREWONG KAMPOUR OLIBIRI YES NO SOMETIMES Fig 4. 10 : Distribution for the Availabilty of Transportation in the Lawra District. A one-way analysis of variance was carried out to evaluate the relationship between the availability of transport to the market and the volume of NTFPs (N=155). The independent variables, that is availability of transportation to the market, are indicated below: Table 4.9 : One-Way Analysis of Variance Results Mean Standard Deviation n YES 1.70 1.08 73 NO 1.22 1.15 11 SOMETIMES 1.291.08 0.91 71 The assumption of homogeneity of variance was tested and found tenable using Levene’s test, F (2, 152) = 0.43, P = 0.65. The ANOVA was significant F (2, 152) = 3.35, P = 0.04. Thus, there is significant difference in volume of NTFPs sold by people with means of transport. 4.4.3 Market Information Almost 63% of HH obtain information on the demand of commodities by visiting the market place. Approximately 1% and 2.0% get updates on the demand of commodities via 76 PERCENTAGE (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh radio sets and mobile phones respectively. MTN cell service was available in all the three communities. Regarding commodity prices, 81.0% of HH have to physically visit the market before accessing information on commodity prices. Only 0.7 and 1.3% of HH use radio sets and mobile phones, respectively, to get commodity prices as illustrated in figure (4.11) Table 4.10: Accessing market information in the Lawra District Market information Demand/% Price/% Radio 0.70 0.70 Mobile phone (MTN) 2.00 1.30 Market place 62.10 81.00 Fellow Traders 35.30 17.00 4.4.4 Market Levies About 87% of respondents in all the 3 study communities attested to meeting set financial commitments at the market place. This was a market levy of 50 Pesewas (P) per seller on a daily basis. The levy was collected by the district assembly and was expected to be used to develop infrastructure and waste management in the market. About 13 % of respondents said, the levy in no way hindered their participation in the market. However, the remaining 87% complained it stifled them since they had to pay it once they showed up at the market for business even if they made no sales that day. 4.5 Marketing NTFPs Based on research work carried out by Abdul, (2017), over eighty-five plant and animal based NTFPs were identified in the Lawra District (See Appendix K). Among the plant based, only five of them were identified as readily marketable commodities. These are: Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea tree), Parkia biglobosa (Dawadawa), Adansonia digitata (Boabab), Physalis peruviana (Yellow Berry) and Magnifera indica (Mango). Among the animal based NTFPs, only ‘Korenye’ (Bush Guinea Fowl) which has been domesticated 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and were readily traded in the Lawra District. Animal NTFPs are considered delicacies and would rather be consumed by families and friends. The absence of ready market for NTFPs is a major problem confronting the industry in the Lawra District. This challenge has been reiterated by various shea chain actors and by community members during the focus group interviews. During the focus group discussion, one of the women from Brewong commented: ‘We always have to go and wait for buyers in the market without any level of assurance’. Another woman form Kampour added that: ‘Sometimes there is too much product on the markets and few buyers’. Women on some occasions had to carry their products back home due to market disappointment. This could be attributed to the oversupply of product on the market. However due to the need for cash, woman had to sell their products even if the price did not favour them. It’s not uncommon for buyers to exploit rural people in these circumstances. The absence of a ready market for the product was also highlighted by a women’s group leader in shea butter production. She emphasized that: ‘Aside the marketing challenge, we do not have any other issues’. She added, ‘Now even banks and other financial stakeholders are ready to help us increase our volumes, but there are just no buyers for our shea butter’. Some women from the households employed other tactics like moulding the shea butter into small round balls, a packing and marketing technique which is as old as the trade of the commodity. This helps to drive sale as people who may not be able to afford larger portions can make do with the small balls. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When asked if the absence of any of the capitals hindered or limited the marketing of NTFPs, most respondents consented (Table 4. 9) Table 4.11: : Limitation in livelihood capitals for NTFP marketing Capitals Percentage % Financial Capital 100 Social Capital 30 Physical Capital 75 Natural Capital 60 Human Capital 50 Source: Field data, 2018 4.6 Harvesting and Processing NTFPs 4.6.1 Harvesting The major challenges with the harvesting of NTFPs in the Lawra District are safety and transportation concerns. Donkey carts, a major transportation infrastructure for collection of NTFPs, especially shea nuts, were absent in all the three Districts. Women have to endure long distances on foot in the wild to gather and carry the wild fruits home. Though some HH may have bicycles and motorbikes, they are mostly not accessible to women since they do not own them. One woman said during the focus group discussion: ‘We travel long distances into the wild on foot setting off at dawn’. Women would typically put on only a cloth around their chest devoid of any kind of safety kits and footwear setting off to the wild to collect these fruits before the light of day to avoid competition. This practice exposes the women to countless risks in the wild like snakes and scorpion’s bites. Another woman in Kampour confirmed this when she said: 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ‘We only pray to God nothing happens to us’. When asked how they manage to evade the wild creatures, one man also in Kampour answered that: ‘We have a concoction we get from the medicine man which we can rub around our body to drive away the wild creatures’. All households reported involvement in the collection of one of the three common NTFPs (Table 4.10). Table 4. 12: Percentage of HH involved in the collection of the most popular NTFPs Communities Shea % Dawadawa % Baobab/ % Brewong 100.00 94.2 69.2 Kampour 100.00 64.7 17.6 Oribili 100.00 53.1 7.8 Source: Field data, 2018 Gathering NTFPs is predominantly a women’s trade however some communities reported a significant level of involvement and support from other family members (Table 4.13). Table 4. 