• 
• 
" , T 
• '0 
• 
, , . . . . . . • • 
,.  
, ' 
Tho "'tlrv, J )',.;": -n! the R.~ ul t. r t1C: urve", . . , . 
p'lrt I I by ~u ":£" 
l!i:;t, ry ~ll<. Vill"'r"c (lr '~nis~ti r, 
L"lm' Te:nurc . • 
I'l~(:ri t ': nee . , 
~c, 1( .le HI ., ~t: ry f th:.: ,r.::-:. 
rketf . 
Ticultur'" ... 'r'lctic.;s 
V.!. ll .. .;c 'Len1 tics . 
• 32 
',ckr,cwler' '(:!Jer.t:; . , 
--,JoOOC' --
155276 
• 
?.. \ SLtll (,.,~ \) ) ) 
L C'd.(~ f ~ J~ 
J 
• 
\ 
-F-4R-H--IN-G-- -PA--TT-B-R-N-S- --IN-- T-H--E --K-A-D-E --A-R-EA- 
by 
F. R. BRAY 
• 
I . I "TRODUCTION 
This study , which rolntes to food fnrmi~ in thp. forest , is tho last 
of four which a.ttcmpt to describe di:=;tinct asr,oct~ of tho I'l.gricultural economy 
of Ghana, not' bly cnmJ",crci"'l , food ::lnd c-,coa farminc in the forest , comaercial 
and subsistence f~od f~r~inc in the sav~nna ~rc~s . The ryther studies are those 
re12tinc tl' Ejurl'l. (cnrnmcrcial food proJuction in the sllvn.nna) , I.!est f.shanti 
(COC00) and Frofra (subsistence food prcAuction) . Each of those investigntions 
hEll'> as its main G'onl the study of one of thr1$C aspects . It nirht seem that the 
results are of purely technical or (>cano:::ic interest n.nd h::3.vO little cor.tribu -
tion to make t" the major problens of government and govornment policy in Ghana 
or in fric::l . l'lf,ether '"lne call t1l.ke that vi"wpoir.t or not dapends both on one ' s 
tr:1dition Rnd tr~ining and ")n the acceptrtnce or rajcction of tha ganeral impor -
tance of tl:a rUr'll pnd 1';t.:I'l3.rilln structurr> ~s A foundntion of political as vell 
as econonic \'Iellbaing; nnd anyone who is now l/3.tchin(" the struggle I)f European 
countries to roconcile c~nflicting a£ricultural interp.sts for t ~~ sake of 
grenter political unity could, .when all is s:).id n.nd done, only come to one 
conclusion ("In that topic . H::lwavuI' th:1.t May ):.0, this writer was br'1Ufht up to 
believe in the fundamental importance of agriculture for the economic well - being 
of h i s country and had the f~rtune to work in a tradition that believas that 
the only \"lay >roperly to investi£ste is to ""}bserve in realistic detail the 
problem wi th which I"ne is donlin)!: and , only !liter lonr and c . ,rcful associotion 
wi th that problec t. ellbcr'lte standnrds of judt;nJent on which both ag-ricul tural 
and mere general econo~ic policy co~ld then be soundly based . This approach 
r ejects hasty conclusions ~nd doctrin3ire policy. even if that policy is based 
on pl:1usible st·:ttisticlll inforr:1l!tir:n, and the more pl::tusible the more suspect . 
If, aSGUIcing good f'li th , t hose :,ss(")ci"'lte~ for example ",i th the cocoa 
industry, bo t h sellers but also buyers took sufficient pains to assoss the 
factor~ doterr.lining the prospects of production 1r. ec,ch senT, wide fluctu'ltions 
in prices from month L, month could not I"ccur . Tl'le peoples of /.frica of all 
rHces nre payinr, a heevy price fnr such i,;nornnc~ . 'T'he futuro and the lives 
of l:Iany peoplo on the continent rre bein£; deternined by the success or failure 
of policies b'l.sed on dogma . ;n .1tern"ltlve rc-".list apprClach ::.lC';:,n!; t ht t t he-
clirr-!;:t'·r of an investigaticn shuuld ~.'ork siele by side as it were with those 
whose offorts he is directing . The need for careful observation. and recording 
was a contribution th.qt P . ~! . ')mallfil;!ld l':1r.dQ to the tr-.ining of those who worked 
under his directicn, including the tl.!3si.~nr,ents that hI) gave to a junior econo-
liIist .,f his staff 11 number of years ago . 
'T'here a r e tho$ who l!'lay luestion the validity of the conclusi)us of 
the survey which follow!:: . They cr:y find thalr t) be C'Ontrary to gene r a lly 
accepted opinion or m'ly feol that eonrlition~ nrc vllriable so that no gener:llly 
valid conclusion is pos~ibla at nIl . It is difficult to accopt unexpected con-
c lusions ''' '-_',!'. it,,"':'! Y\!n C::l . ntor to shnrt run t ll'l!! nds but , !£rantod that the 
inforlllation collectec. i"I!"d )b~erved is llccur-,te , ;nd tho \118Y in which each 
cleMent ir. the structur e fits in with enci"J othe r clemont J.eavos little doubt 
on this score, the r ea! question which ha!l to be /J.ns~lered is whether it would 
have bocn possible on ~he bl'sis of the \\'llillIblo inforrotion to hove arrived a t 
nny other conclusi<>n tl:nn those which ill f~ct h·we boen fCll'ClUlnted . 
,', little further r of l ection will show th'"lt a closor know lodge of 
nrriculturnl, ec,onot:li.: and anthr'Jpolot;ical p r oblo:1S would havo shown the price 
to bo .,<lid for certa in pol1ticr..l llecisions oven if it would not have changed 
those d13cision:t tho f.lsel vef'. There may for example hnve been no way of convincinG 
interested f"frican governments , who lIre concerned with ge tting tho maximum 
~dvantage from tho st~ugglo f o r po~itions of leader~hip within their country and 
in tho continent a~ 0. wholo , that it is necessary t o have A certain unifying 
infl uence , even if only largesso ~o be c ontinually distributed , t o bring v~ry 
d ifferent tribGs and roc-io-ns toge,hcr successfUlly and without much strifo . 
, 
- 2 -
I f that is the case , then the only admissiblo.approach to the pr oblems of tho 
continent is ono'of feelings of compassion for a l l concer ned befor e the inevitab_ 
ility of tragedy . 'But one cannot leave the matter t hore for ono is then hII,'lnt ed 
by the feeling that nei thcr the :. . frican nor those who are t r ying to a i d j-, i lll in 
solvine the immediato probleo.s realize the full consequences of the ir actions . 
~ In order to make th i s point , it is only necessn r y to accept certai n 
simple principles of economic orranisation. One of those is that the degree to 
."j-,ich an economy can cer,traliso is lir.li ted by the resources of tr.at country N:.tha 
than tho reVtlI'S4. Out of these resources , a country cor.st r ucts an administratio 
communicatior,s , instruction in a comoon lr.nGuap~ and those continuing contacts 
which tie different reGions together and lead to some unde r standing of the needs 
of each . This un i ty is built by leadership in d i fferent sector s of the economy 
bound together by COlnrllon interest . ~ topic").l question con;erns the prov ision of 
·this leadership on a permanent basis in the l~ng period of change . Par exacple , 
if it takes }n.5 m to naintein E. stat,le Kat:tr.gan administration , wou l d i t not 
require t75 m to do the satle for the congo 'ls a whole? Looki ng beyond the 
f r ontiers of Ghan~ , it is no solution to the instability of a Gt r ife t or n country 
to include ",tithin its f r ontiers addit i onal arc~s of instability . If the economic 
histor y of Europe teaches anything, it is that when inter nal str ife reaches a 
certain point as an economy collnpses, there is no alternative but'to go back to 
smaller units of governmont and start to build up again fran below . The resou r ce 
for centralization havo in Ghana been provided above all by the cocoa i ndustr~ ; 
i n the ConGo by an alion economic developnent. But a close study of agricu l tu r a 
structure would also show that there are regional differences in the k i nd of po l i 
tical and economic structure that is possible . I t is significant that Katanga 
has res i sted longost the atteopt to br..ing it within n unitar y Congo , for its 
needs are different frorn any other forr.ler province . Here there was li ttle deve l 
oplllont of indigenous coml,lercial aGriculture . Vor mc r ly , i t was a sparso ly se t t l ed 
area with vast elnost empty spnces 1l:1d the food requirements of the cent r es of 
popu l ation have been obtained from ~.:.rge est."lte farns and frau the p r oduction of 
settlers . If these go, ""ho will feed the towns? 
In order to ob,ain the psychological background to this situation as 
it is dev eloping , one has to have some appreciati on of the att i tude of tribal 
groups to land and property, and to governnent . There are three principa l ways 
in which a tribe may acquire land . By discovery and first occupatic.n , by conques 
and indirectly by labour. Those ~tho conque r an area and those who create a per -
manent sign of occupation on the land by their labour h~ve a right to the occup-
ation of the land . logical reaction by a tribe which wishes to reasse r t i ts 
claim to land lost through conquest and settlement would be to dest r oy the 
improvement'made by the previous occupant , which constituted a r irht to the use 
of the land . NoW" it i!; clear that in this sense "n ,;.brogation of conquest and 
the rig-ht of sovereicnty on the part of those who had cnnquered 'lnd settled the 
land would lead those .mo wished to re - establish an origifu~l titlo to land to 
seek to d i spossess tho settler . The settlor would then have no pa r t i n the new 
society and, added to fears of intertribal fiGhtinG and a depleted'admin i st r 'l tio 
he would of Course find little reason for eonficencc in the future . 
Happily this situdiQn does not 'lpply to Ghana . But the gener a l 
problem of aGricultural developnent is nevert!leless rresor.t . At the moment, 
the des i re for economic developtlent is ~et ~' the usini:., up of r eserves of • 
forest fertility by labour savinr forClS of fnrning which ,jve t he f:Toates t 
emphasis to m'lize . But this c,'l,mot continuo indef i nit£l l y 'lnd imlense p r ')jec t s 
such as the Volta river seheCle, thouuh tr.~y support Fresent leve l s ot pNsp£lrity 
by injection of foreien IQans, pose fundatlental problens of economic st r uctu re 
and of a land policy desiSned to conser ve resou r ces . How i s the u r ban Bnd i ::tdus -
t r ial labour force to be supported on the basis of an Ilr:ricu l tu r e wh i ch !. s v i s i-
bly deteriorating, in which requirenents wi l l soon inc r ease and how , O!l thi s 
basis, are the industries to CQ::le ir.to beint;; which will 'Jse the power t hus 
created? Instead of facinb this r r oblen, c{; vernnent:= 'i r e livi I! _· i n t he hope of 
some d r amat i c change in the r ate of developr;ont ~:hich wi!] r.one f r .,m e xhausting 
or dest r oyinc existing forDs of wealth i n agr iculture and :ll n i ns , i n wl':1ch t hey 
have a real advantace , in or de r t~ construct l~rge sc~le i ndustrie s in wbich t hey 
tn·. .. e \jone . If schetlcs such 2 S the Volta a r c to succeed , we shall doubt loss s e e 
here as i n other C' ount r ies that oass ive ir.t e rfore nc e ~t ') no peint will lead t o 
the need for oassive inte r fe r ence elsewJ..,e r e O1n:l t h i s wou l d cean tho ' introducti on 
• 
- 3 -
of capital using highly managed estate fo~rns of agri cultur e ; it would mean 
exactly the type of e OJnomic structure that had been created in the Congo . The 
choice has to be made: either dceidinl to build in the Deantime more modestly 
end. f r om below or putting traditional attitudes and extreme nationelisn on one 
side and create a level of economic dGvelopment with outside help that must be 
lop- sided and partial . 
of exp~ns io•n  
The four survoys undertAken , st.1.rted in the atmosphere/into new nreas 
characterized by the Ejura survey , ran int~ 1 roblems of nethods of establishment 
due to a feverish impulse to c l a!!r: in the l1est ,l\sillOtnti cocoo survey and, in the 
survny undertaken at Kade, srtw the first effects of 0XCOSSj vo urban devolopmen 
The economic position of the coc~~ farmer had deteriorated as the desire for 
ch'lnee .and :;,tate control spread . In parallel fashion , the !i'rafra survey in the 
n_'rth shoved how .;cvernment l.nd economic pOlicy have affected this more isolated 
a r t:=ll . The whole is therefore a record of a society ir, trflnsition at a v~ry 
i mportant perbd in its development just prior to and ufter independence . 
Towards the end one hilS to admit , and a colleague who studied i n the allied 
field of trcde had similar feelings , that it was very difficult to a r rive at 
the t r uth of 'Iny situ·. . tion fat" the suspicion that existed fairly generally 
to. . rard5 outside investib.o:..tion . ODe bad the feelir..g that those associated wi th 
economi c life 1:!nd in p'lrticulljlr cocoa production ~/e r e ahmys looking over their 
sbouldor i':lS it wer e to assass the eflfect of what they said on thei r o .. m secur i ty . 
"'ur rounded by hidden t r uth in this Wfty , ~Ihere every stotement was judged by its 
prrstige effect iro c r eating an ~r~earance of progress o~ all fronts, one had very 
str onsly the impression of en indust r y ",hich \·1U5 , in terms of one of Chestertor.'s 
phr ases , of the \lTronb shape . Again one has, like Chesterton , tho feeling that 
ou~ of a situr>.tion tJhioh is of the wrong shape ) where the elements do not fit 
t ogether, only evi l can come . 
~hat is not ~f course tho whole picture and it is with the ;reatest 
pl~asure that one desires to pay t r ibute to the excellent co- oporation given by 
fa r neriil who helped in the surveys wer a period of years . Amongst each eroup , 
there energed some \llho he came trusted fri~nds -'IS well az collaborators and the 
overwhelminC feelinG that cne hns in proferring any general critici~ is that 
of riS i ng in clafence of their interests , '1S of those of the lIorkers "'hom they 
employ . ·;uch of the worth of the sturiies, if worth there be , is due to thei r 
experience which was dr'lwn upon and the observntions thl'lt they we r e able to 
confir m or dony . To thQ good humour ;- r:d sens£; of fUn of the ferlllGrs as a whole 
and to the individual marl ts of r.len such as t1elam ~madu at r.:jum. Kwasi Atobr eb 
of iiim , I.yange. , .... kologr:l, ~1lBmu '·.tti!.! ana \nolozugu at ~I.unrungu and the seven 
Bong'O f:"rne r s in !:;ene:ral, for their di~nity ~s well -'1S their good humour , and 
to K'das~ ::ao 311d otburs itt Qtumi and ,::ubi, "Jne uisr_es to y<!y the highest tribute . 
It is simq.:l.rly ". grOllt plee.surfl t pa:" tribute to the loyal and );lost will:i.ng 
service givon b:1 the renE/arch assist'lfl-:s engogad on the various surveys . 
Hr . S. Il: . :·!odzievor ,·raB d\l/ays f:I towor ~·f stronl;,-th and the high quality of his 
work can ro judr;od by hili writtnil con';ribution to the northern survey which 
only needed srJall editorial chanCes :l:id roarr" ni:oIllents to ar-pear in its present 
fo r n . He was most ably soconded by ~rr . J . 1C Je-cty , !!1wByS willing tQ lend a hand 
t o othorlS without stint or th'3 thOu,:::-::t; Df immediate reward , nlw~ys honest and 
9traigntfor~r;ro in hi s jUdge-monts :>-! people tlnd ·things , ·intelligent , "W i th a 
r (ltonti vo :~err.ory n.nd koen powers 0: observ'ltion ; he IJE!S the ideal person to re t 
a survey under w,y in th~ fi.::ld j k~cp f!. o-enoral eye on its progress and \ end a 
hand on the mor e intricate 1..s~cte . Finally , ~'r . ,!u:-.o has proved a very neat and 
tidy wo r ker who has turned ill ll. Illest :::-:.npetont nnd intelligeflt bftckground 
rltlGcripti on of U:e [t r Oll where be ~·cx· ked for nearly t\·/o yo"(rs . He had a pride in 
his j ob which it was pleasant to ,,..to . 
Looki ng back , it is su::,o : ~.' or. tbp. basic: of these person to person 
cnntocts involvi ng close nssoc ie;;iQn over ~uitp. 11 numher of yea r s that the rea l 
pleasure derives fr oDI wor k i n p.mthe r count r y ; and one has the feolinl, that 
cor.tRcts rJ1l!:le or a i d ~ivon on t::i s sor t of basi s a. r e the on l y contac t or help 
that in the long run are ~Jortbw'jila i n t hE! highest s a nso of that tor m '3.nd , i n 
the ,resent condition of the c ~ u.nttios ne f:d i n~ he lp, enco uragement and advice
j 
tho seeolld best simply will no~. do . 
t.iiaiMi .... OIl flat .Otl!i.i.~ 
In.-at A_hiatt. lD cenen1, 
t1d.8 cU. I\S 1 t va8 on COOO« 
taot.,.4 in the senarel cbaDgeS 
QblmalaD flll'lll.Dg that tho orip ...l  
In the toUQViDI pages. The tar.lr8 In '\ba·~~.~~~j 
fsoouordc.et ~otf8  foino dtshteu fnfse atrobyr  mthae intiJs8 jeourt .uer:brpa:nl" ~1l~.f.~.~~i.:~~ 
tunctameZltal changes taking place in 
quickly inV91ved with the rate and 
The changes eoncern structural 81eoents 1n tb. 
the distribution 'It labour between agricul tu"& a lid otUf! 
ship between production trends and prices of cocoa aDd 
implications of technical choDse on the farm, both &1 
levels of production. In order to put Kade in. 
la necessary to add that tile farms are not as 
probably us In other t:l8.jor cocoa prodllcing I!I.ra:!ls 
As diS\;!pct trOLl thea6- . · " ;;nay are f~~~~ 
cocoa and food crops. ~n otuQi, the annual clearing of food 
rew a4res and the total acreage'of'farms from which crop. were 
year varl~d from 3~ to 12 acres. That is to say a 
took crops from a farm that was more than three years 014. 
village varied in size froD two or three acres to neBrlJ 
rage of six to seven ~.cros . The inti vidual plots are 
then 5 acres, thout;,'h a fn.r::ler ms.y have several small coooa 
farmers (one outside the village area) had larger plots of to 
one or two faros were over 15 years old t~ 1958. In Sub!, .....1  
such larger, sO!:Ietimas renching 40 acres. 
While the forms aro es~entially scalI, tbe 
labour for the initial clearings . This has ::r!·~:=::!i 
shows that in modern Ghana it is very rare to tind a 
situation reflects another ur.derlying feature of the 
disappearance fran the fc~ labour force of those young .en~~ 
in other countries to bear the heaviest burden of fare VOlt. 
be 1n farming ~illnG9s, they ViII doubtless be touD! 
pl"yl.ng draughts . For the rest, there 18 couiderable-
• 
- 5 -
which took place by foot on the forest paths nnd surplus fo~l crops wore sold, 
,as in ,\shanti , to travellers passing by . Lo~s of timber were hc:ulcd on sledges 
to the nearest road and only reclilutly has a bridge been constructed across the 
BiriJ:l, so that uninterrupted nccess is proviried to ',ccra, 80 miles to the south . 
Until recently, one could still find near Kade a village which could only be 
rccched on foot and was dependent on the small quantity of surplus foodst,JJffs 
it could sell or E;xchanbc for the m'lst urgent bought provisions . The road which ... 
runs thouGh Otumi and Subi connects no major centros and this has made them 
relatively quiet backwaters in the streeu of COfi1Clercc . 
'[hile in both villages, farming dcpcnds on fanily labour except for 
clearing food farms and harvesting cocoa, there is an il'lportl'lnt difference 
botl>:een these two villages, only sis or seven !liles apart, a. difference which 
highlights 501:le of the iunedin.te problems of agriculture in Ghana . The people 
in Otumi depend rn~inly In ~ocoa, plantain, cocoyam, cassava and yam though maize 
is of course planted . T~lelve f~rlilers operating on 36 farm plots scattered over 
the villaGI' lands e.nd sometimes miles apart gave inforl"laticn . Of'these,f'<>rms , 
21 contained naize, planted before the other crops and 15 d i d not . Only one 
plot of 2 . 28 acrec W::lS }llantad to {\ pure naize stand . In Subi hmlever, maize is 
the main cash crop . In pJace of the forest Cl.nd cocoa \.,hich surround Otumi , the 
vegetation is d.J ["t'aded and f8rmers seek etlch year'larger areas of l"lnd to clear 
as forest trees di£nppear nnd yields begin to fall . ~ne is reminded of the des -
truction of forest in new ~re~s'in an attempt to establish cocoa farms . with plan-
tAin and cocoyan as by - prod',lcts . 'Ihis process is Grinding to a halt because 
farmers have no lonGer the cash to contemplate extension onto ne\,1 lands and 
because those ne~1 lands, except in hilly areas and isolated regions in the far 
west of the country, have disat,peared . It follows that the supply of plantain 
and cocoyan to t~e ~arkets is becomin~ scarcer and this in itself will oean a 
serious structural change in patterrs of supply , It .'1150 follo~ls that the dis-
tinction between otumi and Subi brint:s into tho open a change in the empt,asis 
of Ghanaian. farJ:1.in;;, a change which is creating arolls of \lh-9.t will be derelict 
le.nd around the 1.;<lin centres ef population . In the •. )Cantime, maize farming 
brings greater production at lower labour cost, releasing labour from food 
farming to other rural and to ur~lln activities; but at a cost in mortgaging 
present resources . 
II: oany respects, a siI:lilar situation seeDS to have arisen in cocoa 
farming . In cen,equcnce of the plr<nting of large areas of new cocoa in a north 
westerly direction across the forest belt and in consequence of the roduction of 
shade and the introduction of spraying against capsid , cocoa production has in 
the last few years shown a rising tendency after !:lo"lny years of sta[!'1ation . The 
climate of political independence has predisposed people to assume that the 
introduction of modern technique:; alol:~ with a moderll political syster.l will 
rnsult in lastin!; economic benefit . T!iis tendency has been encouraged by those' 
reselOrch workers who looked at aericul";ural progress fr:)l!l a technical vi~wpoint . 
There t.llve been too many t!1chniC,1.l l'I(h'is~rs in Ghana and t:;,o fe~l fat'I,lers . The 
::lain point is th<l.t those who prophe~icd laree increases in yield for very little 
expenditure of effort, in defi:tnce ,)of: gcnorl'11 Clxpp.rience in tl.c;riculture, did not 
stop to ~.1sk whether the chanGe miGht be a to;lpOr&ry increase in yield at the 
expense "f the future, which is wh"!."; one would expect in deteriorating economic 
conditions of stationary prices and increasing ~Iages . Technical chances \1hich 
have stimulated immedia~e producti~n at the cx~ense of the tree have coincided 
wi th what the farmer would hnve triod to do anyway ill deteriorating economic 
conditions . 
