UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 

 

COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES 

 

 

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-

SCALE GOLD MINING ON SOIL AND PROVISIONING 

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES IN MPOHOR WASSA EAST AND 

AMANSIE WEST DISTRICTS, GHANA 

 

 

 

BY 

 

STEPHEN TWUMASI ANNAN  

 (10329151)  

 

 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 

LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT 

FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN 

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 

 

INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES 

 

SEPTEMBER, 2021

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



i 
 

DECLARATION 

I, Stephen Twumasi Annan, hereby declare that this thesis is my own original work 

towards the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Environment Science. With the exception 

of quotations and references from other publications which have been duly acknowledged, 

this work has not been submitted, either in part or full for any other degree elsewhere. 

 

 

 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



ii 
 

ABSTRACT 

Issues of impacts of small-scale gold mining activities on the environment continue to take 

a center stage in environmental discourse in developing countries more especially sub-

Saharan Africa. This study was carried out to assess ecological footprint of artisanal and 

small-scale gold mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services in the Mpohor Wassa 

East and Amansie West Districts, Ghana. Composite samples of soil and water were taken 

in selected artisanal and small-scale mining areas for analysis. A total of one hundred and 

sixty-two (162) soil samples including control soil sample were analyzed over a period of 

three-months. Seventy-five (75) and eighty-seven (87) composite soil samples were taken 

from Amansie West and Mpohor Wassa East Districts, respectively. In addition, twenty-

seven (27) water samples including control were taken and analyzed during the entire 

study period. From Mpohor Wassa East water samples, the mean pH ranged from 6.5 

to7.1; Electrical Conductivity (EC); 58.7 to 152.3µS/cm; Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); 

33.3 to 101mg/L, Total Suspended Solids (TSS); 5.3 to 645 mg/L; Dissolved Oxygen 

(DO); 5.4 to 12.9mg/L, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD); 1.0 to 1.7mg/L. The DO, 

BOD and EC in most sampling sites exceeded the WHO permissible limit. The EC, TDS, 

alkalinity, and salinity values, however, were all within WHO recommended limits. The 

results of analysis of the water samples from Amansie West were also as follows: pH; 4.6 

to 7.8; EC; 42.7 to 484.8µS/cm; TDS; 25.3 to 221.2mg/L; TSS; 12.5 to 390.7mg/L, DO; 

4.3 to 11.8mg/L; BOD; 1.4 to 2.5mg/L. Mercury, arsenic, cadmium and nickel in water 

samples at both Mpohor Wassa East District sampling sites and Amansie West sampling 

sites exceeded the WHO and EPA (Ghana) acceptable limits. The concentrations of the 

following heavy metals in soils; Fe, Hg, Ni, Cu, Pb, Cr and As were above the FAO 

acceptable limit for agricultural soils. This suggests (which specifically?) that artisanal and 

small-scale gold activities have impacted on the soil. The study further revealed that 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



iii 
 

change in land use due to artisanal and small-scale mining activities significantly 

influenced the following ecosystem services; drinking water, wood fuel, medicinal plants, 

raw material for construction and food crop production. However, in this study, all heavy 

metals analyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectrometer had Threshold Exceedance Ratio 

(TER) less than the total concentration when extracted with nitric acid. This translates that 

limited soil function might not occur since the TER values are smaller compared to the 

total concentrations and could not limit the function of the soil for agriculture purposes 

however, the re-mobility percentage especially, Cu was high and had higher percentage 

mobility in all sampling sites above 20% which suggest that, Cu has a higher potential to 

remobilized into the soil structure when environmental conditions are favorable. The geo-

accumulation index showed that the soils in both study districts are moderately 

contaminated. The overall conclusion is that artisanal and small-scale mining activities 

have impacted on provisioning ecosystem services in the two study areas. Efforts aimed 

at restoring the provisioning ecosystem services therefore need to be considered by 

relevant authorities. Recommendations made from the study include mandated agencies 

such as Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and Ministry of Minerals and Land 

Commission should regulate the activities of ASGM to stop the discharge of poisonous 

heavy metals into soil and water bodies. Also, Phytoextraction ability plants such as Sun 

flower (Helianthus annuus), Cannabis sativa, Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), Maize (Zea 

mays) can be cultivated to demobilize Cu and Hg in the soil and this can be championed 

by EPA and the Ministry of Agriculture in Ghana. Lastly, it was recommended that the 

Forestry Commission, relevant stakeholders or NGOs should champion Land reclamation 

activities such as reafforestation and afforestation should be encouraged at the mined sites 

to revamp provisioning ecosystem services supply. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



iv 
 

DEDICATION 

 

This work is dedicated to my lovely wife Rose line Addae and my children Boahen 

Twumasi Annan and Grace Twumasi Annan for their support and encouragement. 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



v 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

I acknowledge the immense support, general guidance, suggestions and directions from 

my supervisors, Prof. F.K. Nyame, Dr. J.S. Ayivor and Dr. Yaw Agyeman Boafo. Their 

remarkable comments indeed taught me the basic tenets of research work. I will forever 

remain grateful to them. I owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Bright Frimpong of Research 

Consults and his entire family for their selfless and valued support that contributed 

immensely to the successful completion of this study. My sincere gratitude goes to my 

wife Roseline Addae and my children Boahen and Twumwaa for their wonderful support 

and encouragement. I am thankful to Mr. and Mrs. Bondzie, Augustina Adjei, Francis 

Adarkwa, Collins Owusu-Fordjour, Dr. Charles K. Koomson, Prof. Ruby Hanson (UEW) 

and Mr. Samuel Armah for their valued support and contributions to the successful 

completion of this work. My appreciation also goes to Mr. Moses Mensah-Nyumutei, Mr. 

Akwasi Adu Frimpong, Dr. Ted Annang, Dr. D. Nukpezah, Dr. Benjamin Denkyira Ofori, 

Prof. Chris Gordon, Prof. Kwasi Appeaning Addo. Dr. Adelina Maria Mensah, Dr. 

Dzodzor Yirenya-Tawiah Dr. Benedicta Fosu-Mensah, Dr. Daniel Amoako Darko, Dr. 

Opoku Pabi, Dr. Samuel Senyo Koranteng, Dr. Philip-Neri Jayson-Quashigah all of IESS, 

University of Ghana, Legon. I am also grateful to my mother Miss. Christiana Gyan, my 

late father Mr. Thomas Kofi Annan of blessed memory and my siblings Thomas, Felicia, 

Veronica, Sarah and Michael for making me what I am today. Also, to the family of Mr. 

and Mrs. David Kumi Gyan, Mr. Okpoti Konney and Mr. Stephen Acheampong. I would 

like to thank the following personalities; Mr. Emmanuel Ansah, Robert Twene ESQ and 

Samuel Amoah for their encouragement and support. I acknowledge the financial support 

of the Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY) BANGA Project. Lastly, I am grateful 

to the authors of the books and materials I consulted during my study and all who 

contributed in diverse ways to ensure the successful completion of this research wo 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



vi 
 

 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

 

DECLARATION i 

ABSTRACT ii 

DEDICATION iv 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v 

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi 

LIST OF TABLES xiii 

LIST OF FIGURES xiv 

LIST OF PLATES xv 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xvi 

 

CHAPTER ONE 1 

INTRODUCTION 1 

1.1 Background of the Study 1 

1.2 Problem Statement 3 

1.3 Research Questions 5 

1.4 Study Objectives 5 

1.4.1 Objective of the Study 5 

1.5 Significance of Study 6 

 

CHAPTER TWO 7 

LITERATURE REVIEW 7 

2.1 Overview 7 

2.2 Overview of the Mining Industry in Ghana 7 

2.3 Small-Scale Mining in Ghana 9 

2.4 Artisanal Gold Mining 9 

2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Sector 10 

2.6 Historical Background of Small-scale Mining in Ghana 11 

2.7 An Overview of the Modern Ghanaian Small-scale Mining Industry 13 

2.8 Major Processes in Small-Scale Gold Mining Activities 14 

2.9 Socio - Economic Effects of Small-scale Mining Activities 15 

2.9.1 Socio-economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining 17 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



vii 
 

2.10 Environmental Impacts of Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining 18 

2.10.1 Mining and Land Degradation. 19 

2.10.2 Illegal Mining Activities and Effect on Water Bodies 21 

2.10.3 Air Pollution and Transport of Earth Material 23 

2.10.4 Heavy Metals in the Environment 24 

2.11 Methods of Mining by Small-scale Miners 25 

2.12 Methods of Processing 26 

2.13 Regulations on Mining Activities in Ghana 27 

2.14 Mineral and Mining Law 1986 (PNDCL 153) 27 

2.15 The Mineral Commission Law 1986 (PNDCL 154) 28 

2.16 Small-Scale Gold Mining Law 1989 (PNDCL 218) 28 

2.17 Legal Framework for Small-Scale Mining Activities in Ghana 28 

2.18 Processes of Application for Small-Scale Mining Permit/License 29 

2.19 Definition and Concepts of Ecosystem 30 

2.19.1 Ecosystem and Ecosystem Services 30 

2.20 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods 32 

2.20.1 Ecosystem Services 32 

2.20.2 Ecosystem Services and Land Use Change 33 

2.20.3 Provisioning Ecosystem Services 34 

2.20.4 Forest Provisioning Ecosystem Services 37 

2.20.5 Vulnerability of Rural Households to Provisioning Ecosystem Loss 38 

2.20.6 The contribution of Provisioning Ecosystem Services to Rural Livelihoods 39 

2.21 Loss of Land and Livelihood from Mining Activities 40 

2.22 Impact of Mining on Ecosystem Services 43 

2.23 Impact of Illegal Mining Activity on Ecosystem Services in Ghana 45 

2.24 Livelihood 48 

2.24.1 Sustainable Livelihood 50 

2.24.2 Conceptual Framework on Livelihood 50 

2.24.3 Livelihood Promotion 51 

2.24.4 Livelihood Protection 52 

2.24.5 Livelihood Assets 52 

2.24.5.1 Natural Capital 52 

2.24.5.2 Human Capital 52 

2.24.5.3 Financial Capital 53 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



viii 
 

2.24.5.4 Social Capital 53 

2.24.5.5 Physical capital 54 

2.25 Geographical Information System, Remote Sensing and Land Cover Change 

Detection. 54 

2.25.1 Land Use and Land Cover Change in Mining Landscapes 56 

2.25.2 Land Use and Land Cover Change Analysis 57 

 