10: Family involvement in the collection, processing or marketing of NTFPs Community Brewong Kampour Oribili Wives 44 (97.8%) 48 (96.0%) 49 (98.0%) Children 36 (72.0%) 33 (64.7%) 48 (92.3%) Husbands 1 (2.0%) 14 (28.0%) 1 (2.0%) HH Heads 3 (5.8%) 20 (39.2%) 0 (0.0%) Whole Family 1 (1.9%) 9 (17.6%) 0 (0.0%) 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.2 Processing The researcher observed from the field visit that because of the intense nature of processing NTFPs, community members preferred to sell the raw nuts to aggregators who paid them instant cash than to endure the rigor of processing the nuts into butter which could have guaranteed better financial returns. A 50-year-old woman in Brewong said: ‘We have to boil, pound and fry the nuts all by ourselves, the whole process is tiring’. Processing of NTFPs still remains a major challenge in the District. Women still employ crude and traditional technologies of shea butter extraction using grinding stones, wooden mortars and pistils to process shea nuts into butter. Currently, Oribili and Brewong do not have grinding mills. Therefore, women who want their nuts crushed have to walk not less than six kilometers (6 Km) to the main District carrying their cargo on their heads. The use of traditional cook stoves which are not energy efficient also affects energy costs and its use. The high cost of fire wood used in the production would generally affect the unit cost of production of the shea butter in the communities. The use of saucepans for roasting nuts instead of energy efficient roasters wastes time and dissipates heat thus increasing the unit cost of production. Women in all the three Districts complained about the stress involved in processing nuts to butter due to the absence of appropriate machinery. 4.7 Perception on climate change Up to 98% of the sample populations in Brewong confirmed decrease in the amounts of NTFPs collected, they also attributed the decrease to the recent change in weather (Table 4.14). About 94.2% of them did also claim it affected trading in the commodity. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4. 11: Perception on Climate Change and availability of NTFPs Community Brewong Kampour Oribili Decrease of NTFPs 98.10 86.00 56.50 Weather responsible for decrease 100 94.1 76.9 Weather affecting NTFP Trade 94.2 72 55.8 In the course of the focus group discussions, community members also attested to the effects recent weather patterns have on trading in NTFPs. In Ka.0258/mpour, a man said: ‘When, it does not rain we are not able to get much fruits, recent reduction in the volume of rains has affected the amount of shea nuts we can now get from the wild’. This accession was also confirmed by a woman during the focus group discussion at Olibir: ‘Rain helps us to get lots of nuts’ In Brewong and Oribili, they blamed the upsurge on wind activities particularly regarding the decrease in volume. One woman said: ‘Heavy winds prior to rains in the rainy season blow off flowers from trees reducing the amount of fruits we may get in the season’. Apart from community members, shea chain actors also blamed the recent change in weather patterns on decrease in volume of nuts. During an interview with a women’s group leader, she claimed: ‘The amount of rain we now receive is too small, when we receive a good amount of rain, you would see that the nuts are big-big, and even trees would have lots of nuts but now the trees do not get enough water like before’. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Value Chain Analysis 4.8.1 NTFP Actors and Use in the Lawra District The NTFP value chain begins with collectors from the wild mostly made up of women and children. Some NTFPs are collected and eaten raw on the field, taken home by collectors to be consumed at home by the whole family as a meal or processed into nuts or butter for sale. NTFPs are usually consumed for meals at the peak of the lean season between February to April. The inedible but essential parts like seeds, nuts and leaves can be further processed at home to be used for cooking or sold for cash. On a typical day, a woman could collect a basin full of shea nuts which weighs between 15- 25 Kg. The quantity carried would depend on the distance to be covered back home and the age of the woman. Women would bear heavier loads if the distance to be travelled back home is short or if she is youthful. Between 1 and 3 hours is the time required to collect a basin full of shea. Apart from the raw consumption by collectors, NTFPs can also be sold directly to consumers on the open market. A bowl of raw shea fruits which weighs about 1.7-2.5 Kg and Mango fruits between 1.5-2.0 Kg could be sold at 50 Pesewas (P) i.e. 0.10 (US$) and 1 (GhS) i.e 0.21 (US$), respectively. However, some raw NTFPs like mangoes and dried shea kernels may be purchased by aggregators from collectors on the field or in the market. This is then transferred to bigger towns like Wa to be sold for higher gains of between 50- 200 %, which also depends on the means of travel and the purchased volume. Some aggregators and shea butter producers are in partnerships with some rural dwellers to collect and process shea nuts for them to purchase. However, there was no case of pre- financing. In an interview with an aggregator, she said: ‘When we visit the rural people to collect or buy the nuts, we often go with gifts like sugar and salt to express our appreciation for the products.’ 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Collectors, Shea butter processers (groups) and aggregates were the identified as the only actors in the value chain of NTFPs within the three study communities. However, apart from the collectors who sometimes process their nuts into butter, Shea butter processing groups and aggregators were not observed on the field. Fig 4. 10 Chain Actors and Value Addition for NTFPs in the Lawra District Source: Author’s Construct, 2018 4.9 Profitability Analysis 4.9.1 Shea Kernel Production cost This section presents processing cost for shea kernel in the Lawra District. The unit price for processing a bag of shea kernel increased by 1 (GhS) every year since 2015. Over 80% of the cost of production can be attributed to the cost of fuel wood (Table 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.16). In other to calculate the % constituent of individual inputs, the researcher divided each by the total input cost. Table 4. 12: Processing Cost of Shea Kernels Item 2015 % 2016 % 2017 % (GhS) (GhS) (GhS) Firewood 1.50 88.2 2.20 81.5 2.50 75.8 Water 0.20 11.8 0.50 18.5 0.80 24.2 TOTAL 1.70 2.70 3.30 4.9.2 Shea butter production Cost This section presents cost of shea butter production in the Lawra District 4.9.2.1 Shea Kernel Price Available market information from trader indicates that price of kernel is not steady throughout the season but is regulated by demand and supply factors. As seen in Table 4.16 below, the price for nuts is sold for 80 (GhS)/bag when it is in season and can cost as much as 210 (GhS) when it is out of season. Table 4. 