The danbers of the purely technical approach nre it~lnense and an illus-
tration has occurred very early in the analysis of the field work i n this survey. 
It is desirable to compare the returns from different crops in order to know 
which are the most profitable and , in the conditions of food crops in the forest , 
this i!'; a most difficult task . plantains and coeoyacs arc harvested all the 
year round, as required for consumption and sa.le incidentally to other visits 
to a .faro; even maize is harvested over a period . The consequence is thnt it is 
extremel:? difficult to obtain effective yields, especially of root crops such as 
cocoyams . On the basis of eurly a.ttempts to estimate yieldc by takint~ plots of 
1/100 of an a4re, it would bnve appea.red that yiolds of cocoyams should be 31lz 
tons per acre . 
• 
- " 
v.t ox.., ri.n~n 1 "rOt~l(1r 'JrV y, f!U t 'r y'"tm nt jura, 
tiat ~e '1, nc,'(' .. o~ :flol:!. ~ro t, iigh, a.nd tl,c 'I'1J!In t- true tttl' 
},th JT\'e,. . ~hn'" ~.·OQ·JI'1'\CC )f . uet Il ,'101'" 1- ilL 1,e"l t.,r it w 
A-l ,., tr<')c !,,, roturn. t n. ml1 '101.) rev e~ I.l(.Yflr.- no!'r • r;J'lrlc9t . Tho prte 
1 It- beg ~11 nn \1rt>an Pllrkct UC "8 I'J~A51 1 tb ... !· t fov y(>ar :a ~ 
vit. in t 0 cf.lhtral rrico r nrc )1 ',' tc ~r:,I_ tho:.! ~ it t' u}.;l bo ~. 1,. 'HlD hal 
"':-. tI..l 1n the 'ro ro.m"o 1"ea )1 f;UI'I-'~Y' GonllX'filly,' tv: would CX?'l~t a 
riC"Q- )f 1.,,/- to 1.,)/- , "'hi WI"" ·1<:: rotq;rat;Qnt f>. .lrlcl1 'f r.:t4 par tn: .~~ I) 
tlcr acl'''' )1 y-=.,. he fnlllll. 1'IC 0 :"r fAr] ii~h a a vi 10, t~ J.:r."}'Vr. .. loL 
othor .holp. I 1n po.rticulAr !'r'm aa1zo&"pl&rtaill e',Q l\. '~;Jlparb· n.,r fa l1y 
cO:lSuIDDtl.:JD and Rilla!'!. wHh the aren ;Jnderdf'fero'\t ~roi' ..olk. .-:uc" 1'1 ;lold 
IInllCCal'~ 1:10. " IrQ wl1 ... be sf:i,' (l':jout thi.· lllter . 
It i ~f ~n\lrE;r: (lXiOfllltif: . '1St .·rr:o.t tl:n"/) ~1.0u' 1 blJ tair.l'Jn 1, "'ros!! 
cr,ockinr yiel ~ ir II reso~rch acti .... itieR 'ln1, when rQ5\· :ts rE:c..c~ le\,,·l'" U.l'!.t 
two or threo ti If'"l1. hil hlr th':ln olsa~/herl:' rcccr-Jr:rl )1"' \jhr;'l "x .,rhl1~~.:·· prevo tc. .... 
much - ~s whon 0 tree rcst,"Irr: ri to viGour producer:: morC! t'l· n [,1 tt,at :;11~ :leVOl" 
been other than l'obu:..;t - thE:n tbose result!'; I\rtl i:ldcl a. '3;" 'lpcct . It 1·' c l,O-,l1y 
neCeSH(ry t" undcr"tanrl both the permt,nencc (,f 1'1n1 the: rlJt!;or t'ir a:.j ;;::~ t!l1fo 
in yields. Crosl'i fertilir::::l.tion 0f ideas beb/con ro;,porcl t"tt4 n. 8'''' t'rners 
is essel't1al ill H.i!· respoct. He~·e as in ft:.rt: .1r:vel 11l'''It ~r.o ",111 ).ave an 
adequate idoa of·tho :"t:-f"nc:th of any trr.:nd onl,'1 "by 1,')oki'U at th, ~ .. ' '.iti:-. 'f 
p~rmanent c"setg , "'':lis '11\(:09.0; takin(; into e"lncidor:::l+im in 11 ("o\,;r.try ~f '·1!'ti!'! 
eultiv'J.ti·'n the t::ltc of ro<;erver: . ,f f)rl"!st Ian! I'nr 1'ar::illt~ firi, "it!::i· ":e 
cocoa i".du·tr J , the -trcl[th, vir;:rJr end r;',ye of far'lS . 
T!':is rcqvirl"s 1!'~,r~ tMt: a cornplicRtod ~n..l.J1"11..-:: e.,.tJrooc], irv Inr -rcat 
pro't:le::l~ )f super\·ision . It ro ~uirr:s not a stc.U:::ticnl dc:"'cripti n b"-;ed 
purely on tho lilc ,)f trep.s, or on recorded pr<:sent levels )t produe • .i.(r., l.ut 
rather a I!cscrirtion 'l.nd /lllalysis 0; production tree .. t~.50d n "'n's, 1 )c""ti:::::.. , 
condition of fams in districts of !~cr('asing, decrt:a~:i!".£' '1' c rut5>ll'!.. v.i.e.i.r!, 
,~n labour sl':!.lply 1.nd !ar~,: :.lana[Onent pr<.Lctiee with re :.rc': ;:) t rvestin ... and. 
!':laintenance. Thi:::; culls for ir.tiDlrite first bt:nd eXForience c-:-ci ... 1· b .. tlt 
up by a syf:tematie appraisal (If the :Jrospect~ ~:nd C "'''itit:-.!. l::: eR;/,!· pr 1'~ei!'l 
region in turn . :;uch ar. Clppraisal is formed !"ir!=t cf 11 .."1  t"'-:. tr",si.s ·f !lyst(o -
matie field notes of')fficers travelling thraUbh pre'l.S 0:1 bu:.'.i.~.e oJ an,l ·lD 
extensi on work . Only wi th suc h inforl".1[1 ti on to hand is it [:0:· ~·iLle t" buH t t.i'J 
a statistical frQr.io desit:ned to give fI..n adequate pr"vio .... )f '1 soasl'lf'lle yr :::Iects 
Based on experienc.e i:1 other cQuntries, an attempt i~ made here to i ,dicnt& the 
type of inforDlf.lti)n required and this is dono in full kno\-/led~e t~,at a ~I'\.rt -ti:"le 
acquaintance with en iJ:dustry built up ,Jver a peri"d ",1" only ,i>1: year:" will be m 
j'hdoquate basis of expp.rienee £,Jr satisfactory !'\ccuraev in ju,tgemant . But. that 
is not the "point ; ri,~:ht or wr'')ng 'ls U.e t:~encr'll ,,;os::-.:ent t'.tly be, it L- t!;,e 
approach which I)nf' wi:;hp.s t, exemplify : 
}1ctIC.3)n a V,-,:mrre throuch Coc,·,·, ""T'lwir.;:- 1'OBS 
, ;.!t,"usi - 17 i\.Uj u't, 1961. 
The :(;,10rl.::l irpror.;:;ion f tris j,)urr.e,~' Hr' lit h t@ .... jor con. areas 
vas)f n: ~t disturbin'" :ete"l..t'rl'lti<"'n continllill' at a: I1ccel~r.e.tod rate the tT'aM 
elree.dy r. ~ticod wi"l':in tho -:"l'ist three year3 . ~ri .nri l~·, no hll tho feftlil1€ 
that trp.o:. !'iro bcdJ'li; encour:1j"cd to benr at R leval 'lbe>V9 .':1, C'npacity which h 
comfatible .... it!"! l'n1'"l"r t(!rJ'l' :Jurvivfil. With F',all:~ tll'le IlXC'8,ti'n..o:: at I11V5"J 
-'n tt( To. :. .'1 - ·lnl·O r')'l1 r.:1d 1,911r P;1biani, all troos :-~ell t'" Irick tbe quality at 
r~bu~t '<:-e t~, avon thou,," ~r'in:r which .,ther'llil';c Il., r"r l~ 0 i ~~r tnte f vi- ur 
c..n1 ~.(,~lc t hove Jtlny p4 (\1: . ')1·)" lMl1adod tr'lo:· ,~f p(,C'T' . trueturo :\i)ted as 
ct'.rryi:1S'1;! 'IIW,V:: :Jft%til!' -101d. . :',rrespondirl(.ly, Wtn:,: !)f the best ranIS, 
",ell ('&'"1"01 :·(Ir lnd c. ~ .. ti'tut1nf" w~t "'tU" tlight call' ('("l'! "oCurui claSfI 
dl') llr)t t· t yfll.Jr ~I!lVu IIny ';'}Cdn ,n '!I.t ell . The H\C<md Inprosslon is tb. 
Ll'Ick OJ! -;11 <:'C"'I'J. that 1 "lfficiontl:r vi) ')l"()U~ to haw this etfect . 
veria: fr'l t',I'i 1, to '~OlllIJ::O "nd ,loath t.) wi t hC'rin of the twig 
tno cocnn fl':· tl,o Iq.!.O'1r~'lcl) "I' n bro''''m . It may not "'.I;~,. ... 'i~ 
t!~ .. t. .·tlO t.t:i2'·l '.r the n"rmal <..:oc OCt tol1nr,a 1n W. t 
thi .P' i 1r;lr. tl,l. yf!fr . '!'O tilL· e l most univorsal 
.ar"'lrtd ,. ·"~nE'() )t, the l'ftln KUIDIlS!. roGd is an 
1ft!:! "llt-0 IIt·nrp I-oillt; to tho north) h 15 t ~ 
• 
- 7 -
mortality on old find disc"sod cocon, I\dd to this ncc10ct of farms throur,h 
loss of labour and lower profits and one has a picture of an industry which in 
certein areas is in a state of degradation . If the present rate of detcriorotio r 
should continuo, I do not think it Rn o~aggGration to f1nticipnto the disap-
pearance of the industry in major ~\ro'ls . In tho immc'liate futuro, much depends 
rn the extent of the tronu to labour snvinp forl;1s of l;lnize farming and the 
amount of tir,\o' given to.l;!inor season croi:lping (which T.lay w(lll decHn oJ in.an 
unf ..1 Vour::tblc season, 50 that labour 1s fl.vrilahle for greater thcroughnE:5S in 
harvestinG cocoa) . Hich pric"ls for food in to\lnS also forco undoremployed labour 
back to the farns . The crisis of confidence 1s increa~ed by the delay in dealing 
with the money invested by farmors in disbanded co- operatives . One i:; told and 
has the ioprossioll that labourers have drifted a~/ay ;;.nd the cocoa farms are 
neglected to a notable extent. The condition of cocoa in such areas is deplor -
able . On one important road, it was estimated that one half the cocoa so en was 
dead, dying or so patchy that one could not count on it~ lone survival (area 
behind Kenyasi on the ~J8y to ,troni) . If one drew a line from Goaso to Ewidiem 
and Rechem, all tho cocoa \/est se01I1S on its 'vm.y out except for sOme that is sroW?": 
under t-.eavy shade ~round Dormaa and smail patches olse~lhere (e. b . near Kenyasi 
~johu) , 
Tho other &eneral conr,!er.t that ono might make is that even cocoa which 
is bearinrr ~~ll and is well looked after seODS to r~Yo been wrongly established 
for it is in the main spindly with a thin canopy and the loaf colour is light 
~reen where it is not beginning to tUrn towards the yellow . Is the cocoa beinb 
shockod into h i gher yields than it ShOdld give by too much exposure, strusgling 
for su_'vival? The day to day rttmosphcre of this voyaCe is best Given in an 
extract from the notes . 
"!·Ionday afternoon. - \o/Ollked with llodzievor ovor the track 
IIleading from Nkasoir.l tO~lard~ Hr.l . rllssed at first through the saf.le 
(;story of old patchy neglected ::OCC\'l, some trees bearinc cany pods . 
"The young cocoa which one reaches aft.er two or throe miles ' walking 
tlon this road is in deplorable condition and herG as all O\'er the arca , 
IIfarmers sceli! to have decided that there is more to bo got fran t i:aber 
"oil11n(7 than fror.! cocoa C'l.nd onp sees young trees pushed OYer by tracks 
"made for milling, and also troe's felled across the cocoa. Of course , 
"overcrO~1D farms are found here too as one had seen on Sunday ~Ihen we 
IIwere able to r.\ake a detour in the bus froL1 l·~ilil ,:ohu alon; a timber 
'(l~.illing road; recalls those miles of abandoned cocoa on the roads 
OIrunning in frOIJ Gambia , ;That or.o notices in the newly planted aroas 
"is tt-:e extent of~rassy weeds n::lonrr the i,lantains , Small sized cocoe 
nfields ere often 1n better conditions than athol'S vlhen they are sur -
llrounded by forest. Compare the vast senseless de!ltruction that is 
"coine on i 1 the <::efwi '!iawso area i. frat' D!ltano . 
"Tuesday 15th',u~st: Goaso - Kunso-Hpasati a - Bi bieni ,- The 
"young cocoa here as e1sm1ere on tho trip is found to be dying' back . 
"(}Cnerally , me has the inpression that the trees are being forced 
"and therefore their life is shortanod . lIigh yields preceded swollen 
"shoot; is the same happenins nO\'I? '!very~lhol'e, tho coct-a is worse than 
"at t he end of tho dry sensor.. The only robust cocoa scen on this day's 
"travel continues to be tnat about half way along the Toppa- Kunso road . 
(( ',t both ends of this rOlid, thero has boen astonishing doterioration in 
"the 1- st four _10 r,th s • The r'lbust cocoa is heavi ly shaded and on slopes . 
"There is not a great de'll of yield on it, but the trunks are solid , 
1I1eafy rro~1th is in proportion to the size of the tree nnd it is a 
IIhealthy dark creen in colour . It i~ a joy to see these trees against 
"such a backeround . Especially the cocoa towp.rds Kunso is unrecognis-
"able . 
nTucsda~' ... fternoon: .·p'ls6.tb' - Bibiani .- The cocoa. alon t: the 
"road is not lit all rGr:larkablo: some dead prttchos and not much brushing 
((to bo !;cen . /e took the opportunity of drivinr 'lIang f\ new cocoa road 
'- a priv'l.te r0nd bolong-ing tn the fR.roe;rs wLich runstowards tho west 
for a nunber .)f ;niles, about 5 i.liles or GO sout:!. from !'lpasatia . Tho 
"cocoa hc:!'c i :1 gr own with !'lven less "lhnde than i!l. ~,hafo . Thero are 
"s i mrly no t r ees fo r sl;"d(; . Tho land is flnt , the cocoa partially or 
I 
- 8 -
lIor completely dead: except that at tho end of the :tond, which is 
nab out 20 years old. Very little food far. ling here. Jne feels 
!lat this stare that the journey is becoming a l'lichtmarc with 
lIghostly Don moving around their ghostly farus. J.:iswlllal~mcnt and 
"inconsistent uninforCled policy towards the cocoa industry ! 
uednesday 16th /.Uf;'Ust (morning): Flibiani-Tn.nodumasi ;- The best 
"proof of the poor state of most of the cocoa is to be found in the 
;'vcry excellent cocoa of high yield near Bibiani on .slopes behind the 
ntown . It look5 better than that found on cacoa stations: beautifully 
I1shaped trees gro,dng under moderate shade, solid trunks, deep leaf 
"colour, oycellent canopS', complete absence of weeds and uniformly 
"high yield on the trees. Rl1t further along the road, the cocoa is 
llrnuch as one fine's at Kade, th;;.t is neither good Poor bad . 1>.1uch 
llweedy cocoa which one c1o.irns that it does not pay to weed (at present 
"prices?) , 
"i'Todnesday 'lfternoon . - '1e left the Bibiani - Kumasi roa.d at 
"mile 49 fror., Kumllsi and went on a private tinber rond for 15 miles . 
"After 7 to 8 miles, this is very nearly continuous COC08.: no treas, 
"no food crops, no nlternative occupation . The cocoa is planted as 
llthough it ~lere coffee in a p:.antation . In vieu of this, it is in 
"nuch better stnte than one Tllight expect, alt;-"ough the degree of 
tlgrowth for Cocoa that is apparently up to 20 years old could not be 
';called good . Some f::'rJ>ls are "thamoned, others in bad condition, but 
I'most ore bru"hed . " 
The trends noted here have crept into the cocoa of the eastern regien 
south to Ola, Kibi and ,~sal!lankese . One wonders 'What the position \till be by the 
end of the next dr:; season (l-larch 19(.2) . 
Probably the l,ethods of fClrTJCrS have never met Wholeheartedly with 
the approval of the ucronor.:ist and one hears from time to time complaints 
about the methods of establishment am fears also expressed for the adequacy 
of future supplies of land for f,od farming , but ~Ihatever the situation in the 
more remote past, all the evidence that this \'lriter has observed in T:est ,shanti 
supports the vie~l that f'lrqors Eive less care in the fird year of establishment 
and subsequently farMS arc 19ft u~~ttcnded . Regular annual brushinb is neglected 
The features of clearings in )~60~~~ n04Q been tho complete felling of the forest 
the plantinG of large areas of T:I~dze and horticulturd crops 1 the thin planting 
end struggling cro~lth of the cover Crops for cocoa and the early invasion of 
grassy ~18eds among the young cocoa, Various elomonts here 'J.re tied together : 
the desire to plant cash crops to be harvested in the f·irst year entails a more 
thorough clearing of the land vlhich creates harder eondi tions for the cocoa that 
is to follow . Clean clearing of this type if 'llso typical of contract labour 
which undertakes the est~blishmcnt of a young faro in the absence of careful 
supervision by the farmer himself , "hichevol' \~ay one looks I1t the picture, 
there is indication of less care and attention . It is also possible that farmers 
noting the higher yields that r,lay be obtained fr ~:,i shade reductior _u>ve attempted 
to force young trees into heavier bearinL by this means. 
Hhatever the rp.lative \'!eight of the different considerations 1 and of 
course the speculative element of land t;;rabbing is not absent1 there is no 10ubt 
that the ultirlate effect of this s:9'stem of plantifl{; is deleterious tC' 3D cocoa 
and indeed all purely forest crOps. By reduction of :;~e1ter, elimination of 
larce t"oos am ey."OBUre of the soil , humidity and fertility arc lowcred SD that 
therc is Do beneral ducline in vigour, Iolhich drought has only brou;;ht Il.S it were 
to the surface. The visible signs of declino , npart fron the early abandonment 
of holdings Iolhich fail to establish, aro a change in loaf colour, thinning of 
canopy, encroachment of weeds, defoli2tion (in a drought year), insect attack and 
final collapso, so suddon in 1961 that farr.ls are left COmI.11otoly dead ~lithout 
l'..JGroutJ, hevin; time decently to cover the tracery left by trunk, branche!:, twigs 
and dead cocoa pods , Shelter, the gradual elimination of unwanted hi Gh f;hade 
and the' replncof.lcnt by COCO:<l of the :,ledium layer of forost rrowth :=;0 that the 
soil ~;J expo~ed to the ~,Iinimur.l , these seel:l to'be tbe roquirIHl"nt:; fo r the ostab-
liStH;:nt of good cocoa . The observance of these desideratA. deperds aD r osearch 
to d(;tcrmino the extent and tiLting of tho j)I:.oces~ ~f l·cplacer.1ont of hi gh trees 
, 
- 9 -
Dnd interMediate sbade by cocoa and other crops. But there is also little 
doubt that in some areas a period of re - afforestation cay be required to re -
establish the initial conditions for successful establishment of cocoa, plantain 
and cocoynm . In such.a pro6ra~~e of re - development , very careful attention will 
have to be given to the activities of tinber companies and the siting of roads; 
for there is little doubt that the speed of opening up of forests has boen deter-
Dinod by' tho provision of accass to such \olido nreas that farmers have 'beeon con-
firmed 'in their unwanted heste to clear tho rctl8.inin& areas of forest . 
Once decline sots in, the prOcess is cumulative. If shade reduction 
Goes too far so that the tree crops arc harmed, then the faruer can less afford 
to carry out the extr~ expenditure involved in maintenance (}U per acre for a 
wceding or spraying) and, in so far as extensive clearing for cocoa in vast 
.qreas at one time both pushes back the land 'welilable for food far!:1ing and exag-
gerates the effects of drought, then labourers ~,ill find it difficult to obtain 
food and the supply of extra- territorial labour to the purely com~ercial cocoa 
f~rmer ~'~! neclino . In fact, tendencies in those directions have been reinforce 
both by lato payment to cocoa farmers and by change in the system of seasonal 
advances. In the import~,nt area cf Hest ',shanti, it is evident frOM the increase 
in labour absorbed by tiMb~r milling operations and by palm wine distilleries 
that tbE!re h::~s been 8 diversi')n cf activity from cocoa. It is not difficult to 
sao, in the R.bsence of bustlo and stir in villages that one has knol"1l". fo!;' years, 
in tho small number of farm labourers to be secn making their "ray to Ilnd from 
farms in tbe ~orning and tho evaning and in the wo~en brushing farms with chil-
-dren on their backs, that thero has been 8 decline in the farm labour forco . 
But it is impossible to i:\ive <lny precise estimate of such decline;, which r-:pro -
s\Jnts iii GrJ,=,-t t'~rt'l f:..ll in ~xt msion 'lnd "taint ;1,ttnC8 of forDS . 