CHAPTER THREE 58 

MATERIALS AND METHODS 58 

3.1 Overview 58 

3.2 Study Area 58 

3.2.1 Mpohor Wassa East District 58 

3.2.1.1 Location of the District 58 

3.2.1.2 Vegetation and Agriculture 59 

3.2.1.3 Spatial Distribution and Occupation 59 

3.2.1.4 Climate 61 

3.2.1.5 Relief and Drainage 61 

3.2.2 Amansie West District (Ashanti Region) 63 

3.2.2.1 Location and Size of the District 63 

3.2.2.2 Relief and Drainage 64 

3.2.2.3 Climatic Condition 64 

3.2.2.4 Vegetation of the Area 65 

3.2.2.5 Soil Condition 65 

3.2.2.6 Mineral Deposits 66 

3.2.2.7 Spatial Distribution 67 

3.3 Research Approach 69 

3.4 Research Design 70 

3.5 Sampling Procedure 70 

3.6 Parameters Measured and Analytical Procedure 73 

3.6.1 Soil sample Collection 73 

3.6.2 Soil Sample Preparation and Acid Digestion 73 

3.6.3 Soil pH and Electrical Conductivity 74 

3.6.4 Soil Particle Size 74 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



ix 
 

3.6.5 Soil Organic Carbon/ Organic Matter 76 

3.6.6 Total Nitrogen 77 

3.6.7 Available Phosphorus 78 

3.7 Determination of Heavy Metals in Soils 80 

3.7.1 Extraction of Heavy Metals from Soils using NH4NO3-Solution Extraction 

Technique 80 

3.7.2 Acid Digestion of Soil 81 

3.7.3 Determination of Heavy Metals using AAS 81 

3.8 Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Change Analysis 82 

3.8.1 Data and Methodology 82 

3.9 Study Population for Social Survey 84 

3.10 Sampling for Qualitative Respondents 85 

3.10.1 Focus Group Discussion 86 

3.10.2 Key Informant Interview 86 

3.11 Data Collection Instruments 87 

3.11.1 Face-to-Face Interview 87 

3.12 Sampling Size for Quantitative Study 87 

3.12.1 Sample Size Determination 88 

3.13 Qualitative Data Handling 89 

3.14 Quantitative Data Analysis and Processing 89 

3.15 Ethical Issues 89 

3.16 Contamination Assessment and Hazard Rating 90 

3.17 Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) 91 

3.18 Quality Control 92 

3.18.1 Analytical Technique and Accuracy Check 92 

3.18.2 Chemical and Sample Digestion 93 

3.18.3 Quality Control for Social Survey 93 

 

CHAPTER FOUR 94 

RESULTS 94 

4.0 Overview 94 

4.1 Physical Parameters in Surface water Samples, Mpohor Wassa East District 94 

4.1.1 pH 94 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



x 
 

4.1.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 95 

4.1.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 95 

4.1.4 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 96 

4.1.6 Temperature 97 

4.1.7 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 97 

4.1.8 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) 97 

4.1.9 Salinity 97 

4.1.10 Total Hardness 98 

4.1.11 Turbidity 98 

4.2 Heavy Metals in Water, Mpohor Wassa East District 98 

4.3 Factor Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters of Surface Water at Mpohor 

Wassa East District 99 

4.3.1 Scree Plot 101 

4.4 Correlation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Surface Water at Mpohor Wassa 

East District 102 

4.5 Soil Physical Parameters, Mpohor Wassa East District 103 

4.5.1 pH 103 

4.5.2 Conductivity 103 

4.5.3 Available Phosphorus 103 

4.5.4 Organic Carbon (%) 104 

4.5.5 Percentage Sand, Silt and Clay 104 

4.5.6 Exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and Na 105 

4.6 Geoaccumulation Index of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Soils, Mpohor Wassa 

East District 107 

4.7 Contamination Assessment and Hazard Rating of Heavy Metals in Soils, Mpohor 

Wassa East District 108 

4.7.1 Physical Parameters of Surface Water, Amansie West District 110 

4.7.2 Electrical Conductivity (EC) 110 

4.7.3 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 111 

4.7.4 Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 112 

4.7.5 Total Alkalinity 112 

4.7.6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 113 

4.7.7 Biological Oxygen demand (BOD) 113 

4.7.8 Salinity 113 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xi 
 

4.7.10 Turbidity 114 

4.8 Heavy Metals in Water, Amansie West District 114 

4.9 Factor Analysis 116 

4.9.1 Factor Analysis of Physicochemical Parameters of Surface Water, Amansie 

West District 117 

4.10 Correlation of Physico-Chemical Parameters of Surface Water, Amansie West119 

4.11 Soil Physical Parameters, Amansie West District 120 

4.11.1 pH 120 

4.11.2 Conductivity 120 

4. 11.3 Available Phosphorus 121 

4.11.4 Organic Carbon (%) 121 

4.11.5 Percentage Sand, Silt and Clay 121 

4.11.6 Exchangeable K, Ca, Mg and Na 122 

4.12 Geoaccumulation Index of Heavy Metal Contaminations in Soils, Amansie West 

District 124 

4.13 Contamination Assessment and Hazard Rating of soils, Amansie West District

 125 

4.14 Land use and Land Cover Change 127 

4.15 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (Mpohor Wassa East and 

Amansie West District) 134 

4.16 Effect of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining on Provisioning Ecosystem Services

 136 

4.17 Interview with Key Stakeholders 139 

 

CHAPTER FIVE 144 

DISCUSSION 144 

5.0 Overview 144 

5.1 Physico-Chemical Quality of Surface Water 144 

5.2 Heavy Metals in Water 149 

5.3 Heavy Metals in Soil 151 

5.4 Assessment of Impact of Illegal Mining Activities on Provisioning Ecosystem 154 

 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xii 
 

CHAPTER SIX 157 

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 157 

6.1 Conclusion 157 

6.1.1 Heavy Metals in Water 157 

6.1.2 Hazard Rating of Heavy Metals in Soils 157 

6.1.3 Impact of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Activities on Provisioning 

Ecosystem 158 

6.1.4 Impact of Artisanal and Small-scale Gold mine on Land use and Land Cover 

Changes 158 

6.2 Recommendation 158 

6.2.1 Recommendations for Government (Policy and Decision-makers) 158 

6.2.2 Recommendation for Academia 159 

6.2.3 Recommendation for Local Communities and Households 159 

 

REFERENCES 160 

 

APPENDICES 179 

 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xiii 
 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 2.1: Classification of Ecosystem Services 31 

Table 3.1: Matrix Showing Objectives, Methods Used and the Analytical Tool 69 

Table 3.2: Categorization of Igeo 92 

Table 4.1: Heavy Metals in Surface Water Samples from the Mpohor Wassa East District

 99 

Table 4. 2: Rotated Component Matrix of physico-Chemical Parameters, Mpohor Wassa 

East 101 

Table 4.3: Correlation between Physicochemical Parameters in Water Samples, Mpohor 

Wassa East District 103 

Table 4.4: Physico-Chemical Parameters in Soil, Mpohor Wassa East District 106 

Table 4.5: Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) Values for Soil Samples in Mpohor Wassa 

District 108 

Table 4.6: Hazard Rating of Heavy Metals in Soil, Mpohor Wassa Sampling Site 109 

Table 4.7: Heavy Metals in Surface Water, Amansie West District 116 

Table 4.8: Component Matrix of physico-Chemical parameters, Amansie West 118 

Table 4.9: Correlation between Physico-Chemical Parameters in Water Samples, 

Amansie West District 120 

Table 4.10: Physico-Chemical Parameters in Soil, Amansie West District 123 

Table 4.11: Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) Values for Soil Samples in Amansie West 

District 124 

Table 4.12: Suggested Igeo classification and absolutes 125 

Table 4.13: Hazard rating of heavy metals in soil, Amansie West District sampling sites

 126 

Table 4.14: Percentage (%) Cover of the Various Land Cover Classes 133 

Table 4.15: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondent’s (N=404) 135 

Table 4.16: Effects of Artisanal and Small-scale Mining on Provisioning Ecosystem 

Services 136 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xiv 
 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1: Study Area and Sampling Point Map of Mpohor Wassa East District 62 

Figure 2: Study area and Sampling points Map of Amansie West District 68 

Figure 3: Methodology for Land Use Cover Change 83 

Figure 4: pH Variations Across Surface Water Locations, Mpohor Wassa East 94 

Figure 5: Conductivity Variations Across surface water Locations, Mpohor Wassa East

 95 

Figure 6: TDS Variations Across Surface Water Locations, Mpohor Wassa East District

 96 

Figure 7: TSS Variations Across Surface Water Locations, Mpohor Wassa East District

 96 

Figure 8: Scree Plot of Physico-Chemical Parameters, Mpohor Wassa East 102 

Figure 9: pH Variations Across Surface Water Locations at Amansie West District 110 

Figure 10: Conductivity Variations Across Surface Water Locations, Amansie West 

District 111 

Figure 11: TDS Variations across Surface Water Locations, Amansie West District 112 

Figure 12: TSS Variations Across Surface Water Locations, Amansie West District 112 

Figure 13: Scree Plot of Physico-Chemical Parameters, Amansie West District 119 

Figure 14:  Land Cover Classification Map for 2015 and 2020, Amansie East District 

(Top Row, a and b) and Mpohor Wassa East District (Bottom Row, c and d)

 128 

Figure 15: Change detection Map of Selected Area in the Amansie West District 130 

Figure 16:  Change Detection Map of Selected Area in the Mpohor Wassa East District

 132 

Figure 17: Bar Chart Showing the Extent of each Class in km² for 2015 and 2020 133 

Figure 18: Ecosystem Services Affected Due to Artisanal and Small-scale Mining 

Activities in the Study Area 137 

Figure 19: Cost of Living in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining Communities 138 

Figure 20: Source of Water in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Communities 5-10 

Years Ago 139 

Figure 21: Source of Water Prior to Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Activities 139 

 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 

file:///C:/Users/SLYVANUS/Desktop/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20NEW.docx%23_Toc107743354


xv 
 

LIST OF PLATES 

Plate 4.2: Destruction of food crops by small - scale gold mining activities at the study 

site 142 

Plate 4.1: Destruction of oil palm crops by illegal small - scale gold miners at the study 

site 142 

Plate 4.4: Land degradation as a result of small - scale mining activities at study site 142 

Plate 4.3: Casual workers at the mining site for their source of livelihood 142 

Plate 4.6: Depletion of vegetation cover due to small - scale gold mining activities 143 

Plate 4.5: Water pollution as result of small - scale mining activities at the mining site