13 :Cost of Shea kernel in the Lawra District Year Lowest Price Highest Price Average Price (GhS/bag) (GhS/bag) (GhS/bag) 2015 70 130 100 2016 80 140 110 2017 80 155 120 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The overall average cost incurred in shea butter production per household is lower compared to that of the cost from trained women groups (Table 16). This is because households have free access to nuts and do not have to buy them. However, trained groups are able to get other services and production materials like water and transportation at a reduced cost due to the economies of scale. Generally, because production groups do larger scale production of up to 40 tons per annum, they benefit from cost of scale. This reduces the unit cost of production quite considerably compared to individual HH who depends on public services like utility and transportation. The most expensive component of shea butter production is the cost of procuring nuts which accounts for a little over 61% of the total cost of production. The price of nuts increased by 5 GhS in 2016 and 2017 (Table 4.17). However, its percentage constituent in the overall price dropped by almost 3 % to 59.11% by 2017. Table 4. 14: Cost for Shea butter production by Women’s Groups (WG) and House Holds (HH) in the Lawra District: 2016-2017 Item 2015 2016 2017 (GhS)/Bag (GhS)/Bag (GhS)/Bag WG HH WG HH WG HH Shea kernel 100.00 0.00 110.0 0.00 120.0 0.00 Firewood 4.00 6.00 5.50 7.00 6.00 8.00 Water 2.10 1.50 2.10 2.00 2.50 3.00 Transport 5.5 5.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.50 Milling 15.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 22.00 25.00 Other 1.5 2.00 2.50 3.00 2.50 4.00 Total 128.1 34.50 146.10 38.00 159.0 46.50 Source: Field data, 2018 Below is average cost of material for processing shea kernel in to butter (Table 4.18). It is calculated taking costs from WG and HH from (Table 4.17) above. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15: Average cost of materials for processing a bag of shea kernel into shea butter 2015 2016 2017 Item % % % (GhS) (GhS) (GhS) Shea kernel 50 61.50 55 60.40 60 59.11 Firewood 5 6.15 6.25 6.86 7 6.89 Water 1.8 2.21 2.05 2.25 2.5 2.46 Transport 5.25 6.45 6 6.58 6.25 6.15 Milling 17.5 21.52 20 21.96 23.5 23.15 Other 1.75 2.152 1.75 1.92 2.25 2.21 TOTAL 81.3 91.05 101.5 Table 4.19 below indicats costes of nut aggregaters. Transportation is the highest among costs beared by Aggregaters Table 4. 16 Cost component for shea kernel traders (Aggregators): 2010-2012 Item 2015 % 2016 % 2017 % (GhS) (GhS) (GhS) Transportation 3.50 39.77 3.50 35.71 4.00 37.73 Sacks 4.00 45.45 5.00 51.02 5.0 47.16 Store rent 0.50 5.68 0.50 5.10 0.6 5.66 Loading/offloading 0.80 9.09 0.80 8.16 1.00 9.43 Total 8.80 9.80 10.60 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.9.3 Profits by various actors In order to calculate profits made by actors, we subtract costs incurred for production from the revenue generated by the commodity. Annual revenue is calculated by multiplying the entire volume sold in the year by the gains per bag. A bag, i.e. 90Kg of shea kernel, produces 33 kg of butter. The average cost of shea butter in the Lawra District for 2017 was 6 GhS per kg (See Table 4.18) Table 4. 17: Average price of shea butter in Lawra District Year 2015 2016 2017 Price (GhS)/Kg 4.5 5 5.5 Source: Field date, 2018 Actors in the chain make variable profits with the collectors at the grass roots making the most gains (Table 4.21). Shea butter producers make the least gains in the value chain. Table 4. 18: Profit margins of chain actors/bag: 2010-2012 Item 2015 2016 2017 (GhS) (GhS) (GhS) Collector 68.30 77.30 76.7 Aggregators 21 20.2 24.4 Shea Processor 17.2 18.95 20 Source: Field date, 2018. 4.10 Quality Standards for Shea Butter Below are results for Quality standards of shea butter samples from HH and Women’s Group (WG) in the Lawra District. Both shea butter sample have no traces of any impurities (Table 4.22). The sample from the women’s group beats the sample from the HH for all 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh test parameters with the exception of Peroxide levels. Comparing the results to the RTCCDARS, samples would be Graded 2 as the FFA levels are greater than 1. Table 4. 19: HH Shea Butter Sample Results Test conducted Unit HH WG RTCCDARS GRADE 2 Standard Moisture Content % 0.04 0.03 >0.05 - 0.2 Free Fatty Acid % 2.13 1.78 >1.0 - 3.0 Impurities % Nil Nil >10.0 - 15.0 Peroxide Value mEq/Kg 4.86 5.12 >0.09 - 0.2 4.11 Pesticide Analysis Results Below are results for pesticide analysis of shea butter sample from household and women’s group in the Lawra District. The Shea butter sample from the HH has recorded above the permissible levels for Chlorpyrifos pesticide residue while results of the sample from the women were within acceptable limits for all test parameters (Table 4.23). Table 4. 20 : HH and Women’s Group Shea Butter Pesticide Analysis Results TEST CONDUCTED UNIT RESULTS TEST METHODS HH WG Methamidophos Mgkg-1 Below Below limits MMR (GC-pfpd and GC-ECD) limits Ethoprophos Mgkg-1 Below Below limits GSA-SM-T04* limits Dimethoate Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Beta-HCH Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TEST CONDUCTED UNIT RESULTS TEST METHODS HH WG Delta-HCH Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Diazinon Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Fonofos Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Lindane Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Heptachlor Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Pirimiphos-methyl Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Malathion Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Chlorpyrifos Mgkg-1 3.38 Below limits Aldrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Parathion Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits chlorfenvinphos Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Allethrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Profenofos Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits p’p’-DDE Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Dieldrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Endrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TEST CONDUCTED UNIT RESULTS TEST METHODS HH WG Alpha- Endosulfan Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Beta-Endosulfan Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Endosulfan Sulfate Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits pp'-DDT Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Bifenthrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Fenpropathrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Methoxychlor Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Lambda-cyhalothrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Permethrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Cyfluthrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Cypermethrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Fenvalerate Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits Deltamethrin Mgkg-1 Below Below limits limits 4.11 Institutional Involvement Though various state and privately-owned institutions are involved in various projects and advocacy roles in the District, none of them are directly involved in the promotion, sale 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and marketing of NTFPs. Table 4.24 shows state and private institutions currently operational in the study communities. Table 4. 