Amidst exhortations, meetinGs and cfllnpaiGns to persuade farmers to 
produco expanding quantities of produce, it is necossary to insist that the 
capacity of an indu!Otry is determineJ b;,' such b"lsic considerations as the amount 
of labour ..,hich is avaUable and the amount of ~,ork it is able to do . No doubt 
thero is some excess of under- utilised labour in Ghar.a agriculture which would be 
more fully employed if production expands, or if labourers move al"l'ly to other 
occupations; but this excess is more ~trictly located in the peasant family pat -
tern of farning than in that which erlploys large .'lmounts of hired labour, ,and 
even in tbe peasant farming pattern, supet'abundant supplies of labour appear 
only in the less busy moments of the year. ',monr,st other things, this means 
that for the large commercial farmer, the labour force that he has determines 
in a clear cut fashion the crop that he is able to produce~ variations will occur 
in the amount produced from a Given labour force ratter in diversion from other 
a~tivitie6, food farminG for example, or by changes in the length of employment 
than frotl changes in the intensity of work in a £iven period . It may b(l possible 
for a while to achieve rreater le':ol::; of 'Jut put 05 yields increase frol,1 below 
normal levels; yet increased efficiency frOIa this source will disappear and then 
it will be 5ubstantlally tr\le tha:;, for an industry as a whole, a b"i von labour 
force may produce oore in the prezent only by nCblectinc i~provement and mainte -
nanco activities; or it nny be ab:e to harvest mora if the harvestinG season 
f)xtonds over a loneer period in 'l--.y one year. But, tnken over a norrol year, 
moro production requires a ~reD.ter amount of labour nnd that should be as true 
of cocoa farning as of other oc.:upotions. Indeed, it is this fact as .Juch as 
nny other ",bicb caltes nny chnn!O'9 beyond a certain lil.lit, a choneo fro~L ycnr to 
yenr of say 50 percent i'l R m<or industry entirely unplaur:ible in ordinnry 
circulJstClnces . Thus, for I1xar:fle, if it is (:('ceptcd that an abusll c..'l.n harvest 
forty to fifty loads of cocon :.:\ n ;,~ason, tds nctual L:ros<:: receipts with a 
payout of ¥2 . l4/-, a load wil: be aile third of )n..::-CI or Y40 . 'erls lS natbctter than 
the wntes of an ar.-nunl fare hbourer and is inferior"to the wllf,e of an unskilled 
labourer workinG for 160 days ~n a year fit 6/- a day . 
It has been neces:1o!':,' to oake t heso discursive recarks on Soneral trends 
in ';t:ar,eian atrricul tura bot!: bec·.uso :If tb~ir intrbsi:: btJr .. st and to understand 
tothr the chan~es that hli'"G taken place durin.; the survey in QtUI!li nnd Subi 
fnrmine . Por just as the extretle chanGcs whiC!r. have t~ken place on fBrms in 
recent yonrs mnke it po~sn:o to understand more fully the more subtle trends 
that ono i!:; eble tc note 0:\ the "lest African Cocoa Research Institute 5tation , 
so the chl1r.[8s in Gnann ~'"!'icult'Jre as a ~!hole :lake it easier to understand those 
in a small :-;ector of tha"; t:.griculture . In !~oneral, one r.ay say that trends within 
the ~da area repeat in tJilder an~ pOSSibly retardod f~r~ those which tave been 
• 
10 -
occurrint; on a larg~r scale in the country as n ~Ihclo . First in respect r 
cocoa, production has bE!CD ir.fluenced in both vil1age~ by the failuro ')f ~'"lr .. 
under attack fro;:'! capsid, to develop <lS expected; but, \/herccs in Sub! td" 
setback was followed by nb:c.ndonr.lont of cocoa in f'lvQur of !:1~ize and rice 11:; 
cash crops, in atuoi fnrMcrs put their cocoa into bush a.nd were encouraged t} 
reclaim it on 'lccount of the imprOV9uent of prices in post ~mr yoars, followed 
mor'e recently by the proved success of spraying. l>ir . ~lod'Z.iovor describes a 
case whero three con undertook to redeem a farm over a oaxinuo period ~f six 
years, "takinG all the food:>tuffs in tho first period and one half during the 
second . In Subi, nn alternative profitable pattern of f"rning has been found, 
but one which luickly destroys tbe forest ::lnd exposes crops, especially plnp.tsi' s 
to drou£:ht and wind dama[c . In Qtumi, farraers continue to rely on cocoa 115 a ~I,,, 
crop with pl!Ultein:o; end cocoyar.1S as staples for family consumption - a pattern of 
farning which, beine; for the moncnt considerably less profitebh, is much more 
likely to endure . Even here hovlever, there arc -::igns of an overhasty extension 
of the area under ne\,,' fr.rms 11:. an attempt to claim land which is dist-'lnt from 
the village; but, 00 f-'1r, the forest area has not sufferryd extensively and 
around the villaGe itself, there is a band of land of some dopth, perhaps a mile, 
vthich is held in reserve, including cocoa in cold stor'1[,o 11:; it "'ere. As a 
consequence of the red£lmptior, 'Jf farns planted some years 11.Go , just -'lfter the 
vlar, there has been a marked expansion of production in the last two yenrs . 
',gain, while signs of an increase in production arc by no T:l.O::lns lackin.c :)n the 
cocoa farms of the area at tl-.c e::-::pe~1se of futUre vit~lity on exposed cocoa, the 
increase on the forms'of Otu~i is due to creater ~xpenditure of family effort 
on routine operations . The fact is th<!.t farr-9rs irl the area have SUbstantial 
amounts of rore~t surroundinG their rather scattered cOcoa plots and have ~lso 
left on their ferms moderate to he'3vy awounts of shade . ~ven if drou[ht and 
c:apsid Qr other nuisance such as wr.i t.:< thread h~vl'l cau~cd some deterioration on 
most holdines in tho last ye~r, the situation does not yet cnll for the feelings 
of alarm that ere ~roused by tho condition of cocoa elsewhere . 
Subi has participc.tod in the c:-'l1n,-:-cs in the food supply position 
durinG the past hlolve nonths . The first indiCi"ltions thllt a shortnt,:(: ~II1S possibl 
occurred with the tlinor season of 1960 when tr.ere ~Ias n crop failure.\s the 
dry hot woather continued into I-1::>rch 1961, it beca):Ie apparent that there would 
be a failure of the plantain crop and prices of all foodstuffs bogan to rise 
preCipitately . "ith the uaize h·3rvest ir, :.uGust, tLe price of this cotlmodity 
returned to a ,:lore norr.K.l level and a journey throu~hout Ghan-'l nt this time 
sho~,ed that the price fall WClS everyvlhero simultaneous and to the snr:le extent , 
, major fact in this fall appc'lred to be t!:e very fine harvest in the North 
.shanti area a~'well as the very extcnsivo plantir.G of cereals throughout the 
northern rebion. :\p::lrt frOl'.1 any influence exercised by the reduction in clear-
int;s, it is cleer that there i:;: 8 ':lore permaner:t effect: on plantain aT cocoyam 
in a bad Y(l8r than there is in the C';.5e (If :n<1ize .. thich "1;";Y QV(lr its short s-rowi% 
S(l8S0n meet \lith f:wournble conditions. It is 3.lso clcn.r that the order of 
variation of food prices, two to three hundred prcrcent , incrco.ses and decreases 
is a prine nlwer in the present d'1~' rural econol,l:! of I'1hllua; for these changes 
are milch greater than any .,.:bch 'ha:s taken plnce il flxport crops in the lost ten 
years . It is also clear that, just as :;; favourr.ble c:rowir.g Beason releases 
l<1bour frO! food fnr~ing in tl:e loot.: r .. n, so a crOp fnilure releases family 
(though not hired labour) for activities on cocoa . 
The shortaGe or increasin& cost of labour and of fnod has affected the 
farL:1ers of the villaCes, but :eSS than in !.lore highly commercialised areas of 
the rural econorJY. The effects of the food sh0rtace lOIS notoa by tlr. Jecty on 
one of his vinits to tLe area wero increased conSU!llption of C.?S!'>8va ilnd rico , 
which ~/aS not usu<111y Buch censumed by the farmers . Small finl_:ers of pl.'lntains 
and tiny cocoyans were consu::1ed which woulri nor:!Ially hRvo beon rejected , while 
farmers wishing to avoid losses in storage only took tho food crops thnt they 
needed for a short period of one or hlo days . ",C!veral fllClilies ../ ere actually 
buyinG small quantitios of foodstuffs at the heiGht of tho food shr:rta[e ill <)tuui. 
The increasing cost of Inbour hns not affected tt:e f"rr.lors in the"o villages to 
the extent cxperioncod by fnrrners in more highly develo;Jed comnercialised and 
specialised arerts of casr. crop prcduction . r.S ~1ill bo seo:': , this is due t~ the 
prtl!onrl 1'1I.f\('O of fanltly \'1b{\\Jr 1l11d tl:" ral.1tlvoJy amnIl rolilDCQ ""n .. t.r(l~ 
vorkor ~nrc i":' rol"it,,,, ·n fal11), 18bour hnvl.l l'Q!101'V(r ,r! Ilnpr.vor v 1e' a 
Ill> "I 'I"b ·ubst8:.tiol el\:;.n 'or in tho 'Qvol )f 1''1'' 11.l'ti()lj 11 fJ "'''j''r cnll'!T'!odlt:y 
wlrkin 1 !.rr-1' 1I t.tO tilT' nnl by rc:!'·c1.., th"H' 1l.1'cr'l tivo )ccup,,';10' V iel 
thair I'c'. 0 ~lClll ·f 1Gnd, 'builrlin~!'l IL'ld c-"ztl rCl"lnrVQS riJ1ly r:r'lit U.OIl: to dlJ;lt . 
tt is in nrc", ,'f !"'1.lD"1C'Tcinl1scd f'~',1'rnillt thnt lRbour !;hortflJ"Jr. hllVG f1r~ t oec·.lr-
rC!d. 'tC!"orti olo~ I 'r . Ilun, 1(lt'l!: rO.)ort /l Cllte WhCTr- (! fllr!~cr hl'ld t., r.bNld·'}Q 
e porti01 'I" ,1' f'11': in l:W;o. I): the wh 10, h"wovc1', hrrner9 in U,,=:(;r;: arc 
havo not )vcr- extended their fnr!iliag op6r.'ltinllS i !'l II desire to s(,cure h..~ "01' 
the fut"Jro "':nci' their probloas llrJ? tlora rnnn,"~:c(iblf"! t:lfln thor-a for exr,mple 1: j /(:ct 
.. :-hsoti: !lor are thoy, in thC' lib'onncn of loclll [lflrkct, and f;toro5, quito :>0 
dC'!J~ndc.'!'nt ',n br'uGht provision!'; ;Jnd services . 'I'h~y o::pand little on nlcohol c.'ld 
education. 
Tn ictail, tr.O eff~ct of recent ir.c:NHl.sCs ir'\ waj,;es i~ to tlBke contr'!ct 
r-,tes r?r clnaring In the area oorr- I3xpensivc . "Hthi" the last year or so , cor.-
tract rates heve increased by 25% while daily rated labour , at 4/- plus ~ moal 
worth 6d to 9d, tends to wor\-. four to fiva rl'l.thcr tha n six hour s on the faro , 
Contr~ct lnbourers )n clNl.rinf; wJrr:: have lonr..'er w"rkinc hours (7 to 8 hours) , 
but tt~ir c~ar ·os arc equivalent t? 6/- ~ day or even 10/- on tree clearing . 
1"') fer, tte farner i.e; pr,tected by the systor.! of sh~,ro croppinG froc increases 
in the ;::ost of h~rve£tinc 'lis COC,,6., but all othe r t,ircd labour ch'lr {;es have 
effectively incrC:;}F;er\ c.nd it is in operations affected thereb y that one would 
expect ";, lind ecollonly i!i the 'Jse of lab()ur . Deficien,~i()s in basic industries 
eould alter this situation befere lonG by nrrestinb expansion in the o[l.in towns, 
but then a seri us l'Tctlem of rc-ossil1lilatillb the diverted r:aTlpower lofOuld o.rise . 
III. THB '"URVr.y f.RE/I 4.~ro THE RESULT" OF' TI-~r SURVEY 
T)",o survey Wc,!; undertaker.. in tv.:> farr.linb' villaGes which lack marketing 
facilities excapi:: f)r ~:-:'.l! pl;rt - tim· shcps and Ivmkor~ . otumi has a central 
open area, where 1l1(!cti;',t.:!) are held nT.a. commorce tends to concentrate, bat Subi , 
only A mil(! or two from Kade, is strunr o.lon[;" the road and has rlO focus . In 
neither case is there pr,wi;:;ion f')r othor than incidental exchange and produce 
i s traded directl~' with Kade thoul:j"h a contact t:I~y be nrrEnrcd ~/ith a buyer who 
re~ides i!:J tbe villaCe . Thus a dealer I:lnv arr~nce ~:it~. §. farner to brinS' 
pnduc ts OLi a stated day, or wives of far:.1erf' trllvel to Kade to ~ell farm 
produco . 3ubi contained 40 co!:tpounds llith a populc.tloT' of 335, otumi 129 COM-
pounds ",ith 0 population of 741'). Both Villn.P::5 art:! primarily agricultural , though 
lit ~ut i there are <.lso a !"iumber of rlial"lond labourer5 . 'T'hus of 88 nales, thel'e 
were 50 r .. roc;,rs (includinr. 4 who were als':) traders) Ilnd ~7 diamond labourers . 
In f'1tuoi, t!lere wel'l) F.. nu!:!ber ('f teachers, Gl)vernt'l('!!t ... ervants and public works 
department labourer!;, but t!".re:e ·~J.ll.rters 'If the 190 el!1ploycd adult ma l es were 
employed i., far:JinL or as so.w:;e1'9 . 
~:·dc is tI,e: :'larketinr centre for the ar08 and it is to Kade that cocoa 
i5 taken fl)r stora.;c, rc-baggin froD ·jhush ll wei.;hts and ["rading: . Local food-
stuff~, fresh fleat, fish and cL,th are :;011 in tr.e !:l'lrket . "( ;OTw, . :11!f'ctup~e 
:>')11' and 'l.rtis~nr; o,Pe r ate frou shops iro the town . '!'be !:rincipal market is 
held twice a week. ~everal expntriate storos exi5t vUch , in additiotJ to direc t 
81l1es , prwide $1ll1l.11cr traders with stock 1.t the $eni-vhclesnle level . Kade 
t:owcver is not i ndepondcr!t t"lf ,thor rur·'Oll towns. In I"nrticl.llAr , 50LJ.e 20 illiles 
Tlearer .. cern to the ::''Jutb i:::: f:saI".ankesc , whicb I:; th'3 centre rl)r the distributi on 
of produce fro\.. ~ther rae-iolls, ndably fish .<;.n·j to:l'ltocs to [ade nnd othe r smaller 
centres . ft.sa~.lanke~e r.'13 all the tJpes )f buzir,essc~ .... r.ich .);:orll.te in l'ndo nnd i!. 
ereater number: drinkin..' and chop br,rs, tlli1.)r:"", furniture ::;hops and cnrpenters, 
record and bOOkshops, ~·j rr. mills, ,araL'OS, hairdrt:!9sors Ilnd mechanics . In~,dditio~ 
it has a greater degreo oJ! specialisation.. Tn the cl )t.hi:lg trade, there are 
shops selling suitin,.: a::'.1 shirts ,n11. 
In 1958, ASatlar.kcse had L,orc tban 50 food ant:! drink bars, mora t~'''n 60 
tailors and seamstresses, 27 carpenters and furniture workshops, 30 businessos 
..1 1i 41'\\• • books a!'ld records, and 24 conr.ected ttitl: tlechnnicttl trade, corn 
rio 11&. BQrages, spnre parts depots and print inc presses. Service trndes, 
~al clinics amounted to ton in nuaber. The business activi -
.~~~'~';::~ to tbe basic activity carried out in tho home and local 
~ • retina. .n t ot food , transp.:>rt, clothinG nnd housing 
- 1. -
roqulr(l,~"'nt, llPi,~eJr''''~O:! :):, n,~t1vltio£ rclntl'l, t, hlllllth, 6(\ucatl 
tl\i._iI)nt, "'M"I f(lc h'll. cf' c)Ur<lO ~ ,pll·tr.'!t. 1 ,1l"Il;H~ru.: f-r rl'lnnol" of 
devtll)F .':tnt, '1. it 'n ';""'1' .. he +"(;('.1':1 f corL~r:)tl'D. f l' it ~' ..... :; that 
for ,ll'r::r.lIlCI ito: in" Wr1:; the i:'lovitnb16 consc:j,l'''n(.;o ,f tho M d 1'?1' WTl-;9 "t ~':!~~~ 
nnd :)rr.,lnrinc products which will tlv'lid WllSifl ""d :f\Yr t.ho tilJC ,f U.)-:c v,r 
bot'~mo occupied with spcciali.';od OCCuiJo.tions end ~Ih) lr not hn~o t~c tlr.o to 
IlllrYost, tr1.1 :;port and pr'.}cc JS the thinC's . \,ey :leer! to eOlisur,16 , 
'''he fnr']in,,- ""'tt"rn i'l th(> K1.de • re" Ig the tjTic!'1,l c:' :". 1<::J1: p!ltterD ot 
Ii foro!;t aren in Ghfl!\(' It 1::; c,ple7. wit: ,~hiftir' plots a:J,d Llj Invnlved 
rotation ,r cr'p I!!i:dl~re!,; llnf <,;uecos:::;i,·n.:; whic'" vnrv it':: ~'lot to 1I1"lt. '!'!.o 
lIro sC::lttoret] ir, riifforor.t directir,ns fr')~~ 'jc villaEe . ~xcept f r a fev crops, 
there is no preciso tino for b-1rvostin.;, trr;:e."3 Ilnd 1nl':.1 strew tho fields, 
Yflryin l (:unntitics of f\ crop :lay be left unharvested; ", Xlcn havo fllr'ts ,f f;i.oir 
own and fnr!:1ers follnw a v:_riety Clf riHforont oceul'ati')ns. In consul'lpti)n, t-.Ut 
leaves a.nd (ifts of fOr)d nrc oaten by the f'3.r.lily r:tnd t! iGh pereontage ,,1: ~ -')[1& 
crops such as plantl'iin is lost in peelinE,. Yet· it i~ neceszary tc ie~criba 
briefly thi" Clost intricnte pF.l.ttern of activity. Inrlividu-'il i}lot~Jnder culti -
vation vary in size from tJ. frllction of an a.cre' to nc.nrly 20 "I.cr('; , "'hn ("', .-ri:;","S 
of R. ..;iven year v::lry fr,1Tll a f('!rr.ily subsistenca plot of an acr!' in tho ,,'IIJ.o;e f 
('tu:li t') 25 acres in :me yopr in Subi. Indeed, there iz one Clll'l) \::.eri IIJ ''In II:! 
Subi cleared in succcssive year" 53, 38 and 20 licreS (i:". the fir:o:t half f :1(1' 
0f thi~ £1.roa, 73 acres were in pure stnr.ds of maize . :,tc·tumi, f~rrnerf, l".a~ an 
average of seven acres of foodcrops and nir.c £terns of cocoa at r.t.nv "ne ~ i!O€:; i:-> 
subi, 20 acres of foodcrops and thre, acres of cocoa . In both villab'es. t,,".e 
f:,"Tet:ltest nur.lber of plots, if not always area ,'f land, is planted to crop lI:ixture:3 
~Ihich really repro sent 0 sequence of crops frat:! a bi vel:. are'J . Chances nrc rung 
on maize, cassava, plantain and cocoyat:! (harvested in the first part of t:le ,ocondl 
year). After the plo.ntain has been harvested for two or three years , the pbt 
is ab:c.ndoned in one kind ('If rotation. But, if maizo farLling predorlinato:o:, the 
rotation period r.lay be short ann last 0li1y t~IO or three years . .Juao rep(1r~f' :)ne 
pattern Hhere t:'Iaize is planted on alternate years durint: :c. six vear peri .}d , It 
is in the last year interplflntcd with cassafa . If is t~en fallOIJed f:'lr :!p tr 
four ye'lrs . Phare the fllllow period is It-nbcr, say 5 to 10 years, :r . ((ua--
report;; that the rotation is onc in which plnntair. and cocoyar~ donir.fl.to. Rice is 
planted in s\lc,mpy areas and r.ln~' be followed by su~"o.r ::ane . Sever"l :venrs .... ill 
pass before another crop is taken, ~Tivesl faru". as t'eported by Jecty, erG not 
lar ;0, varyinG" usually fro1. half an acre to two ncres . Their purpose, as reported 
by Ject;y and Quao , is mainly that of obhininl:; somc cnsh for the purch('lse of 
Itbeads, ponadcs and powr.~rsll evan clothing if the uturn is sufficiC'nt. 'l'here 
are threo types of these farms , In ('no CRS/}, Jnct~ reports thd the wife 'Jses 
hor O~tn l:10ney ir. hirinG lobnur for c1ea.rinrr ;:md f~ .ling I. . hil~ tlje t'emni:1inL 
operation" .::!re perfOT'l:lC-i b:.' the wifo \'lith ttl:' bell' --.f 1,01' children. 
nThe inc(lnc deriv~r. fror: tt,is t::pe "If far"l 'cel,lr.",!': entirely 
Ito the ~life, but for c(.llrtesy sake, 2!10 'a;, elt~er sr.o"" tr.e 1:1or.cy to 
'~er 1usbnnd or tell r.ir~ of the income rlerivnd. r, 
sone of tho crops Day be harvest~d for tho \.lse of the household, irl wr,ich case 
the farm acts as a buffer nt:'llinst f""mine. III n socoLd type of fnrm, tho !lllsband 
either docs the clearinf" B!"'A fDlling, or pr,ys tho cost)f these opernti.:lns . 
8e mny also C\$sist in burni:lg, stu.ClpinG and -"therint;:, but plantinb'. weeding 
and ht'rvestinr. eire undertaken 'c~ tt.c wife who 'ILY ·.haro <:"")tle of the llIor.o)' vitl: 
j,er husbnnd . The r.nst COlll~~')n type of farm hOwever i~ thfl w.."l.jor :,oa$~r: farm 
which is h'1!l.d<:;:d over after ~h(> tmize har\"i.!:t. ?ho IIU:er. \1£>c·1s tho fnrc v1 th tho 
hd,t'" of her -O.dult childrp.n \dth occa~ionnl r,llp frol hor hud··and . 
uf·)od crops in this typo ,)f ;· ... rll ll.l'~ ",f'llnt :r"r h'lusohold 
IICOllSulption, but tbc: surplus i <"l1d ":1(: t'lO i~cot.1l' div1dr,d lnt" 
"two: tho hUBbnnd takos half an: ti:u wivu tho ronninin~ half. it 
'l'hc ii'1portllnco of wiv"fI nnd children in woodln!; eoc~lnd and third 
n.L'lrc.:nt in tho rocnrds of thof':' 'perntiolll; , 'rho fn1.lily lobour'ro~~~ 
)f th" rr"lr"or, hi;, wU.,. ('1' viv(rs) with (;JItIO help fro children. 