 143 

Plate 4.8: Children engaging in small - scale gold mining activities 143 

Plate 4.7: Dug pit left after mining serving as a dead trap to human and animals 143 

 

 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 

file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952312
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952312
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952313
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952313
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952314
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952315
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952316
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952317
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952317
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952318
file:///E:/STEPHEN%20TWUMASI%20ANNAN,%2010329151%20(READY%20FOR%20PRINTING).docx%23_Toc109952319


xvi 
 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  

AAS             Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer 

AGM            Artisanal Gold Mining 

AIDS            Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome 

ASM             Artisanal Small-Scale Mining 

AWWA        American Water Works Association  

BOPP           Benso Oil Palm Plantations  

DFID            Department for International Development  

DMC            Diamond Marketing Corporation 

EPA              Environmental Protection Agency 

ERP              Economic Recovery Programme 

FCPF            Forest Carbon Partnership Project 

GAEC          Ghana Atomic Energy Commission 

GDP             Gross Domestic Product 

GEPA           Ghana Export Promotion Authority 

GIS               Geographic Information Systems  

GNA             Ghana News Agency 

GREL           Ghana Rubber Estates Limited 

GSS              Ghana Statistical Service 

 HIV              Sexually Transmitted Diseases  

ILO              International Labour Organization 

INAA           Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis  

IQ                 Intelligent Quotient 

LI                 Legislative Instrument  

LULC          Land use and Land Cover Change 

MES            Medical and Equipment Suppliers  

NGOs          Non-Governmental Organization  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xvii 
 

NSR             National Skills Registry 

PMMC         Precious Minerals Marketing Company  

PNDC          Provisional National Defence Council  

PNDCL        Provisional National Defence Council Law 

PTFE            Polytetrafluoroethylene  

SESA         Environmental and Social Assessment 

SL                Sustainable Livelihood 

UN               United Nation 

UNCBD       United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity 

UNCEP        United Nations Conference on Environment  

UNEP           United Nation Environmental Program 

UNESCO     United Nations Educational, Scientific, Cultural Organization  

UNIDO        United Nation Industrial Development Organization 

USAID         United State Agency for International Development 

WACAM      Wassa Association of Communities Affected by Mining Changes  

WHO            World Health Organization

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



1 
 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 Background of the study 

Ghana’s geological space is endowed with various mineral resources including gold, 

diamond, bauxite and manganese. Additionally, there are other minerals of industrial value 

such as salt, petroleum, limestone, kaolin, lime, silica, granite and iron ore (Aubynn, 

2016). Among all minerals mined in Ghana, gold dominates the mining sector and Ghana 

is Africa’s foremost important producer of gold (Bloch & Owusu, 2017). Although small-

scale mining is legalized and regulated under the minerals and mining Amendment Act, 

2015, the sector has a larger component of artisanal small-scale mining popularly known 

as ‘galamsey’ (Rudke et al., 2020). Artisanal and small-scale mining are estimated to 

provide direct and indirect employment to over one million people and contribute 

significantly to the national economy (Dzigbodi-Adjimah & Bansah, 2018). It is estimated 

that gold mining contributes approximately 7.2% to Ghana’s GDP annually (2006-2014) 

and employs a large proportion of the labour force (GSS, 2010). Despite the fact that gold 

mining provides thousands of indigenous peoples with employment, environmental 

problems including land degradation, water pollution, and biodiversity loss have 

intensified within the regions of the mining sites (Akosa et al., 2018).  

The Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) which was launched in 1983 by the 

government of the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC) was responsible for the 

increase in gold output from both the small- and large-scale mining (Minerals 

Commission, 2006). Among the objectives of the Economic Recovery Programme (ERP) 

was the rejuvenation of mining activities in Ghana. These laws encouraged increased 

small-scale mining activities and many people, including the youth, women and children 

engaged in mining in many parts of the country. In 2006, the Minerals and Mining Act, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



2 
 

2006 (Act 703) was also enacted which again stated, among others, that despite a law to 

the contrary, a person shall not engage in or undertake a small-scale mining operation for 

a mineral unless there is in existence of the mining operation license granted by the 

Minister for Mines or by an officer authorized by the Minister (Minerals Commission, 

2006).  

Although Ghana’s economy is predominantly agriculture based, many small-scale miners 

depend on mining for their livelihood (Aryee et al., 2017; Akosa et al., 2018; Ntibery et 

al., 2003). Small-scale mining has been reported to be one of the major contributing factors 

to the rapid decline of forest resources in Ghana (FCPF, 2014). Forests play enormous 

roles in the maintenance and provision of goods and services that are beneficial to 

ecosystem and human livelihood. The rate of forest deforestation and degradation through 

mining in Ghana is very alarming knowing the various ecosystem services that the forest 

provides to the environment. From the country's 1950s forest cover of 8.2 million hectares 

from the onset of the last century, only an estimated 1.6 million hectares remain. Currently, 

the deforestation rate is about 2.5% of the total land area of Ghana leading to an annual 

loss of about 135,000 ha (Rudke et al., 2020).  

According to Akabzaa and Darimani (2001), the forests that are cleared for mining 

purposes are home to a large number of organisms and as such indiscriminate clearing of 

the forests leads to loss of habitat, loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.   

Predominant mainly large-scale mining regions of Ghana were for a long time the Ashanti, 

Eastern and Western Regions (Hilson, 2011). For the past two decades, however, there has 

been intensive Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) activities in these regions 

(Dzigbodi-Adjimah, 2018). As part of efforts to deal with the effects of artisanal gold 

mining on the environment and water bodies across Ghana, the government of Ghana 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



3 
 

through the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources placed a ban through an executive 

instrument on all small-scale mining activities. The ban was to enable the government of 

Ghana to deal properly in order to streamline the activities of the licensed miners. Ghana 

government launched a joint military and police taskforce called Operation Vanguard to 

fight recalcitrant small-scale miners (Bloch & Owusu, 2017). Although mining is 

important for a country’s development, it is said to be illegal when it is practiced without 

permit or in unapproved areas such as forest reserves, game reserves or near water 

resources even with secured permit (World Bank, 2002). However, issues of ecological 

footprint of artisanal and small-scale gold mining and the environmental consequences 

remain a significant challenge to be addressed because most of the communities around 

the mining areas potentially lose their livelihood through the degradation of natural 

ecosystem services that were readily available in their vicinity. Furthermore, the 

community members around these mining areas are also faced with environmental issues 

due to unsustainable use of environmental resources. It is against this backdrop that the 

project was initiated to assess ecological footprint of artisanal and small-scale gold mining 

on soil and provisioning ecosystems in the study areas in Ghana. 

1.2 Problem Statement 

Gold mining is one of the key areas of natural resource exploitation in most tropical 

countries that contributes immensely to the Gross Domestic Product of Ghana (Yaro, 

2010). These contributions include employment opportunities, corporate social 

responsibilities through the provision of potable water and schools, among others. The 

environmental effects of artisanal gold mining footprints in most developing countries 

including Ghana have been well documented (Akosa et al., 2018; Amponsah-Tawiah et 

al., 2017; Agyensaim, 2016; Tetteh, 2010). The Mpohor Wassa East District of the 

Western Region and Amansie West District of the Ashanti Region have witnessed 

increased artisanal gold mining activity over the past three decades and currently receive 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



4 
 

national attention with many people including women and children actively engaged in it 

(Agyapong, 2018; Aryee et al., 2003). During the mining processes, there are several 

wastes that are associated with the activities due to the mining methods and materials used 

in extracting and processing the gold bearing materials (Ntibery et al., 2003). The small-

scale and artisanal gold miners operate mostly along river banks and sometimes within 

river beds thus, affecting water quality, sediments load, turbidity and heavy metal 

concentrations. Major streams affected by small-scale mining operations in Ghana include 

Birim, Ankobra and Aboshyenso Rivers and their tributaries which serve as sources of 

drinking water for some communities (Dzigbodi-Adjimah & Bansah, 2018; Ntibery, 

2004). 

A lot of research work has been done in some mining communities in Ghana to emphasize 

the problem associated with mining. For instance, Bloch and Owusu (2017) reported major 

environmental problems faced by mining communities in the Tarkwa area in the Western 

Region resulting from lead, copper, nickel, mercury and cyanide and other heavy metal 

pollutions generally above recommended levels in both soil and water samples.  Negative 

effects of mining including destruction of farmlands and water bodies, high cost of living 

and increase in social vices have also been reported in mining communities such as Obuasi, 

Tarkwa and Prestea (Agyapong, 2018; Dzigbodi-Adjimah & Bansah, 2018). Although 

numerous and quite exhaustive studies have been done on Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold 

(ASGM) activities in Ghana, especially on the socio-economic and environmental impacts, 

many of such studies did not specifically assess or address the issue of ecological footprint 

of artisanal and small-scale mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services, let alone 

in the Amansie West and Mpohor Wassa East Districts in the Ashanti and Western 

Regions, respectively, in spite of their long history of ASGM. Thus, very little is known 

of the possible relationship between ecological footprint from ASGM activities, soil and 

provisioning ecosystem services in the two areas identified. In addition, the levels of 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



5 
 

contamination of the activities on the immediate environment using the threshold 

exceedance ratio (TER) and the heavy metal mobility coefficient potential have similarly 

not been studied and/or given much attention in research work. This study was therefore 

undertaken to partly address these knowledge gaps and to also contribute to existing 

literature on the subject. 

1.3 Research questions 

The following questions were formulated to guide the study: 

1. What are the levels of physico-chemical parameters in soils and water in or near 

artisanal and small-scale gold mining sites? 

2. What are the levels of heavy metals in artisanal and small-scale gold mined-out 

lands in Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie West Districts of Ghana?  

3. What are the land use changes in the artisanal and small-scale mining areas over 

the past five (5) years? 

4. What are the implications of artisanal and small-scale gold mining on provisional 

ecosystem services on the lives of people in the Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie 

West Districts? 

1.4 Study Objectives 

1.4.1 Objective of the study 

The overall objective of the study was to assess the ecological footprint of artisanal and 

small-scale gold mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services in the Mpohor 

Wassa East and Amansie West Districts, Ghana. Specifically, the study sought to; 

⮚ determine the levels of physico-chemical parameters in soils and water in artisanal 

and small-scale gold mine sites in the Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie West 

Districts. 

⮚ assess the hazard rating of heavy metals in soils in artisanal and small-scale gold 

mine lands in the study areas. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



6 
 

⮚ explore the impact of small-scale and artisanal gold mining on land use and land 

cover changes. 