21 Formal Institutions in the Lawra District Activity Activity Type Lawra District Assembly District Administration Government Fire Service Fire fighting Government Environmental Protection Environmental Protection Government Agency Forestry Commission Forestry Government United Nation Environmental Protection Non-Governmental Environmental Programmer Organisation Pronet Commercial Farming Cooperative Group West Link Farm Commercial Farming Cooperative Group 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION. 5.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the results of the proceeding chapter in the context of existing literature. The focus of the discussion is on how the various livelihood capitals; which are Human, Social, Natural, Financial and Physical capitals, affect marketing systems for NTFPs. In addition, the perception of climate change by farmers and how market access influences adaptation, the profitability analysis of shea products as well as its biophysical properties for meeting export standards, are discussed 5.2 Livelihood Capitals 5.2.1 Human Capital Human capital are the skills, experience, good health and the ability to work that makes it possible for people to pursue different livelihood strategies to attain their livelihood objectives (DFID, 2001). It is an important factor that drives economic growth (Romer, 1986; Gyimah-Brempong and Wilson, 2004). A number of studies have shown a positive correlation for HH numbers and their income although many of these are based on commercial agriculture that have higher labour requirements (Angelsen and Wunder, 2003). Haggblade et al. (2003), for example, after segregating HH members into sexes, found a corresponding increase in income as the number of people increased. In the study communities of the Lawra District, increasing household numbers do not necessarily translate into increases in the amounts of NTFPs harvested in 2017, hence it does not also improve market systems. This means increasing number of people per HH would not also complement climate change adaptation efforts in the Lawra District. 5.2.2 Social capital: Social Capital is the resource from which people draw from to attain their livelihood objectives, and includes; networks, membership of organizations, entertainment and trust (DFID, 2001). Generally, social capital has been acknowledged as a factor that can 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influence income through diversification (Ellis 2000; Davies, 2003). However, findings from studies like Mwanza (2011) showed no relationship for the number of people per HH belonging to social group and their income since social groups they belonged to like Parent Teacher Association (PTA) membership did not directly influence HH income. This is also the case for the Lawra District where increasing social group involvement did not necessarily translate into increasing amounts of NTFPs harvested in 2017. Social groups in the Lawra district were not formed for the collection and processing of NTFPs, hence they do not directly affect volumes of NTFPs collected or its marketing systems. This means increasing number of people per HH in social groups would not directly complement climate change adaptation efforts in the Lawra district. 5.2.3 Financial Capital: This refers to financial resources people use to attain their livelihood outcomes and includes stocks and flows which could be used to enhance production and consumption (DFID, 2001). HH with larger financial capital tend to register higher volumes of NTFPs produced as they are able to invest more in NTFPs (Kibria et al. 2016). Uberhuage et al. (2012) also supports this argument as the wealthier families in Bolivia were primarily harvesters of NTFPs. However, in the case of Lawra District, HHs with larger financial capitals registered lower volumes of NTFPs. It implies that boosting the financial capital of households would not necessarily lead to an increase in the volume of NTFP produced hence would not directly complement climate change adaptation measures. 5.2.4 Natural Capital: These are natural resource stocks from which resource flow and services useful for livelihoods are derived (DFID, 2001). A number of studies including Mwanza (2011) have reported a direct connection for HH income and the amount of land owned for rural duelers. Results from the Lawra district are in line with these findings as the volumes of NTFP collected had a direct linkage with the amount of land owned. This implies an increase in land would directly influence the amount of NTFP harvested, hence would also directly affect market systems and also impact climate change adaptation efforts positively. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.5 Physical capital This encompasses the basic infrastructure needed to complement livelihood. Examples include shelter, energy, roads, transportation and so on (DFID, 2001). Possessions of Physical assets generally tend to increase the amount of NTFP collected as in the case of Kibria et al. (2016) where having a television played a significant role in crab collection through the increase of family cohesion. However, in the case of the Lawra District, there was no linkage between possession of physical assets and the volume of NTFP collected. This implies that having direct physical assets in no way influences market systems for NTFP. It means improving physical assets in the Lawra district would not directly enhance climate change adaptation efforts. 5.3 Profitability Analysis Profitability of shea decreases across the value the chain for actors in the Lawra District. Shea butter processors make a third of the profit a nut collector would make from a 90 Kg bag of nuts. 5.4 Quality Parameters Quality standards of shea butter were in line with international standards. This would greatly influence and better market systems which would also in turn enhance the use of NTFP as a climate change adaptation strategy in the Lawra district. 