":d ., r"r. t:.rl,n (Jnf' wife. Joe I-.Rd th2r' ee . Jno half of tho tan 1'. on t'· >"!ir f'lrnB (nur..btorin(; :") t I'll' fnrtlcrs). . 'n! t:~.l~.!;;:~ 
"~1. "d t -; Iln Ildul t 8)n 'lr rlr,'J€lltor 1r rolet! we . ntto 
a. t 'Uree eft.!'Iual ln" our, r" 'It 11 tt 10; 1::11 , 'Jt no r: "j C l,~od .. nt.rac· 
lst \,Ir. 11 nd,llt1or, t, T"" W r'1 4 '<1-,U~1l 1 'lr~r"l "'n far Il'Jr I )tL r rl-' . 
'l'hf' fnr 1.. ,':In[ tlrtl'l3Ul'ir: t 3r,. DOllS ,. ~H "lO"rln (lr1, 
L'~r"in'" ~(lrall 'c_. Wit1 tto·, f"rJt re.:II ... t t.o bCl/!ilnnin o~ • re , y~ant~"e 
!!h,rtR. First I!I8L.:.c, t'lol , wt.on +-he gr"u'jd is ,. koi , ph .tlll'! t::' C4 erywr . 
foUl,l!e 1:' harvc·tc i J .:..t , U.flt f'",e f'u'oln, fill y:o fT"GC ill the IM';t,T 
pl'lrt ~ the year' ~I t ,· 4 c, a hc.rve"-- i J ' 'itb V'uC J'(>'( ",et'':, th~r( is a 
ern!':tAnt ee' i"l"l t ,'.,u 10Ut the vO'lr ; : t,O flrl:I'lT ani flu wi "f; ~;)i lL t~ U,." farmt' 
f.:lur b five "'i-lo' w k r r- ... _l: dllY" a. montI" uith v"riat!on, nly iurir.g 
tlr.!os of sic c', tr~vel I'lr !.leerslt . "',p1orncntnry Il.ctivHie': plllt: wino ';ap -
pi"t; ~uite geM:re:lly lI:1G r::.fts (buildin~-, 3cndr,1 Ir::lkine. a-,d 30 on) by "! fow, 
e.ra undertaken t,1 completo tre year I S :'lct-i\'i ti ~B . otulli fc.rJ:lElrs otnploy labour 
c..n -;le8ri~:._· foXl fa.r~s and 01. coc')a harvesting to 811 8vcrnr:'" Oytcnt of 3 r.n1l,ths ' 
'ale adult lab.::ur, jubi forner~, who Ilre wealthier, to An extcnt of 6 months , 
Ct.pi':nl e,:drtlent (' 'nf.i:·ts ·)f axos, cutlasses, hoos nnd di,;/.:ing chi:;ols . The 
y'lluc )f tho:lo ilJplc'~nts varies fron n.lrJ/- to g5 . l0/- . In addition, fou r 
faTn:ers ~r't COCOD sprays f"r which they ~nid Yl6 , tWI f'1rmers paid Z5 and four 
)'l.lV- :) . 
In Clrder to JDdorst!::.r.d the significalice of this pattern of faroing , it 
is essential to Qbtain an ~dequate idea of the ~ie1ds of each najor crop within 
the rctnti:)n. "or plant!)i;'). al.j cocoyar;l in particular, there are various levels 
of 8,i'!lrc"1ch to tlis natter . First, there is the spacing pattern and the number 
"r flan~s found i n a selected area to be harvested . ,cecond, thore is the prop-
f,~rtioD of these I'hnts ",hieh in "!.ny given year will yield . Third , there is the 
act. ..., l produce fr[)r.J. an area that :~, f~rrner finds worth~lhile to harvest . Some 
wn! si~ply ,,0 tc "r~ste, SO:le deteriorate and SO:1e will not reach a standard 
tl.at 1= acceptable , There will l::e v::.st difference in results nccordint: to ~!hich 
.'f nese approach,.,.", i ad:1ptcd '1nd it is the last wbich is tho deter:"lininG factor 
i_ i r,cor-.o 1erived froC] .f'arLinb . Thus, it is one thinto:' t:> state that there should 
1:€ '5-,,.., nr 1),--; plar.taifl.S per ::lcra or 250C cocoyam i-,lant:; in a rebular spacing 
rielding 'Jver onc ton . It will be ,111ito another to detonlinc tho actual nU/.1ber 
f<Y.II::.d·i,., any acro of land L. a typi~al l'ode farm , and only n proportion wil l 
fruit. p'ecoriJ; wero taken over a lonl::" poriod and it "I!lS found that the number 
of plantain bunches harvcst,.,.d by farmer::: varied frol:: SO to 140 per .:1ere for the 
yct:'.r 'If tel' ple,r,t:inc . ~t 2/- a buncr., this represents an ineOrJe per acre varying 
from ~ +, y.l4. 
Th rate ef conzumption and the sm~ll snles of eocoynm leads one to 
suppose thnt L~U i f~Ml1ies ~onsuocd i~ the vicin 1 t~ of 12 ton" in n year , while 
Subi farner::; eOnS1.11 'ld find sold half thb '!uantity . 'In any OM yeqr ,bl ,:'a.', 0.' hud 
an nver.';\j_-g acre0G'e )f twice this yiel,l undc;r cocoy'1!l1 mi>:turcs and so one may 
"l~su;"lc an ~ycrC';Q hlrvosted yiold 'If h::llf 11 ton ear <:'ccre. t 16/- per bas. this 
ropre:;£: ':lt ,- return~, r aer(: )f m ::lpproxiL\ately~ Tn .subi , cocoynr,. is p l anted 
:'i.~ ~ pLlS h",~ 'l f'111'lwL ,-,1; -,;orlier l"!ize crop :~~d yiel", are derisory; in the 
Y7c .l nity 'f III . to tb ncro in which cQcoyar,1 is· plnntod as :1 cixture . often 
wlth ea::;:;r.v, 3S we:ll l,l;!r,tain . ajor ;;r':l1 orti m of f:l.l!lil~ eonsurJption of 
ca),:~'lva ~nr~F fr'l wiv< '3 ' f'lr'... . r",;ily CClI1 ',11 )ti"n a'nc' £nle~; i:1 ctUJ:.! a!Xlunt 
to.:::r:ther ~l nn estiLlJ.t)(,j i4 t"l1l.'1 oeer yoar , but 'ly 7 .... crOfi were recorded under 
cassava :lxtures. r!)m .,lcd th<:.t each wife I ~ llr'lCre UI der a cassava 
~:irtt:.re, tho yif:lll VI ll'i [ 11 t-mder one :00 to U;(: tcrl ' '1'1-,'" ;itu.o.t i on is a 
gC':)~ "'eo.l '::h~r'l" -t ~u1i . ("'--. l:-ti:)n patterns ;:tni S Ie. ). ieate ,Tc3ter 
reller.co on c:: • . ave '=.l.1 Ii ,.T(' tjUl'ti m of ')7 tons i11 a ·'.'J.r . ,:ill 'f, ten f>3r::lers 
~rom fj~ avera,'O :': '.'- r_cres In,lf.lr - ':ixturo ~,... t'lini 1: Li:, eft")l" T,,",is ceans 
t~O thlr~s ~f ':' t~.r. ,.'or a~r4'l )r ')nly about 1!5 per acr~ fr;;., caGi~ava . To place 
7 :~e f
ODe a:csr: 
i"ures l!l :Jcr~,poctlVr., ,)tie :-",y recall t ,at ,tt.:;i f::;n .-::r & hllve just over 
under food crop!' ":~d '"'J.bi f'lrot:rs .?- ~,cro' . To cheer, the o~tiTl'nte , 
an 1d calcuhto B rotation ~'ivinL 60" 11-:: )f .. ;~.L-e in tho' tfirst yoar or J:5 
_ .... ha'" !fighty bunches of jJ l lllltab;::; of 25-30 fin, cr:: ~Iei 'hiro~,' 1.0- 25 Ibs , giving 
~la nte.ina fl thto n< ohfi  cd oco"nm P -I C
i vJ' .::lg;;. 1 so '~i t - ... C> 1-'" :, he sccolld ye'l..r' ..lui. iSf,. ' .1"1' 
which a ,. 18e  in r ."erar,  ,-ivi"-l'" B b-r oO---",  t to "..-......,  a f 111-,'. :tl du' ring,  Q: ~ .ril.' :>d ,in...  
_other • .., pr;tuctlon . yams and vCb'ot.<lbles Int€rplantod- will 'ive 
acre 0 make 500- 33 ill all . The nVerOoI.'o return in one year 
- 1+ -
fr,o ".n 'lcr.; ..I ill b.:.: itlO in :t tL,...: c f 'ncr:':,,"',l" ,,}ric.:;s . II'. Su":i , .1:Q ;1"Y 
"up,!~:3<.: :'J r.::t~ti ':"!1 in which c~.ss:!.V::. is :t::::::l(;d tc t.:lk" t~..:: ?l::c.~ f th .. s~-l1..:r 
yL. . ld cf c ._c,-yQD ~n(l, sinc;:: th..: pric.; cf ..::~ssc.V:J is ~?~:rcxltla.to1y .:-no ~.,:,lf 
that cf c, c:y:ID (:::-s th" pl..t-.lnt i:!l yi...<lc.s \Lulcl im!ic::.tc) , th ... : y:'CIu" iJ<.lt' :tcr,,) 
is~ :,pptOv.L:!~t ... ly th" ,sD.o,:= .n th",:=" fn:rt1:;; .:.n which plant-,if.! is succ .... :, .• f·Jlly 
..,st:lblish.::cl . 'ihis 5u·bstitut i .n.:f C:-.SS:iY":' fer c_c,yn.t:. ::J::ty b.:: ,x!-,bir<~( ~·rtly 
"f c_urs,-, by th. .. f .... d sh ... rt:l c -' during- th", b.tt.:.:r p-rt cf 1961. fiC'. ..· -./v'-'r. ~h~t 
i's :l S':'C.nc'.:l.ry p~i!lt b...:si~,"s th..:: tnj.~r ·n.; th:lt t!1_ survoy t.:.:n s t, c.: nflr:" 
,nc ... r.-:_ r" tha.t tr...; pric" f f __ ,' cr ?s t, tl,;) f-rn..:.:r in Gh~1l, ospt=ei-;ly t:. <;(: 
,-f c. zir:il:::.r l:lb:::ur r.:.(;uir .... ...:n-t , c.:;r.:::lls ".5 :J ...h .:.lc c r r .: t cr'· pr: (c·:;",·.\";, 
Cc.c{.y:-.oj , is ir. ;rTc-p0rtLn t_ tr.c: ?ii ... l~ p.::r :ler..: . This else tl~:tns t1".~.t t:~~c. 
yLlc. p.::r :lcr", can t" ...:!':tir.:-t",d bc:ck'd~.r"s fr.r. th..:. .)ric':' p2r ur:it w.. .. i 'ht' ~!' '1 
cr'~p . Th.:s ... ·"ith ::: b...:!'lt f r i-'~til sc~hic~,l r./'s_~,int. :L:;ht thv!1 :::ri,;u.:: t:.·t 
this is c:.n,th", r p,int in'f~v ur . f the: th"si..; th,t tn.u Cl:trk'"t w~rks ..:ffid.ntl;,' 
t..:. :tdjust pric.:; t e,·sts . Ir. p::r,.;r:tb.:/ids , r.usk",d L'ic~ yi..,l:ls 'It th. .. r"tj t· 
336 Ibs ( n,:, b::1C) p ... r ~.cru . Th" yi..,ld is litH,;, n,r...: th.:m h·'J.lf th:-.t f ',i~e , 
thu pr·~'fit:'Cblc pric.;. 5 1..:1'lj-,Clt L.r", tb::.n tWiCl;:tS [r. .. ::o..t , 
This is th",r""f r", o, f~.v ur-',tL."! ctJp -rtu .. ity t :- turn t. ~ c roi' Jt· ti 
.f c..;sts ir,y lY.::d in th", ~,jcr f:;.rtJ :,'"r"ti·o • • ~ut b",f-r ... ,'l ing th +, Iv 
ccL,t'':ris n ~Jitil c.:c ., i3 r'-"iuir;)d . :i;:n...:T'l11y :lcc..;"t,,! pr::-.cticu ""1,r: ~t '-:},T'" 
is t,- 'ivir..2 ~h.:: sr,-.r..! fr c c.:. f::'r;::in ir.t· thr..:. J.~::rts , I..: thixv f w!,ic]' 
is t ti",-,t tr.u ch::.r . ...: n c:->.;:,it~.l iny-"!Ot 1 , .... nus . it ,r"',.,;r t,_ Juv, r.:turn f' 
Jan "r. ~_cr"" - C.:.r·.hI'Jr---bl ·r.ss r",turn.:f }'l.s it. .6c,::ss:,\ry f: r c~c,". Jr., "'r~ 
t:.f C.cc:t <.J:;u~,ls .>;::'" 'l0,1 '1 t~ f ~cr ... :::: .f f ! cr Tn tho t.ypl.l l' f .' r:- ill 
which tho y.,d..J vil!::\i<JS f Ll,"''', r,: ::'T,nu"l "ccuo'.ll:Jti n d c~pit, i"V' t· r.! ~' 
t03 c..:nsid",r>Jd sir~c.., thu wn 1 .... jKin: Lf th" c"':.sh l'c.:turn fr kl thu II'iz Ct·, p l~ t 
d..:fr"y I~b,ur ... xp",nsu: rlurint: tho first yo.;".r f thv r btl II r:11.<J '.ly" "11 
:lI.I,unt ~f .:l.inte:n"nc.:: i!" n_ .. r'·~,:1 :J.!'t...,r tr."-t . 'l'h:r.t will .... h:~ b~ -tih4 1',:>\1'; why, 
in tho c.,s'" fo, f~ ·1 f"r,,_T' n:l sh'1re b-£.ls, ~h"" hilrn:;st is :1iYi' I i ,t tWl 
sh2r·JS l''lthcr th:;.r. thr", .. , "'r,(]. tl-:c l"b:ur r(:w'lr::l. W,Ul,l rOl.!'C,i" tho) S~IJU , 1:- 1'r.; r 
t, "tt":'.in }a5 fr," ~·.1 ~'cr", f C_C~2, ~ :,.1<..:11 f »;r Ihs.:f '"ir:; b,o"!ns w l'h1 "') 
r. ... co.:.t~;~n' w~.Gr. th", _'ric", is ~ ~ L:'.~' ... f 61 ~.b~ ':nd w:-.:.n th-.l ~ric'J is t:.!';'/-, 
th ... '1v"r'C,!::,-e yi,..:li' w J.. "!V..: t~ -r .., :,:_ch 3<=·1'1 lbs pur '1cr,, _ Tt.L ,".n~ th"t, t;~.k..::" 
'v..::r c';:'lrinG C c.., r 1~ t 3n :,-,,-rs, yi",l,~s .f '='5 Due:-, "_s 45( Ibfi pur -CT>.! 
w.-ult1 b", n""c..:ss::!ry . B'Jt cc:e ': which yiCll~:s 'It thi" Lv .. l is first clC!ss c .. c,o.. 
VlhillJ th':l.t yi.. . L'inc :1r,\,l!,' J' Ibs is sec_ntt clo.~s :md th:;t ("uch bul w ~OO lb' 
thiru cl~.ss ClC~:l , -:ince r:A~·\'--:: l:'1"i",.:$ :Ir~ .ut ,-f lir.>.! ~fi'l!h phy!'.; ic,l yi.,lJs • 
.,;,n...: fir,tls J:.8T'u the rU·,·j,'n why cnly first ,,-n,1 f}1:od soccrd cl:jss C('C(" ccncvntrl -
tua in li(;itcd ::!r0~S "-r,untl, ::yir.:'. , l"n rlCL, ·Ii"!w::;. :IOO OC·..:bun with p:>,tchus 
r.c~r '1\31l"':l, Bibi:::ni, ·"fwi 'irl'IS :lr.~ tho ;':~l'p,.;r:£ sClrF is :'Ii l,-:in,_ it~ (W , 
whi 1 ... the r(,ost ~ ):_ ... ~rs tc ',..:tori r::t" r~ i ly . If prtlsc,n"t ? liey in t, h-
then [',ly ~ c;;:r.5ic'l.er"-~>18 r ... ::~cti.:r. L t},,? .rice: f> f .st1.lt"!'s t .... j"ravE~t :' 
r!iv.:rsi:n _f ::.ctivity t .. f _ : fo:.rJ..r>.g :IS '11.1 .. ' :'.5 " r.~'uetL 1 11 urb"; W'l:oilS to-
li""it thl;: ~rift to the: t_Wl.S, w..;1,11i i..'" ~':e -'ur.:) r·_'t rc. th'l ':1"'.1 "ncu in 
f",r:',dnc; but t:ccsc: Lgic":'-' JtC_:,:0S _-f" r 5 .... ' "1 dey ~1"_ !'>h ckirrg, !'l th:lt 
p, Hcy itsdf tlust be r,, - 8:y'~ ,ine,·' , 
Thr.! u~n-~, 'J.rs (c, 'J.nting ::::. ..... "r. 2/3 -.1K: ~ HI· ~ f :1 un"i.t) r qui:t'.;<.1 
pur ".cre f.; r r ..... ' f~.r'" i nrr h;, .md _ n the si z'" f t ",e fi.-, 1 " "ln~ thu t~. ~ f rct~­
ti~'n f.ll,;..wiO' . 'lL", r"quiri:~:,;.nts f r U:e t~r 'jo,-rs uncla1" th .. Suti ~--tp.c, 1:; 
~hich the f~rt:st is ::uickly ·'is"'i'i, .. ~,rinE "nr~ the. -;':;g:.t"ti ,J{:::, C!r:o 'lC, :-;<1':; 
tr.~n in {\tiJ.·i . !Jr."d::r tt.:: s",:-_l ?l_ts _f _:1'.' t: h, ",cres Sl. . rr_-..:: e:": ~.y f r.-,st 
wt ich c~.:lr"":::-:",rize :~U:~i f-:r::i!!C. :;!';' til is is tr-.e tr"'i-';;i r-,' !1~.··.<')rr. l~'" ur 
raquir~!:ents :lr~ ::.t l<:,:,.st twic", "':!.-..:sc "'-t :::!.Il::i ... ,.~' :~'J r ... -c1: tJ,r~(. ti' .,~ l:~ :::. 
yec:r cf :- b:::.c. c:lr:r:. .... ::en t·~,",r..: is :::UCI! e:T.tr~ "1/, rk t :,,~ ~L n" i~ "4.t~. .t ri'!".::-, 
burning debris ::!.li:! ~l::.r,til'~[' . ':'t. ... s, -:!la r·C!. - ";j'" -",r :.cr;:; r'~ ~ir~'~ f r t:-A l::rge 
,;..pen [, c:~ f~r;::s :::.t S'.ti r.::.ve ·f:::.~1e5. -'::: :;:,;s~ th~!:. t-wor:t;:,' :::-...:r -.crr... . Tf':. (tuci . 
the r.,;quircQ~nt-s lie r'L'("'"_~,,-lIJ b",twger: 3C ~,' -l ,~: - ' :.ys :.r;:: , ir. "!i.e ,! -r yuzr 
of 1960 .Ihen th~ ~or"C! c1,,~1"",'" w:,s L''<C: re'_:u::o:::1, t:::.c r"'1l.iire-c.er.ts r~50 to, 50 
r.l:'Cn- c.'1Ys iJer :::'Cl'e . on "the _ tbar !:l...,~ , this .... "s ' ye ... :r f l' C .C'::I. . ~, 
:l.t 4-/6 t 5/- ?er :,,~,y, tte c, st f C:llti-:,-tLn is ·~s :'ittlh "s IB . 10/- t '" 
in the .;;ne ~l~ce ::-.n- '-5 :UCa "'-5 ze -':_ :t9 , :f_r:- c:r :'s , ir: tr.c etbe:r . 
- 15 -
.~ubi fClr'.OrF h·'ld the hrl",or supplclIK'ntnry "ourcos (If 1ncol':l0, \'Iatabl!, 
y,2no frot:1 rontine housos in K'l.do , oqunl to y,ln.'\ fnMily . Thr:-ir incor:1C frolll(thcr 
supplot:Jontory sources, .including pnlm wino tappinG. coc",.. purchl'.ninC n01 ::'!praying, 
tit:1ccr lobourin& ~nd tho build inc trades, is r,roo.tor thon that of tho otumi 
fnrlJers. 'rho immedinte c.dvnntllgos of short rotntion f.':lrl.,ins flt rubi rirc creat, 
sioce yieldS t.nvc al1~Y just bOGun on cortaln f-:r:~5 to r,,11 I'fPI1rociably conI'lired 
with otur. . i nnd there is 'l. cleor cut ceonor.lie ronson why fn.rnlnt; of this ty;,pe is 
found b:-- tho fnrli10rs to be Cloro profitable . But, the long run effects of a 
poliCY towards fo.rr,linr. which fnvourf' annual food crt')ppinG r,t tho oxpenso of th£l.t 
system of farminr, 'r/hich is ndnptod to the requirot:ents of " torer.t IlreA , Ilre 
bound to coll for 11 ronppr-"isal. 'system ')f food fr'rninL' ~/hich is rapidly 
destroyinG both the forest reserve and with it the preBcnt sy~tem 0f cocoa 
ferr.'ing is profitable for the fnrlJer . It is not only relatively f.lOre pr ofitable 
fOl', und~r tho trClditionlll pllttern of plflntnin!7 nnd coc·,)ynms·pure labour costs 
anount to t7 to Y8 per ncre for a totnl return of ~l('\ to ~ll. The lo'1bour reward 
is too hibh in proportion to totlll returns, 50 th1'lt in 11 bnd yOflr the costs 
would exceod the returns. 
If Ghana desires to save her co~oa industry, blo !ilco.suros ·'l.re c::lled 
for. Ono is to soc thnt tho cocoa f~rmer obtai ')s a price for his crop that 
enables hio to farm for the future nnd that requires ~rentcr stability in prod-
uction based on thn assured rcturn3 from robust farns~ The otr._r is t~ inprov~ 
the .:fficLncy'cf fUJd i,ror.luction :1d tr :!'.S";C'rt, ~d..:l.pting the crop to too cl!'Vfr.)m:Icnt 
\-/hero it is t;rown.FUrther paints nrc brou,;ht out by c')nsidcring the part icular 
fartlinG opcrntions . The brent difference bet~fe'!n the dll~Ges in the anount of 
tiDe spent in clcanint:; up the fields for planti 1"'.~ after tbo initial clearinG, 
and in plantin~ boco~cs apparent. The rc~sons arc clear froe further study . 