⮚ identify and examine the provisioning ecosystem services and livelihood activities 

likely impacted by small-scale and artisanal gold mining. 

 

1.5 Significance of Study 

 In Ghana, there have been a number of studies on the activities of small-scale mining 

(Bloch & Owusu, 2017). However, little data is available on ecological footprint of 

artisanal and small-scale gold mining on soil and provisioning ecosystem services in areas 

such as Mpohor Wassa East and Amansie West District. This research therefore sought to 

bridge the knowledge gap by acquisition of data on physico-chemical parameters including 

heavy metal concentrations in water and soil as well as on land use and ecosystem services 

in the study areas. Analysis and interpretation of the data gathered have provided 

potentially valuable information for the government, environmental managers and other 

decision makers or stakeholders on the state and impacts of small-scale mining activities 

in the study area. The data obtained has, in particular, contributed to the body of knowledge 

on the impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining especially the illegal or ‘galamsey’ 

segment of mining activity and the extent of loss of land use and land cover due to illegal 

mining activities.  

Direct interaction with people in the study areas also provided in-depth knowledge on their 

livelihood status which could serve as a valuable source of information to inform policy-

making towards the achievement of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, 

particularly poverty alleviation and food security which are goal one and goal two, 

respectively.  

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



7 
 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

 

2.1 Overview 

This chapter deals with the review of pertinent literature in line with the objectives of the 

study. It focused on global perspectives of small-scale mining, overview of the modern 

Small-scale mining industry, major processes in small-scale mining activities, socio - 

economic effects of small-scale mining activities, methods of mining by small-scale 

miners, environmental impacts of artisanal small-scale gold mining, mining and land 

degradation, Illegal mining activities and their effect on water bodies, air pollution and 

transport of earth material, regulations on mining activities in Ghana. 

2.2 Overview of the Mining industry in Ghana  

Worldwide, artisanal gold miners (AGM) are the main consumers of mercury, using and 

losing almost 1000 tonnes of metallic mercury per annum or more than 30% of all mercury 

annually used by different industrial applications (Creek., 2016). Mercury emitted to the 

atmosphere and released to the environment has serious and detrimental environmental 

and health implications. There are now about 10 to 15 million artisanal and small gold 

miners worldwide. Their operations span more than 70 countries and they produce in the 

range of 350 tonnes of gold annually (Zhang et al., 2014). Furthermore, Rudke et al., 

(2020) suggested that organizations which aim to mitigate mercury releases require a 

deeper understanding of mine community dynamics, the organization of processing 

activities, the needs of operators and the nature of the ore (Lunt et al., 1995). 

Ghana abounds in a number of minerals especially in the south-west of the country and 

the most developed and sought-after mineral is gold. Gold mining has been associated with 

Ghana since time immemorial but documentation of this activity was captured by the 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



8 
 

Portuguese around the 1470s (Junner, 2010). In the pre-independence period, it is 

documented that gold mining by indigenous people is said to pre-date Christian times and 

Ghana's modern mining history spans over six centuries, private Ghanaian gold miners 

were banned after 1933 from operating mines due to the promulgation of the Mercury 

Law. Large-scale mining by British and other foreign investors began in the late 19th 

century. British mining interests were a significant source of influence on the Colonial 

Office in London and its representatives in the territory and shaped the formulation and 

implementation of mineral policy in the colony (Akabzaa et al., 2007). 

Arah (2015) notes that the mining industry in Ghana dates back to pre-colonial times and 

some studies have shown that the industry has contributed significantly to the socio-

economic development of the country in terms of employment and social infrastructure 

(Amponsh-Tawiah et al., 2017; Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2008). Others argue that the 

negative impacts of mining, such as water, air and noise pollution, and the general 

deprivation of fertile land for agriculture, have left the population relatively much poorer 

than before (Queensland, 2019; Hilson et al., 2009). This has had a general impact on the 

overall livelihoods of people living in these areas and working with pastoralists. It is 

therefore unclear whether mining in Ghana has actually contributed positively to the 

country's development. It is therefore important to determine the sustainability of the 

mining industry in Ghana by weighing the socio-economic benefits and negative impacts, 

particularly on the ecosystem services and livelihoods, examining the environmental, 

social and economic characteristics of small-scale gold mining and its impact on mining 

communities (Amansie West District) and suggesting possible solutions to improve the 

situation (Asante et al., 2017). 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



9 
 

2.3 Small-scale Mining in Ghana 

 In Ghana, small-scale mining is defined as mining by any method not involving 

substantial expenditure by an individual or group of persons not exceeding nine or by a 

cooperative society consisting of ten or more persons (Government of Ghana, 1989). 

According to a United Nations (UN) report, the definition includes what has been termed 

"artisanal," i.e., operations using only rudimentary/craft implements, as well as more 

sophisticated mining activities that operate at a relatively low level of production and 

generally require limited capital investment (UN, 2009). One country where the 

environmental impacts of small-scale gold mining activities are increasingly 

unmanageable is Ghana. Despite providing employment for thousands of indigenous 

people and contributing significantly to foreign exchange earnings, problems of mercury 

pollution, cyanide and soil degradation have intensified in the sector over the years 

(Hilson, 2011). According to Rambaud et al., (2016), the first and obvious environmental 

problem in the area in question is related to the significant changes in land use. Most of 

this is due to industrial mining operations. The installation of sinkholes along local rivers 

strongly alters the discharge regime and increases the turbidity of downstream rivers. 

Erosion, emanating from excavations and tailings piles, is also easily identified by the 

orange colour of the water and can result in acid rock drainage through rainwater leachates 

from excavated soils. However, Sumarga et al., (2020) went on to indicate that several 

metals from ore minerals dissolve in acidic water and can be released into adjacent rivers 

to cause water pollution. 

2.4 Artisanal Gold Mining 

Artisanal gold mining is often unplanned and carried out by workers who do not have the 

technical know-how. As a result, the pits, which can be up to 30 meters deep, are not 

secured and landslides claim many lives. A study by Babut et al., (2002) clearly shows 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



10 
 

that abandoned pits are left unmarked, posing a danger to the population and livestock. 

Abandoned sites are not rehabilitated, leaving a barren and permanently destroyed habitat. 

For most miners, amalgamation is the simplest and most effective method of recovering 

the finest gold fraction. However, the process is known to be devastating to health, not 

only for the users, but also for those indirectly involved, including the unborn, through 

peripheral contamination and entry into the food chain. In recent years, life-threatening 

mercury contamination has been found in most developing countries where artisanal gold 

mining is practiced. In addition, gold panning and amalgamation are often conducted along 

rivers, resulting in water pollution and destruction of river banks. The resulting siltation 

reduces the quality of drinking water and affects all types of aquatic life (Creek, 2016; 

Armah et al., 2013; Babut et al., 2002). 

2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Sector  

According to Nyame and Danso (2006), small-scale miners are artisanal miners who are 

licensed to operate on a small parcel of land and who must market their production through 

the Precious Minerals Marketing Company (PMMC) or designated agents affiliated with 

the PMMC. In contrast, illegal miners, known as ‘galamsey,’ pursue their trade without 

any regularization or licensing from regulatory agencies. They emphasized that the 

"theoretical" distinction between the two is, for all intents and purposes, blurred when 

visiting the mining sites where these individuals or groups of individuals operate. Again, 

Amponsah-Tawiah et al., (2017) found it more convenient in their study to group the 

activities of both under the heading of ASM. However, they also frequently used the terms 

illegal mining (or miners), ‘galamsey’ (the local terminology for illegal miners or mining) 

and ASM interchangeably (Tetteh, 2010). ASM is one of the fastest growing more or less 

informal economic sectors in the country. The ASM sector is the most difficult to regulate 

due to, among other things, the nomadic and often seasonal nature of its activities. In 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



11 
 

addition, these activities often take place outside the control of government or regulatory 

agencies (Nyame & Danso, 2006; Noestaller, 2011). Not only is the sector largely 

unregulated, but it is profusely "polluted" with illegal artisanal or ‘galamsey’ miners, 

whose numerical strength and areas of operation remain largely unknown, although one 

estimate puts the figure at approximately 100,000 to 200,000 (Aubynn, 2016). Apart from 

the few registered or licensed small-scale operators, no one knows exactly how many 

people are engaged in illegal gold and diamond mining in the country. The Ghana Minerals 

Commission estimates that small-scale miners generated about 4,500 jobs at the end of 

2006. However, conservatively, it is possible that more than half a million participants are 

engaged in the illicit business at any given time throughout the country, especially in the 

dry season when these activities are most prominent. During peak periods, the sector 

attracts an army of migrants from across the subregion, partly indicative of the severe 

unemployment conditions in the region as a whole (Anon, 2010). 

2.6 Historical background of Small-scale Mining in Ghana 

Small-scale mining, also called artisanal or subsistence mining has been engaged in by the 

native people of Ghana well over 1500 years now. According to Agyapong (2018), 

vestiges of alluvial gold extraction and winning have been found as far back as the sixth 

century in the shores and forest belts of the Gold Coast. He asserted there was evidence 

that precious metals recovered from regional artisan activities attracted Arab traders to 

certain areas of the country as early as the seventh and eighth century AD, and that gold 

deposits in Western Sahara were largely responsible for the wealth and strength of ancient 

Ghana empires and cultures. Thus, by the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, of the European 

colonial exploration, the country was agreeably labeled the Gold Coast. Small-scale 

mining in Ghana had been treated as an informal sector up until the 1980s, and this resulted 

in the decline of mineral production, as observed by (Botchway, 2015). Small-scale mining 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



12 
 

is often done by local people as well as nomadic immigrants who move from place to place 

for greener pastures (Amponsah-Tawiah et al., 2011). 

Nevertheless, this trend has taken a new dimension as the industry has now largely 

attracted foreigners, especially of Chinese origin, who undertake small-scale mining 

activities not only with improved local machines, but also with complex forms which are 

imported purposely for the operations (Appiah, 2015). This is especially true in developing 

countries such as Ghana where activities of Chinese citizens have called for much concern. 

More often, the foreigner may hide under the auspices of one or very few but highly 

influential citizens within the local setting to carry out such an obnoxious task with 

incomparable environmental pollution and related damages. Until the beginning of the new 

millennium, the activities of small-scale miners were much less, relative to large scale 

miners (Andoh, 2002). 