5.5 Pesticide Analysis Pesticide analysis indicates residue levels of pesticide in samples from HH are beyond acceptable limits and would affect the potential export of the commodity. This would have dire consequences on market systems and would also negatively impact climate change adaptation efforts in the Lawra district. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 Climate change and Its effect on NTFP In a similar study, Kunwar (2013) extensively examined climate change impacts on medicinal, aromatic and some important tree species in the Sacred Himalayan Landscape, Nepal. Kunwar (2013) confirmed changing weather patterns affects population, distribution, phenophases, morphology, and deterioration of NTFP and livelihood of indigenous people who depend on them. This is in line with results from the Lawra District as most respondents claimed climate change was affecting their livelihood. 5.7 Market Access Generally, improvement in transportation leads to improvement in market access as in the case of a study carried out in Bagamoyo District in Tanzania (Mugambi, 2012). This is similar to findings from the Lawra District as they increase in available transportation availability would improve market systems that would in turn improve climate change adaptation efforts. 5.8 Market Systems for NTFP in the Lawra District. A marketing system is a “complex social network of individuals and groups linked through shared participation in the creation and delivery of economic value through an exchange” (Layton, 2015). Unfortunately, individual components like social, and institutional capacity are currently not employed in the Lawra District to drive the market for NTFP in the District. This is evident from the absence of advocacy groups (Institutions) and social groups to directly drive and promote markets for NTFP in the Lawra District. We cannot ignore the fact that the development of market systems has social structure and organizations as its bedrock (Layton, 2015). Market systems include value chain (Campbell, 2014). From the profitability analysis, profitability for a bag of shea did decrease as one moved higher in the value chain. This did not meet the researches expectation as the effort in financial investment, risk and physical effort needed at the top of the value chain may be more. The absence of processing and Organisation at the District level can be linked to the reduction in profitability as you move up the value chain. Market systems include other systems. Seeking to make improve 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ment of any one of the livelihood capitals and leaving out others could lead to a systemic failure of the whole. The absence of advocacy groups and institutions which could make systemic input and contributions to enhance markets for NTFP was missing. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Introduction This chapter presents the major findings from the study. It also deduces conclusions and makes the key recommendation that could inform policy and interventions which can promote marketing systems for NTFPs to assist its use as a climate change adaptation in the Lawra District. 6.2 Summary of Key Findings In terms of human capital, HH has members with an appreciable number of educated people. However, not all HH recorded educated persons. Taking social capital into consideration, co-operative, self-help groups and cash collection centres were reported in the various communities. The groups consist of mixed sexes and female only groups. There was however no report on youth and only men’s groups. Reasons some community members ascribed for joining the social groups included their need for loans to assist in trades and the access they could have to immediate cash when in urgent need to cater for expenses like paying school fees and taking care of medical expenses. Considering physical capital, HHs reported different kinds and amounts of physical assets in the three communities. Some physical capitals reported in the District included bicycles, motorbikes and mechanized pumps. In terms of natural capital, each household in the community had access to a parcel of land and potable from either well or boreholes which is used for farming and domestic purposes respectively. With regards to financial capital, the major sources of income included farming activities, livestock, irrigation, government subventions, the sale of NTFPs, petty trading and kingship remittances. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In terms of market access, none of the three (3) study communities had their own markets. Each HHs reported different kinds of means they used to the market. These included, going on foot, using bicycles, motorbikes or lorries. Among the over eighty-five NTFPs identified in the Lawra District, only five of them were identified as readily marketable commodities. These include Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa, Lannea acida, Physalis peruviana and Magnifera indica. The absence of a ready market for NTFP is a major problem confronting the industry in the Lawra District. The major challenges with the harvesting of NTFP in the Lawra District were identified as safety and transportation concerns while processing had to do with the absence of financial and physical capital. Women still employ the crude and traditional technology of shea butter extraction using grinding stones, wooden mortars and pistils to process shea nuts into butter. Climate change is taking a toll on the study communities and is adversely affecting the marketing and trading of NTFP. A great number of persons in the study communities confirmed a decrease in the amounts of NTFP collected, they also attributed the decrease to the recent change in weather which also affected the trading of their commodities. Nut collectors and HH shea butter producers were the only identified actors of the shea value chain living in the 3 study communities. Profitability decreased as one moved up the value chain. In terms of Quality standards, shea butter samples from the HH was found to be contaminated with high levels of pesticide while the butter from the women’s groups met all standards and was also found to be of better quality to the sample from the HH. 6.3 Conclusions The study concluded that improving the various livelihood capitals would not have a significant impact on improving the market system for NTFPs. However, improving market access had a significant impact to improve market systems as a climate change adaptation. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, profitability was found to decreased across the shea nut value chain and quality standards for shea butter from the HH did not meet international standards while shea butter from the women’s group did. 6.4 Recommendations. In light of the above finding, 1. Interventions to improve market systems should be in all the five livelihood capitals as selecting few would lead to a systemic failure in the markets. 