The extra ti~e tcken for cle~nin~, choppinc, burninc and stuoping derives froc 
the obstructions left on the field i~ Otuni farcinb • The auch b7e~ter tine 
taken for phnting is due as well t~ the nature of the crops planted . In Otur.li , 
these are almost entirely crl)p rn.ixt\Ares with l1n emphasis on plnnt'J.in and cocoyalil . 
In the seasons 1959- 60 .:md 1960-61, there \las only ')!'I.e puro stand ond that was 
a plot of 2 .3 Bcres of no.ize representin;; 3% of the area planted . Tn Sub i , 254 
acres were planted to pure stands : 157 acres were in m'~_izc , 6 in subar cane and 
rice occupied the rCH:'lainir.t; area . The total aoount(ld t,:! approxim.<!.tely 5(Jf of 
tho area plllntod in·these two JC.'lrs . ;'inrninr for the f;.1ture is that 20 acres 
of this area fCliled . This rRther than increase ir'. ./eedinb SOODS likely to limit 
a shortoninc; rotation. Qua:> roports smc.ll p!l.izc pl.'!.nts all a plot used two years 
running . llaize is not usu'llly weeded , The tine taken for thl' major operC1.ti ons , 
based on a 6 hour day, is bivon in the table which follows: 
Qtu!:li Subi 
~1an-days - Proportion t.~an -dnys - Pr,o portion 
ClearinG '.-8 1/9 - 2/9 3-5 1/4 - 1/6 
Fellin;, .;;athor . 
etc 1) . 5- 12 1/7 - 1/3 2-3 1/7 
Plantin~ 1) . 8- 12 2/9 -1/3 3 1/6 
Heoding. 5- 7 1/6 3, 4 1/5 - 1/6 
HarvestinG 5-7 1/6 6 1/3 
1) DependinG on succes~ of burnin b• 
\ctu."llly, plantinc up two ncres with plantain, cocoyar.1 D.nd yams includi:lb 
transport ond stora!;o nny t::tke D. falJily workin£: without hnste thc best part of 
two months . This of course includes lifting the plantillG materials. \n insigni -
ficant Buount of time is spent on bird scnrinC; Ilnd fencint,; flE'ainst rodents. \s 
r.lCntioned nbovo , thc mnn~ays are calculated on the basis of 0. six hour ,,:orkin!; 
dD.¥ . ,\ctu'llly, ",hile a day npproaching 5 % hours was the standard .. Ihon the 
survey oponed , in tho be~inninG of 1959 , the hours spont on fnrl.linG, but not on 
supplenentnry occuPlltions such as building. have shown n fnllinG tendency in the 
last year of the survey and did tlot even exceed 4 'Y.- to 5 hours, evon durinb the 
l'!Ior~ arduous periods of the yel'l.r . This "Till rJnke the tlnn--dllys Given in tho tabla 
an under rllH,l)r t~ar: Ill. over - statocent . If 5 hours i., taken as the standard , 
16 -
'. thGn forty tmn- dnys will be required by acre in Otumi ~nd twenty in ':',lbL 
The schome of Otutli opElr.3,tions approaches quite closely the ti!no 
requiretJents (If cocon establish!:lOnt in new forest are,~,G 'ilhich were f)und in 
Dn:>ther survey to amnunt to 55 r.1:m- dliys per acre in the first year, allowi!lr-. 
lon,eer period f.,r wcedinl;; or brushing around the youn;,. cocoa, . )pr:X:lchin ttli:--
matter fratl n different aspnct leads to tho conclusio •. tr.at :lUre naiz!:! ~t'l:lds 
in the secondary bush require only 15 trIo.n - days per acre; rice requires ?', r.-<iay 
and mixturEls containinG \.>a1zo, plantain, cocoyllrl and anothor crop ~:",C)r::. ;.') to 50 
nan-days, depcndint; on the type I)f foro~t which is cleared . It is quite I!j)J;trent 
that the Subi sy:;tcrn of f~rrninb is much more econonical in labour thllr. t1",at 
practised in Otur.li . It r,:aybc of interost to add that oinor season A'JI"u!':t t) 
DecQl:lber food far:~inb in ;ubi takes up a tenth or less of time of tho l:1ajor 
season and that in otumi, duo to tho bret'-ter itlportanco of cocoa, the r,inor 
season fare receives only a weck or even less of mar - days labour . In ttr· s~conrl 
year of a rotati·:m, the Greeter part of tho tir.to is spent on harvestin!:! the plar,-
tnin, cocoynm or cassava , Sono tit>le is also spent on clcDnins- up tho farr.: and, 
in a Genoral WDy also, \·/Ccdin<; only becomes inportant ~fhen se:::i - perl!lllncnt '1' 1'",r -
manent crops arc introduced ir,to the rotation . The till1e spont on lHl.rvestin 
declir.es accordins to the records ':Jf 1960 to 1/3 and 1/5 of the previou~, YMr, 
while that on cleaninG up the f-'IrQ to one fifth and one tor.th, ir. Otu~i 9!"1-l ;ubi 
respectively , The shorter time spent on harvestin£ in the second yeo~ f~ll)ws 
fran the reduced period c..f rotation in the Subi area , The tioe spent in the 
s(lcond year as a ~Ihole at10unts to apprOJ';:inately three to five ~fecks ' work by 
l:len, ~tonen and children, or onG sixth to on~ tenth of the labour devoted to the 
farr.} in the first yt3Br . In later years, harvesting r.my continue frora older food 
farns, but they arc not otherwise tendered and even the harvesting- is c.,ne inci-
dentally to nearby farning operations . 
Uhilo it is true that the average labour requireLlents per acre were 
higher in OtuliJi in 1960 than in 1959, the timo spent on food farninc operations 
~Jas less, due to a much diminishod a.::reage (22·acros as aGainst 37). The decline 
in labour tine \~as fron 9250 to I1no man- hours . In subi, hours of \~ork Also fel 
due to less tine spent on harvesting and stackins the p~or crop'of 196C, thougb 
the atk'r.a::e cultivated actually increased from 229 to 293 acres . The decline wcs 
fro::l 318(10 to 25400 r:an-hours . The followinG fi,-:ures shall the differenc£ls fron 
one season to the other: 
Man H 0 u l' s 
Food Pnrns Cocoa F!lI'ns Other Occu;e . ,.'.11 ,~ctiy , Hired Family 
.I 
1959- 60 9250 6900 1700 17850 3050 14800 
1960-61 1]00 5700 2150 lIr950 2200 12750 
I 1959- 60 31800 2500 11.400 35700 6700 29000 
1960- 61 25400 4400 1 ) 4600 2) 34400 9800 24600 
1) Increaso oqu"lly 1i vided between wElodinf co)coa farns nnd harvesting . 
2) Increased due to bI'(latcr tLJC spent on buildinb' and associated trades , masonry . 
capentry, lUr.lberir.g, sewing and palm ~Iine tapping . 
The time spent on farmint!; operations fell in both villages, but to a 
creater ey.tent, percentagewise J in Otumi than i.n Subi , due to a failure to bet 
farms properly est1blished in the second year nnd to a mmrkod reduction in ~a i n­
tennnce and redemption \·/ork on cocoa , In .subi, whore cocon is ouch l(l::;~, ioportant 
the increase in tine spent 0:1 that crop, ~IIlS made possibl~ by the decli:.e in time 
spent on food f'lrr.:Js in the socond p ... rt of tho yellr, consequont upon a poor d i s -
tribution of rllin , Tho basic ir.lportance of food farninL" in dcteroininb' the devel -
opr.lent of, and attention to, cocoa is apparent. The til;le spent on otho r occup-
ations increased even more . Families spent fower h.ours on their farr.ls in 1960. 
This is explained to a ccnsidornble oy.tent b~ n shorter w~rkin! day . 
Accordins to the rocords of ccc.)a fo.r;~inG ;:l.ctivitics , one thing is 
nbu!1do.ntly c1Mr, narJely thn.t OtwJi fill' .er: Jl,:.ve spent ·Juch :101'0 t i C(l i n r oclnicint 
- 17 -
lands th:-t wora plnnted pt'rlie.p!'; 15 to 20 years eGo, roplnntinr. irlspcctinE; , 
clonning and controllinG shade. 'bout ono tenth of nll tllilc flpcnt on cocos 
farns ...,"5 )lccounted for in this way . Subi fnrtlors neb'lectl'Jd theso oper'ltions . 
In the first yesr of the survey. OtuJ:li farmors spent t~/lco IlS much time I')n 
brushing their Corns . This n,dds up to a picturo of rcdevaloptlOnt of cocoa in 
the otuTJi nrcn . Yflt if our r(;cords are to be trusted, thf' yield of ~ubi farmers 
in caeon be ron sed more thn.n three tir..C5 from 1959- 60 . Thi" is only credible 
on the bs.sis of errntic factors . Tr.c tine spent on hnrvcstln t " incrc'lscd by 6~ 
i'1 atum! ond by 901 in Sub! (woll!!n Ilnd children nre counted for t':'1lf in this 
opcr'ltion) . In both villnt:0s, ;,ooewhnt mere tillC 1s sp~nt on harvesting· than 
on brushin!) and sl'r:1yin~· . Only n few dllj's are usuallj' spent on spr:'!yinr+ 
.~.ccordinb to the records, yields in both villD.£cS in('rcJ>~ed frOt! 136 loads of 
60 Ibs in 1959- 60 to 31B loads in 1960, or to'356 l'nd~ , if three raroers who 
dropped out fNm the otu!'::d [roup are included . 'T'ho 136 lon,ds required a total 
of l(l()O !':vJn-da~.'s of labour by the fnrqcrs; tho 318 If)a.ds 1360 nnn- dnY!:i . 
Further CO!':l!.1(1nt of a . ,;onornl ooture is -;upl?rfluous nnd there remains 
to note onO or two C"I5eS in each vil1acp. . 'wo i'armort, in eE\ch villllCc dominated 
productior. . Tho f'JUr in 1960-61 were reported A!" producinG throe q:lartors of all 
COCOA . In 1959-61\ they prcv"..Iced 91 loads of cocon for 530 r:lfln-d~,ys of labour, 
includin6' 320 day" in i".n.rveating . T:-,is moan:; 2.3 m<tn- dny:- per bud for harvesting 
I!nd 6 dllf' - lays for n.ll operations . Ir. 196(1- 61, when one farner had reduced his 
r ~d':!velopr,lent operations fr:1rl lOB to 40 :Jan- days of l<'.bour, the fartlers produced 
'55 loads for 715 r1llfi-dllyS of labour , includinb 465 !':1tl.T. - 'lays (If h~rvcstinb ' Thus 
' .. l:r' 2 . B :.;an- dClYs wore required in all noo 1.8 for h'lrve$ti"!::. nnd the days spent 
011 operations other than harvestir't.7 docrc~sed by 20 percent . ';ince mair.taining 
and harvesting 60 ilounds yield of cocoa including. dryint; . ferccntint; nnd tra~s­
port to the villago will rEquire Cl. I!liniouo of tw') !:lan-.d~ys labour, these figures 
must represent an upper licit of off'.ciency in harvor:tinG fll.rt:ls which oay be 2 or 
3 ;,i les fro~ Cl. vi 1 he'" 1) . By iopli ('ati on ')vcr the ~lni n tnrvesti n..; seaSOD a nan 
who worked c:m!';istcntly could harvest 75 loads in 130 days, ·whle the national 
avcrabe is usually ~ccepted ~s 40 loads per ~JaD ir. e season . 2) 
It has been noted thnt otuDi farDers havo 7 o.nd ,<::ubi farDors about 20 
ncres under food crops . Urder 11 tr~ditional rotation, nn acro should produce 
nO- iUml oo f foodstuffs in a year . On that basis , tho averace forcer would have in Otumi and in Subi ~200 worth of staple food products fit his disposal in a 
year . The otuLli fnrner received an avera,£c of mO fr01' his cocon ::mdljn2 fran 
the salo of food crops; other sour-:es of incoT.1e brought hirJ ~20! of which the 
main Hens wot'e pnlm ~Iino tapping, cocoa sprayinG (In 1959, but not 1960) ani 
timho!' labour . On thi!'; basis, his annU."l.l income waz ~l30 taken over tho two 
years . However, since in addition to food conSl,!':Lption of ~70, cash expenditure 
was at tr.o r llte f)f nearly ~lOO and expenditurt' 0..'1 f:ro VCt&:;s ln5 , tho net incooe of 
the Otuci farnor Of'y be put n.t Y,150 . For the'~ubi fnrr.lor, ono must add ~5 for 
cocoa and JI,15 for koln am. pall., nuts . Supplenonto.ry ~':lUrces of inc:'oe including 
waGe paid labour, paIn wino tRppinr. nnd h'lndicrafts nccount for a fu r t hor PO, 
I';I8.king a total inCOl:te of Y.2BO . Tho vnlue of any proouce frOl.l the wife ' s farms 
is not included . It would 5(;On that facilies did not di"close their entire 
incO!'!lE:, for there is n dh:;crepancy betw"'~on cr:sh incol~c ond cash expenditure whicu 
amountoto perhaps }nO. 
Since tho sllle ':If food froll otud faros ':lay r.A.vo boen offset by the 
food consumed fran wives ' £~rms , we cay suppose they consumed ~taple foodstuffs 
anoilnting to appr oxir.lately Jl,70 . <;ubi farr,lOTS sold food prcducts to the value of 
~90 . Al lowing for contributions fro::! wivas ' furns, they consut.led consider"bl y 
!;lor e staple foodstuffs th'ln furnors at Otuni , notably to a value cxcoedinb ~lOO . 
1 ) On ~ moder n plantation in the Conbo , a can could harvest up to 100 pounds of 
~e"Cnnt sized}cocoo pods 11 day nnd broak open a similar amount the followinG 
d~y . Ferl;lI~nt inb ' drying and trnnsporting tho crop lIrc excluded . INE.'.C , 
No r mos do tlaind ' oouvre pour los tro.vaux o,&ricoles nu Confso 'Belbe, 1958 , p . 56. 
2.2. 'Bec ke t t bo f or e tho w~r est iu"lted t hat n fully benrinb fl'rm noeded 4 . 2 to 4 . 5 
man~ ays pe r lond , includ i ng maintenanc e (:.koko'lso , pp . 87- 8) , Only in a 
l ~r ~:c; compact product i v e fr, r~ whor e·mnint entl.nco .... as nOl,"lected could one tiet 
a s l ow 1'1 5 2 . 3 t~'l.' -dnys pO I' lond (op . cit . p . 89) . 
- !:;, -
'T'hi:' corrczponds to fr:,lliol'l wh1.ch in size "r9 )0 pr'rccr:t l-Teater th 1 
'i'"J.kin& b,.,th incooe nnd t-y.l1cnditurc int1 c}l~i~l3r.'lt1 'fl , LT{],,' Crish 1 ., 
4}xcludin( fo01 consumed fror.l tbo far:Js, r"~,ne.'" fr'<; Y4(' t) ~50 In ot.t wlt 
.an oversee of ma <lnd fro!.: r:r~' to YAOO in ~lJbi with !lJ, "'varn'o r-f L/ lBO. 
Indobtednes:" Mounted to t'.25 for the 23 fcr;ncrs Jf bnth villll es '\nd t r 
"ivon ~rcdit to the extent of y.'l3B . "1no loans were irN'llvod ; ~over'! l c4rt1.e 
no interest for 1111 loann CY.Cf3pt onc were: Given by r~l:'ltives "Ind ~ricnd ' . 
::;overnl loans had run on for SOnto yenrs, but OliO rl)f"'f!lble within t'c yc"r lora 
ir-teroFt of 15- , ~ercflnt , 
Five fcmili Hi i I Oo(':il Vl. lat--c FI~recd to iVIJ record:-: CI'I";cr,rr.il>;'" their 
dnily c,n::a:':l.ption '1f f")")d of r.ll sorts . Tto f:1l:ilios in each villll,e "J.cd i 
tho month of rccordinp fir·t :d" cll pl::L" ,J.Jl.~. C' m::'Jlption of cocoyr.m 'Jr.': C"!;"l!.va 
takon toccther was r,ie,;hor i:1 subi, amountirlg- to l' t. r.s ~lhen bo.!j.t r,od ~!.il 
~ifts erc included, as aC:inst one ton in Ottld , i'}:c ::lec.sure of the ~'Jod !'!.'rt•  .a 
durinl'" this tine in Subi (due to the drou,;ht) was the quarter t;l)f l")\1b~.t 
staple foodstuffs . 
Tho results show that farmers in Otumi con"ur.ted food at tho r' te of 
~15 1J. yeGr , Of this ~rnount, they took food frol' their farms b.t f"a a .. J.~ 1 rr:ta 
of Y65 - r:rO . During the survey period (July 1961) cocoyam ~I-:S apprecie. ly tlorr 
expensive than usual ~"!rucrsl wives acco\ lteo. for it at the ratll 0, ~ 1 el' 
ton, but they 'lccounted for pl.:.nt~ins <It ':\d per fir..:.;er instc~n of tit In, t,."t 
these discrepCincies,in diffor·mt dir~ctior.s from nc-rn·:ll prices, c~r£<:.l '"'':. , 
,r;ubi families spent ;'It t:-,c ~~nuel r,...tc· of' }n25. Of t,i::; :U:l')"{lDt, 0.1 O'P'lCl1er.t "'II'" 
t.., Y75 par o.nnulJ cano fr"tI. thoir f.:lros. If t .i5 is a dar'lctorif,+ Ie lev'll 
of consumption from their faros, "~r:.on total incomo would be ¥~ 4" am ot j::_ 
per nnnum . In both cases , tho blilk'afpurchased fooJntuffs'compri:;cd meat a~"~ "'ish 
at the rate of J0 per family f')r a ,;tonth, includinc ~:~t:'.c. Since at :->ubi th.e 
value of bruno consumed represented an annual rnto of ¥,20, it seems thllt it ,ad 
replacEld boul:iht meat and :fish durinb the period, since recordElrl ex-tlcmiture )n 
these items for the two ye:lr period of the survey ~l1ve an annual :)urchn'3f) )f 
e_lmost exactly %36 in "'ubi ~l\d ,Z32 in Otur.d . T')o actunl consumptio j of·- ""'" 
is bivcn in the follcwinG tnble: 
cor.sur.lption ,r Five f'::trfl ro.ni lies . (per -month) 
(pounds \olei[ht where st'lted - other~.risc ;nits) 
S U B I 2) 0 T U M I 1) 
Fron Farm: Boub"r ,," Gif';[l : FrO! Fern: Boul:ht r.Uts 
, , , 
Plantain • 2 829 lbs: 90 lh:: : 122 lbs : 1 '74 Ibs: 48 lb£> : ,6 leS" 
cocoyar.!. • 545 " 4 " 80 1 "'3 " q3 " 6! " 
Cassava . 1 880 " 362 " 114 " 1 019 " IB3 • 12 " 
Yar.! . • • 7 " 42 " 
Rice -I " 13 " 
r.~>'1i zc cQbs 395 89 113 , 20 
Pal. fnii- 234 lbS: 3 lbs : 5 Ibs : 76 1bs , 
P"'J.l, oil · 1 pint: 1 ,t 1 ,t , '<"  pm 
CocoyaL leD.ves 51 lbs~ 46 1'.-,<"'  : 
Pine""l'l?les · · 27 1 l! 
";u;nr cane · · 10 Ibs ~ 
'innar.o:l fiqprs . 4C ,3 •,  
F'1..' wpnw . · · · < y 
",'' 'elldo penrs . 3"( 63 1) l~' !.tIS , 9 r",,#!le:: , c 1 ildrl)r: , , ir.f.r:lJ:ts . 2 ) 14 L1&leS , · 15 
3 infanta . 


- 21 -
VvrtI :0 ···xu :Lorc~: -, in n~: I!x::r.' . e si.b ( d)· Totc.l ":nci ,< n ~ti::::'!t, ,J"ssossiuns :('1$: • 
.l~ t ~~iJJr n ' :r~r HC'la : "':It .1 : t;on- Fjrn:Tot-"!.I : F'nrc: 
,. . 69 , • , ')6 2' .,"  447 157 604 
c . 7' , 'i 1 ')5 20 175 39 91 130, , , 1 , 70 18 Co l 107 :i.66 267 
4 . 7') j 61 28 H..: 221 124 345 
< 115 J 166 13 Ul 500 4 82 982 
• If < '0 119 79 6-\4 , 723< <. 3 2 ,f .6 l' 1'; •' ., , 
,•  
, 
, 7 17 , , 17 226 ;43 ., , , 6' ( <4 , ~, 4 7 "2 1>4 , 43. 4q2t+ 37 100 
, l. " 1 .7 E , 6' 76 659 735 
'.- , .8> 1 , " 1 J6 <1' ,77 ; I. 19 ~1496 .51 ~ 5 ", 'I" , 419 ..' " < 7 '1 4.::<; :lr ">9 .,'" j 
'I' . 4" 4 1 r-7 + 
" 
" 517 , 1 0 4' , lS3+, 
.'
., , .  4 1 ,l , , 7 L 34 , • , ~~+; 4 lr' • ,lOll) 33 104' 
d' 11 c' • ., 88 ,88 
'I 1" 6 7 1'7 J(' 434 803 
l' 4 4
,- . ,
  Jc t 49 59 508 
, '1 19< , " '4 19~ < . L 
, 171 c' 1 4° • • ", 06 116 , N 
, • t r t vi' ~ 
r i r 1 t vi ... ' • Ic- , 
• , r , r t '. Iv t r VUB. r, t r<.<tr . ,.., , 1 - 1 I t1 

, -
tJ I I 
oer, . 'ritn , palr.l wt .c, tor 00 . . . y 4,- r 4.-
.' ~ol, P sp t. oltpOn'.f\'" • On, f'Jt'I"r'l] .nd 
rr • O•  rnSCD. j ~xn • inaB".  .. 1,1("1/- 2," . ''''I-
rrv f ro. ~ ,ln/- . 1 /-
~! )1- I • • • < .- 15.-
~u i1:l nb' mn··crinl d oxpon:lcG 1-', . 10/- 24 ,-
Light anj {"IQ1 , • • 1.- 1.-
~ ril';J. • • • • 7.1 ,/-
"C08 • rOS eft ,itnl ~ , .10 ' .-
J:'tl:m.i 1 , 1)' r ", fo< r~ 1"':18 • 
"'Jt-l 1 q . - Yl54 .1 J-
= ----
, .,t t',en' the c::.l .. rrel 's1)1 ,~r t m.:rvf;Y'? It. 1 t"'o 1mpressirn 
of n t:t~c Jt fRr=in; brc:nkin.,; 1"",n _ see,t II rtl1~ ~rift r-1 ~ r 11ft to c:nps 
ro :Jirir.C less lab"ur. lcnvin h, ...· ('vor <r!;,nt bort;\OI,!j to 'tn \.;)r:1 b;, tl'".e wc: en Rt 
t;~p t:1untry . '3l.:1r.l t~r::ting t,'loS :iovolnpcd In tto bIlsis <"It all '::JlttcrGd l'_"ts 
~ ... rr)tl:;jed. L? r"rest . "!'n the new nr~r!"', t"is pattern 1-.11 d1s8. oared with tno 
ir.erE"e:3inr. :;ize ~l the At"!.r,uol clear! -t;. r·1 t .. o P"'!;~. ft,(I sC{l. .. terod p1?t pros(lr'.-oc. 