Gold was mainly mined in large quantities by the colonial masters in most parts of 

Southern Ghana. Small-scale mining activities which have gained much popularity in 

recent years had only had a major turn at the beginning of the 21st century. It comes as a 

huge solution and indeed relief to the increasing amount of unemployment in most 

developing countries and the world at large (Appiah, 2015). More often than not, small-

scale mining activities within a geographically defined region may be associated with a 

water body. Water is used in washing away the dirt (mostly soil) from which pure gold is 

extracted. As a result of this realization, small-scale mining activities have always had a 

major toll on water bodies from which their activities are carried out. The process is most 

detrimental to major water bodies which serve as the main recipient for other smaller 

streams and rivers which empty their contents into these large rivers. Among the major 

destructions caused is water pollution by chemicals such as mercury, cadmium, arsenic, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



13 
 

copper and lead, and damage to vegetation cover. As a result of the nation’s favourable 

geographical setting, which makes precious minerals available in most sections of the 

Ghanaian soil, small-scale mining of minerals, especially gold, is scattered across sections 

of the nation (Mineral Commission, 2006).  

2.7 An Overview of the Modern Ghanaian Small-scale Mining Industry 

The abundance of gold in the Ghanaian soil has been attributed mainly to tectonic 

processes several years ago, which resulted in folds and faults, as well as a series of 

metamorphic and igneous, sedimentary and erosion activities (Simon et al., 2004). Erosion 

activities have resulted in the spread of rich soils which cover a sizable portion of the 

nation. Several gold belts cover Ghana’s land surface. The first belt, covering about 15-

40km in width, contains the Birimian gold. However, Birimian gold is found in West 

African rocks extending from Ghana to as far as Burkina Faso in the north, and Senegal 

and Mauritania in the western parts of the region. The belt contains such fine gold as 

Proterozoic greenstone type lobe gold deposits. This is variably complex and occurs as 

quartz-filled shear zone and altered shear zone forms (Tetteh, 2010). The Tarkwaian gold 

is found in the second gold belt. About 90% of this gold belt comprises Vein-quartz-

pebbles and auriferous pebble deposits. Quartzite and phyllite particles constitute the 

remaining 10% (Hammond & Tabat, 2017).  Due to the mineral-rich contents of the 

Ghanaian soil, huge monies are accrued from the modern Ghanaian small-scale mining 

industry. A good amount of gold either in fine particle forms or lump forms are mined 

from small-scale mining sites across the nation (Appiah, 2015). Generally, wealthy 

persons buy some acres of land after prospects are made on them to assess the level of 

their gold mineral deposits. The mineral is very costly. A small part of it may sell millions 

of cedi. Hence the vigorous involvement of the youth. The prospectors then hire high men 

and pay them wages (daily, weekly or specified days’ interval). Currently, a minimum 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



14 
 

average daily wage may support an unmarried young man or a woman’s moderate 

expenditure for at least four days, though the specific amount paid may differ widely from 

place to place. However, small-scale miners hardly economize. Thus, a day’s wage may 

be spent on that particular day with very little or no amount kept. It is worth noting though, 

that few people involved enter this business with specific aims. Another important factor 

that makes modern small-scale mining a lucrative business is the high demands for gold 

and golden products both on the local and international markets (Hilson, 2009).  

2.8 Major Processes in Small-scale Gold Mining Activities  

A licensed operator may employ between five to twenty groups of tributes made up of 

between five to ten workers. Each group excavates the ore to process the mineral. Usually, 

the tributes keep two-thirds of the profit and give the remaining one-third to the 

concessionaire (Appiah, 2015). Small-scale mining activities in Ghana employ very simple 

implements and devices such as pick-axes, shovels, mattocks, sluice boxes and cutlasses. 

In some instances, mechanized machinery such as washing plants, Honda water pumps 

and explosives are employed (Hilson, 2009). Nonetheless, small-scale mining sites of such 

mechanized machinery operate largely rudimentarily. Generally, the processes involved in 

small-scale gold mining are crushing the ore into pebbles or powder under various stages, 

washing the crushed sediments with washing blanket or hands along riverbanks to separate 

the mineral, and panning (Amponsah-Tawiah et al., 2017). Finally, as an inexpensive 

substitute for a gold pan, a krowa - a wooden bowl carved from a tree branch is used to 

further wash and separate crushed material. The concentrate obtained is amalgamated with 

mercury (Appiah, 2015; Bloch & Owusu, 2017). Mercury is used in the planning process, 

and the amalgamated gold is roasted on charcoal fire in the open air (Arah, 2015).  

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



15 
 

2.9 Socio - Economic Effects of Small-scale Mining Activities  

Small-scale mining activities have immense contributions within the communities where 

they are operated (Aubynn, 2016). The impacts may be both positive and negative. These 

influences are realized in the increase in population in the area of work, due to increased 

employment opportunities, boost in economic activities and reduction in crime. Negative 

influences resulting from small-scale mining activities include child labour, promiscuity 

and high cost of living (Creek, 2016). 

Small-scale mining activities bring about the influx of people to the areas of operation 

(Ayitey-Smith, 2012). These people are mostly young men and women who are aggressive 

in making quick money. Some of these people are apprentices in various vacations who 

may previously be learning one form of trade or the other. Students who fend for 

themselves or have minimal support from home are also sometimes involved. These 

people who come to the region for small-scale mining activities to work also take women, 

especially teenagers from the area and befriend them. This interaction often results in 

teenage pregnancy and birth to more children, most of whom do not receive the necessary 

support and parental guidance. Subsequently, this results in population increase. People, 

who previously farmed, also see the small-scale mining of gold as a quick form of 

acquiring wealth. Thus, farmers also abandon their farming activities and move to 

‘galamsey’ sites in search of quick wealth (ILO, 2015).   

Small-scale mining activities provide employment opportunities to the people within the 

area of operation, favourably in very remote settings where there are less or no formal job 

opportunities (Aidoo, 2015). In developing countries, where employment is very much 

limited, and where farming is viewed as a job for the aged, the uneducated and the less 

active in the community, small-scale mining activities are seen as huge sources of 

alternative employment for the youth and the more active within the society. A United 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



16 
 

Nations‟ Report on Small-scale Mining Activities (UN, 2009) indicated that more than 

over thirteen million or 20% of the world’s mining population was involved in small-scale 

mining operations. This was confirmed by research carried out by the International Labour 

Organization which stated in its Global Report on Artisanal and Small-scale Mining, that 

the number of the world’s population directly involved in small-scale mining activities 

was over thirteen million (ILO, 2015). Besides the direct job opportunities to people, 

small-scale mining activities create alongside much other employment through the boost 

in marketing activities (Agyapong, 2018). Women who were previously jobless now 

acquire a form of a job through petty trading or running errands at the sites of operation. 

Thus, all forms of population structure are at least able to meet their economic needs from 

the job opportunities created by the mining operation. Whilst it is not capital intensive, 

small-scale mining activities require sufficient manpower. Intensive- small-scale mining 

operations are economically beneficial; investment cost per job is estimated to be 10-12 

percent the costs in large mining operations (Akabzaa et al., 2007).  

The cost of living in small-scale mining regions is often very high (Aryee et al., 2017). 

This is because the operation fetches relatively much quicker money for its workers. 

Small-scale miners are often spindrifts. This is because they hardly plan ahead, and since 

the business is very fetching, they always have enough to spend. Traders in the area of 

operation sell their goods at very high prices, and this makes the cost of living very high 

for the ordinary people living in the area. Small-scale gold mining is a continuously 

growing business, very attractive to the young and active populations (Hilson et al., 2009). 

Since these groups of people would prefer this business to farm, food cost is often very 

high as only fewer and less active people get involved in the production of crops. While 

the standard of living has very minimal effects on those engaged in small-scale mining due 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



17 
 

to the money earned, it adversely affects the vulnerable and inactive, native population 

who are not involved in this business (Amponsah-Tawiah et al., 2011).  

2.9.1 Socio-economic Impacts of Artisanal Mining 

Artisanal mining is an attractive employment option for many in rural areas; the barriers 

to entry are minimal - low technology and little capital are needed. Activity levels are 

dynamic as precious minerals are often inversely correlated with economic opportunity 

and periods of economic crisis. Artisanal and small-scale mining generates income; 

minerals provide higher income than other traditional activities within rural mining 

communities in Sub- Saharan Africa (Agyensaim, 2016).  However, Appiah (2015) stated 

that the presence of mining activities in Geita district in Tanzania has created market 

opportunities for local farmers and small traders, and employment opportunities for others. 

However, artisanal gold mining is associated with many social problems. The local 

populations are marginalized and oppressed, especially those from lower economic 

classes, by miners in the Geita district in Tanzania. Communities are exposed to chemical 

contaminants, heat stress, unsanitary conditions, malaria, prostitution, poor diets, drug-

taking and alcoholism (Creek, 2016). Women and children are the most vulnerable and 

affected. The participation of women in artisanal gold mining varies depending on local 

beliefs from different countries and communities. Their role is not limited to mining 

activities and includes the supply of food, tools and equipment and sex services that expose 

them to sexually transmitted diseases and HIV/AIDS (ILO, 2015). 

The environmental impacts of small-scale mining have been studied worldwide. The main 

impacts are deforestation and land degradation, open pits which are animal traps and health 

hazards, stagnant water in excavated holes that are abandoned by the miners that often 

serve as breeding grounds for mosquitoes, mercury use for gold amalgamation, inefficient 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



18 
 

extraction, dust and noise (Anon, 2010; Bloch & Owusu, 2017; Queenshland, 2019). One 

of the most significant environmental impacts is derived from the use of mercury (Hg). It 

is a pollutant causing growing concern because of its long-term impacts on ecosystems 

and human health. Artisanal and small-scale mining, in contrast to other sectors where 

mercury utilization is decreasing, remains a dangerous source of mercury pollution 

(Durkin et al., 2008). 

2.10 Environmental Impacts of Artisanal Small-Scale Gold Mining    

There is a global consensus that mining and the waste generated by ore processing at active 

and inactive mining sites, and its impacts on human health and the environment, are a 

serious and persistent problem faced by government agencies, industry and the public 

worldwide (Durkin & Herrmann, 2008). They also emphasized that poverty is most 

prevalent in communities directly affected by mining activities. Spatial analysis of field 

data from districts with mining activities suggests that communities close to mining 

projects are generally poorer than those further away from mining, and also show a clear 

trend of decreasing poverty as a function of distance from the mine. 

Gold mine production in developing countries has had a positive impact on employment, 

but at the same time has caused a multitude of environmental complications. A general 

problem is that most developing countries have only recently introduced national 

environmental legislation, and of the laws that pertain to mine-related activities, most are 

far from rigorous and do not regulate all aspects of the industry appropriately and 

effectively (Hilson et al., 2009). 

