UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY, LECIAD TOPIC: “SPORTS AS A TOOL FOR PROMOTING DIPLOMACY: A CASE STUDY OF AFCON” BY STUDENT NAME: SAMUEL ADJETEY CLELAND STUDENT ID: 10405849 THE DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS DEGREE LEGON OCTOBER 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Samuel Adjetey Cleland, hereby declare that this dissertation is a product of a study conducted by me under the supervision of Amb. Dr. Kodzo Alabo. I further declare that no part of this dissertation has been presented anywhere for any other purpose. …………………………………. ……………………………... SAMUEL ADJETEY CLELAND DATE (STUDENT) ………………………………..... …………………………….. AMB. DR. KODZO ALABO DATE (SUPERVISOR) 09/10/2023 09/10/2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my son Nii Adjei Cleland, Bernice Anima Osei and my entire family and to everyone who contributed towards its successful completion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I thank the Almighty God sincerely for guiding me through this study successfully. I am also extremely grateful to my supervisor Amb. Dr. Kodzo Alabo, for his commitment, guidance and encouragement towards the completion of this work. Equally, I take this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude to my cousin Nii Adjei Sowah, and Nathan Quao, a sports journalist, whose advice and suggestions helped me tremendously throughout this study. My appreciation also goes to my colleagues with no exceptions for their various contributions and encouragement. I am profoundly grateful to all my respondents who follow and love football with great passion from whom I got the inspiration to do this work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv Table of Contents DECLARATION........................................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION........................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... iii ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background ...............................................................................................................................................1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ..............................................................................................................................3 1.3 Scope of the Study ..........................................................................................................................................4 1.4 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................................................4 1.5 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................................5 1.6 Objectives ........................................................................................................................................................6 1.7 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................................................6 1.8 Literature Review ...........................................................................................................................................8 1.9.1 Sources of Data ......................................................................................................................................... 18 1.9.2 Research Design ........................................................................................................................................ 19 1.9.3 Sampling Method, Size, and Population ................................................................................................. 20 1.9.4 Considerations for Ethics ......................................................................................................................... 20 1.10 Limitations of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 20 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters ......................................................................................................................... 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 21 CHAPTER 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 23 2. 0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 23 2. 1 Sports Diplomacy........................................................................................................................................ 23 2. 2 Importance of Sports Diplomacy .............................................................................................................. 24 2.3 Uses of Sports diplomacy in contemporary international relations ........................................................ 26 2.4 Emerging Issues of Sports Diplomacy ....................................................................................................... 27 2.5 Overview of CAF and AFCON................................................................................................................... 29 2.5.1 History of CAF ....................................................................................................................................... 29 2.5.2 Objectives of CAF ................................................................................................................................. 31 2.6 Competitions of CAF ................................................................................................................................... 34 2.6. 1 Club Competitions ............................................................................................................................... 34 2.6.2 Regional CAF Competitions ................................................................................................................ 35 2.6.3 International CAF competitions .......................................................................................................... 37 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 38 CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................................ 39 3. 0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 39 3.1 AFCON and Nationalism ............................................................................................................................ 39 3.2 AFCON as a Foreign policy tool ................................................................................................................ 43 3.3 AFCON and Diplomacy .............................................................................................................................. 46 3.4 AFCON and promoting public diplomacy ................................................................................................ 49 3.5 AFCON as a Tool for Building Good International Image ..................................................................... 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 3.6 AFCON and Integration ............................................................................................................................. 58 3.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 62 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 62 CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................................................................................................................... 65 Introduction 4.0 ................................................................................................................................................. 65 4.1 Summary of Findings .................................................................................................................................. 65 4.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................... 67 4.3 Recommendations........................................................................................................................................ 68 BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................................... 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS AFCON - African Cup of Nations AU - African Union BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation CAF - Confederation of African Football CNN - Cable News Network COMESA - Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa EAC - East African Community ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States EU - European Union FASA - Football Association of South Africa FIFA - Fédération Internationale de Football Association GDP - Gross domestic product IOC - International Olympic Committee IGAD - Intergovernmental Authority on Development KPL - Kenya Premier League MDC - Multichoice Diski Challenge PNDC - Provisional National Defence Council PSL - Premier Soccer League SABC - South African Broadcasting Corporation SAFA - South African Football Association SASF - South Africa Soccer Federation UEFA - Union of European Football Associations WAFU - West African Football Union University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii ABSTRACT For peaceful coexistence, a way of harmonizing the different cultures is key. Sports is an important tool for uniting people, friends and foes, but is also an essential tool in promoting diplomatic relations among states and international organizations. Knight (2020) argues that, diplomacy can be turned to when circumstances necessitate a debate on a round table for people from all walks of life. The research centres on how AFCON, a biennial soccer men's tournament, promotes diplomacy and, in doing so, its achievement with the contribution of all the stakeholders involved, and finally what factors have made it hard for the tournament to promote diplomacy. The research elucidates States’ acknowledgement of this reality and, in some instances, has exploited their influence in global sports in the guise of soft power efforts to further their goals in international affairs. This involves developing and fostering an African identity through AFCON, collaborating with the world community through sports to construct a fair and inclusive global, financial, political, and social order, and advocating adherence for international law and treaty responsibilities, such as the abolition of apartheid and racism. The conceptual framework underpinning this study centres on the concept of power, specifically relating to soft power derived from the shoulders of the civil society. Additionally, this study employs a qualitative research method. Findings from this study show that AFCON has a critical role in fostering unity, promoting nationalism, as a tool for building nation’s international image, as a means for integration and has economic benefits to participating countries despite some of the challenges the Confederation for African Football is confronted with, such as corruption and political instability in host countries, among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Within the international system, states are the leading actors and interact with other states in accelerating trade and economic activities, promoting their national interests and promoting peaceful coexistence through international organizations such as the UN and AU. One of the aims of the United Nation is to preserve and promote peace and security within the international system, and one way of achieving this is through the use of sports which is a tool for soft power by supporting the IOC in organizing the Olympic Games. Sports have the potential to promote the national interest and values of a state, and a tool for promoting diplomacy. It also attracts a lot of interest from millions of people. The United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Sport for Development and Peace, which analyzes the possible contribution that sport may make towards realizing the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), has published reports on this subject. Programs that promote sports for development and peace are successful in promoting the rights of all societal members to engage in sports and leisure activities. Sport