:"'.v~'Jra'ole L7 ...... t.' c:'-r:diti"'ns f-:>r pla '1._ II; ~ G!.;-.rod rRpid rt! en«:rI'!U·1'\ of t!:.e 
toret:t but , under prec.ent cOll1itiona, it l-.as ~J.o t .I? rUffu!;c, hr,·or boldings 
vr:.rJ difficult t) ""rk, i !elvin;; an -voro:'(; vnrt.c ~r title ru::,(: ~frort 'lQou~t1ng 
t, )00 third ":If o::1ay'5 'oIOrk , It :.r,;,; 1I; l,tnd He ff.r!"l fr III "l1l.n.t;r· I!:.c,dt.ies -'lnd 
~."'S used up r:ore llickly than would otherwise hwc t"en t!1o ca"'e t~.o !"rest rrser -
ve!"' )f the country , Tn oldE:r .s.re;!l.r:. t'.r· wirk )f iatE;rlGT'ltio;l io; perior:Jad by 
;"laize cultiv'ltion . But this type of fnrt;Jinr if- flnl, prOfitllUo c.t ilrose:nt n~ 1')1.:.; 
as I).n ir.itial er·:>p can be folbwad ~y p18I"ltlli~. Cr)C)'\':l. r "s!"!'eva sn~ cC'!l'tinuou~ 
lIl"lze eultiv"tion i!' iniruical to ph.t"!.t.oiin end cnc~ya!!l . her. yields i tho faro 
rotation will tave dI':pped to one IClf, tr.L ty}!<:- ':lI fnr int,; will bo U .J.nfit-Ue • 
• l,rOCramme for the future calls fnr control C'f Incd uge i an nrc": ~<" p. 
wElole wit~ r;rJvisi)11 rC'r fore'Ot r6sorvcs flnd, .... it~i: Il. :1'~ h lHrob, U.a pr~rer 
layo\Lt cf ~is j.·l::.ts of for(;~t, trflt:l cro,)::;, ec-i-"-nJ.nls and annuals, with such a 
balance oaintained behwen thom ';~~'\t :"! ..,crr.!13.Mnt t!-'PC! elf fnr!:lin· is assurod . In 
forest food Cr')tli)i~b ' the rrobl€!D ie one:· of" i orovir..  • the yields t\r roducinc the 
labour requirm!ler,ts of pla:1tai!"ls end cocoy1J.tlS, encIJurnr"in..; farmers to oJstRblish n 
patterr, of fnr".ir.g which t-.·ivo~ B:l approprint(l iaporbncc t:> troe crops ttroubh 
price policy ::=.nd rcs(:Brch on t:ct:.ods of est!'l.bliShr.lc~t . . !r"t rRIII:.le or tr.xing tree 
crops, becaunc t~"j('y n.re for ~xport DllU thcretClre cr.sl1y tnxl\blo, itl !\ wny that 
destl'o:lS ;terIl:l.r,cnt :>.' _.ot" i:1. v~.:,.~ ... · - nOO 51)1 1 forti li t}' is folly . 
In terms of field rotE.tion nnd layout of tho individu·,l ho!!ing, or-e 
n:i6t-·t dr:;w inspir"lti"n frO! t1-.t"j payzFlnnat cncoul'l"' _·ad hy the T:1eAC in the Congo , 
though it ~/Ould be naCf.lSfinry t" adopt iii moro flexible !:'o1icy in the or,ll:lisation , 
disposition and size of' (:'lch hJldinc. IL field l:\yout on a farmer's plot ':>1' pl.::ots 
(consolidated if possiblo), th"ro t1ie-ht he nlt01'nntc bands ('1' areAS of f,'ro~t, Qil 
IJalm, rubber, COC08 , plnntllins, cocoyans nnd 60 '"I] with shado and COVEll' Cl'~'PS used 
t'J :iv~ protection to cr.,ps an{~ soil nnd roduc(, compotitioll of weeds . Res6f1rch intr 
the Ilppr opriato size and llJ.yout of fiold~ Rnd into lll9th.,ds tha.t illvolv(I tho t11 ir.mo 
'listur bnnce to cl1w!.x vei;etation and Gail t;hould roceivo t!lO higho!'t priority . 
D:tonRi')n ~IQrk should then be undcrtnkcn in relntion to Oxi9tinl.! farlll units and 
I1dnpted to the vorious conditions found theroor. . It will then come down t~.., onrth 
and 1:.(: forcod to con:dder the ferr.! ell it is . T"1,, al~o implio!' th~t COC.:lQ sh .. .,uld 
be troeted ~s·a pnrt of farm 0l:ronamy which h"G 11$ n ~njol' constituent tho I~l'owinb 
of food cr or;" . In terms of ~OC(Hl, tho l,[')bl or.l will bo t., presorvo thClso o.roas It 
f irst clllss eocon Around J\nyinn!~ , Konongo , '..tinwSD , Topp"-, Odoboll . tho !'\mnpong 
scarp . ~owi 'Ii awno n.nd tho beautiful cocon hohi~1d Ibiror.l; lIn'l tlio!"l oxtond on the 
basi a of thC!sc l.u ,,101. 

- 25 -
will provlde conditions in which cocoa yields less hOl:\vily than if shade is 
reducod; but the shade will protect the cocoa i!'l r dr? ye~r :'lnd prevent the 
encroachment of grassy weeds . Improved vc.ri~ties, !;pr:!ying and increase in 
yields un~ccot!lpanied by morc attention to estnblishmcnt, more supervi~ion and 
~oater efforts to keep the farm clean mean an increase in risks . Thus improved, 
yields mea.n i:reater permanent i nvestment in land improvements , earlier replace-
ment of declinins trees, a higher capital value of the farm and a hisher :evel 
of observant t:J.anab"el!lent ..., hieh produces and maintllins a robust plant community . 
Those who clai!ll spect'9.cular results ..., ithout greater effort and attention and a 
"longer" econot!lic structure arc doing a disservice to the country . 
Retrospect 
In retrospect, I do not think that anythinG need be added or taken 
away from ~hat has been written in this report so far as fundamental pr opositions 
are co ncer:'led . For the tir.1t!, at any rrlte, production i!'l the area of recent new 
c7.pnnsion in tha north west and in the ~I(lst of the forest is declining from its 
peak of 1960-61. On the other hand , it is still in a phase of ,Towth in those 
nreas where Generous replantinG grants were biven sever~l years abo so that it 
paid a fermer to have his cocon cut out for replantiO£ rather than to have it 
producing: nnd also in those other areas such as Otumi where farmers have redee -
mod cocoa. planted a ,:000 r.1any y8!'.'rs ago . This !':lOans that present levels of output 
arc not due to cenuine increases in r.ew plantinG . They are rather due to past 
re-;-lal. .. tinl; or redemption in older areas and to a !>hift from r:J.aintenanco and 
oxton5io~ to the i~ediate operation 0f h~rvestinb ' They are certainly not 
~ttributnble to ar~ overall increase in all nre~s consequent upon tho intro -
duction of SprayinG . It remains only to ascertain the permanence of the improvc-
!!1(,nt in those areas ... ,here production has expanded duo to the precedin(:; operation 
of cln~~jcnl economic forcc~, profitable prices nnd subsidies . The p~ofitable 
:1rices Ilnd subsidies no longor operate , since \olQCes ond l ivi ng costs have riscn 
~;Jb5t~ntilllly . In fact , tho I"ork of this'and the l'fest ~,shanti survey do not 
give t~ounds f~r confidence in the fu~ure. 
Geneva, January 1963 • 
• --00000--. 
- 26 -
J>::! r t II . 
K A n E SURVEY 
by 
N. Quae 
INTRODUCTION 
Knde lies 70 milos north - west of Accra to which thare is e. first 
c l ass ron.d connecti on . \ ra.i 1 ::>erviea runs from Kade to Huni Valley with COl".-
nections to the ports at T~ma ~nd Takoradi . The Innd lies deep in the Bir im 
valley with n chain of mountains r ising to 2000 It above sen level, lying about 
20 miles eRst of Kade . other 6oo·ft hills lie on the north .rost . The land undu-
latos'slightly within these hills . Rninfall is in the vicinity of 60 inches per 
annum . The veGetation is purely lIbroken high'forGlst", the result of COC011 and 
food farming over thG last four decades or sa . ' The rnte and extent of defo r es-
tation is influe11ced by the pa.tt<;!l'n of farming . For instance , at Subi , most area 
have been clean felled of trees, leavin!; vllst patchr::s d£:void of i:iGhforost , T'bi 
is the rClsult of' maize Ilnd rice cultivation . J,c.rc:e areas are. put under these crn 
yearly and, with thB system of shiftiOf cultivation at-ill in practice, follint;, ) 
le.r~e trees iG oxpected to continue . 'It Oturni , the rate'of follinS' is moderate 
because cnize cultivation is not done on /lny larb'o scale . \.,hero felling bas been 
done , plnnt~ins and cocoyarns are planted to provide/oVett cocoa seedlil'.gs , thus 
preventiIl{; soils from beinr- exposed . SI:i:l a 
History nnd Village Orbanisation 
The ~kim ',bunkwa tribe as a result of intertribal wars and the desire 
for land moved ir. e;l'OUps from ;'dansi 2.lld other areas of ,\shanti in about the mid 
of the 17th century . They made a nucbel' of settlements 'on the ~Uly south before 
finally settling in diffel'p.nt parts of the Birim valley . t,mong the r;roups ')n the 
Muthern limit 'filS "'ubi (ono of the villages studie.d) and its relo.teEl villabes of 
Prankese , Otwereso, Osenasi, Chia, ·'.dubiase nnd Buadua . This village settlemBLt. 
could be dated nbout the end of the 18th century , 
otumi , the second villl.l.j;" some ten milGs further north was establisbed 
on its present sito about 'the same time that new settlcments ~/ere made by t he 
;,buakwas in the same area . 1I0~levor , Otumfuo ,\orokYia , the founder of Ot umi , d i d 
not orit:iinally belon/,; to the ,\bul}kwa branch of tho ,'l>:ims . He wes the J~donten.herr 
or chief of tho c.dvance &rny of the Akim Kotoln.ls and he deserted his t r ibe ~fter 
a series of tribal wars in which he lost many of his ~bjects ; he then founded 
Otumi . In the re - orcnnisation of the tribe that fallOl'/od lA.ter , (!tumi ~Ias inclu 
ded in the 'bUllkwa tribe , 
To understand tho position of Dtu..mi and Subi i1' tho gene r al st r uctu r e 
I~kim 'lbuakwa, it nisht be good to look briefly into tho organisation of the t rib 
At its head is the Okyenhenc (paramount chief of Akyem) assisted in his adminis-
tration by the three councils: Kibi council , Okyeman council (state counci l ) and 
the /,mantoo ;'Imiensa councils. In addition , thera ara a.lso the di vi sions or ga-
nised on militR-ry linc.s; they are : \donton (ndv'3.nce ;;ua.rd) ; Ronkut:l ( l eft wing) ; 
nifa (right wiIlti) ; Jt:!.se (roar wins) and finally tho Osoa~ruo division . Otumi 
belol".{;s to the: Q:;<;!a,ruodivi5ion and serves under the Oseawuohene in t i mes of eris 
subi on the other hand serves undor tho Odeuhene of Qt"'eX'OSrJ who in tur n Pl3.ys h i 
allegiance thrOUGh the Benkumhene to the paramount chief . In this fom of or &ani 
at ion, each villo.S9 W1S brout;ht under a. wi n,! C'hief and i s ready t o f i, ;ht in t i tle 
of war . 
'llho day to rlfl.y ndministration of Moh villnce Vi EtS lef t entir c l'9' i n t he 
hands of tho nub- or local Chiefs who wer e o~siGted by 'I;hoil' ·c o unsellors. ,tt 
otun1:i. , the counsollor's 11UmbGl'o(1 12 , includi ne a quoen mot her . The cQunsellors 
compr ised tho chiof ls f'lor;;e rulllt ivBS , hoads of t 11b ,rOl'i ol.lS tl Abus ua rr or clans " 
and e fow soloctod Blders for thei r wisdom . ,'\ sl)o lnnmll:"! n for t ho· youtt; was invlte 
to !'J.tI;ond council mOl!ltinCs when h i s pr osencE! was fo und i\Qc GsS8r y . Lately,!l CDUl~' 
mittoD of IIconunonars" IWR oeEl n :,;o l acterl by t he chio f a nd h i s aldors to supervise 
community dovolop\;lOllt wnrkr;: throu,:h commu nrrl hbour, nnd nl so t o suporvi so the 
allocation of lnno for builuiIW plJ r pOf; QS, 
- 27 -
r.nch Cldikro 15 in affoct tho hend of hi .. villn '0 but' pnyR hin 11110-
"hIDe-C thrau'; the: hond of hi" tlivision to the pllrnlnount chioi' . nur!n!" tho 
~WiN restiv.'ll when tho p .... rn.mount chioi' purifies hir: utool:; nnd foOth: tho 
dead n.ncostl"lrs "nancnar.l rwnmllnf'l" , cach Odikro pays hOMnl'Q throui-h tho hCFld ot 
his division to help tho pnr llmount chiof in this tl)sk. .')omcthinL 1::: {'ivcn by 
ench chief. .ccordinc to tho Odikro of Otumi , ho pnyfl 28/-. !i.s f;ub - chiofs pay 
;otlD.,:e with rum, so also do subjects of onch chiC:lf Pl1Y ",hnt r.li(:ht be rlcscrib&d 
flS courte"y drink to tho sub- chief when ho n1,,0 p\'rific! nod teorls hb stools 
or. tho fcstivG dnys . In f'1ct . thore i" no conpulf:ion in the, paymont of 
"courtesy drinkll : all that is required if.: tho sondinG of 'ifts to tho chi(~f to 
help in tho t3sk . 
Tho stool , a symbol of·the chiof ' s lluthC)rity . o~mR every portion of 
hnd and 0.11 tho \'Iild came on it . By traditiot. , it is nntitlcd to the hind 
thi;;h of ever y lnrr.a animal killed in the a r eA. . The hunter for his trouble 
takes the rest of the carcass . In return for the "thichlt riven to ~~:::l , 
he offers a service to his subjo~t s and he ordor s search pnrtios'to be or~anisod 
~Ihenover anyone (hunter or farmer o. like) gets lost in the fo r est . Tho an i ma l ' 
pppuintion is fast decroasinC and this custom is bound to die a natur al deat~ . 
In the administration of justice, tho Odikro ' s court is the 10l/est . 
Fr om her o , casos could GO to the divi"ional chiefs ' court and then to the para-
t;\ount chiefs' court but , wj.th the introduction. of the: local council sJstens, 
u'"ch - if not '111 - pO~lor has bee n teken away from the chiefs . 1I0wcf er they 
still settle land disputes and trivial cases ar.IonC their subjects . Serious 
c~ses ~o to the gove r nment courts . 
In the 1920' s the late Nana Ofori .tta , then paramount chief of ,bu-:kwa, 
i:::tposed a special t ... Y. on the Juabens ~Iho had settled in l~rt.""e nUi:lbers in '.bun.k\:la., 
These Juabens were , before the it:'lposi t i on of the tax, treated as n,'lti\'es and 
-ranted free farminG riGhts in all ·,buakwa villaceS . The t;1Y. was aSEessed at 10 .'-
on the farms each nan h~ld on sepa r ate far~ tracks . For instance if e. farner 
had t h ree faru;, on three d i fferent pnths, he paid 30/- in all , a year . This forn 
of taxation resulted in !l\l'lny Juabencs de;ertil1[" their lands . The " ..i hotow" or 
stran;:er tax as it was tlhen known ha s been discontinued . The only tax paid now 
is that to tho local council . It amounts·to }U pe r mo.n and 10/- per woman 
payable to the 'lost \bllakwa Local council . Palm wine tappers and all sellers on 
markets also pay t~xes . other local taxes may'be imposed to help defray costs 
involvod in settli nc villa,'7e boundary dbputes . 
Land Tenure . 
The Ak"nfl of WhOl!l ,'.buakHt! is a pDrt believe: in ancestral worship . 
The l and,rcC,'lrdcd I"tS a >'lost· valued cater i al possession, was acquired throu,;h the 
blood of the dead ancestors . They, the dend , arc therefore said to own the land. 
The s<lcred stool is believl)d tf) contain th~ soul of thc peop:'e and is 
.'llso the visual link between the livin:.. and the def'ld . t.Jith the occupant of the 
stool is p~c.ced the :up.rd.ianship of all stool land . T is moans that he holds 
all the land in trust for the } .$3lllB.nfo ' (do ad ~ncostors)l1nd for the benefit of 
the livinc subjects of the stool . Ir:. anothe r sense , tl".o chief ' s claie to owne r - ' 
ship :'!leans that land is held in COOMon b:,' the pe0tlle with himself as the trustee . 
'\'h i~ places the chief in a un i que position in his cOlnllunity . 
<:the paramount ch i ef is the ove r o.l l owner of all lands in Abuakw3. , but 
onch subchiOf had a par t to pl,<;y in the s tru";L'le precedint;; ~ottler.lent of the tribe 
in the ares. For this reason , subchiefs a l so hold lend in trust for the pa ranount 
stool, the recoL,"l1.izod overlord , and, to avoid disputes amone- the subchiefs , it has 
bc')n necossary to define the bvundary' of the land they hold . Tho land WllS to be 
used for ~,ny type of farri!inC by t he chief and hi s subjects but ~Ias not , i n ceneral ~ 
to be ~~~d to ~trnnl'ers outside tho group . Howe .... or, thero !lre certai n copdi tions 
under .,hl.ch land was permitted to be sold, t o moet ~,ho.t people micht like to call 
crushinG debts of the villace . If any such sale was contemplated, the paramount 
chicf hnd to be infornod for, without his approval, the sa le ~I ou ld be nu ll and 
vuid . Fortunately, no such sale is known in the two villaGes studied . 
The subjects of the stod3~D.re allowed to usc land freely for all farming 
Rnd building operations . Even today, natives "l.re frec t o acquire farming rii;"hts 
po r tanent l y by si.:"1ply claarin, vir-in lands within t.hoir villa i c tlrOlls . 
- 28 -
p,ccordinc tc the chiof of OtullIi, nativos won' in the past required t,·, inf'lrl, the 
chiof of tho v1l1n,7o if 1l0~1 forest sites wero prospectod for farminG . ~i~ w,~s 
dono'in ardor to nflke sura that tho plots in question fell within the vll 'I 
orell. 'RUQ wrts ~cnt to tho chiof for libntion after tho nren ':lCld beon inp: 'ld'~d ~ 
cultivation was thon stArted . t'laborl'lti:1C on ttl.is st:J.te::Ient, some natives 
poit'.ted out t:lIlt tho provisiun of rum before fnrnill(': on any viri;in land va uia 
to apply to '·Q\lA.kwrts fr<11J 0110 villnrfJ seckinj fnroin,- ri~ht;; il anothc.r . 
Prescntly, no ..,  and unoccupied aroos arc not COT,ltlOn . ~_t jubl, [')1' 
instl1IlCc, freo pntchcs of virr:ir, lancl are found adjoinine' peoples ' faros . ~)" 
custom, only f,r:'1er5 who own fnros ndjoininb" ~ucr. areas have the richt of c l'i -
vation . In clcnrin,_ e. now sits, 0. farmor cloArs in one direction only . 'f bit 
happens t a be tho oply f nroer on the 5i t c , he is able t~ extend Us bllso 1i no • 
By clearin[ r.; virp-in land, e n'ltiV'o lcys pOrr.IBMnt clait:'! to that area nnd t'le 
vircin land adjoining it . ~e c.::n bequeath such an aren t'l [1 relative, :~"rt -a G 
it or L'ive it {ts a t~-ift to nnnthor (thoul~h not ;-re5ur.lIlbly to r.t str<!ni.;er without 
the chief ' s consont mB); ;trictly spankinc , hO~/ever, tho deht to sell land is 
vested in the chief only . HC",wcvcr, r.::s.tivos "my sell their developed fl'lrl S u1-'u, 
the consent nf the chief who, in f'tuci c.t lenst, cl!li:1od f'. third of the 
valuo of the !;nle . (l'r . 'ua/" roports tl:"t sone farmer::J cont~stp.d t~is lind state 
that the ct:iof WRS or!ly entitled to "rurl" fro:'! the two ptJrties - both n,·tivo r;or 
lwtivo and stranrer - to the tran~nction, in order to rorister the chance In 
title . Farucrs "l!"o cL"li:.lod thnt Ue:y can avoid this paymont by the convc!lti.,n 
of representinG the sale ~,s n llo1'tL:!lt:'::' . l·,tivcs are forbidden to '5ell vir,:in la 
FRB ) . 
Boundarie'; have often o!)en the C:lU~O of many iisputcs tetw~ \'i lj'lreg 
and oven amon.: :-.etives in any vjl1t.c:;e .cres . \'ornally, tte Illeetint; gOl t of 
farmers cultivati \. dtt.er in the; OP! osite airection or side bj' side i rcc.."1,,¥.ise 
or; their boundnry . ".t such meotin, reints, t1:e ::lost com::lon vracticEl i~ to plant 
"y,'tor:une" trees , erm'lonent fpotures £';.ch or.: streams, V1111t:.ys and roaa~, lar,~e 
forest trep.s and footpaths nre nlsn USEld ~5 bound~rie5. 
Timbor, v1r':-1.1 knj~· And oir.erllis 1, the earth aro the property of the 
stool, but fart.l('rs erc poid 0):(' ttird of the yaluc: ')f all Hober felled i~ t:leir 
lends as conpons'ltion for ny ~o~siblc darMCe done to crops . r'rops dru:;.a.)8a in 
tho course of i'rospactill€ fer 'linerflls are elsa I)aid for b"y the COr:rAi'1)' who 
owns the concossior. . ',part frop tho!';Q checks, r.o restrieti.m is I,iut in the way 
of fatmers so Ion os they l'('[:pect tho ri!:htn of others in tb:,ir fer9'ing opera-
tions . 