In the case of small-scale gold mining, environmental complications generally occur due 

to low safety awareness and low levels of training, poor exploitation of available resources 

due to selective mining of rich ores, low wages and chronic lack of capital, lack of 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



19 
 

environmental standards and use of very inefficient equipment. It is clear that small-scale 

resource exploitation is a source of livelihood for a significant number of people in sub-

Saharan Africa (Nartey et al., 2011; Lombe, 2003). However, it has the greatest impact on 

sustaining rural economies. To the extent that it is a source of livelihood, it also has an 

impact on the environment. The environmental effects associated with artisanal gold 

mining include the following; 

2.10.1 Mining and Land Degradation. 

According to UNEP (2006) land degradation is the temporary or permanent reduction in 

the productive capacity of land. It thus includes the various forms of land degradation, 

human encroachment on water resources, deforestation and reduction in the productive 

capacity of rangelands. According to Kusi-Ampofo et al., (2012) rich vegetation has been 

cleared and ridges have been targeted and degraded from top to bottom through a series of 

benches. The degradation of large tracts of land by small-scale mining poses a major threat 

to community agriculture and economic survival. 

Land degradation through illegal mining activities reduces biodiversity and may 

subsequently reduce the availability of medicinal plants (Bagstad et al., 2016; Biodiversity 

Support Programme, 1993; Ayitey-Smith, 2012). Meanwhile, Forkuor and Coffie (2011) 

noted that the huge scale of mining has led to a complete change of landform suitable for 

agricultural and other subsistence activities. Huge craters have been formed and slopes and 

parts of mountains have been eroded, affecting the sources of many rivers and streams and 

also leading to deforestation. On the other hand, mine waste dumped were often occupying 

large areas and disfiguring the landscape, resulting in massive water pollution from 

rainfall. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



20 
 

With regard to artisanal gold mining, the World Bank (2002) pointed out that one of the 

environmental impacts of artisanal gold mining in Ghana is land degradation, more 

specifically the clearing of large areas of forest, the digging of ditches and the clearing of 

vegetation, which in turn leaves the land bare and exposed to erosion factors. About 15,000 

ha of land is potentially affected by small-scale mining activities. Furthermore, Appiah 

(2015) explains, it is common for potential mining sites to be cleared and where there has 

been deep underground mining, the shafts are left uncovered and abandoned. However, 

Agyapong (2018), who conducted field research in Tarkwa in the Western Region of 

Ghana, reported that large areas of the region had been deforested as a result of small-scale 

gold mining. Artisanal miners, who are supposed to clear vegetation and then dig to extract 

ore, have left the landscape with ditches and graves dug which, in turn, makes the land 

unusable for any other purpose. Many of these pits are filled with water and serve as 

breeding grounds for malaria-infected mosquitoes. In addition, large areas of forest were 

removed in some places to create neighborhoods or "rest areas" for miners. Studies on the 

effects of small-scale resource exploitation have mainly focused on land use change 

studies (Pearson, 2019). However, Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (2014) reported that 

artisanal small-scale gold mining activities in Ghana resulted in the clearing of extensive 

forest areas, which in turn left potentially productive land bare and exposed mainly to 

erosion, heavy rainfall and wind. In addition to this, the World Bank (2002) reported that 

about 15,000 hectares were potentially affected by small-scale mining by residents. 

In this regard, Agyapong (2018) explained that potential areas are generally devoid of 

vegetation and topsoil, and where there is deep underground mining, the pits tend to remain 

bare and abandoned. Furthermore, Aryee et al., (2017), who carried out fieldwork in the 

Tarkwa area of Ghana, reports that large areas of the area have been deforested as a result 

of small-scale gold mining. The artisanal miners, who reportedly cleared the vegetation 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



21 
 

and then excavated mineral ore, marked the landscape with dug holes and trenches, which 

in turn made the land unusable for any other purpose. 

2.10.2 Illegal Mining Activities and Effect on Water Bodies  

Illegal mining activities of water bodies have been identified as one of the major causes 

affecting the production and supply of potable water in the Western Region. The Pra River, 

which serves as the major source of water for the production of potable water in the region, 

has been taken over by ‘galamsey’ operators, whose inhuman activities pose a great danger 

to the continuous availability of potable water (Amponsah-Tawiah et al., 2017). The 

deputy minister for Water Resources, Works and Housing on a working visit to assess the 

level of the water crisis in the region, admitted that illegal mining activities pose a great 

challenge to the operations of Ghana Water Company. She said that both the Ntweaban 

and the Daboase treatment plants have the capacity to produce six million gallons of water 

a day to serve the twin-city but production is low and inadequate. These illegal mining 

activities pose problems for the treatment plants and make the cost of production very 

high. She admitted that the current situation in the region was bad and could affect the 

industry and even household consumption (GNA, 2011). 

Determination of heavy metals in water bodies in Tarkwa and Obuasi areas by the Wassa 

Association of Communities Affected by Mining Changes (WACAM), particularly on 

Nyam River in Obuasi showed that Arsenic concentration of 13.56mg/L as against 

0.01mg/L required by the WHO and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This was 

due to pollution by small-scale mining activities. Data from Asuakoo River revealed that 

it had 22.72mg/L as against 0.4mg/L of Manganese prescribed by the WHO permissible 

guideline. The Executive Director, WACAM, said pollution of water bodies in the mining 

communities posed serious health implications to the people who were found to be 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



22 
 

suffering from various illnesses. He said the result of the research showed that most water 

bodies in the study areas were polluted with a high arsenic level ranging from 0.005 to 

35.4mg/L. Manganese, lead and mercury are neurotoxic metals which could affect the IQ 

of children exposed to high levels in drinking water. In all 400 water samples, made up of 

200 from Obuasi and 200 from Tarkwa areas were collected between May and September 

2008 and each sample was analyzed separately for toxic chemicals including arsenic, 

manganese, cadmium, iron, copper, mercury, zinc and lead (Agyapong, 2018). 

The physicochemical parameters such as pH, conductivity, turbidity and total dissolved 

solids were measured using standard methods of analysis as prescribed by the American 

Water Works Association (AWWA, 2000). The turbidity of some of the water bodies and 

alternate sources of water provided had low pH and high turbidity values, which exceeded 

the WHO and GEPA permissible limits (GNA, 2009).  Studies conducted by the Ghana 

Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) on water bodies and stream sediments as a result of 

small-scale mining activities at Tarkwa and its environs in the Western Region indicated 

excessive pollution of high mercury concentration, a toxic element that affects human 

health. The results suggested that the level of mercury detected from the water samples 

from the Western Region gold mining towns exceeded the WHO tolerable limit of 

0.001mg/L for drinking water (GNA, 2009). 

According to the GAEC, areas that contained high concentration of mercury are sites that 

experienced extensive ‘galamsey’ gold mining activities, showing that mercury 

concentration varied between 6.80 and 19.82 for water, and 28.90 and 84.30mg/Kg in 

sediment at sites with extensive small-scale mining activities (Akosa et al., 2018). At 

Prestea and its environs, total mercury concentrations in water were measured. The 

samples were analyzed by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA). Higher levels 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



23 
 

of total mercury concentration were found in samples at the sites with extensive small-

scale gold mining activities than at the sites with low small-scale mining activities. 

Concentrations varied between 7.5 and 20.6mg/L with extensive small-scale mining 

activities. At low small-scale mining sites, mercury concentration varies between 0.50 and 

9.10mg/L (Serfor-Armah et al., 2006). At Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai District (a typical 

mining community in the southwestern part of Ghana), surface water and sediment 

samples were collected from seven streams that drain this mining community and analyzed 

for mercury concentration. The total mercury content of the water ranged between 0.125 

and 1.341µg/l while sediment values ranged between 0.169 and 1.739 mg/Kg. Physico-

chemical parameters were also determined for the water samples. The pH range varied 

from 8.4 to 7.1. Temperature also ranged from 32 22.7°C to 31.6°C. Conductivity also 

ranged from 2.77 to 0.21 µs/cm. Total dissolved solids were from 185.9 to 111 mg/L 

(Nartey et al., 2011). 

2.10.3 Air Pollution and Transport of Earth Material 

According to Armah et al., (2013), site clearance and road construction, topsoil removal 

and dumping, and transport of earth material in open-pit mines result in air pollution. The 

dust emitted pollutes the air in most mining communities, especially during the dry season. 

The dust produced during gold mining contains a high proportion of silica and can cause 

respiratory diseases such as silicosis, colds, tuberculosis and silico-tuberculosis (Aubynn, 

2016; Owusu & Dwomoh, 2012). 

Another issue of concern is social hazard. Issues about social hazards on gold mining have 

been raised by various authors however, Agyensaim (2016) stated that small-scale gold 

mining activities in Ghana are taking place in areas where agriculture is predominant. 

Miners compete with community members for agricultural land, forest products, domestic 

water resources, consumption, fishing and other aquatic products that are the source of 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



24 
 

livelihood for community members. Referring to Andoh (2002), most farmers are 

abandoning their land because the economic argument weighs in favour of the mining 

industry. Residents are therefore forced to free up agricultural land and settlements for 

open-pit mining. The influx of migrant workers leads to high costs of living, especially 

higher food and housing rents, disorientation of communities and distortion of cultural 

values, among others (Aidoo, 2015; Agyensaim, 2016). The focus on small-scale gold 

mining has shifted attention away from food production, primarily to ‘galamsey’ 

operators. Land previously used for farming and other agricultural activities has been taken 

over by mining concessions, reducing food production and creating conditions for higher 

food prices (Bloch & Owusu, 2017; Tetteh, 2010; Noestaller, 2011). The business of 

‘galamsey’ which involves excessive physical exertion, is a challenge, and hence risky, 

due to high drug consumption. Smoking cigarettes increases exposure of the lungs to dust, 

making them more susceptible to silicosis, tuberculosis and pneumonia. Alcohol and drug 

abuse are important causes of mining accidents. Sexually transmitted diseases are 

prevalent in mining communities because of the activities of sex workers (Chambers & 

Conway, 2017).  