and play are combined with other non-sport components in effective Sport for Development and Peace programs to increase their efficacy. They are implemented in a coordinated manner with other local, regional, and global peace and development programs so that they reinforce one another. According to the report, sport is ideally equipped to support nations' efforts to "build back better." Sport, however, cannot, by itself, guarantee peace or resolve complex social. Sport should be positioned as a highly effective tool in a broader toolkit of development practices and should be applied holistically and in conjunction with other interventions and programs. One of the aims of the African Union is “to coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for the peoples of Africa”, and this goal is achieved through the Confederation of African Football, which organizes the biennial competitions for both men and women football. CAF as an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 actor in international sports and a member of FIFA provides the stage for African states to build and promote their image through their participation in the AFCON tournaments. AFCON has gained worldwide recognition because of globalization in recent times and forms part of the social life of many Africans whiles promoting tourism, economic, social, cultural and political integration of African states. In the last four decades or more, African governments and the African Union have used AFCON as a means of strengthening diplomatic relations and accelerating development through the national interests among member-states. AFCON competitions have paved the way for developing and emerging African countries such as Equatorial Guinea, Angola, South Africa, Morocco, Ghana, and Cameroon to host competitions to achieve their national interest as well as diplomatic successes, which are remarkable in recent years. In a similar vein, the international organizations such as UN, EU and AU which take pivotal role in the organization of such sporting competitions have established a strong track record of winning the public's trust by organizing such events. The 2021 edition of AFCON has helped to change the perception of people and institutions which are not of African origin. Prior to the tournament, there were a lot of criticisms from some European club managers and institutions against CAF’s decision to go ahead with the tournament amid COVID-19 concerns, as these clubs were afraid of losing African players from their various leagues. For instance, the European Club Association (ECA) wrote to FIFA to warn against the participation of players of African descent in the tournament. Despite the numerous attacks on AFCON, Patrick Vieira, currently the only black manager in the Premier League, denounced negative sentiments and attitudes against the tournament. He expressed the belief that the tournament merited the respect shared by Ian Wright, a renowned Arsenal and England striker, that such negative thoughts were racist in relation to the African players and countries. However, some of the negative perceptions held by some managers in the Premier League like Liverpool’s manager, Jurgen Klopp, changed when one of his players, Sadio Mane University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 lifted the trophy with Senegal. Adherent followers or reporters of football can debate that he success of Sadio Mane at AFCON gave Liverpool as a club and its fanbase a bigger recognition on the diverse and young population of the African continent. Hence, AFCON helped to improve the image of Africa to some extent and advance the fight against racism and the promotion global peace and development. Traditional forms of diplomacy remain essential in how states relate among themselves within the international system. (Murray, 2013) opines that new forms of diplomacy have emerged which include sports diplomacy as a means for states to promote their diplomatic goals. According to (Nye, 2011), soft power is a potent factor that shapes foreign public opinion and is a less costly alternative compared to the use of force. Sports diplomacy is a research area which has not been largely explored within the African context to help ascertain the extent to which it impacts diplomatic relations among African states. Thus, this research interrogates and analyzes its importance and the challenges therein. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Diplomacy has been used as one of the peaceful tools other than war to resolve conflicts within the international system. States have joined international organizations that employ diplomatic tools such as negotiations, peacebuilding and international conferences to promote good neighbourliness and peaceful coexistence. Diplomats try to help their own country, encourage cooperation between nations, and maintain friendly relations among nations. Diplomacy is not limited to interactions between different governments, but it can also occur between other sites of power and influence, such as huge corporations, religious organizations, NGOs, and even terrorist groups. is a crucial tool required to operate successfully in today’s international system, and it is vital to ensure that humankind can navigate an ever-growing list of shared challenges such as climate change, pandemics, transnational terrorism, and nuclear proliferation that may be our undoing if left unresolved, (McGlinchey, 2017). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Sporting events such as AFCON serve as a platform for strengthening diplomatic relations among states within the international system. It is fascinating to consider sports which are competitive in nature as means of promoting diplomacy. Redeker notes that sports and diplomacy are incompatible and that the use of sports in international relations is mostly beneficial to sporting organizations than states. This is evident as he opines that, “sports are political opium, a para-diplomatic theatre where states and their international relations fall victim to the sportive illusion.” However, scholars such as (Warren, 2018) have a different view, which is that sports diplomacy which knows no title, race, or religion is the best form of diplomacy to turn to. Hence, this study will try to explore these varying opinions by focusing on how AFCON, a biennial soccer men's tournament, has helped promote diplomacy and, in so doing, how much it has achieved with the contribution of all the stakeholders involved; finally, what factors have made it hard for the tournament to promote diplomacy. 1.3 Scope of the Study This research first looked at how sports can be utilized as a diplomatic tool to advance world peace. It also examined the establishment of the Confederation of African Football and its objectives in promoting football in the continent. The work centered on assessing how the African Cup of Nations tourney is used to foster good relations among African states, and also examining the challenges that confront the confederation and key stakeholders. This research covers the utilization of sports in the last five decades on the African continent. 1.4 Significance of the Study With such a rich history dating back over 60 years ago and counting, the AFCON tournament could not have been existing today if it carried no benefits with it. What AFCON brings on board as far as benefits are concerned is diverse. The benefits can broadly be categorized into two, namely, the social benefits and the economic benefits. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 The social benefits help develop better and healthy relationships between the stakeholders. They include intercultural exchanges, highlighting the key issues affecting the nations in the continent like the case of Apartheid in South Africa, where the then rulers of South Africa wanted the national men's soccer team to be fully constituted of the white Boers only. The tournament helped bring this segregation into the limelight, and as a result, South Africa was not allowed to participate in the AFCON. Additionally, AFCON, in its primary pursuance, due to interaction amongst the fans, has enabled people to appreciate their differences by embracing a bigger goal of cheering on their nations. Economically, AFCON has always presented an international market where different people can sell their ideas, goods, and services. The host nations of the tournament have always boasted of a tremendous increase in revenue during such events, with the most recent case of Cameroon reporting a revenue of about $83 million in the just concluded AFCON 2020. The tournament, through its sponsors, also put African talent on an international platform, like the case of Total Energies being the current key sponsor of the tournament. All these benefits then must be what keeps the stakeholders engaged in this tournament. What will this study help in achieving as far as the AFCON tournament and its promotion of diplomacy are concerned? This study will shed light on the significant role of the AFCON tournament in promoting diplomacy. Over time as stated above, international talks and conventions have been given absolute authority as the only ways through which diplomacy can be promoted; however, this study explore how sports diplomacy can play a vital role in promoting diplomacy. 1.5 Research Questions The whole of this study will be guided by but not limited to the following questions: • How does the AFCON tournament promote diplomacy? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 • What are the roles of the stakeholders in promoting diplomacy within the CAF establishment? • What challenges confront the CAF in promoting diplomacy? 1.6 Objectives • To analyze the various means that the AFCON tournaments have been used as a platform to promote diplomacy. • To provide an overview of the Confederation of African Football (CAF), the roles played by the stakeholders, and CAF structures in promoting healthy diplomatic relations. • Ascertain the challenges faced by CAF in promoting diplomacy. 1.7 Conceptual Framework This study was conducted within the framework of Public Diplomacy: According to (Cull, 2009), public diplomacy was introduced by Edmund Gullion who was an American diplomat to emphasize the importance of communication in promoting international relations. He describes public diplomacy as “an international actor’s attempt to manage the international environment through engagement with a foreign public” Cull argues that, states, non-governmental organizations, multi-national corporations, international organizations and terrorist groups are ‘actors’ in the international system. Cull further categorizes the forms of public diplomacy into five which include: Cultural Diplomacy, International Broadcasting, Advocacy and Listening, as the most essential for progressive forms of public diplomacy. Joseph Nye (the author of Bound to Lead) described it as being divided into two major categories; soft power, and hard power. Hard power is associated with the economic payments, military interventions, or sanctions that a state takes part in. He defines it as the capacity a state has to convert potential power when University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 measured using their resources, into power that can be realized as measured through others’ behaviour (Nye, 1990). According to Nye (1990), public diplomacy is a form of soft power which recognizes that power could be exercised through opportunities, human rights, different seductive values, and democratic practices. Nye had realized that as early as in his period, there was an easier way for nations to achieve the outcomes they desire using non-coercive power as compared to the increasing cost of military force when considering international relations with others. He continues to describe that the costs that are incurred when using coercive power have led to less threatening sources