~lon -l'1lltivos'who desire to J.'lkc perl1f1.rucr.t residenco are intr'Jdticod to 
the chief by '1 native . T~.o :otren er, when ~ssured of '" plnce to f<lrl:l, 1s nsked 
to pfly run end is then ndmittnci ir.to the cOlllDunity . :e bocPl'lf's f!. ciL-zon and 
~hare!; Cll1 resj-Jon::;ibilitios of the vi11a("0 cqu",lly wit: the natives . strl".n~r 
who does not intend to rektl pcr~Janc-nt residence is asked to pay a luM.p sur:. of 
r.lOney to the chicf nnd showed a pIn co to hrtl. t the end of the period of hi s 
stay, all his fllrms becotle the pr"perty of tho chief . The riCht to aCC8iJt or 
refuse eny str1.l".cor IlS far n.~ Innd l.uestions nre concerned rests wi th t'~e chief . 
In tho l~st, when laf.d .... ns fnr in oyces~ of \rI'r..:lt villat:ers re Jited £.)1' 
tr.eir own neod!':, it was lJOssiblo for chiefs to t~rnnt land to abusA. \lOrkcrs . n1y 
strFl1lf'ers worked under this r,Yf.ltCr.l which r,lennt dividinG the proceeds into tf-],ro£' 
pflrts . ,\ lul.lp sun of monoy WllS de1llanded ty the chief froll the stri:ln~,(lr lL'ld .•e  .... a~l 
thon loft to develop the land into n farm . I"Ihoro a tenant plnnted a ,ermcnent 
crop, ell sl'lle!': of food crops wore t;iven to hilJ to hell defr,1.Y the cost of e ;ta-
bl1shinr the ferm . Uhen tho perm-'3:nent CI'Op !'It!!.rtod to 4'rl.1it, ~.hc chief' sent i~l 
end collectod 1'1. third share :Ii' >'Ill so.le'5 . 
, 't:ere t .. O 
tenant !,lnnted food crops only , the cHef took his one third :-hare in 1'00:1 or 
ca~h •• tennlt w'ls'pernitted to transfer hi!'> tenancy to "l t":ird pt"r~, !. upon 
inror~in3' the chiaf . 
Lnnds p-ro.ntad undor the abusa ~ystetr pr ovid<:>d t:19 chiefs wi th B good 
sourl"Ci of i!1come but, a~ the mocont , all hndr: t-rantcd in tho past und(l r t hi s 
systf".! are n.u dnisteroe. b;,: thtl :;t )01 land l'evoenue coLector 'i'h~ c('Il l ec t s and 
pays i ,to tho ;tool 1".c trD'lr.ury '~ll cnsh 1!.uc to;> t!IG chiefn . Th i s however 
- 2q -
does :"lot debnr natives 1'rom "iving their secondary bush orcas to abusa tenn.ntf~ 
as e 1 :,;cwhcro in C;~ :.r.Il . 
'here a f'lrmcr ~llows his secondary busb area to be dovoloped on abuse 
ter::ls , Jne fine. . it difficult not to assume that such an 'lroa (the tonant's part) 
'!-':"' b:-t:1 e7.ctnned :)Qr~ner.tly fOr the labour <l.rC cC!,ital of the tenant . It 
"ften hnppcns tt.ct the developed. cocoa fe.r:l is iivided into three part:>; the 
l~r,:!ow~cr tClke£ i ne t~.ird share and ~na,-'es it ns a separ~te holdinf while 
to_a tor;,r.nt "nne .. O~ i two t ;r1 sharr:! sep'lrately , Cocoa is a pC:rt:l8ncnt crop 
c:.. . j its life ~::J;J i ... )vcr an indefinite period . If a landlord a[Tces to the 
-:.er1'" t)f ~te 'lot, t •• en it E'nns the conditior.s of tho abusa contract have been 
setisf:cd; the te:lI:;!lt 10 free to nanaCt> hi:" f(!r~ in. his own w"'y except that he 
h;'J.:,! no r1.(',t to :;oll . Tho lOD["th of tiDIC! a tenant must "o'tm" his portion of the 
f0.rl<' is ,.ot <;t..,te:l and ~o ~,o keeps it as lon,' ss there 'lre cocoa trees on the 
far ... . ~1..::: tlear.'" t,o t(!nCl;.t keeps his portion inde£idtely ilnd only 'l. law court 
cr-,n deci~e tb: i .tc:r;,retnti In of <19.5 10n' 'lS there are cocon trccs on the farm . " 
Inheri tancc 
If p. '~'iv(: lse~ his own labour and capital in ~cquirin~ forminc areas) 
such erc:J.s nro ,;,i<: ~,ri\'''-tQ }:ropo:!rty as lOI~i_ 'lS t-Jo livos . Tn his lifetir.le, all 
rile r,r' Jlrc.:r1 b;{ 'liJ cf";llc be P'.It to any faroir.# uzo or _'ivon a.way in tho fashion 
rl! wei by ell "or, ~lJt:;lS enon as he dies, ir.heritanco will bo docided by his 
f/). • y vhic 1 thl case h tr!lc~d from teo flother . 
If' 1 lftc .. aio. t~.nt in .bu~k'Wll r,ephews (r.;ons of lnO'S sisters) 
1nhnrit '''1''1013, ":lut thi i n"lt tr\l(; in its entirety . Iccordillr to J;F . onnquah, 
=:I be ~eo.th of Ie oemb-ar \f "J, femily, whn st.C!l1 i :.hcrit i$ decided by the 
t crla 1'". l~. ,,~t where t~"r.ro is contrQversy .:lver tho choico, th: noth('r of 
tbo ecco!!cd ;; 1 rit ber .-n. ott,or oe-a:ters at the fr.~il3 olso hnvo ri!'ht to 
in1-.f.rl t t~(: ic·cca"(rl. cro are cCtl.Osins 'Jf tt.c. 'l(icoas(rd (i . e. oldest, aunts' son). 
br t cr r tho Qoec od, r.q.>hEt'tIS .<;..nd sister~. C't,risUfmlty hes al~o t.ad its 
!1 n,ce :J tr! ,f inhc'ritance. ·.t:Io-~ leo.bprs of the l)rosbyterinn church 
!.r. the ar(;ti, (' thf; O(;'1tt- of 8 r..erh,r . (me third of all hit: fr,rc.~ and farIJing 
u{; at) ":' rol tive (fllr.til:'() 'l."Id 2/3' to t.i3 wife Ilnd childron , • wifa's 
vn ¥cr. arca ell - t) hr:r facily on !·,cr deeth. '!'t.e eldost daUi·htar 
1 11;;- 1.0 1t .rr TIl rHos rJ"\r the hcnetit ! 1)].1 \:.roU.~r'l nnd 8i 'tors, 
" t. ..,"c" t.or n n!'r" d'· tCT3. s")ns F'Y 1.herit t!,t,ir tl'Jors . '" '1Ilred v e t)t11 strRYlg«=-r bocotlc' t"lc rropr'rty of the chief 1 • 0 <r c: ( n"t r.u10 hi'S&' H' eeSfl 'r, w1': ,~U5t Ilt 1 eost bo known in the 
villi! il, T t tr .r" If ,. iHrl"!D in thc vill "C, tt·o:" inh~rit their father . 
~ #~ ie}li t rv f "-he rC'1l 
o t ! t viLle cs in t_1l Br€.o- l :ii t"'Cl tva t.ldlod ("tuJti and 
, 1 i I" IQ ·lItte yv tl! t 4hc (''1'''11 xIxth J turv . "'hr! problem 
.:t thtlEl t tt- 0 "V'S va +. !t:t)"l .'fj ~r oxi~;t(jr.cr. . Food 
t- r mH w r'" tIed t p t t n I y '" 11. t~r tr8.de 
wit th. t .,. r trou_'e betv,.. Ho {'''''let ar.d tribes itl t!-,o inte-
ri teb" t 0 t1,. t Itt -. ~(l ettlc I) t f tre ':lUI. W'l! .asr 
t < ' • i nt 'f'd, i r"lt At 
•• t + 'le c ~ ~l .-,romote tradE<; th- Lter-r. ~ t • t tpet. s "ere lee"l to ,ccrli, '1 ob". t '\,. .... 0 t. ".1 .",  tr t C Jrvey ~roa pnssad tr-l"l'l!. '1. t • r,~ i. t r t 1e t k t ~ a e creial to~n, eni to 
-t .. e I..;:t.ri;' .. d '"1. r 1 t • -+ II vere r 1 or cr-ravans 
V1~ t "" ~ fr t .... 
j.ur. fr t. 1 t rr. " • Ix • o~ n~ tz; vero '!I. .:cd a.t 
0113 , OSon~ i. ,! Jc'" • v- 1 'l.: r t e eixt is:! . r. 1 ,il£~r 
j;urr.~)" t '1: .bo. t .. Ix -"f lin Ii ~. • ,. , TOr to , 11)::-1, ~r,nao . 
~:-ft.k)" r i . orr " , li:--·. ... , -Dfl :ve!!rl!, '"1 ·--I<::I.iT ~ .:;j i ,'r:. '11 vUlal:.'F.>s 
~ tr.o !'I: uto "crYeoJ ft~ ":"t ri!.· ~':-Cf":·.,. tr· voII.::!, • 'Y .I·. .. t f'')od 1; t!-.c. 
vIlle ~S . wore iV'e1'l L·_~f =9°·t ! "r t.,.f!' eel'" It, t, -1 0 tor ',-- I i ~t 1(:1 (I.:. 
3d or 6d tora ;:;r up . Ir t .b:: ""')' . t~ € -.111- _'cr!" r )unr~ VI:; J~ e111.. ti-.oir 
excess prod ca . rl:ets 1:. t1 C! -eO-6 ,·r <:.! : C~ .. -eo "lihCI"& ~'_;,'c.r":; £.:4 oIlers 
~ to esc an oOOs vere .l~.kt'ovr. . 
- 30 -
'?tlrt fr·Jr.\ the ~tlsfoct1on of t ho far;·Clr!;' ()\om r~qul r e 1I'm"'s "'t t'nod, 
their othor oCcu,lotlnn which nlso !lQrv(H~ D'3 R IlrJ~f'l.S of dc..rivinl'" incr,IIIOS .... ~ft the 
ct'liloction of wild rubbor, knln nuts , I1ml hunting . Tho W'OT.1r.n sold rllffh trl"\nis 
to corriers who usod thn\11 ~lthor l~ w'llki~ll' sticks or fr·r su )portlng th&ir I.lds 
vbon roc,tin€ . t otum! , tho '!lost pnpulnr" job W!'S old w'lcht11,; 31'IC9 t}-,n strew 
~.n1 OGu",'!, jut.t 2' c110s rrn"'!. tho vlllll("O, W'lS ntted tnr it riel.. "finds . 
Durinl'thu 1 ~tor pnrt of tho- XTXth contury , production ,r .,,1'1 I'1Jbber 
and kol'l incrolls8fl; it bOCflr.J.(, noc(I:I$.nry f( r 1010llt poop Ie to vb! t the ~t·.,t . "'h 
CAr-V nB thnt loft orlch villnP'8 incrl)nf;e~ e'1i vi~it::: to t .., o C",'1st had t ion'it 
by turns in ~rdf.r not to lc"va 9Dpty villa "es . 'In the rf)turn journey, t'r'.ers 
bou"'ht their roquirements nf solt, tobneen, unpowdor nor! cl"thio:- . 'T'bis fc.r ., 
tradinG c\lntinuod until tho IntNftuction ()f Ct'>C011 into tht: ~rc~ in 'lbr·ut 10t - 19 
It Mfi beor. st ted by an lld 11I\n tn atumi thllt tbe fir~t pOds wor(l intr?:Juced bv 
the 13Bsla ,,:i55io11/'l1'io !!':Iout 1'3811 • ;l1cb od '!:o<tt 2/() thf'n . 'h~tcv&r the Qf'":tue.l 
dnte of its ir,tr .ductio'I, '1 f() .... COC"11 fl'lrlllS woro !ltlon sco.tt(:rl)d I')V(lr the lI.rO/l io 
1900 . Tt.o poriod IQI'lC-1910 'lW f'lrlllf)·:'; soriously culth''ltinC cocoa, but the 
rote lf ey'~)'l~lI;l!ln \/::l!t ~l()v . 10 )ne c~ul1 c~y wit', ccrt1'.inty wr.r:!! the fi r st 
export of cocor. .... ~s unde fr thfJ ·,rt)'I. but, c'lJ".siderlno.. the dntr, v"on the pods 
wero intr:lducod to th(> time "'h n r'.r!]I wr·r'l (lstl1blisLed {IS nn ""cono~lc Vl:!:l.tur~ , 
export .... ns not likely until ~_O t 1~15-1q . Exp~rt of coc~n from aroq~ to tr.e 
south "f Kl1dC' '~i -tt be C'orlitr . "c" e~nnnt 105(1 d ht <)f tt._,-, filet th~t ()xter~lve 
COCOA. f'lI'Ci:lr sttlrte(\. t-. spr0rt.d fr., .... th, .;ku~Jll!I ritl ~() and spr",lld grc.iunll, ir.t,') 
tt:e intcri ,r of the f"JrC'd . r ).I() vo;orQ tnld thllt 4'17:; ·rts verQ ~"ld() ~t sl'.;;ankos 
before farners ct Kad" Iltc..rtC'd fYlllr4: ef('''/! fO~:3, )n(: W":l ir,cl1MHl to boliove tb 
bC'enu~e ~~BtIl nkaso is neer4r "<;nWI!!!l thnn .''1rlo , ond ¥.£i Ie than ntuci . 
C"coo. cultiv'lti " cT' dually <:'Iusto1 klla fro tho Ih,!)li -bt but c~e"a 
cultivetlm had its Ir"blC:lls . "e'C'r"' 1"" -, sub:;istcncc fcr'lt,ir• . ; WSfl tl::e win 
practice . Tho )1.1)1 '101 llnt C'f In.1 1I.::t roquired wns tho effort r:,rr")vided by the 
f'?rmer am },is h :J~eh~ld . Ey.te-_i)m t(') tb'.l old fflr~IS '1O~!1t tlC'ro labo~r '":.It t_i-
v~s dirCicult t, fin1 , ~n ~verc~~o thi~ problam. fqrn~rs t:d to r()B~rt to 
"co~un!ll clo'lrin", wb4 r(J l:. 'r')u) worked in turn ir. or.e linothcrl" tar s . 
More ..dves mcant qssurod aJld iJf;rl.nfs che'lp ~l!b ,ur . P'urU:er to this syster' c? 
c1enriot;. 1tlbourcrs ~f loI.shic nnd. 2f'.mbr":'18 extr'lctior. bccl'I.mo t:v1ihble i.. the 
Inter yer::rE lf 1918 - 2 )r.11 dally w"·n )f 6d plus ~'1fficler.t fot'?, t last cach 
1abc1,Orer P.r.ot}-.t:'r C'1Y r so . 
Jnt1.l U.t': r.:."d fr~z:: (fern ranched Sllj:J.'lr.kCSIl nbout 1924-25 and .$uam iT: 
1926 - 21. ti.~ iuosti n ~f cfJ.rryin· f"Jrest i'roduco to t;-;e coast W"S Rls{" a pr.blet: , 
but luckily ti,cse l'lb'\urers wor~ willinr to 10 t~.is tnsk 'llso . Tho scasonl11 T"':t:'V(o 
Ytl)nt of lr:lhour 'tnClll:le influer.ced by t ... o CJC"~ !';na~OIl . ('"l'~co it WIlS the habit tn 
thore, (!'1.y:; !'or tha Inc ~urors tn l"oturr, hel!' whon tho C(lCOll 'lO'lson cnded . t::lC'"se vb 
stl:>ycd 't:(;hind we,rEl nft()n d~rider! with fJ. :=:on.' in f!(Iusn which wont thus' " C'Jcoa 
j"llka10 ?:,.sbr'!llo"; tofi 'ida" wt-,ich Illonno; : "Tho C·:lCCli sons'r: i6 over, so 'Z~r.lbr'll:1a ~~ 
home ~ 
C~C')''1 br~urht r.l.C'r0 mor.ey to s e't! . f:>r it had boen por"ible for tho 
first ferTT,r at i{1l:o'!e to cel::ent his room 11 1916 nnd to use k[>rosine wticb wc~ tto 
thoUj'ht to bo a luxurJ in 1919 . "'ocen cultiv'lti)n raduelly sprIJad .,)ve r the araR 
of the s".Jrve:y "'M, ty 1920 - '5 , '.Jst po-opla had COCOIl farms of vary1nr siz.es. ~~t. 
it was not stlooth soiling all U.rouf~h for , nt the SaLle pe ri od , traces of fai lure 
of troes had beer. rlctoctod in mAny placos . This lod t.o fnrrns beine left in thCl 
bush <'.nd in c,..·:"os whoro IlnIJA.;e '1m. 'reat , t hoy wo r o nbnl'll.lC'lnocl '\It'''-oth~r . L nd 
w~s not sen reo I'I.rrl enthusinstl in tho inrtustry WRS ;ren t. lhGt far:,ers vst bllshe1 
fnrws in difforor.t 'lrO'll'! of tho Ral,IO villll •. -c , just in case lno 3rca mi~'ht pr.::l\·d 
.Gu1toble . 'Ihilst fllrr:lc,rs woro :;trui~t:linc t o nnintnin thoir frlrr!ls, another drawb!lc 
occurrod in the 1'1111 of UII'J C"lcon price in tho Ilinetoon thirtios, r»suIHn in the 
cocoa hold up f ttDso :l0"~ arxl tho sotting \.p (f t1'.o '10'01011 c()r:"'i!"~i )r. . These two 
factors nnd thf' r: ~ll .... llrt1·,e outlets f(Ir coco':! had their influence ')1 ,~ultivati u 
1n thl:! (.rt!n . "nr':nrs whf) had invoe tod lnr,'o nUIMI of mOllcy i"to ooccn cultlv'ltl J!l 
and whoso farms '1101'0 badly F.l.rr()~tor1 by wh~t wns I1Jtor 1.. 11(. . wn 8S c1l'sid tnok t·) 
romi fArmlne . '')no :-;uc! vill!lr'/l WliB ~ubi . '!'ho PO')\lllltloD 1'1 thE) I'Iroo vas iucre' ,-
tnt:' :Tni1'.Jolly n tHe rr18ult of the ost'lblishn:ont or l:Ia'IY lnd'l::;tries . I,'oed r~rni.1; 
beclllx n.1ucr/tivn bur.illOfJS . Fnl','1or::; Ilt ~ubl nn,l other :)In{'c~ t)ok to plantll. tt-
trfidlttonl..l (,N (')f plantnin , cncoynl:l an(l y/ll,' on n 1nr.:1: ';cn1t'1 tc- IIIllko l'iood the 
lo~~ nf iJ.cf)mll IrG cocon. L'll', CI ncalo "lito 111'l rico fnrc:' , 1'1 locnl !: t andBrds, 
- 31 -
beran in the early forties . This development wad aided by tho road and rail 
co~~ection~ with thn coast . 
Lconomic developnco..t had also peen stimulated when di"t1onds were dis-
covered ie. the firi:- vallcy in 1919; further to this wc:!!'>'the'rich timber in the 
area wliitin/' to be exploited . The l!linini"cOrJpanies of C . '.S . T" . at Akw!:ltia , 
Holhnd ryndicate at Takorasi and C. ft . Y. C. D. at Boadua started their rnininG 
operations i~ the latn twenties . :xtension in their work meant the emplo~ent 
of more hands and the crc~tin: of markets for farm produce . Br 1945, i116ny aliens 
mainly Ni('erians were r'.lshinG into the area as diaoond winners . This tended to 
increase the non-farmin;~ population and the rnD.rkct for food crops . The first 
timber mcrch~nts to operate in the area before the second world .Iar were 
R. T . Briscoe , Markey and ',boaeye following one nfter the other . Conditions fo r 
brinp:inr:; lob'S to the roadside and then to Kadl';! for railment were hO~fever difficult . 
Loss had to be pulled by mnnpo.ler on sledges . 
Thc period aftar the second "'forid war has seen an increase in economic 
activity of the :::trea . The river Birim ...I as brid[cd and completed for traffic in 
1956; the l''}lld from Nsawan to Kade has been \'Iidened end tarred for more and heavie r 
trllffic wt,jlst others have also been constructed from Takorasi and Okumani to Kade . 
Tt;(l htter , ~Iith its sidinG facilities for handlinG timber , has become the head-
oQ~~ters of the timber industry in the area , Here onc finds a sawmill and the 
i . . ~ . Catch Company , eMployinC.li larse nuober of "'Ioricers . III the t r ading field , 
t ere are three expatriate firms dealinG in all types of consumer j;oods but , in 
t.e field af produce buyinb", all five firms which were encaCed on this have'been 
'orced to close do ...m . Prezently , only the Ghana Parmers Council buys c('\coa . 
In the :>'Cricultural field, except where rice and maize oro ermin , farm 
sizos hl".vc: not incroll!'ed to more thaT', five acres at a sir.,:le elearinr . The sizo 
,f COCc'[l farms estc.blished about a d~cade or so abO has reMained almost the same . 
"f th€: 23 far~ers studied, only two nad ~Iell maintainod cocon farms nearing 20 
acres . The siz~ of food farms in which the t:-aditioral crops of 'plantain and 
cocoyam are ,,:rOWD is still under five acres at a sinsle clea.rint; . However , there 
is a tonder,cy aMOII!; somo fn r l:l.€:rs to stop cultivatinG the traditional crops and to 
c0ncontro,te on naize and rice . In this case , the siz. .. of farns has been found to 
be ton to 15 r..crCs and there arc a fow who ara o.bl.:J to ~Iork farms of ov er twenty 
r,cr05 per ;:;(:a~on . Tho dusiro to cl.::ar laree srcR.S is understandablE: if the farmer 
must mako nllClwanc(: for tho:: vnCaries of "'Ie'lth(:r nnd pusts And yot expect n profi t 
on r.is outl~y . But thero is also the dang0r-of clearinr larrrer aroas than what a 
hou,,«hold i nble. to work with its resources. 