2. The district should partner with the Metro Mass Transit Service to make transportations to and from rural communities to the main district on market days. 3. The District assembly should also partner with Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) to train the rural folks on quality standards and the use Kiln stoves for shea butter production. 4. 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[http://www.mwanza.go.tz/kurasa /habari_mpya/socio%20economic%20profile%20OF%20mwanza%20region.pdf] site visited on 8/4/2010. Cited from : Mwakasaka, I. A. (2011). Producer organizations and access to agricultural markets: the case of Mwanza Region in Tanzania (Doctoral dissertation, Sokoine University of Agriculture). Van Dijk, J.F.W., 1999. Non-timber forest products in the Bipindi-Akom II Region in Cameroon, Issues for co- management, Tropenbos-Cameroon Series 4, The Tropenbos- Cameroon Programme, Kribi, Cameroon, p. 197 . Vargo, S. L., Koskela-Huotari, K., Baron, S., Edvardsson, B., Reynoso, J., and Colurcio, M. (2017). A systems perspective on markets–Toward a research agenda. Journal of Business Research . W. Cavendish Empirical regularities in the poverty–environment relationship of rural households: evidence from Zimbabwe. World Development, 28 (2000), pp. 1979-2003 . W. 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The effects of education on farmer productivity in rural Ethiopia. The Centre for the Study of African Economies Working Paper Series, 91. Yamamoto, K., Shibahara, A., Nakayama, T., and Kajimoto, G. (1986). Determination of double-bond positions in methylene-interrupted dienoic fatty acids by GC-MS as their dimethyl disulfide adducts. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, 60(1), 39-50. Zamasiya, Byron, Nelson Mango, Kefasi Nyikahadzoi, and Shephard Siziba. 2014. "Determinants of Soybean Market Participation by Smallholder Farmers in Zimbabwe." Journal of Development and Agricultural Vol. 6(2), 49-58,. Zereyesus, Y. A., Embaye, W. T., Tsiboe, F., and Amanor-Boadu, V. (2017). Implications of Non-Farm Work to Vulnerability to Food Poverty-Recent Evidence from Northern Ghana. World Development, 91, 113-124. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix A UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME Questionnaire for household interview My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. PERSONAL INFORMATION Name __________________________________________________ Sex ______Age _____ Village ________________________________ Number of years living in village _________ SECTION 1 Household demographics/ human capital 1.0 Are you the household head 1) YES 2) NO 1.1 If no, how are you related with the household head 1 = husband 2 = wife3 = uncle4 = auntie 5 = grand 6= Other…………………………. 1.2 How old is the household head A 20-30 B 30-40 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C 40-50 D Above 60 1.3 What’s the number of adultswho eat and sleep in this household permanently Total males |__|__| Total females |__|__| 1.4 What are the numbers by marital status of people living in this household Married|__||__| Widowed |__||__| Single |__| |__| 1.5 How many children are in this household? Males |__|__||__| Females|__|__||__| 1.6 The level of education of people in this household are; Primary |__|__||__| Secondary |__|__||__| Tertiary |__|__||__| Uneducated |__|__||__| 1.7 Which members of this household are involved in any harvesting, processing and marketing of any known NTFP? 1 = husband 2 = wife 3= children 4= Household head 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5= Other…………………….. SECTION 2 Income sources and use Income activity 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Does your If yes how much was Who is the main Who is in charge of the household generated in 2016/2017 participant in management of income derive its season? this activity? from this activity? *(use income from (GH C) member codes) this activity? YES NO M F Rain fed Farming Irrigation Livestock/Animal sales/animal product sales Sale of NTFP Trading Brewing Pito 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Remittances/kinship Savings, credit Government allowance *Member codes: 1 = Household head 2 = Husband 3 = women 4 = men 5 = children 2.5 How much of your household income realised during 2016/2017 was used on the following? (with respective amounts) Item Value (GH Cedis) 1 = Educational Expenditure.......................................|__||__||__||__||__||__||__| 2 = Food.................................................|__||__||__||__||__||__||__| 4 = Health Care ...............................................|__||__||__||__||__||__||__ 5 = Others, specify.................................|__||__||__||__||__||__||__| To what extents was your family able to access the following expenditures/services in 2016/2017 seasons compared to the previous 2016/2015 season? 1 2 3 bad better Same 2.6Basic needs (food, housing, clothing) 2.7 Health care and sanitation 2.8 Education 2.9 Agricultural inputs 2.10 Savings SECTION 3A 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Natural capital Land holding and use during the 2016/2017 3.1a How much land does this household possess in Acre? |__||__||__| 3.2a How much land was cultivated during 2016/2017 agricultural seasons in Ha? |__||__||__| 3.3a Is your access to land in anyway hindering your ability to market or process NTFP? 1 Yes 2. No 3.4a If yes,please explain further and suggest what you think could be done to help you SECTION 3.0B Natural capital Water source, abstraction (delivery system) and distribution system for irrigation and other use 3.1b 3.2b 3.3b 3.4b QUALTY AVAILABILITY/ WATER MONTHS MAIN USES OF WATR SOURCE < 3 3-6 6-9 All Water Live House hold Worse Year Crops stock Uses Good Bad Round River Well 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh WATER SOURCE 3.5 b MODE OF ABSTACTION FOR IRRIGATION Bucket Watering can Treadle pump Motorized pump Carnal River Well 3.6b Did your household undertake any 1 = Yes 2 = NO irrigational project during the 2016/2017 season? 3.7b If yes, what are the four most grown/high income crops (last Irrigated crops season? (Rank from the highest to the least) Name of Crop Acreage (AC) 1= Tomatoes 1st = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 2= Pepper 3= Green leaf vegetables 2nd = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 4=Okra 5=Onions 3rd = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 4th = |__||__|................................................|__||__| TOTAL LAND IRRIGATED…………………………………………… 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8 b What Crops did your family cultivate during the last season Rain fed Crops 1 = Millet 2 = Beans Name of Crop Acreage (AC) 3 = Groundnuts 4 = maiz 1st = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 2nd = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 3rd = |__||__|................................................