of power becoming more important. Nye acknowledges that in an age where economies are becoming more information-based and transnational interdependence is increasing, power shifts and becomes less tangible, less transferable, and less coercive (Tella, 2021). Nye further argued that soft co-optive power was of equal significance to hard command power such that a state’s opposition to wishes relied on its ability to legitimize its power in others’ eyes. Therefore, when ideology and culture were considered enticing, others would easily follow the nation and once it created international norms that coincided with those of its society, it would be unlikely to be required to alter them. Nye refers to Leonard’s three features of public diplomacy which exist due to the fusion of the interactions between governments and cultural elements. Leonard’s first dimension is “daily communications, which involves explaining the context of domestic and foreign policy decisions”. His second dimension, “develops a set of simple themes much as a political or advertising campaign does. The campaign plans symbolic events and communications over the course of the next year to reinforce central themes or to advance a particular government policy”, which focuses on strategic communication. His final dimension University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 highlights the “development of lasting relationships with key individuals over many years through scholarships, exchanges, training, seminars, conferences, and access to media channels.” Conversely, some scholars like Berridge and Melissen contend that public diplomacy affects the real nature of how traditional diplomacy is practised. Berridge asserts that “traditionalists see public diplomacy as a modern name for white propaganda- that is, propaganda admitting its source, and directed mainly at foreign publics, but also at the domestic constituency. Because this ‘fashionable practice’ is not diplomacy in their view, traditionalists consider public diplomacy a misnomer and a largely overrated and misunderstood activity.” Sport, therefore, plays a significant role as a manifestation of public diplomacy and is necessary to study and comprehend the different circumstances where it can be considered to have been effective. Furthermore, with the international system of today that is increasingly interconnected, states attempt to utilize the diplomatic assets they possess to their fullest. For this research, public diplomacy will be used as a concept to ascertain how sports helps improves relations among states. 1.8 Literature Review In the book, Diplomacy: Theory and Practice, (Berridge, 2010) defines diplomacy as “an essentially political activity and, well-resourced and skillful, a major ingredient of power.” He opines that states achieve their foreign policy objectives through their various diplomatic measures without relying solely on coercion or propaganda. In the traditional form of diplomacy, communication is the means through which diplomats promote foreign policies which are coordinated by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs with their diplomatic missions in foreign countries. The functions of these diplomatic missions include advancing friendly relations between states, negotiating on behalf of their sending states and citizens in a foreign country, promoting the policies of governments, and reporting on emerging issues in the host University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 country. He further explains that diplomacy between states is not only conducted through the ambassador or high commissioner but through platforms such as fora, consuls, and international conferences, through which the national interest of the states are enhanced. He mentions that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs can secure the interest of the state through public diplomacy that is different from the traditional type. The essence of the traditional form of diplomacy involves decision-making, formulation and implementation of policies between state authorities and the diplomatic missions while public diplomacy also involves state and non-state actors such as citizens and private organizations in achieving the same goals. Public diplomacy has been instrumental in promoting the Islamic religion in developed countries, promoting democratic systems and ideals in developing and third world countries, broadcasting of information through radio services and the internet, exchange programs for scholars, and promotion of language and culture through the entablement of institutions such as the Confucius institute in various countries, as in the case of the China and the Chinese language. However, some states such as China have tried to curtail the extent to which her citizens are influenced through the internet and social media on the issue, hence have censured the internet. Conversely, Berridge asserts that “traditionalists see public diplomacy as a modern name for white propaganda- that is, propaganda admitting its source, and directed mainly at foreign publics, but also at the domestic constituency. Because this ‘fashionable practice’ is not diplomacy in their view, traditionalists consider public diplomacy a misnomer and a largely overrated and misunderstood activity.” Nye in The Future of Power contests that, there are no similarities between public diplomacy and propaganda. In Sports Exchange As A Tool Of Shaping State’s Image: The Case Of China, (Kobierecki, 2018) asserts China is one of the countries which are using sports to shape their image internationally, as a means to change negative perceptions for a more appealing one. He further explains that China seeks to be known University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 as “a country that cooperates, loves peace and develops, and that is ready to play a constructive role in international politics.”, and pursues this objective by the use of “public diplomacy and nation-building” through sporting and cultural events, radio transmission and sports. For instance, the 2008 Beijing Olympics was one of the pathways for China to brand itself and to earn international “prestige” and recognition, whiles also engaging in “sports exchanges.” China initiated contacts with sports federations and officials from across South-East Asia and Latin America to engage in different sports programmes. These exchanges have been of mutual benefit to all parties, which consequentially help to build a good image for China. Kobierecki states that Africa is one of the continents to benefit from sports exchanges with China, as part of the Chinese foreign policy, to facilitate the development of sports on the continent through bilateral agreements with African states. China has sponsored the construction of stadiums in Africa, such as in Ghana and Kenya, as a symbol of friendship. He further mentions that, Kejian which is a telecommunication firm that sponsors Everton of the English Premier League as a means of branding the Chinese firm through advertisement of the firm’s logo on jerseys and club paraphernalia, while engaging in exchange of Chinese coaches and players with the English club. Kobierecki also argues that the Chinese government uses renowned Chinese sportspeople as ambassadors as part of its branding with the assumption that, these performing athletes attract attention and recognition to the country in the quest to achieve public diplomacy. Yao Ming who was a renowned basketball player became the face of China in the NBA in the United States when he was drafted in 2002 by Houston Rockets as the number-one pick, and played for nine seasons as a professional. Yao Ming was part of the All-Star NBA Team on five occasions. This was a way to improve the Chinese global image in the United States, while also promoting the NBA to Chinese fans. He was also made the flag bearer for the Chinese University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 contingent at the Beijing games, serving as a role model for the Chinese athletes as well as the face of China’s international image branding ambassador, which is an avenue for the use of soft power. According to Kobierecki, China is pursuing its goal of a good image internationally by promoting the Chinese Super League which hosts foreign players and coaches from across the globe to improve the quality of the league. Chinese clubs have also entered into partnership programmes with European clubs to develop talents. Some of these European clubs like Manchester United, Liverpool, Chelsea and Arsenal have held preseason tours on Chinese soil to connect with the fanbase while also providing expertise to their Chinese counterparts. These exchanges have contributed to improving the image of China on the global stage by deploying sports as a public diplomacy tool which has so far been successful. He concludes that China has, however, not abandoned its use of traditional diplomacy to pursue a good international image. Sports and politics on the international scene by (Carrard, 2011), explains the link between politics and sports which are established on three conceptions which are: • States control the organization of sports in totalitarian regimes and persist in states where political structures are “rigid” • In some countries, all sporting-related activities are left in the hands of private bodies which are autonomous and free from any influence by governments. • In Western Europe, the governments provide a legal and general framework for all sporting activities but leave it in the control of autonomous institutions to regulate. According to Carrard, the first model is still evident in many states that are under authoritarian rule with very stringent political institutions; the second model, the private sector solely controls sporting-related issues most especially in the Scandinavian states such as Norway, Russia, Denmark and others. The third model has been prevalently adopted by many states, where governments collaborate with private and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 autonomous sporting bodies. He emphasizes that the relations between sporting organizations and the government depends on the education of the youth, the outcome of sports on electoral systems and the political system within a state. Carrard explains the three reasons why international organizations and governments are interested in sports, Firstly, sporting organizations which are non-state actors have no form of reliance on governments for financial assistance. Secondly, these sporting institutions take into cognizance, political, economic, social and cultural issues in organizing international competitions. Finally, these international sporting events provide an opportunity to foster friendships and improve relations. Carrard traces the link between sports and diplomacy by referring to some historical antecedents. He states that South Africa was barred from participating in the Olympics and was suspended in 1970 due to the issues surrounding the Apartheid system which contravened the provisions of the Olympic Charter, which is the legal framework of the IOC. The charter prohibited members of the IOC from any form of discrimination based on race, colour, religion or politics. The Olympic charter states that “All constituents of the Olympic Movement, in particular the Noes, are bound to comply with the Olympic Charter, failing which they may be suspended by the Ioc or even lose their recognition and thus banned from the world sports community.” This provision is in line with the ideals and aims of the United Nation. He further explains that IOC established a special mission which was made up of renowned Judge Keba Mbaye who at the time was the “Vice-President of the ICJ and an IOC member for Senegal”, to negotiate with the South African contingent which was made up of Nelson Mandela and President de Klerk and top politicians on the reinstatement of South