2.10.4 Heavy Metals in the Environment  

The presence of heavy metals in the environment has adverse effects on ecosystems 

(Mamo et al., 2007). Minute amounts of heavy metals available in the environment are 

basically due to the weathering of rocks. This is the process by which rocks break down 

into pieces to generate soil. Like all metals, heavy metals circulate within the environment 

and are eventually assimilated by plants and animals (Armah et al., 2013; Akabzaa et al., 

2007). 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



25 
 

2.11 Methods of Mining by Small-scale Miners 

 Methods employed by small-scale gold miners vary according to the type of deposit being 

exploited and its location Due to the poor financial status of small-scale gold miners, the 

majority rely solely on traditional/manual methods of mining, which use simple equipment 

like shovels, pick-axes, pans, chisels and hammers (Ntibrey, 2004).  One method is the 

shallow alluvial mining techniques, which are popularly called -dig and wash, or the 

Krowa method (wooden bowl carved out of tree stem to serve as a pan) are used to mine 

shallow alluvial deposits usually found in valleys or low-lying areas. Such deposits have 

depths not exceeding three meters. The area is initially cleared and the soil excavated until 

the gold-rich layer is reached. The mineralized material is removed and transported to 

nearby streams for sluicing to recover the gold. Gold from sluices is concentrated by using 

a smaller ‘krowa’ or the gold pan. Women are very effective in using the ‘krowa’ for the 

recovery of gold (Appiah, 2015). Illegal small-scale gold miners practice this method 

because of easy access. 

Deep alluvial mining techniques or land dredges are also other types used to mine deep 

alluvial deposits found along the banks of major rivers such as the Ankobra, Tano, and 

Offin and certain older river courses. These methods involve excavating a pit and digging 

until the gold-bearing gravel horizon, which is typically located at depths of 7 to 12 metres, 

is reached (Noetstaller, 2011). The gold-bearing rocks are then removed and sluiced to 

recover the gold. In recent years, some of the richer owners have introduced large 

machinery to this method, bulldozing and back-hoeing pits to access layers of gold-bearing 

gravels more quickly or those formerly inaccessible by manual methods alone (Creek., 

2016). In areas where hard rocks are encountered the ore is excavated manually and size 

reduction is carried out using a combination of jaw and rocker crushers and hammer 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



26 
 

(Amankwah & Anim-Sackey, 2003). In some cases, explosives are commonly used, 

despite being prohibited throughout Ghana (Ntribrey, 2004). 

2.12 Methods of Processing  

Firstly, the ore is crushed into pebbles by physical or mechanical means. The pebbles 

undergo primary, secondary and tertiary grinding in preparation for washing. The ground 

ore is transferred to the riverside or pond in cloth bags to be refined (Amegbey & Eshun, 

2003). The gold-containing material is washed on sluices where the heavier gold particles 

are caught and concentrated on carpets or jute sacks, due to gravity. The concentrate from 

the sluice box is re-assembled in rubber dishes or wooden pans (Krowa). Through panning, 

the undesirable sediments are separated from the gold particles until the latter clearly 

appear in the final concentrate. Next, mercury is poured into the concentrate inside the 

pan. Mercury is usually mixed by hand with the concentrate, forming a lump or ball of 

mercury-gold amalgam. Water is added several times to discard tailings and remove lighter 

particles until only the amalgam remains. The amalgam is then squeezed in a piece of cloth 

to recover excess mercury (often re-bottled and used again). Some miners put the fabric 

with the amalgam into their mouth to suck out additional mercury (Hilson et al., 2009). 

Finally, the amalgam is roasted in a coal pot for 15-40 min, depending on size. Burning 

can also take place with a blowtorch. During gold production, mercury losses occur at 

various stages: amalgamation, where mercury may be washed out during the gravity 

washing; and burning, where mercury, with its high volatility, is released into the 

atmosphere. After burning, a sponge-like gold substance stays behind in the tin. When the 

gold has cooled, it is weighed and at the end of the day sold (Akosa et al., 2018). 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



27 
 

2.13 Regulations on Mining Activities in Ghana 

Mining activities in Ghana are regulated by a number of legal frameworks (Noetstaller, 

2011). That mining activities are not properly monitored cannot be attributed to the lack 

of regulations on mining processes. Rather, this can be attributed to the fact that there are 

weaknesses in existing laws, and also the lack of commitment on the part of environmental 

agencies to enforce these laws. Environmental agencies may sometimes also lack the 

necessary equipment for monitoring. This makes monitoring very difficult, and the agency 

becomes limited in its mandates (Agyensaim, 2016). Some important mining regulations 

enshrined in the constitution of Ghana are reviewed here. 

2.14 Mineral and Mining Law 1986 (PNDCL 153)  

Section I “All minerals are the property of the Republic of Ghana, and the Government 

has the power to acquire compulsorily any land which may be required to secure the 

development or utilization of any mineral resources”. This law makes the Government of 

Ghana the legal owner of minerals taken from the Ghanaian soil, and all lands suitable for 

mining processes. Section 14 subsection 2 (PNDCL 153, 1986) “The Secretary (now the 

Minister) for Lands and Natural Resources shall, on behalf of the Republic, have the power 

to negotiate, grant, revoke, suspend or renew any mineral right under this law”. This makes 

it possible for the Minister of Lands and Natural Resources, on behalf of the Government 

of Ghana, to enact by-laws and prevent any such move or mining activity deemed 

detrimental to the environment, and ultimately citizens of the nation. PNDC Law 153 also 

makes it possible for mining organizations to have inspectors and monitors who sample 

materials and systems such as soil, tailings and water bodies in and around the site of work, 

so as to ensure that environmental standards are met.  

 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



28 
 

2.15 The Mineral Commission Law 1986 (PNDCL 154) 

The law was enacted to establish the Minerals Commission. The Minerals Commission is 

responsible for the formulation of policies regarding mineral exploration and its mining 

on Ghanaian soils. The Commission, therefore, has a contractual obligation with 

proponents in the country. Individuals holding the chairmanship, as well as the Chief 

Executive Officer of this Commission are appointed by the Government.  

2.16 Small-scale Gold Mining Law 1989 (PNDCL 218)  

Section I “No person shall engage in or undertake any small-scale mining operations 

unless there is existence, in respect of such operation, a license and granted by the 

Secretary (now the Minister) for Lands and Natural Resources or by an officer auditioned 

on that behalf”. It is evidently clear from this law that small-scale mining operations 

without permits are not allowed to operate. The story, however, differs from current 

observation, as almost all small-scale mining activities across the nation either operate 

illegally or have not adequately followed due processes to acquire permits. This law does 

not make it possible for non-Ghanaians to have a license to operate, as stated in Section 2 

of this regulation, except that such Ghanaians are 18 years and above. Nonetheless, they 

may participate in such operations where Ghanaian citizens are the majority stakeholders, 

as directed by the firm’s code. Section 13 of the law forbids using explosives in small-

scale gold mining operations. It states, “No small-scale gold miner shall use any explosive 

in his operations” Unfortunately, the lack of adequate supervision and monitoring has 

resulted in this aspect of the law being highly compromised. The purchase and use of 

mercury are however permitted, as specified in section 14 of this law 46.  

2.17 Legal Framework for Small-scale Mining Activities in Ghana 

An important move was made by the PNDC Government in 1989 to officially allow the 

mining of important minerals such as gold. This legalization of small-scale mining activity 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



29 
 

was an important landmark over previous regulations, which only permitted the small-

scale mining of diamonds. Three important mining laws were passed as follows: The 

Small-scale Gold Mining Law (PNDCL 218): Provides for the registration of activity; the 

granting of gold-mining licenses to individuals or groups; the licensing of buyers to 

purchase products; and the establishment of district-assistance centers. 

The Mercury Law (PNDCL 217): Legalized the purchasing of mercury (for mineral 

processing purposes) from authorized dealers. The Precious Minerals Marketing 

Corporation Law (PNDC Law 219): This law transformed the Diamond Marketing 

Corporation (DMC) into the Precious Minerals Marketing Corporation (PMMC), which 

was authorized to buy and sell gold.  

2.18 Processes of Application for Small-scale Mining Permit/License  

Firstly, a notification is given to the Officer responsible for small-scale mining in the 

district. The Officer then follows up to the region to assess how suitable it would be for 

the activity before demarcating the site. The prospective miner prepares a site plan, and a 

notice of the intention is published at the Assembly, the local information center and the 

magistrate’s court for 21 days. After the 21 days, and if no contrary opinions are expressed, 

the applicant completes an application form to fulfill other requirements of the Mineral 

Commission. Recommendations are submitted to the Secretary or Minister for Mines and 

Energy who then approves or rejects the application. A successful applicant is handed a 

code of environmental safety practices, and these include safety precautions at workplaces 

(protection at workplaces), land surface protection and general environmental protection 

guidelines (Mineral Commission, 2006). 

 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



30 
 

2.19 Definition and Concepts of Ecosystem 

2.19.1 Ecosystem and Ecosystem Services   

The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines ecosystems as a dynamic 

complex of interacting plant, animal and microbial communities and their abiotic 

environment as a functional unit. Ecosystems can generally be divided into two main 

categories: terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Humans are part of ecosystems and benefit 

from them, as their lives depend on ecosystem services. These systems interact and 

interconnect through various processes that create ecological balance and are linked at 

different scales to provide valuable ecosystem services to people (Daily et al., 2009; 

Costanza et al., 2014). Ecosystem services provide outputs or outcomes that directly and 

indirectly affect human well-being because these are the benefits that people derive from 

ecosystems. Therefore, ecosystem services are an integral part of nature that are enjoyed, 

consumed, or used directly or indirectly to create and satisfy human well-being (Mitchell 

et al., 2017).  Ecosystem processes, sometimes referred to as functions, express the 

complex physical and biological cycles, processes and interactions that underpin the nature 

we observe and result in ecosystem services. The specific outcome of these processes is 

the direct maintenance or enhancement of human life (de Groot et al., 2002). Ecosystem 

services are the ability of natural processes and elements to provide goods and services 

that directly or indirectly meet human needs. Several competing definitions of ecosystem 

services come from different disciplines and approaches (Fisher et al., 2017; Fu et al., 

2018). However, there are some general definitions of ecosystem services that are 

frequently used and cited. 

- Daily et al., (2009) defines ecosystem services as the conditions and processes by which 

natural ecosystems and their component species support and enable human life. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



31 
 

- Costanza et al., (2014) define ecosystem services as the benefits that humans derive 

directly or indirectly from ecosystem functions. 

- The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) defines ecosystem services as the 

benefits that ecosystems provide to humans, which include the following services: 

nutrition, regulation, support and cultural services. The definition shows that although 

there is broad agreement on the general definition of ecosystem services, some critical 

differences can be highlighted. Daily et al., (2009) define ecosystem services as "states 

and processes" and "actual life-supporting functions". Again, Costanza et al., (2014) 

define ecosystem services as functions provided by and used by people. Basically, 

provisioning services include firewood, bushmeat, freshwater, fruits, medicines, and fish. 