|__||__| 4th = |__||__|................................................|__||__| TOTAL LAND CULTIVATED………………….. 3.9b Which month was land irrigated PLS specify during the 2016/2017 season? 3.10b Did any institution offer advice to 1 = Yes 2 = No the household on irrigation? 3.11b Which Institution? 1 = Government Extension 2 = NGO 3 = District Assembly 4=others, specify........................................................... 3.2b Does the availability of water in anyway affect your trading and processing of NTFP? 1. Yes 2. No 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.13b If yes elaborate on how it is affecting you and suggest what can be done to avert the situation. SECTION 4 Financial capital Does your household have access to any loan facility? 4.1 1= Yes 2= No 4.2 If yes what was the source? 1 = commercial bank Name…………………………………………………………………………………. 2 = Self Help Group Name…………………………………………………………………………………. 3 = other, specify......................................................................................................... 4.3 What was the purpose of the loan 1 = agricultural Input obtained by the household? 2 = Trading 3 = Education 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 = others, specify................................................. 4.4 What was the loan repayment period? 1 = < 3 months 2=< 6 months 3=< 1 year 4.5 How easy is it for your household to 1= Very Easy access the loan facilities 2= Quite Easy 3= Easy 4= Quite Difficult 5=Very Difficult 4.6 How would you describe the 1= Very Easy repayment of loans for this household? 2= Quite Easy 3= Easy 4= Quite Difficult 5=Very Difficult 4.7 Do you think your financial situation in 1 = YES 2= No anyway impedes your ability to trade and process NTFP? 4.8 If yes explain the difficulty and suggest what can be done to deal with this challenge SECTION 5 social capitals 5.1 MEN’S GROUPS TYPE Level of Involvement Effectiveness in meeting BENEFITS needs Leader Some Not Very Quite Not What Active effective Effective effective Collection Center ………………………… Cooperative 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ………………………… 1 = Agricultural inputs 2 = Trading Activities 3= feeling of being part of the community 4= House hold needs 5=Educational needs 5.2 WOMEN’s GROUPS TYPE Level of Involvement Effectiveness in meeting BENEFITS needs Leader Some Not 1 2 3 What Active Cooperative ………………………… Collection Center ………………………… 1 = Agricultural inputs 2 = Trading Activities 3= feeling of being part of the community 4= House hold needs 5=Educational needs SECTION 6 Physical capital 6.1 Do you have productive assets in your household (If no, explain and skip to next section) 1 = yes 2 = no Explain, if no 6.2 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NAME OF ASSET NUMBER VALUE IN GH (cedis) Owner M F 1 = Hoe 2 = Cutlasses 3 = Mechanized Pump 4 = Bicycles 5 = Motor Bikes 6 = Donkey carts 6.3 What is your 1 = Grass thatched house house constructed 2 = Iron roofed house from? 3 = Cement made floor 4 = Mud made floor 6.4 Does your luck of certain physical assetswhich affects your trading and processing of NTFP 1) Yes 2) No If yes please explain and suggest how what can be done to assist yourhousehold SECTION 7 Institutional support TRAINING PROVIDER SEX USEFULNESS TYPE DISTRICT GOV M F NOT QUITE VERY NGO ASSEMBL EXTENSION OTHER 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 Processing of NTFP 1 Effective farming practices 3 Input use like fertilizer 10 Irrigation SECTION 8 Market access 8.1 What is the average time taken from your home to the nearest market place? 1. 0 to 1 hour 2. 1 to 2 hrs. 3. 2 – 5 hours 4. Above 5 hrs. 8.2 Which means of transport do you commonly used to travel to the market place? () 1. By vehicle (buses) 2. By motorcycles 3. By bicycle 4. By foot 5. Others……………………………………………. 8.3 Is there always available transport to move you and your goods 1= yes to and from the market regularly 2= No 3= sometimes 8.4 Where do you get information on the demand and supply of goods? 1. Radio 2. Mobile phone 3.Visit market places 4. Fellow traders/ neighbors 5. Others (specify) 8.5 Where did you get information on the prices of goods and services you produced? 11. Radio 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Mobile phone 3.Visit market places 4. Fellow traders/ neighbors 5. Others (specify)…………. 8.6 Have you encountered any rules or regulations in the market as a seller/buyer of goods and services? 1. Yes 2. No Please explain further with examples…………..……….. 8.7 Do these regulations hinder your enthusiasm on engaging with marketing activities? 1.Yes 2.No 8.8 If yes, how do 1……………………………............................................................... they hinder .......... enthusiasm? 2……………………………............................................................... .......... 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8.9 How do deal with them please explain 8.10 Are you 1. Yes encountering any costs in 2. No enhancing your participation in marketing like taxes and levis 8.11 If yes mention 1…………………………………………………………………… these costs ……… SECTION 9 Processing NTFP 9.1 Does your house hold engage in collection or processing of any NTFP If yes please specify which of 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them…………………………………………………,,, 9.2 Please specify what your house hold does with the above NTFP Gathering ………………………...[ 1] 1 Process into kernel and Nuts………[ 2] 2 Aggregation..……………………....[3 ] 3 Process into butter……………………………[ 4] 4 Exports and retails of processed butter……....[ 5] 5 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.3 Have you in the past few years observed any 1 Yes increase or decrease in the amount and availability of NTFP in your community? 2 No 9.4 If yes, what do you think could attribute to this 1 =changing weather patterns phenomenon 2 = Production methods 3 = Storage conditions. 4 = Storage time 9.5 What have you tried doing to manage these changes? Please explain 9.6 Has the recent changing weather pattern in 1 = YES 2 = NO anyway affected your ability to trade or process NTFP? 9.7 If yes explain 9.8 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh What were the lowest and highest prices you sold shea kernelin the following years Year Lowest price No. of bags Highest price No. of bags (GhC) (GhC) 2015 2016 2017 9.9 Please provide information on total number of bags of kernel processed into butter, quantity of butter obtained and unit prices in each period. Year Total number of Quantity of Lowest price Highest price bags of kernels butter sold/unit (GhC) sold/unit (GhC) obtained(kg) 2015 2016 2017 9.10 What materials were involved in processing 1 bag of kernel into butter and how much did each cost you in each period 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Item/material Unit 2015 2015 2017 Unit Qty Total Unit Qty Total Unit Qty Total Price Price Price Firewood Water Transportation Milling Other …………….. 