Africa into the Olympic Movement was it was obvious there was going to be a new constitution which will be devoid of the apartheid system. South Africa was given reinstated and gained recognition as a member of the IOC. These steps which were the initial expulsion University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 and subsequent reinstatement were keenly followed globally which reiterated the impacts of sports on politics. In the conclusion of his work, he describes the “new era”, where there is a partnership between the public and private sectors in the regulation and governance of the sporting organization. For instance, the IOC has been given observer status by the General Assembly of the United Nations, which reiterates the link between politics and sports. Again, Carrard refers to the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), which is authorized to fight against doping in sports. He posits that “The board of the foundation and all decision- making bodies are composed, in equal numbers, of representatives of the governments and intergovernmental organizations on one side, of representatives of the Olympic and sports movement on the other side; neither side has the majority and all decisions, including those relating to finances and budgets, are being debated and reached based on a consensus of both sectors.” For this study, Carrard’s work will be fundamental as it examines the three conceptions and how they determine how sporting- related activities are adopted by governments, with some examples from historical events to portray the role of sports in promoting diplomacy. By encouraging intercultural understanding and collaboration, international sports are continually moderating tensions between governments and their people. Since the ancient Greek Olympics, using the Olympics to boost a country's image abroad or strengthen ties between countries has been a diplomatic tactic (Pigman, 2010). Sports are beneficial because they may reach the elite politicians (the governments) and their people (spectators) through their shared passion for sports. As a result, international sporting events can help to promote bilateral and multilateral relations. Bilateral sporting events were frequently utilized to enhance contact between hostile countries during the Cold War. For example, ping-pong diplomacy between the US and China permitted two foes from the Cold War to rekindle conversation in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 a politically divided climate. President Nixon's diplomatic initiative thawed relations with China, resulting in better bilateral relations between the two countries in the following decades. Another example of excellent sports diplomacy was the cricket diplomacy between India and Pakistan. Pakistan's president at the time, General Zia ul-Haq, attended a test cricket match between Pakistan and India in Jaipur just after the Soviet invasion of 1987 in Afghanistan, a visit that appears to have helped calm tensions caused by Soviet pressure on India. In addition, India toured Pakistan in 2004 after a fifteen- year hiatus while pursuing diplomatic efforts to end mutual enmity that had persisted for half a century. For each other, both sides loosened their strict visa rules, allowing thousands of supporters to cross the border. Ahsan (2022) argues that football can be used by China as a tool of soft power in the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) to placate critics. The CPEC is a strategic trade route to the Indian Ocean that promises to expand Chinese influence in the region and help Pakistan with economic development and stability. However, the project faces challenges such as armed dissidents, corruption, and political battles at the provincial level. Ahsan argues that football can be used to promote cultural exchange and understanding between China and Pakistan, and to create a positive image of China among Pakistanis. By promoting economic development in Xinjiang and reducing militant influence on native Uyghur separatists, CPEC is seen as a national security issue for China. According to Søyland & Moriconi (2022), Qatar’s multi-actor sports strategy involves the use of sports as a diplomatic tool to gain attraction and generate soft power globally. The strategy is shaped by Qatari political leaders' proactive foreign policy to diversify the country's economy and strengthen its reputation and prestige. The country particularly focuses on football and the host of sports events as diplomatic tools. The strategy involves the following key elements: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 • Diplomacy: Qatar uses sports as a diplomatic tool to strengthen its reputation and prestige globally. The country's sports diplomacy aims to promote peace, gather people, and show values • Critics: Qatar's sports strategy has come under heavy criticism from several actors in international football, particularly due to PSG's outlandish transfer spending since the Qatari takeover • Legitimizations: Qatar's sports strategy aims to legitimize the country's global reputation and image. The country seeks to promote human rights and development to further its soft power and global diplomacy. Overall, Qatar's multi-actor sports strategy involves leveraging sports for public diplomacy outcomes, with a particular focus on football, to gain attraction and generate soft power globally, strengthen the country's reputation and prestige, and promote human rights and development to further its soft power and global diplomacy. Sport, on the other hand, can exacerbate inter-national tensions, as the case of El Salvador and Honduras demonstrates. Numerous migrants travelled from El Salvador to Honduras in quest of an improved life, causing a deterioration in relations between the two countries. These two nations had to play against each other in June of 1969 in three matches to qualify for World Cup which aggravated their strained relationship even further. El Salvador severed its diplomatic connections with Honduras and began an assault on its neighbouring country as the final game between the two nations was ongoing. This conflict has since then been known as La Guerra del Futbol or the Soccer War. When sports diplomacy is concerned, the fact that international organizations are in charge of organizing the sports offers a diplomatically favourable environment where a neutral host and mediator between parties can be provided by a third-party civil organization. The International Olympic Committee (IOC), which organizes the contemporary Olympic Games, is one of the most well-known international sports organizations. Fédération Internationale de Football (FIFA), and International Tennis Federation (ITF) are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 groups that can be both causes of mediation for cooperation as well as cultural alienation through the organization of such events (Chalip, 2006). To put it another way, international sporting events can help to resolve international problems, but only if they are well prepared and delivered. International institutions have been identified in both sports diplomacy scholarship and international relations as platforms used to share norms among states, which facilitate collaboration but also produce tension. These events can generate a lot of money for both the government and private firms through sponsorships, government and commercial contracts, and tourism. As a result of the anthems, sports as a competition, symbolism and mass displays of patriotism, sports fans have become more emotionally invested in their national team and this results in a heightened sense of nationalism. Sport, in this case, runs counter to diplomacy, which is supposed to reduce friction. International athletic events are emotional and intense events, and the idea of utilizing sports to bring distant nations closer together may seem far-fetched (Kuper, 2010). Delay also points out that the competition causes sports to sever themselves from the laws that call for it to be civil and in the worst- case scenario, violence may arise. Whether it's rioting or, in the worst-case scenario, war and terrorism, this inherent violence runs counter to the nature of diplomacy as peace (Heere et al., 2012). Because of the sport's competitive and often tribal nature, unscrupulous individuals can – similarly – utilize it to publicize their cause, promote terror, or disseminate a message to a large sporting audience. '171 sport-related terrorist incidents were registered between 1972and 2005,' according to the report. These data confirm an undesirable element of sports diplomacy because just as the events provide for the propagation of certain sporting values, there is a strong connection that lies between using the same means to publicize antidiplomatic themes. As a result, sports diplomacy has an issue with deception. We wonder if FIFA President Sepp Blatter is referring to the same game that generates Thierry Henry handballers and Zinedine Zidane head-butters University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 when he states that football can race mountains, develop, and move poverty because it is a representation of citizenship, good sportsmanship, and peace (Tella, 2021). Dopers, cheaters, dog-fighters, rapists, gamblers, as well as a slew of other nefarious personalities and elements, are all part of the sport's reality. As a result, when a State Department official claims that sports diplomacy is not actually about competitiveness at all, it is important to take notice. It is, therefore, about dialogue, leadership, diversity, and teamwork which may come across as a little idealistic at first. The disconnection that exists between sporting ideals and athletic realities is detrimental to sports diplomacy because of undermining the credibility of the messenger, resulting in the message falling on deaf ears despite being positive. According to Redeker, a country may think that they are utilizing sports to facilitate its ends when in a real sense its citizens are picking up the exact opposite message from the one they are delivering. John Charles and teams like the Corinthians that are considered true heroes are the exception as opposed to being the rule, as an educated athletic public knows. For its fans, sport is a highly emotional and intense game. While sport might reflect the positive qualities that Blatter and his colleagues promote, it is primarily linked with competitiveness and winning at the expense of the rival. If there is to be a future for sports diplomacy, it is no longer necessary to promote sport as a nice and fluffy cure, because this is not the case (Rose and Spiegel, 2011). The diplomatic understanding of sport appears to be significantly different from that of the general public. As a result, there's a risk that proponents of sports diplomacy will come across as uneducated, aloof, and remotely utopian. The sporting events can also be viewed throughout history through their contributions to the hosts and visiting states through the Successes and Failures of Sports Diplomacy: 1. Sports give international leaders an unofficial location and reason to meet where they can start dialogues. International sporting activities would therefore serve as a means of stretching and strengthening the relationship between two or more nations when either of them is the host. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2. Sporting activities provide insight into the countries hosting and educate others about its various aspects. Summer Games, as witnessed in 1936 were the first broadcast to 41 states and the hosting nations would pride in showcase how beautiful their countries were so that an image of positivity would be portrayed. Moreover, the development of technology has enhanced the experience further because more people can view sports on their devices or television and spread more information on the culture, tourist attractions, and infrastructure of the host cities. 