Once the functioning of ecosystems is known, the value of goods and services provided to 

human society can be analysed and assessed according to the functional aspects of 

ecosystems. To avoid confusion between the two concepts, it is argued that the difference 

lies in the fact that human beneficiaries are related to services and not to the activities 

considered in this paper. Those activities that benefit individuals and society are referred 

to as 'ecosystem goods and services. Ecosystem goods and services are based on the natural 

environment, such as soil, water and air (Hein et al., 2018). Natural ecosystems provide a 

wide range of direct and indirect services and tangible benefits to humans and other 

organisms (Shackleton et al., 2019). 

Table 2.1: Classification of Ecosystem Services 

Provisioning services:  

 Products obtained from ecosystems, 

such as water, timber and non-timber 

forest products, or genetic resources 

including the following: 

Water, Medicinal plants, Bushmeat 

Food (Wildlife, fish, fruits, mushrooms 

and others) 

Raw materials such as building materials 

 Cultural services  

River for recreational use including non-

material benefits, such as cultural, 

recreational or spiritual values  
 

Supporting services: Services needed to 

produce the other three categories, 

primary production/soil and nutrient 

recycling. 

 Regulatory services: Benefits from the 

ecological processes such as carbon 

regulation 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



32 
 

2.20 Ecosystem Services and Livelihoods  

2.20.1 Ecosystem Services  

According to Costanza et al., (2011) ecosystem services benefit humans by transforming 

resources or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation and atmosphere, into 

a flow of essential goods and services such as clean air, water and food. The Millennium 

Ecosystem Assessment (2005) also defines ecosystem service as the benefits derived from 

nature that are important for human well-being. In 2005, the Millennium Ecosystem 

Assessment identified and categorized ecosystems and their resulting services, identified 

the links between these services and human societies, and the direct and indirect drivers 

and feedback loops. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment framework identified 

ecosystem services within four categories, namely; provisioning services such as food and 

water, regulating services, such as flood and disease control, support services, such as 

nutrient cycling, that maintain the conditions for life on Earth, and cultural services, such 

as spiritual, recreational, and cultural benefits (Wang et al.,2018). 

Ecosystems are increasingly recognized for their contribution of services to human well-

being. This has led to an interest by many researchers in understanding human-

environment interactions against the backdrop of dwindling ecosystems (MA, 2005). 

Across the world, understanding ecosystems is an essential subject for scientific enquiry 

(Cowie et al., 2011; Rounsevell et al., 2010), mainly due to the growing costs of 

biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation (TEEB, 2008). This is particularly true for 

developing countries whose population heavily depend on ecosystems for survival (due to 

high poverty levels) and have the highest rates of ecosystem degradation (MA, 2005), and 

is especially the case for the dryland systems of Sub-Saharan Africa (Bagstad et al., 2018) 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



33 
 

2.20.2 Ecosystem Services and Land Use Change  

It has been noted in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) Synthesis Report (2005) 

that degradation of ecosystem services significantly impacts human well-being and poses 

a direct threat to regional and global eco-safety (Daily et al., 2009). Land use refers to the 

deliberate management of land to achieve specified outcomes that are partially influenced 

by the natural characteristics of the land in question (Fu et al., 2013). Human activity has 

substantially altered land cover globally and Crop land now accounts for almost 11 % of 

the total global land area. The area used for grazing livestock has increased from 324 

million ha in 1700 to 3429 million ha in 2000, representing 25 % of the total global land 

area (Pielke et al., 2011). Such land-use change strongly influences an ecosystem’s 

capacity to provide services (MA, 2005; GLP, 2005; Lawler et al., 2014). However, 

Costanza et al., (2014) estimate that total global land-use changes between 1997 and 2011 

resulted in a loss of ecosystem services worth $4.3–20.2 trillion every year. Researchers 

and international groups increasingly view ecosystem services, land use change, and the 

links between them as of central importance for ecosystem restoration, management, and 

conservation (Palmer et al., 2004; GLP, 2005; MA, 2005; Sutherland et al., 2006; 

Crossman et al., 2013; Maes et al., 2013). 

Initial research conducted on ESs was heavily focused on defining essential concepts and 

terminology (De Groot et al., 2002; Haines-Young et al., 2011) and on attempting to value 

the ongoing provision of these services (Van Wilgen et al., 1996; Costanza et al., 2014; 

Ghaley et al., 2014). More recently, research has focused on the quantitative modelling 

and spatially explicit mapping of ESs (Ayanu et al., 2012; Martínez-Harms & Balvanera 

2012; Hu et al., 2014; Larondelle et al., 2014; Sumarga & Hein, 2020), trade-off and 

synergy analysis between multiple ecosystem services (Rodríguez et al. 2006; Fu & Wang, 

2018; Jia et al., 2014; Kragt & Robertson, 2014; Lu et al., 2014; Zheng et al., 2014), spatial 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



34 
 

flow analysis of ecosystem services (Bagstad et al., 2018; Palomo et al., 2013; Villamagna 

et al., 2013; Schröter et al., 2014; Serna-Chavez et al., 2014), incorporation of ecosystem 

services into conservation and restoration programs (Egoh et al., 2007; Trabucchi et al., 

2012; Zheng et al., 2014), environmental decision-making and its implications (Daily et 

al., 2009; Bateman et al., 2013; von Stackelberg, 2013; Zheng et al., 2014), and assessing 

payment options to account for ESs (Derissen & Latacz-Lohmann, 2013; Schomers & 

Matzdorf, 2013).  

While ecosystem services have received increasing attention in the literature, much less 

attention has been given to studies linking ecosystem services with land-use changes.  The 

studies that examined such links, most focus on the changing values of ecosystem services 

under altered patterns of land use. In practice, these valuations help raise awareness of the 

importance of ecosystem services to society and serve as a powerful and essential 

communication tool for informing decisions regarding the inherent trade-offs associated 

with policies that enhance the gross domestic product (GDP) but damage ecosystems as 

opposed to simply treating ecosystem services as commodities for trade-in established 

markets (Costanza et al., 2014).   

2.20.3 Provisioning Ecosystem Services 

Provisioning services are the tangible goods or products obtained from ecosystems such 

as food, fresh water, timber and fiber (Fu et al., 2018).  Indeed, provisioning ecosystem 

services are vital to human survival, especially in rural communities in Africa that depend 

primarily on ecosystem services. Without provisioning ecosystem services such as wild 

fruits, bushmeat and other essential consumptive materials, their survival and livelihood 

will be highly affected. The question of food security under-provisioning ecosystem 

service in a primarily rural community is vital as demand increases and commodity 

markets become more volatile (Ghaley et al., 2014). Over the years, access to gold through 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



35 
 

heavy machines and tools has significantly impacted the provisioning ecosystem services 

of the most vulnerable farmers across Africa. Ghana is among the countries in Africa that 

have suffered from over-exploitation of natural resources such as gold.  Small-scale 

mining activities, popularly called ‘galamsey’ has had a severe toll on the agricultural 

activity of community members. This situation has had dying down consequences on 

access to arable land for agricultural activities.  

Agro-ecosystems, ranging from small-holdings to commercial scale, provide food for 

human consumption and underpin global food security have been affected due to land-use 

change activities. Much of the Earth’s land surface is used for food production through 

crop cultivation and livestock rearing. Marine and freshwater fisheries and aquaculture 

also provide significant protein sources to the global population (FAO, 2014). Aquaculture 

depends on nutrient recycling and water purification services in coastal areas and inland 

water bodies (Asante et al., 2017). In urban contexts, ecosystems can help meet energy 

needs and support agriculture (Martinez-Harms et al., 2012). As well as the production of 

sufficient food in terms of quantity, the nutritional quality of food produced is also critical 

to human health and an essential component of food security (FAO, 2014). A range of 

ecosystems provides both wild and domestic sources of nutrition for humans (Obeng et 

al., 2018). Where these resources are in decline, malnutrition can occur, for example, 

coastal communities relying on dwindling fisheries for protein intake. For communities 

worldwide, nutritional needs can be met through wild products identified and located 

through ecological knowledge, another ecosystem service (FAO, 2014). Water is used 

predominantly for agriculture, including livestock production, followed by industry and 

domestic uses (Fu et al., 2013). Forest and mountain ecosystems are source areas for most 

renewable water supplies and regulate pollution and water quality. The link between the 

regulation of water supply and water quality is strong. However, vegetation, soils and soil 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



36 
 

organism activity are significant determinants of water flows and quality, and micro-

organisms play an important role in groundwater quality.  

While the general relationship between more intact biodiversity and water regulation is 

understood, the relationships between discrete species and changes in biodiversity with 

changes in water regulation are not. Land-use change, significant deforestation can affect 

the capacities of ecosystems to regulate and provide fresh water, which can be difficult to 

reverse (GLP, 2005). Large-scale land-use change activities such as mining and other 

related activities can potentially affect vapour formation and rainfall patterns in locally 

specific and highly variable ways. Rain-fed agricultural systems will potentially be 

influenced, in turn impacting food production and quality. 

Agro-ecosystems can also interplay with human resilience in negative ways; for example, 

by impacting on ecosystem services nearby through nutrient pollution and barriers to 

migration and dispersal of organisms, sedimentation of waterways and loss of wildlife 

habitat (Schomers, 2013). The provision of fuels and fibres including timber, cotton, sisal, 

sugars and oils is an important ecosystem service for humans. Such natural materials are 

used to construct shelter and fuel for cooking and heating (MA, 2005). Biochemicals 

produced by plants, animals, and microorganisms are high-value medicinal resources for 

the production of pharmaceuticals and pesticides and other products. Pharmaceutical 

compounds have been derived from a range of ecosystems, including oceans, coastal areas, 

freshwater systems, forests, grasslands and agricultural land. Crop genetic diversity is 

critical for increasing and sustaining production levels and nutritional diversity throughout 

the full range of agro-ecological conditions (FAO, 2014).  

Genetic diversity within crops contributes to food security by increasing yields and 

nutritional values. Humans have had a long history of improving varieties and replacing 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



37 
 

local varieties of domesticated plant species with high-yielding crops, thus eroding genetic 

resources. Agricultural genetic diversity also provides services for genetic diversity in non-

domesticated species of plants, animals, and microorganisms linked to them within 

ecosystems. Advances in genetic modification are opening up opportunities to increase 

these effect