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix B UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME Focus group discussion for community checklist My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. NAME OF COMMUNITY………………………………………………….....… DATE ………/…………/…………… 1) What are the NTFP processed in this community for sale? 2) 2) What are the challengesof NTFPharvesting, processing and marketing and how do you think they can be addressed 3) Are the current changes in weather patterns having any effects on NTFP in this district? 4) Do you think the institutions in the district are doing enough to enhancemarketing for NTFP? 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix C UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME INTERVIEW CHECKLIST FOR SHEA BUTTER PRODUCING WOMENS GROUPs LEADER My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. NAME/ POSITON OF RESPONDENT………………………………………………….....… TELEPHONE…………………………………………… NAME OF GROUP…………………………………. LOCATION…………………..….. DATE ………/…………/…………… COMPANY BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1. Year of Establishment ………………………… 2. Since when have you been involved shea in butter processing? .............................. 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INTERVIEW CHECKLIST 1. Who do you engage with as a group in the community to undertake your butter production? 2. What kind of marketing challenges do you face in your business and how have you dealt with them in the past 3. What kind of changes have you made to accommodate or deal with these challenges in you butter processing busines 4. What kind of production standards to you work with. 5. Elaborate on how supportive institutions in the district have been helpful with your shea butter production. 6. What were the lowest and highest prices you sold shea kernel in the following years Year Lowest No. of bags Highest price No. of bags price(GhC) (GhC) 2015 2016 2017 7 Please provide information on total number of bags of kernel processed into butter, quantity of butter obtained and unit prices in each period. Year Total number of Quantity of Lowest price Highest price bags of kernels butter obtained sold/unit (GhC) sold/unit (GhC) (kg) 2015 2016 2017 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix D QUESIONAIRES FOR ADVOCACY GROUPS My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. NAME /POSITION OF RESPONDENT………………… TEL No.………………… NAME OF INSTITUTION:…..……… ………………………… LOCATION/DISTRICT…………………………………… DATE ………/…………/…………… BACKGROUND INFORMATION 1.What is your year of establishment? Checklist for key info 1.What is the level of engagement with NTFP producers and marketers in the district? 2. What kind of support do you provide for NTFP producers and marketers in this district? 3. What kind of challenges exist for the marketing of NTFP in the communities? 4. What have you done in the form of interventions to avert the above challenges 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix E UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME INTERVIEW CHECKLIST FOR SHEA NUT AGGREGATOR My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. NAME/ POSITON OF RESPONDENT………………………………………………….....… TELEPHONE…………………………………………… NAME OF GROUP…………………………………. LOCATION…………………..….. DATE ………/…………/…………… BACKGROUND INFORMATION Since when have you been involved in Shea Nut aggregation ? Whats your average volume per nut season? Interview Checklist 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.. What is the level of engagement with communities in this district with regards to your marketing NTFP. 2.. How is the above engagement managed and sustained with the community? 3…What are the challenges you experience in doing business with the communities and how can these be dealt with? 4 What kind of institutional supports has your company received and how they contributed? 5) Has the recent change in weather patterns affected business in any way? 10. What were the lowest and highest prices you sold shea kernel in the following years Year Lowest price No. of bags Highest price No. of bags (GhC) (GhC) 2015 2016 2017 11. What are the lowest and highest prices you bought shea nuts in the following years Year Lowest No. of bags Highest price No. of bags price(GhC) (GhC) 2015 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2016 2017 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix F UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE PROGRAMME QUESTIONNAIRE FOR BANKS/CREDIT SAVINGS ASSOCIATIONS/ MFI’s My name is Kumadey Churchill, a student from the Institute of Environmental Science and Sanitation Studies (IESS) Legon, and as a partial fulfillment of M.Phil. degree, I am undertaking a Research on “IMPROVING MARKET SYSTEMS FOR PROMOTING NON TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS AS A CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY - A CASE SUTDY OF THE LAWRA DISTRICT”. Please be assured that any information provided shall be kept confidential. Thanks for your permission. NAME /POSITION OF RESPONDENT………………… TEL No.………………… NAME OF BANK/CREDIT ASSOCIATION/ MFI……… ………………………… LOCATION……………………………………DATE ………/…………/…………… Interview Checklist 1) Does the company facilitate loans for people in the production and marketing of NTFP in this dostrict? 2) How is the repayment of these loans? 3) Has your financing in anyway contributed to marketing of NTFP in this district? 4) Please fill out the table below 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Category Type of Loan Laon Repayment Arrangement Credit Amount in Period GH Cedis Shea nut Producers Weekly Monthly Yearly Shea nut Aggregators Weekly Monthly Yearly Shea butter processing Weekly companies/women Monthly groups Yearly Shea Butter/Nuts Weekly marketing companies Monthly Yearly 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix G Laboratory Results 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix H Laboratory Results(GSA) 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix I Laboratory Results(GSA) 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix J Laboratory Results(GSA) 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix K PLANT BASED NTFP IN LAWRA DISTRICT Plant Based NTFP 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix L ANIMAL BASED NTFP IN LAWRA DISTRICT 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix M PHOTOS FROM THE FIELD Plate 1: Shea Butter Moulded into Balls For sale Plate 2: Woman returning from the harvest of Dawadawa 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 3: Focus group discussion in Brewong 160