3. Linguistic and cultural differences can be bridged using sports because the participating countries know the rules and adhere to them regardless of the differences that exist between them. Both the athletes and the sporting teams can be used to educate the people about the various states while promoting a mutual understanding of the distinct cultures. 4. Sporting events can be used to provide legitimacy for new states because international sports attract many people including political leaders as well as sports fans. The previously listed outcomes can, therefore, be achieved on this global stage while at the same time being used as a platform for the symbolic fight for the political independence of a nation. This research paper will focus on the AFCON due to its rich history and wide fan base as seen by CNN sports reports of the AFCON being the most-watched tournament in Africa the fact that it is broadcast in 54 African territories and beyond to 107 million homes and it has a potential TV audience of 1.56 billion people (Hull, K. 2022). The reviewed works above by the various scholars are important for this study in ascertaining the extent to which African states can use sports, for that matter AFCON can improve diplomatic relations. 1.9.1 Sources of Data This study mostly used primary and secondary sources of data, such as information from textbooks, journal articles, and e-documents from LECIAD and the Balme Library of the University of Ghana. It was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 primarily library-researched. Reports and other documents came from the websites of sports federations like CAF and FIFA, among others. However, primary information was collected from a survey administered to a retired diplomat, sports journalists from Ghana, and football fans from some selected African countries such as Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Tanzania. 1.9.2 Research Design The study relied on qualitative methods of gathering and evaluating data from chosen officials and individuals relevant to the study to address the research questions and achieve the research objectives indicated in chapter one. The qualitative approach to research is an interpretative, constructive and inductive and useful approach in research that typically investigates the values, attitudes, beliefs and meanings people identify with a given occurrence in an attempt to build an understanding (Bricki & Green, 2007; Cresswell et al., 2009). The choice of a qualitative approach was based on the findings of Berg and Lune (2012), where it was demonstrated that the qualitative approach involves the scientific process of observation in gathering non-numerical data and seeks to address the questions of "how" and "why" a certain phenomenon occurs rather than how frequently. The subjective meaning of people's behavior is what the qualitative approach is most interested in, rather than measurement or evaluation to make predictions about the future, which is the major goal of a quantitative study. Another benefit of the qualitative approach is that it makes it possible to understand people's values, actions and beliefs (Neuman 2014). A focus on the interpretation of an occurrence in its naturalistic setting, which provides context in terms of the meanings individuals ascribe to these contexts, allows for a more in-depth analysis of the subject at hand as it allows for a more defined approach to gathering non-numerical data, is why the qualitative research was chosen. By having African states host and take part in the AFCON, the approaches hastened the deeper explanations of the success of sports diplomacy. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken because they provided trustworthy, comparable, qualitative data that supported the secondary University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 data acquired. The information and opinions gathered from the interviews were sufficient to support the research, and it were qualitatively analyzed in the form of narratives, descriptions, and explanations by using the content analysis technique. 1.9.3 Sampling Method, Size, and Population Purposive sampling, according to Guarte and Barrios, is the purposeful selection of sampling units based on their understanding of the relevant subject topic, within a population. Purposive sampling is advised by Frankel for use in qualitative research since it aids in access to study sites and subjects should be identified and negotiated by researchers. This was the reason the strategy of purposive sampling was employed in this study in order to identify responders that are well-versed in and comprehend the interactions between sports and diplomacy. Fifty respondents in all were questioned. 1.9.4 Considerations for Ethics All individuals whose opinions were sought provided their informed consent after being informed of the research's intended use. No one was paid or otherwise reimbursed for their participation in the interviews or discussions; they all consented to do so willingly. The study's main body does not, however, reveal the respondents' identities due to confidentiality concerns. Respondents' requests for anonymity and confidentiality were honored. 1.10 Limitations of the Study The study was set for a predetermined period, at the onset, the deadline was set to be met but due to certain limitations, it was not an all-rosy study. For the interviews, reaching certain sports personnel proved to be hard since most cancelled the appointments at the very last-minute owing to unavoidable circumstances. Moreover, those that agreed to participate in the interview were not all that open. The difficulty in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 disclosure was due to the doubt in the minds of the interviewees regarding what were our intentions with the information we collected. 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters The research paper is divided into four chapters. Chapter one is made up of the introduction, the methodology that was mainly involved in gathering information that was found to be relevant for this research, and the challenges faced during the study. Chapter two focuses on the review of sports diplomacy, CAF and AFCON. Chapter three focuses on the findings and analysis. Chapter four then gives the summary of the findings, the challenges and recommendations. REFERENCES Abdurahmanli, E. Definition of Diplomacy and Types of Diplomacy Used Between States. Anadolu Akademi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 3(3), 580-603. Ahsan, A. (2022). Just for Kicks: Football as a Potential Harmoniser in the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor. Journal of Global Sport Management, 7(3), 372-390. Berridge, G. (2021). Diplomacy: theory and practice. Springer Nature. Brown, C., & Lazarus, E. (2018). Genuine progress indicator for California: 2010–2014. Ecological Indicators, 93, 1143-1151. Busby et al. (2017). The political relevance of irrelevant events. The Journal of Politics, 79(1), 346–350. Carrard, D, F. (2011). Sports and politics on the international scene. Rivista Di Studi Politici Internazionali, 78(1 (309)), 25–32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42740993 Crocker, C. A., Hampson, F. O., & Aall, P. (Eds.). (2021). Diplomacy and the Future of World Order. Georgetown University Press. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.jstor.org/stable/42740993 22 Cull, N. J. (2007) Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the Past. The University of Southern California. Cull, N. J. (2009). Public diplomacy: Lessons from the past. CPD Perspectives on Public diplomacy, 2, 19. Figueroa Press Los Angeles Kobierecki, M. M. (2018). Sports Exchange as a Tool of Shaping State’s Image: The Case of China. Athenaeum Polskie Studia Politologiczne, 59(1), 109-120. Knight, J. (2020). Knowledge diplomacy: what are the key characteristics. International Higher Education, 100, 38. Murray, S. (2013). Moving beyond the ping-pong table: sports diplomacy in the modern diplomatic environment. Public Diplomacy Magazine, 9, 11-16. Nye, J. S., Jr. (1990). Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. New York, NY: Basic Books. Nye, J. S., Jr. (2004a). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York, NY: Public Affairs. Nye. J (2004) Soft Power and American Foreign Policy. Political Science Quarterly, 119, 255-270. Nye. J(2017) Soft power: the origins and political progress of a concept. Palgrave Communications. http://doi.10.1057/palcomms.2017.8 Søyland, H. S., & Moriconi, M. (2022). Qatar's multi-actors sports strategy: Diplomacy, critics and legitimisation. International Area Studies Review, 25(4), 354-374. Tella, O. (2021). Africa’s Soft Power: Philosophies, Political Values, Foreign Policies, and Cultural Exports. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group. New York and London. Will R. (2012). China's Stadium Diplomacy. From the Summer 2012 Games, People Play issue.http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/summer2012/chinas-stadium-diplomacy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://doi.10.1057/palcomms.2017.8 http://www.worldpolicy.org/journal/summer2012/chinas-stadium-diplomacy 23 CHAPTER 2 OVERVIEW OF SPORTS AND DIPLOMACY: AFCON 2. 0 Introduction This chapter gives an overview of sports diplomacy and Confederation of African Football (CAF) while examining various aspects like the history, objectives and competitions. The chapter highlights AFCON as a diplomatic tool in Africa. 2. 1 Sports Diplomacy Different people define sports diplomacy in different terms as per their respective views. However, the definition of sports diplomacy narrows down to the use of sports activities to strengthen regional and international relations. These relations may be cultural, political, traditional, and economical. Over the years, sporting activities have been used to build positive relations between nations in a particular region and globally. There are different ways in which sports are used to promote diplomacy. Organizing and hosting regional and international sports tournaments is one of the most commonly used sports diplomacy strategies. Other nations simply participate in the already organized events to promote friendship through sportsmanship. Whenever countries participate in sports with their game rivals, it promotes peace, boosting diplomacy. Sports diplomacy can also fail at times. Authors Trunks and Heere used the past situation between Honduras and El Salvador to explain how sports can worsen the diplomatic state of nations. The two countries conflicted due to many migrants moving from El Salvador to Honduras. In June 1969, the two nations had to play against each other in a world cup qualifying match. As a result, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 El Salvador ended all diplomatic ties with Honduras and then began to bomb them. This rivalry resulted in the Soccer War, also known as La Guerra del Futbol (Trunks and Heere, 2017). Sports diplomacy has different strategies and approaches taken to achieve the desired result. One of the strategies is the High-Performance strategy. When a sports participant performs well, it goes on record and gets the media and people's attention. Second is the Wide Media Coverage. This particular strategy mainly focuses on media coverage. Media coverage aims to air the sports as widely as possible globally. As a result, the games and sports acquire more fans. Thirdly, the utilization of Competent Cultural Ambassadors. Every country has unique cultural values. These values earn national respect on international levels. Some countries use their successful athletes as ambassadors to market their unique culture to the world. 2. 2 Importance of Sports Diplomacy Soft power Sports diplomacy may get used as a means to exercise soft power. Soft power is when a nation attracts international attention by marketing its values and culture. Sports provide a podium for showcasing different cultural practices and values. It is known as soft power due to its persuasive nature. Cultural practices and values can easily get exchanged during organized sports events. As a result, the friendship between nations may strengthen amid interest in each other's cultural practices and values. In addition, friendship is often not forceful since no threats or tension are involved. On the contrary, the mutual relation grows with interest from both parties hence the term soft power. Foreign states may use sports events to reach their foreign policy agenda. Moreover, a participating party may assign clubs, sports organizations, and people with great influence to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 capture a state government's attention during sports. The participant may succeed without force or pressure, acquiring soft power through sports diplomacy. Source of cultural attraction Sports diplomacy also acts as a source of cultural attraction. During international sports tournaments, the host nation receives visitors from other countries. Apart from supporting their teams, they may tour the host nation just to see what the country looks like. During their tour, they interact with the natives and exchange cultural values. The hosts may also use the opportunity to market their culture and values. The foreigners may then carry the new culture and values back home. The foreigners may come back as tourists to experience the sightseeing and tradition with which they were impressed yet again. Individuals from foreign states also understand each other's beliefs and learn how to tolerate one another's culture and traditions. An example is when a tournament gets held in a Muslim-dominant state, and the participants include Christian-dominant states. The hosts would want to showcase their way of doing things, and the visitors would learn how the hosts operate. Ultimately, they learn to tolerate each other's traditions and values. Therefore, sports diplomacy is a way to exchange cultural practices and values to enhance peace and unity. Promotion of the national interest Sports diplomacy can also be used as a means of promoting the national interest. In a Berlin Global article, Petrova Anastasia, the author, states that Ministers and various Heads-of-State may take advantage of sports events to endorse a peaceful work environment (Petrova, 2018). In addition, the author states that, especially the hosts, may use the sporting opportunity to extend their international influence by highlighting their strengths to heighten their national prestige. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 International sporting events also allow for dialogue as various Heads-of-State can peacefully discuss their differences. Promotion of Inclusion and non-discrimination Regional and global sports events often get used to discourage various forms of discrimination in the world. Currently, many nations that host different tournaments and games discourage racial discrimination. In doing so, the hosts put up written banners in the stadia or areas where the games get held with messages that discourage racism. On the side of Inclusion, countries and regions organize tournaments and games that include people with disability and women. For example, women's football has grown since many regions and states have embraced the culture of including and supporting women in the game. In addition, nations organize tournaments specifically for women. The same case applies to people with disabilities. Various tournaments like the Paralympics give people with disabilities a sense of international and regional sports inclusion. 2.3 Uses of Sports diplomacy in contemporary international relations Politics and leadership often accompany sports. Therefore, good international relations must exist for nations to cooperate in a unified way. Many countries and states across the world have embraced the existence of sports to build strong bonds with each other. International sports have a unifying factor in that all competitors compete under the same rules. All the athletes in international competitions have similar goals in mind. Moreover, when athletes from different countries meet and identify with one common goal and sports culture, it promotes world peace, strengthening positive relations between nations and states. Sports also gets used to create trade allies between states and nations. During sports, the host nation's leaders often take the opportunity to meet the leaders from different foreign countries with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 the intent to expand trade boundaries. In this case, the sporting events provide unofficial friendly meeting reasons for heads of state and nations, where they can discuss any topic of their choice. In the case of improving international tourism, the host nation often encourages foreigners to visit their country for sight viewing. The latter gets done with the hope that foreigners would like their tourism attraction sites for future tourism visits. Sporting events also help state leaders market their countries and spread peaceful messages. These leaders take advantage of the speeches they can give during the tournaments. Examples are during the FIFA World Cup and other major tournaments when heads of state are allowed to speak. Their respective speeches always reach many people since the media coverage is always diverse. 2.4 Emerging Issues of Sports Diplomacy While sports are considered one of the most successful ways to promote peace and unity, some critics put the idea in the debate. Arguably, some of Africa's most successful and elite football clubs were founded based on ethnicity. According to Pannenberg (2010), a cultural anthropologist, ethnicity has heightened football rivalry in countries like Cameroon. These matches between the Cameroonian ethnic rival teams often get viewed to determine the ruling political side. The ethnic division in football even narrows down to small village teams. The pride that comes with winning makes the stakes high enough to sparkle violence whenever a side is dissatisfied. In Africa, football can get viewed as coming in handy with politics. When politics interfere with football, nations have rivalry and disunity due to regional or international political differences. The author, Pannenberg, in his scholarly work, gave an example of the historic incident between Egypt and Algeria during a World Cup qualifiers match in 2009. Tension was too match to the extent that some political leaders threw tantrums at their rivals in the form of abusive words and political denunciations. The hosts, Egypt, went to the extent of stoning their opponent's bus. The game got University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 played on a neutral ground, Sudan, where military troops took charge of peacekeeping. This incident between Algeria and Egypt shows that football can create rifts between African nations. During CAF's early stages, African leaders used football in their Pan-Africanism endeavors. An example is the former president of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah. The former Ghanaian president used the Africa Cup of Nations games to spread unity and good relations between Ghana and other African nations. The former president also founded a Real Republican team to spread his ideologies (Pannenberg, 2010). On the contrary, the Real Republicans team only created rivalries since it was formed on a political basis and had different political ideologies than other political groups. Ghana's success in AFCON also lasted until former president Kwame Nkrumah was out of power in 1966. Afterward, Ghana suffered a great decrease in football dominance since the ruling political side did not continue with the former president’s footballing ideologies. The author Pannenberg argues that football unity may sometimes last as long as the match lasts. Fans can maintain peace until the match's final result. Fans may create rivalry as a result of dissatisfying match outcomes. When the rivalry gets to a personal level, it may lead to war. A question can, however, get posted on whether football can end an existing rivalry or war. An example in history is the Liberia and Ivory Coast incident. In an organized match, The Ivory Coast national football team captain, Didier Drogba, pleaded with the bandits who lowered their guns and weapons. During the football match held in Bouake city, Didier Drogba pleaded with the people to stop the war. In his work, the cultural anthropologist argued that Didier Drogba's plea for peace might not have solved the problem from its roots (Pannenberg, 2010). This reason is that football does not create existing political and power rivalries. Therefore, football, arguably, cannot eradicate a war or conflict that already exists. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.5 Overview of CAF and AFCON 2.5.1 History of CAF The Confederation of African Football (CAF), the current governing body of African Football, was formed in 1954 in Switzerland. It was the first time that Africa earned recognition to get representation in the FIFA Committee. Sudan, South Africa, Egypt, and Ethiopia were the four African representatives that have joined FIFA in recent years. The Confederation's first president was Abdallah Salem, who got chosen after CAF's constitutional act was signed in Sudan. It is, however, notable that before the formation of the CAF, missionaries and the colonial governments used football as a game to instill discipline and order during their leisure time (Goldman & Mashinini, 2019). Therefore, by the time CAF got formed, most African countries had gained independence, paving the way for Africa to have its own football governing body. Furthermore, football was widely used in Africa's postcolonial period to promote Pan-Africanism which eventually brought about unity. Furthermore, some African nations, like Kenya, Ghana, and Nigeria, marked their independence with football tournaments (Goldman & Mashinini, 2019). In the case of South Africa, the country had the Football Association of South Africa (FASA), which was for whites only. FASA, originally known as the South African Football Association, was formed in 1892. FASA made it difficult for South Africa to identify with other African nations in football due to its racial segregation nature. FASA identified itself as a whites-only organization which was not received well by other football organizations pioneered by Africans. It is also of great interest how the first African leaders, like Kwame Nkurumah of Ghana, used football to encourage and spread unity among African nations. It is also important to note that by the time CAF got formed, Sudan, Egypt, Ethiopia, and South Africa had already joined FIFA, and each got a representation at the FIFA Congress in Switzerland. The African representatives met in 1956 at University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 another Congress meeting 1956 and developed the new Confederation's rules for the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON). It was afterward that the first Africa Cup of Nations got held, in which South Africa did not participate (Goldman & Mashinini, 2019). Following South Africa’s expulsion from CAF was followed by FASA’s suspension from FIFA. Apartheid rule in South Africa pressured the team’s attempts to participate in international competitions. Later, when FIFA reinstated FASA, CAF sought the Soviet and Asian National Association's assistance with the Brazilian Football Association, which helped CAF push for South Africa's suspension again (Goldman & Mashinini, 2019). Many nations joined CAF, and it had gained a membership of fifty-six by the year 2018. The membership included other nations like Zanzibar, which had not yet gained membership with FIFA. CAF constituted regional zones which included East, West, South, and North Africa. CAF influenced the independence of many African countries, and it grew under FIFA. African football influenced the inter-continental host's rotation of the World Cup. This influence saw Africa host a World Cup tournament for the very first time in South Africa in 2010. CAF got formulated with the overall power to oversee all football activities around the continent. These include the Africa Cup of Nations (AFCON) for both men and women, the Futsal Africa Cup of Nations, the African Nations Championship for domestic players, Beach Soccer Africa Cup of Nations, and Men and Women's Under 23, Under 20, and 17 national teams. Currently, CAF also organizes the African Champions League, where elite clubs across Africa get to compete. In addition to the African Champions League is the Confederations Cup. The tournaments are held occasionally by CAF in different host nations on the continent. Furthermore, football at the club level enables players to play for different clubs around the continent (Goldman & Mashinini, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 2.5.2 Objectives of CAF To Manage African Football Through CAF, Africa as a continent can now manage its football games. It is important to have one unifying body that governs football in Africa as a continent. CAF is therefore responsible for organizing football tournaments and overseeing club and international football across Africa. As a result, CAF provides a senior body where a national team can take complaints and football grievances. As a senior independent body, CAF can also step in to solve football matters that arise in different African regions. The Confederation has, over the years, attracted the attention of African nations to become members for Africa to have unified football values and culture under the Confederation's government. To make African Football globally competitive. CAF strives to market African football to the world by organizing and overseeing African competitions. The competitions organized by CAF act as platforms for many talented African players to show the world what they can do in football. Moreover, during international football competitions, various football clubs worldwide gain interest in key talented players identified by their respective scouts. Over the years, CAF has strived to African market football by ensuring African tournaments are aired on international media platforms. This way, African football gains an intercontinental fan base. When African tournaments enter the intercontinental sports media market, African football becomes competitive worldwide. In the end, big world clubs would sign African star players for the sake of world competitions and a media fan base. When a nation participates well in CAF-organized tournaments, it improves on the FIFA ranking list. Therefore, the more CAF organizes tournaments for teams to participate, the more the national teams get many chances of improving in the world FIFA ranking. Furthermore, match officials in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 the CAF tournaments also get global recognition. This recognition is usually evident when African referees and match officials are selected to officiate football games at the world cup. The same case applies the team managers and coaches. Many African coaches managed their teams to victory in CAF tournaments. As a result, the coaches got called up to much bigger teams worldwide, which proved to the entire world that African football is competitive. To promote good relations among the players, zonal unions and clubs, and officials. The Confederation seeks to bring all nations of Africa into one football organization. This organization, in turn, promotes unity (CAF, 2017). Whenever CAF organizes tournaments, different match officials from different zones are selected to officiate the matches. Players also get to travel to different continental zones to participate. This movement builds the participants' exposure and unifies them, participants. For example, each team's national anthem gets played before national games, and all the other participants join their opponents as they show respect for one another's country. In addition, before the kickoff of the tournament, international leaders give unifying speeches that help the football teams identify themselves as one football community. Players get to recognize and identify with one another’s talents during football games. The players' identity promotes good sportsmanship among the players. For example, good players from the Southern zone get to meet and play with equally good players from the Western zone. On other occasions, players and coaches move from their regional home zones to other zones to further their careers. This player and staff movement strengthen the relationship between the zones from which the football sports person comes and the destined zones. The same applies to match officials who officiate CAF matches at the international level. Occasional movement of players from one zone to other helps create good bonding times whenever they meet others from different zones. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Maintaining good friendships between African football organizations and other global football organizations. For African football to remain competitive, Africa as a continent has to maintain a good friendship with other global football organizations (CAF, 2017). CAF, therefore, represents African football at a continental level. The Confederation protects Africa's footballing interests while making intercontinental friends as well. CAF allows its players to play anywhere in the world and makes sure to follow global football rules like the FIFA rules and regulations governing global football activities. Helps with the campaign against doping. CAF discourages the use of drugs by taking stern measures against players found to be taking drugs. The Confederation ensures all the players undergo a scheduled drug test to identify the players involved with drugs. An example is when CAF banned Odalapo Augustine, an Enyimba FC player, in 2021 after testing positive for prohibited drugs during a drug test. CAF took the disciplinary action and suspended the player for a year (CAF, 2021). FIFA regulations are against doping. As a result, CAF must join the fight against doping to maintain global footballing standards while at the same time maintaining a good relationship with other global footballing organizations. Respect African Union measures for cultural, educational, and sports promotion. The African Union also has its ethics and value codes put in place to promote sporting culture and education. Moreover, the union consists of all African countries. Hence, it tries to protect the interests of all its member states. Therefore, it is important or CAF to support AU's attempts to improve the sporting and educational culture in the continent. Protect the independence of African football University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Politics differ in different nations and regions. However, politics should not interfere with football competitions across the continent. CAF, therefore, makes efforts to protect football games in the continent by governing football independently. As a result, CAF manages football without political interference (CAF, 2021). 2.6 Competitions of CAF The Confederation of African Football organizes football competitions for men and women at the club, national, regional, continental, and intercontinental levels. 2.6. 1 Club Competitions Africa Super League The twenty-four-team tournament got scheduled to begin in August 2023 under CAF (Dove, 2021). The organization came after the FIFA president announced it in 2019. The tournament was launched in Tanzania to attain a financial threshold to sponsor many African football infrastructures (Tovodounon, 2021). CAF Champions League This tournament was known as the African Cup of Champions Club. The tournament, held every year, consists of elite clubs across Africa in double-legged group knockout stages. The honorable tournament also acquired the name TotalEnergies Champions League from its main sponsor partner (CAF, 2022). The winner of this tournament gets a chance to participate in the FIFA Club World Cup tournament. In addition, the winner also gets to compete in the CAF Super Cup. The elite tournament was founded in 1964 and later got rebranded in 1997. CAF Confederation Cup The CAF-organized tournament also got a name from its main sponsorship partner- TotalEnergies CAF Confederation Cup. The fifty-nine-team tournament was formulated from CAF Cup and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Africa Cup Winner's Cup under the organization of CAF in 2004. The tournament winners also get the chance to compete in the CAF Super Cup with the winners of the CAF Champions League. Like the CAF Champions League, the tournament got held once every year. CAF Super Cup CAF first organized the tournament in 1993. The winners of the CAF Champions League get to face the winners of the Confederation Cup. Unlike the other competitions, it only consists of two teams. That means it is a tournament already at the finals level. Therefore, the only way to qualify for the tournament would be to win the former competitions. CAF Women’s Champions League CAF Women's Champions League is an annual women's tournament organized by CAF to support women's football across the continent. The female version of the CAF Champions League involves top-tier women's football club teams from different African zonal regions. It has a total number of thirty-three participating clubs, a number lower than that of the male counterpart teams since women's football is still on the verge of growth. The tournament got founded in 2020 despite the competition's suspension due to the COVID-19 pandemic. 2.6.2 Regional CAF Competitions CECAFA CUP CECAFA is an abbreviation to mean Council for East and Central Africa Football Associations. CECAFA is a FIFA-recognized competition under CAF management involving national teams in the East African Region. The nine-team tournament got founded in 1926 as one of the oldest football organizations in Africa. WAFU Nations Cup University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 This competition involves competitors from the Western part of Africa. WAFU means the West African Football Union. The sixteen-team tournament got founded in 2002. However, the tournament experienced hardships after playing two matches into the tournament when war broke out in Ivory Coast the same year it got founded. As a result, it was until the year 2010 that the competition returned, which saw Nigeria hosting for the first time. COSAFA Cup The CAF-organized tournament is also known as COSAFA Senior Challenge Cup. The tournament got first organized by the Council of Southern Africa Football Associations. The tournament's organization came after South Africa got reinstated by FIFA. COSAFA, which currently has 14 participants, was founded in the year 1997 being operational under the CAF organization. However, this tournament has had several non-COSAFA nations participate as guest competitors. Among them were Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, and Equatorial Guinea. U-17 UNIFFAC Cup The Central African Football Federations Union founded the football tournament. The competitors were teams consisting of players under the age of seventeen from the Central African Region. The competition was founded in the year 2008 and currently has a membership of eight teams. UNAF U-23 Tournament The competition is in the Northern part of Africa, constituting teams members of the UNAF organization. The tournament was founded in the year 2006, having a membership of five, except for the occasional guest teams. The participants present their teams with players under the age of twenty-three. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 2.6.3 International CAF competitions AFC The competition, organized under CAF, was founded in 1957. It also got the name TotalEnergies Africa Cup of Nations from its main sponsorship partner. AFCON is an abbreviation name for the Africa Cup of Nations. The tournament gets held once every two years. The competition gives a chance for fifty-four participants to reach a final of twenty-four participants. In its early stages of formation, AFCON only had three members as participants; Ethiopia, Egypt, and Sudan. South Africa was eligible but could not participate following the country's disqualification on matters of apartheid (BBC, 2001). By 1998, the tournament had acquired thirteen more participants showing good international football influence. The tournament later switched to be held in years with odd numbers to keep the FIFA World Cup out of interference (BBC, 2010). The winner of this tournament is given thirty gold medals together with the honorable trophy. The second, third, and fourth-placed teams receive thirty silver, bronze, and thirty diplomas, respectively. Women’s Africa Cup of Nations This tournament, WAFCON, also has the name TotalEnergies Women's Africa Cup of Nations, which originated from the tournament's main partnership sponsor. CAF oversees the competition's activities and holds the competition once every two years. The games look to set an improvement platform for women's football across African nations. The tournament was founded in 1991 and was set into momentum later in 1998. Moreover, the competition consists of twelve participants across Africa. The tournament is dominated by the Nigerian national women's team, having won eleven times in the competition. It is also important to note that four teams qualify for the FIFA Women's World Cup from this tournament. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 REFERENCES BBC. (2001, December 14). How it all began. BBC Sport. CAF. (n.d.). CONFEDERATION AFRICAINE DE FOOTBALL. CAF. (2021, July 26). Decisions of CAF Disciplinary Board-14 July 2021. Dove Ed. (2021, July 18). African Super League: Predicting the first 20 teams. GOAL.com. Goldman, M., & Mashinini, M. (2019). Confederation of African football. Routledge Handbook of Football Business and Management. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351262804-38 Pannenborg Arnold. (2010, December). FOOTBALL IN AFRICA: Observation about political, financial¸ cultural and religious influences. Petrova Anastasia. (2019, April 15). International Sports as Cultural Diplomacy. Berlin Global. Ross Elliot. (2019, July 9). A political history of the Africa Cup of Nations: is it still truly Africa's cup. Africanarguements.org Tovodounon S. Jules. (2021, July 1). Super League: Gianni Infantino affiche I'opposition ferme de la FIFA. Africa Foot United. Trunkos, Judit & Heere, Bob. (2017). Sport Diplomacy: A Review of How Sports can be used to improve International Relations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351262804-38 https://www.citefast.com/africanarguements.org/2019 39 CHAPTER THREE 3. 0 Introduction The study gave a general overview of sports diplomacy, the CAF, and its tournaments in the previous chapter. This chapter uses the AFCON as a case study to examine the use of sports diplomacy. The study highlights four key expressions of the utilization of sports diplomacy within the AFCON framework, including the use of AFCON for nationalist goals, as a foreign policy tool, as a tool for building the image of states, and finally as a vehicle for integration. An analysis of the link between AFCON and diplomacy. 3.1 AFCON and Nationalism AFCON has been utilized in the framework of sports diplomacy at specific points in African history as a means of expressing nationalist ideologies such as Pan-Africanism. Such statements have, among other things, been made to advance national interests, nation-building, or support separatist movements. The act of aligning with a state and perceiving other countries as qualitatively distinct, sometimes in negative ways, is commonly referred to as nationalism (Robinson 2014). This identification can drive many individuals to kill and sacrifice their lives for their country because it is so strong. While many academics find this dedication challenging to explain on an interpersonal basis, the majority still see nationalism as a pervasive and long-lasting phenomenon crucial to international relations (Anderson 1983). The current global system's borders are defined by Greenfeld (1993), who also offers a vital foundation for organizing civilians to support and participate in armed conflict. Adverse effects can also result from nationalism, which is the attitude that one should identify with their state and see other countries and their inhabitants as profoundly different Hitchens (2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Although a shared national identity can bring a community together and lessen the chance of internal civil unrest, it can also incite "racism and xenophobia," or jingoistic emotions that cause confrontation with neighboring countries or exacerbate friction with foreigners living there (Hull, 2022). Numerous studies from the U.S. and Europe demonstrate how nationalism may result in anti-immigration sentiments. For instance, national sovereignty concerns are a powerful predictor of hostility to immigration, according to Snyder (2000) and Harris (2016). According to Wimmer (2002), at times of societal crises like the economic mobility of native citizens, retrial to national unity also coexist with the emergence of xenophobia and racism. Researchers studying international relations connect spikes in nationalism to the more aggressive citizenry and leaders and increasing state aggressiveness against foreign foes. The inaugural African Cup of Nations, held in 1957 and won by Egypt, helped to further arouse national identity on the continent. Because they were barred from competing due to colonial control, the rest of Africa watched in jealousy as Egypt was declared the first African champion. The chance to join the larger international athletic world and become an associate of the Confederation of African Football became accessible to emerging African Nations after the imperialist constraints were lifted from the vast bulk of African States by the mid-sixties. Their membership in CAF and the option to compete in the cup of nations allowed them to compete in international athletic events. Still, more importantly, it allowed the newly independent states to assert their autonomy and sovereignty. The Africa Cup of Nations was the first platform for a new and ambitious nationalism to manifest itself. It quickly represented the passionate vitality and appeal of football in Africa (Woodwell, 2007). A feeling of nationalism that might transcend tribal affiliations and unite Africans via shared political, social, and economic goals was identified early in establishing new independent governments. This capacity of sport was found to aid with this. Renowned Ghanaian patriot and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 advocate for the pan-African cause Kwame Nkrumah believed that sports were integral to the emergence of a new Africa. He observed that sports triumphs were influential in inspiring pride and self-respect among Africans and that football played a significant role in uniting the nation's young around a shared identity (Darby, 2013). Football's importance is demonstrated by the Ghanaian people's reaction to their local team's victory in the African Cup of Nations in 1963. Nkrumah utilized Ghanaian football players to advance the cause of Pan-Africanism outside of the continent. This assertion by Kwame Nkrumah is supported by 94.2% respondents who believe that Sports or AFCON has the tendency of fostering unity towards the promotion of Pan-Africanism and unity. Fig 1 Confederation for African Football, the governing body of football in Africa, projects the image of being an institution that promotes African unity. Therefore, all African delegates collaborating with FIFA are expected to conduct their operations in a spirit of African camaraderie under the Confederation's rules. The Confederation for African Football's early strategic orientation makes it very evident that it believed in the idea of Pan-Africanism. This is especially clear in the case of South Africa, which was eliminated from the inaugural Cup of Nations before a single ball had been kicked due to their reluctance to have a mixed-race team. Due to South Africa's refusal to comply with the Confederation's requirement that it presents a national group made up of members University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 of all ethnic groupings when the event relocated to Cairo in 1959, the nation was once more barred from competing. Confederation for African football officially expelled South Africa in 1961and barred it from competing in any continental soccer tournaments as long as its apartheid regime persisted in the world of sports. This decision was made at the pre-championship convention in Ethiopia (Busby et al.,2017). How the Confederation handled the situation with South Africa conveyed a real nationalist message to prospective members that any activities that went against or compromised the ethos of Pan-Africanism that was prevalent at the time would lead to banning. Football has a "bigger audience in Africa than any other religion.," according to Archbishop Desmond Tutu, who is mentioned in a documentary about the game (Darby, 2013). While not all Africans are Muslims, practically all favor a particular team. Players from home and foreign clubs participate in the biannual men's international football tournament, the Africa Cup of Nations. Despite being rated 71st in the FIFA rankings and still reeling from the emotional trauma of a plane accident that claimed the lives of 18 of their players in 1993, Zambia shocked the world on the route to an incredible 2012 AFCON triumph. According to the athletes and coaching staff, they were motivated to win the trophy in honor of their late fellow countrymen, demonstrating the feeling of patriotism displayed by the Zambian contingent. A record-breaking 24 teams competed in the competition in 2019. Both Kenya and Tanzania's qualification for the Africa Cup of Nations competition in 2019 was significant. Kenya has not participated in this tournament since 2004, while Tanzania has never competed since 1980. After the squad defeated Uganda to advance, the late President John Magufuli showed his admiration for the Tanzanian team by giving the players land. That year's event was timed differently so it wouldn't interfere with the Premier League, whose match ended in May. Because of the time difference, Premier League players from around the world, such as Mohamed Salah of Egypt and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 Sadio Mane of Senegal, would play for their countries without the competition competing for spectators. After their victory, Kenya would face Senegal in the second-place rankings. Tanzania and Kenya would have competed for third and fourth positions in the tournament if Tanzania had triumphed instead. We may anticipate that this tight victory will strengthen nationalism more than a sweeping triumph, given the passion and unpredictability of the game. Alternatively, even though Tanzania lost the game, their performance may have enhanced Tanzanian nationalism if they outperformed fans' expectations. Senegal After the Teranga Lions won the country's first continental championship of the 2002 edition of AFCON, Head of State Macky Sall presented the winning team with cash incentives and land. After two previous unsuccessful attempts to win the AFCON championship, Senegal overcame Egypt 4-2 on penalties at the Stade d'Olembe in Yaounde. President Sall also praised Sadio Mane, Edouard Mendy, and Aliou Cisse individually