Durinl'" the: survey, cansidE:rnble interost was shown in 1'ecultivati ng 
abnndone:d "1CO(l. The rensons for this arc: not difficult to find . Cocoa in the 
V.£;t }-.nd n stclld~' ,)rice and , thou[:h many younG" farL15 failed before any good. 
~ervesti.1[ could be rJ.::"Inc, far!'ler" =,till stru. ;Iud on , I1hlB.yS hopin~ that B. few 
i.o· r1:: trc ... would bEl \-"crth t'.e trouble. t/I.ir: , cocon, ~Ihen fully established , 
,)0) n t rt':tuire the: ~'cnrly r,e!'.vy e>;JonSe inv:olve:d ir. clcArinS 'l.nd felling as in 
.. 0W"lr6. M tor .')w t6~s o One, very ioportr:l".t ft:ctor ~IRS the intrnduction of 'Gam-
e 1n r-- ... 1 ~ch as -Ie it 0: sir·le. to cor.tr'll c:"lpo:;id bUj's in cocoa farms . 
I" :.c>ro.::'ll'r t',e atUt'J.d ~ to forni!:. t>.;.Jcn t~c: younceI' [er:eration, however , 
L that f ~l lnt r' t lnesll.; aellJ:"'. he .,ld~r fcner.o:'lti')n, it 13 en nttitude of 
uncertnil1t .. . ~"I e f"rMr~ llro invcstir..g their lI".ol'ley ir,to oth~r busincs"es such 
as .lOp n!.i bJ" 11n -So ... ., 1"'·:0 e:.--is .c.r,et, sorlO of t:'OSQ far!':lers t~ke on jObs 
with tt,o tib·r Trot; nts in the bus: wt.ile others take to pnll:!wino tappin(' o To 
cy r:.ind, bow I ~b it;; ierived fN·. . '·lC!:! j"bs is root as import'1nt as wr.at prl)mpts 
hlr~"rs to take ):1 suc!. j .. i s . -h a~swer t(l this is ~bvious . Industry is camp€: -
~1. with QTi~'lltl.lre ~or labour; .. ·iol~s aLd Inc~ l"l::; IlrG still'low; prices of 
: d.-tuffs are uncertain ...· hil~ ?r,-d·.lctiYe reso~rC(:5 are ocarce . ''lP:8 paid to 
fnrc ~'l~urers nre irrccul'!;r nndJr:assured . t th~ tiro of writing, the rnte 
WIl·· ~/- where-"\s in 1n,j,t;stry the daily va -e·was I;/~ . Tl.erl3 is no wonde:r if farm 
l' Ml'er!' leave f~r (i~':',"l:>v::le:lt i:1 i 1\ str:v . If ~ur a Ticl;lt'J.l'o is to be saved , 
t:-,o' r; r ~6:)' ilr th1!S6 Frll'lens llst e: f?und . 
32 -
lJnlike Krobo and 7raf~. iarcers in the area studied live in col_ 
l~ctions of ~ud housc~ makir~ up villa:€ ccmnunities and farm the lands around 
these villaces. Tte selection of sites tiepends on fC'"iny factors, includirIG !lasr-
nl;C5 t o- drl nki !".i ·,;;;:ter an'.! read:;::. 3ut lihere roads cannot ;'0 cor;structed to link 
u p wit h cai n com.!!I'.lr.i catl ons , a c'!-.aL.c;e -n site is ~de to a suitable ~Clint near a 
Mad a s i f! t hl3 c ase nf <:ubi. 
~ub i Ci.n i :t u!l1i arE: se rvsd b ] a re&"Ulo. r roat! transport systef!': from It.nde 
to 1Jkr' 'II'Y:nw. Thb ro e.d is n;)t t a rrad , bu t it i.:: well lai r;tained by the pUhlic 
c o n~tructi ot'l o:icp:_ r tre (: nt an-1 i s Op<::!D ttrourh~ut t he yC'lr . Access to farns on the 
othr~ r hand. i s 1:1, f;:; r 't t r <lcks ""'1i ch. t~oUl::h not tJoto r e ble. I'!.re occ'lsionolly used 
by ti mber truci:~ lind tract ~l' !" 7l:.e :JaL-.tH,ancc ____ a ll int'I'" trncks is " collect! 
re sponsibility of ~11 f ar~,£::r'" 1!.<;inc the parHc'.l br :''J.t. 11 tha.t is rc.quired t 
ke ",p t hem i n rood c'lnditi:m i5 w~e1ir; - a"to~t ~nc e <:'1' t wic o n yenr. Rut whero a 
flO.rmerl s own pri Y.Ilte ".-,th t i f ... r ca t ss f r C'lm &i,(! t1/'l. i n trl ck, t h&t portion is his ow 
r 0 6?ons i bi11t;,: tc- !l;jnli:!~ ' . It ",·ill te sr;.13n f r o1 t h i that hClldlo::tdlnr still 
f or ms <!n i npor tlln t .F'tr" (" t1;e ~'.?y t :iay 'l-:.+'iviti es of f-:!rrn(lrs . Nelll'noss t·? th!) 
r Q'S,d appHcntl] influ(~r_c'1 t. e t·~(! of crop.r !" l)le~ + e\l t ,:, for mers for cultivation. 
For i nstance: . "r(!~: fJ,wny fr J I ,e ro.s.d .,ill "'Cl t to plen t l'! ' wit l ~rSF'lVn on (lny 
1.":. 1' -e ~c~.lt Jflt:''l:J,i':'' C 1l 1':::£.'1::1 i .. e.-:. a i 1i. "ic:.:'t t- !1j~d 1 ') ad ~Wor h'n, diEttinco 
~tro::-tt' ....... ! ~Q the mal ~Ol~rcc c,. "!lt~.:' :::upp l ;r . Tl:!.o sup, 1y is cor,st 
rm'] r rr;!;c" ,? ,r~~l,"~£" "x:'lJtl+ ..:I9r"" r"Ht.io._ !:~ ng ~ "" ()IJ ·,t vh.ern at titll~s 
b €:' cornos necc '1T] t) nnl~r,ct "''"tcr rrm p~n-'l le ~ t t'l1<din i . tho rivor bGl$. 
de ps r t:lc nt .. rurtll V8.t~r ;evel~.i'mclit h.a.S &l1nk ~w.-: "'(J " t ) ens .. ro t-hn 3upply ('1 
';000 dri nkill. . water Lx)u. "',')ut tre ye.'lr !;.Jt Ul. cr t _ r~h lj' t bon Ilrll ~npopulnr wi 
t he v i11t. ·e:r~ . ~-:::icf.ll f'ldl1tl,,= 13.1"e ;:!vailabiE: llt Akw'ltill "'e.k'rtIS! Gad Kad(J • 
t 
." ;pt;lnldn ·r~rC!11,. . ho ;ist~co t- ~.,r: nearest ")Sidt'ol tlG~ond& o n ):jew f~r n. 
vlll....., 'n is 'ltHltO Ir,)1 £lIly .of t~e .. C".l;·t r es . ~"!Il l t= ..~ . \.I bi llrl;' lwehn 8:1d 
tLrf:!) ~.li'el'l "~'ny rl:[;,.'Jcti'v 11 fr 11: '.a c . ":!n;'t~,r3' r-el·,,1cos 'lre providc:,. b tho 
J 
"c,st ,~.kir: bi,lnkwa J,. }Ct) '" : '01 i1. ~l.Ot 1!!l'J1l~""1 l!b Ur e};-, rlp.5 'In i',p<:rtnn: pert 
i '1 thr: :.lr nvit!i n 0 "'rvlct:· 'lr~r'"lily . T':Io lIJln ..... t ,ff'lC (l i ito~ at l':ndo 
fl'Qr.I vtlr;rn tele~lh ~IJ ~o.clli'" s "'·Vl> 'teen ext· ... :1 to -t urni n.cd '.)ttt~r IIJl't:C1 vi!-
1a'-t: . '::l1ti hilA r:, 1- ·t II it'" ~f it!' ow . ] f~ r a en t e rt ~'i r.m'1nt IF'l C{.I1CO . 
r.uti and Otumi v'·rp. t ,una t- be (~ll . to ccel" w~'! ~~IO 8'10 t, popu lo"t" '~I.m nmorle tIlt) 
young !aDO . ~"r +te "ld()r IIlSl r:1;d ",.,nen, no f.Jr ~1 "f ... r t.'lll lt.od (I. ;-: i:ert!\inmr.lnt WAS 
observed , et 11) !1st tLr"tue'h ut the ..,eri.~d the gu r vey 1.at;"-':e~ . Aftn[ a hard 'It!ytr: 
wor K. P'll=rlAti~c :;o1'7cd "18~. so)t-~,b ... drir.k nn.d. tb~ t'1.J"'l rHo it c uiekly confirms t, 
1.i:,p-:r taw:;,c . tt IC,-,.dc, - ... the Iltller ·.I!c~r , cine '1 JOW"i, concert R llnl d~nc«J 1'0 
unCO!1l.;;lon. '1h~re ern al"~ tbe beer .:l1~ where. t''1 le 0"" 1 ) Blld 11 ... ,"0· 'c mu 
f'ln.yen rl r!J io r!~D . 
-he .l"I'= yt~1'i _ CbJr·~h lj ; C- e te1i1~ ,~.l e. ''11'1 1 r l- .... ,It.l 'ilroc1 P 1 
seid tQ be -3ne ~ 1.. ... Jlod'lt>t d~ti ")I'\';:.L t e _ lUn· r ,, _ T" t tl (' '.1'1 Jtlld. -,l1ch 
t oward.!': tho ievel ,-:;- It 'f :iucat:"'r _ F.i "'r .;. ~. Pr ~ I t t" i thQ rJr.tor of 
old f1Q!of l e 'IIhc ur c acle to r~ad ,'3. ...: 1:1 v r l t e "'vi i t Hli arl f!.. 10 itr t R:hOal wns 
Q;c t '!:.bH:j'.od ~t C~u"i 1:1 Bl'_.t J13.o1 a.::d the f i.:r,t IlId n t ;it: rter well 4il'i-~inted 
i n a bou t It'lrG . Ot~lIli ~.:;!" '.ot' " F:- i:!laZ'1 a- -! Ie Ctl3 II with 1 '" .'J r;nd 114 
r irl s ~'n r (ll . .... lo,e sc~oo l 1- ,-tsfie~ b,. t& h·".. .. r.=A ~r.!'e.el .".lr£. t f'.t.l. H,r..ra In 
01':1 :" a : ..1'i r;a r ;, sc 1 'l' ;'J '.:~~ il d r e-:': -~ar~l l!i:l -! tv' J.! tralei I:(llle .. "r·, . i'',IpllF it 
t he 'Jr::Je r priltnry - ".! Ili, He 5,=~?C> 'It"t~L ''l C.i.1:l ~ .tt' -.-j~. 1IIl. leh i:; ,. :"Iilos 
Tho ;:r edoLbant '~!, ristian c e "!1c:li n",-: i ;. i. n t he. ",1:-. 1e J!ra"" i6 t· ~ .resby1.~rlr.l.": "',·,,·;·1 
t-ut it..ero e r e '11 s ....... e c atholics, -.:tJ -i +:: ani t;i~ trUe '11 •. - ~ve 'l lar _-(f f',1-
lorinr· T s ~ ar .. ~ T 1,r '":. mon 1.:...9 ~"- ,H':l1l iw "riC1,-' ctt1.t:'rs . 
Fr!>[O as f"l!' ~·acil:: 85 l.i.:.it c;r earlier. i'1O,Jrt:<r_ :'r-:~, tr.e r.oii"hbourinc 
French c·.)lor.ieS' t:-'lve be" :. 1o:" ..... 0l11:. -;" "tra7el .,. utl. f·r f~r_ jnl,t: . The 4nd. 
the 'llambraJ:Z:s V4Jre the first tl"i'es t~ arr'l7e l~ t.9 t"l).Ge Al'f)ll in libout 
They vere f •. ,l,lowe" 1'9:1;.,1' 1::. tne: -llhi.niS. 7te fir::t ·:n·Pi.rdans f!'O~ the 
seek j~bs , i"h tarle wer') the- Dt> :.r>=tis, out th.s:· ~r'3forrod t-:: work r.ot 
but rP:'7l)er on t!',e c~r.s:t!'l1cti.,!". ~f rl)alis ,-:'int.~ ~n ir. the district 
said t .at t he :;ru~":':s ar. ... tl:,(; r:"'R.fr9.!' j )i::e<:i ti':.e group rather l.,t<.;,;,... 
- 33 -
As cocoa farming expanded in t.he district, the need for more wor!!oI's: 
at certain months of the year influenced the southward movement of ~abourers and, 
since cocoa farming has not been as successful as in other areas of the country , 
the services of these labourers have heen diverted to food farming in the recent 
past . This has been so in areas ~lhere cocoa farminG hns failed - Subi for 
example . Hired l abour is mainly employed to .do tho clearinc of all farm areas , 
The terms under which such farm jobs are done vary; they are : 
- th'1 contract , 
- Atabrako or IIby day", 
- annual, 
_ abuse, and 
_ IIllkotokuano" labo'clr syoterns 
1 . The Contract .- Under this. system , a clearly defined area of bush is 
bR.r,,"aj.nf;!~ to be cl.apred Q:t: f,All/HI at a' Pti~e. I}.r;:r!"ed upon between both farmer aid 
laoourer . The c6cp.1.etion 01 tfi~ 'work atlas ·tl~e~ ... untrtl.ct; more work is done per 
1!I8r. - day ir. order to basten the opera·tion . Usually, labourers \Iorking under this 
system work in .::-roups of four or core . Food is providod in kind or cash by the 
farmer . 
2 . \,tabrako or "by Day" .":' under this term of contract, the labourer 
sells his labour in terms of hQurs . The working day is fixed at six hours, but 
labourers do not work for the full six hours on the farm; the actual number of 
hours workad may be estimated at 41> . To the labourer t the amount of ,,'ark done is 
not as importnnt as the time ttlken to do it . The rate of pay at th", time of surve 
was 4/- plus a midday meal valued at about 9d . As the result of the recent wage· 
increases , these labourers are demAnding two meals a day before working from e a . m 
to 2 p. m. 
Annual Labourers .- These are uncornr.on but at Subi in 1960, two 
teennge Grumah boys were employed under this contract. The conditions were: 
a) the contract .... as to last'12 months: 
b) ot tho oxpir~tion of the 12 months, the farmer had to pay each man 
y.lB i:'l cash; 
c) duri the ~riod covered by the contract, tho farmor was to provide 
at 1 at two meals each dAY, provide the labourors with farm implements , 
provide lodt:1.r.p:s, soap, pomade, farm clothi rc nnd one cOVer cloth; 
d) the f~rrler was to bear the cost of treatment i[. any one week of illness 
but, if tho sickness <::hould continue, the labourer "las to bear the 
expenae in treatment; 
0) a sIx d~y .... eek w~s stated t~ be the no~al working week, but the farmer 
W-:"'I 1l1bwed to decide .... r.ot type c vork was to be dono in the "eight" 
h Jr iaJ . 
"'he labourers lived in the SlUIle compound 11.- tho farmer nnd took part in some of 
the dOlllDstio vork . 'llbe nUllber nf hours spent on the farms .... as reduced to four to 
five h 'lOrs t) enable them to sp-nd sOl!le timo )0 t~oir dOlmstic jobs . 
4 . hUeS lAb :re:rs. - By this system is t!Jeant tie (..ontrllct under which a 
doveloped Clr se;li - devel"ped C~nI), farm is .:iven to ' s second person to maintain fo r 
ft. sharo of one third or the procp.eds from tt:v f!U'm. !;trllngers'nrc known :t;.o be 
bette r abuse. lab"'"rers. but .l.kir...p t.li\'f' 1'11so taken C I such jobs . Conditions of tr".o 
contract yury fraJ:'! fer'1er to fllr. cr, but the r-..eir. o',e<; BrC: 
a) the pAyment of a lC:r sum ~f DOney tu the f8r~r as drink . He'll much 
lz pai" depends O!i U.e she and conUtion of Uo fare.. '. farmer !jay 
demand abou-t )!'2 .... for e. g~od 20 acre fSl".I!l i 
b' t!".e lIi~,"rer, C'D pe..i1=ez::.t e-f the 'l1DO..Int, becolll!~ responsible for -'1.11 
w:1tenaz:.ce .)?crll.tions: veedicg, gappinr. l":ervest1ng end drj11ng . Ve 
It1eJ sCiloy PGot:le to dn 9.11 tt.ese peraticns !'Jr bir;:;i 
c) ho is froo to work for other peoplo if ho finds his inc~mo trom tho 
farm insufficient. He thorefore plans his own workin£; hours to suit 
oach farmer; 
d) ho providos his own tools; 
e) the contract can be terminated by either side when ttissatisfied, 'but 
nny cash differonce is settled first . 
This is not part of the contract, but a former may permit his nbusa labourer to 
work a separate farm on the landlord's own farmin~ area. Sinco the abusa 
works for other people, the farmer feels he is not to be rospo~sible for the 
labourer's upkeep , 
5 . "lfkotokuano" Labourer ,- Under this contract, Q labourer 1s paid a 
fixed amount ba~od on the number of ba[s of cocoa harvested . Only one such 
rer ... ras employed (for a short porioe.) durinG tho period of the survey . The vago 
was fixed at 6/- on every load of ·cocoa . Under this headinG come 5 another type 
labourer employed to harvest rice. Payment is made ir. rice harvosted to tho 
labourer at the rati C'I of 4:I, 3 : I, or 2: 1 . The harder suc h a lnbou rer worked t, 
tho morc he earned . 
subi farmers cloared larGer areas durins the survey and thernfor~ founi 
the "contract term" cheaper . Farm sizes at Otumi were found to be smnller; 
~mployed both contract and "by day" labourers , 
ThouCh hired labour plays an important part in farmiIlG oper~ti ~I'!." t it 
must not be assumed that f"lre far.lilios aro idle. Clearin: ard part ot the fe11i: 
operation arc done with hired labour, but the reoaininC oferations of felling, 
chopping, stuepinc, burnint and the gathcrin[ of forest debris are done with 
family or household labour . When household labour is unable to provide the a_ 
of labour required for any of tho above operations, then it becomes necossary to 
employ hired labour , 
Hhilo malo members nro engaGed in fellins and stusping operations, the 
womon lift cocoyam corms and plantain suckers . IIhere maize and rice.are cultiva-
tod, both men and women take port in the operation, but the plant inc of cocoyam, 
yam and plantain is done by the women and children . 'The men are responsible for 
the staki ng of yams, set ti ni; traps and f enci nG farms . Teedi ni;, harvcsti nl; Ilnd 
hcadloading is a household affair, but hired labour may be employed . 
Household labour provides the Cheapest form of farm labour, for no 
payment is made for any work dono on tha farm apart froh the food enjoyed by all, 
though Gifts are offered to adult sons and nephews who belp in fare oper~t1ons . 
During the survey, one farocr cave his nephew fl. 5ift of ovor n5 to enable Lis 
nephew's son to marry . ,part from the yearly presents of cloth which a man oakes 
to his wife , she is allowed a share of half the sill03 of plantain and cocoyac 
she makes froM the f.:trms , She is allowed to cultivate a sosll f.:trm of her' own on 
which the man helps occasionally. -' farm family norlJally consists of the man, one 
or two wives and about three children .... ho spend the sroater part of tt,e year at 
school. .~ farmer may have adult sons"and daushters but , as soon as they ,'ot :llar-
ried, they beGin to work on their OtTn . · '1"t1:; does not however rule out occ.:tsional 
visits to one ' s father ' s farms to work . 
[·larkets . 
There are in the area studied five markets in a rAdius of about 20 
miles. They are situated at hkwatia, Boadu8, .\.suoo., KWBO and r:R.de, but only KWae 
and !,suom markets are what mi,;ht be termod:f)ad ftI,:lrtir~f.'ts. The remaining three 
might be described as consumil1G markets , tllnt is' osrket!> where produce rel!lches the 
final consumer. This is due to tho influx of people soekine; jobs in the timber 
diamond industrios , naking it necessary to i!.:port food into these centres to 
plement their own production . Tll addition , thero are open 8!.~C::o::S:r,1~':D=E~i 
lnges where purchases :u1d sales are made and, at the peak ot the 
it 1s not unusual to sec plontllins and ot:!-,er crops displayed 
aWBlt.log buyers. 
I • 
- 35 - • 
Bringlnc foodstffs :t;r om the holding to the villaGe is done by head- ' 
loadinbl but trucks aro always available for transportinG theD to the markets . 
It might be of interest to state that within the 20 miles radius , no village is 
mor e then 6 eiles by road from the ne~rest carket . Otumi is about 6 miles from 
r.wao and subi three from Kade . The moveoent of food is not confined to production 
from the area for foodstuffs , notably yans, have hoen recorded as cOI;in& from 
Kucasi while orancos, J?cars, ;a1m and kernel oil have been known to have coce from 
t\samankese . 
In the sale of (erg :produce, every housohold is responsible for the 
disposal nf its own crops . It is said that sellinb fnrm produce is a wO~8n ' s 
~ob but I ttlnk fr~quent visits to markets by womon to shop enable~ them to know 
~Brkot conditior.s and to be able to bargain wisely . Business on tho market is 
trllnS::lcted throuGr. middler.lor. or directly with the consumer . Trade in m!1iza is 
'lsu."lily conducted tt.r::)uch Zur.lbracQ. and Ewe maizo de!llers on tho mArkets . The 
dealers study supply and dennnd and decide on what to pay for a certain measure 
of maizo on any r.w.rket day . F·'1.r!J9rs' wives !:lust arree to the price, otherwise 
there is a hold up in proccedinrs. This may l'!st a few cinutes t but usull.lly the 
dcaler!l have tho upper h.:lnd . Ttl:' demand for rndze is usually constrmt, but the 
supply Cb'lllE;95 more of ton; t]'is results in prices being dotorLlinod on market da:;s 
on1), . Tt.e auantlt) ,sizo)D the m'!rket 'it a F~,rticuler time determines how 
ruch is to be pni~ f or ~'. 
't tho t.l1r\'", itlr, soosor., ClO!;t fat'mers d "lot atore lalze and those who 
do sell 8 bood doal of :.. Q .;ro~ im::-,ediate1y. ""his results In flooding the rorket. 
and prices fall r'l.thcr 11'\1 rrices start risi!l(' agt.in vben tr.o unztored l!IoizO' has 
b6t:T. sold out, Ncrm"lU" pric~s I},re at tl:.r>ir I(':lik durin! tbe clef)rlnE of new Areas 
tor new tare:. ". rew farml'rs IirO tible to w:tit until t!,is poriod w!":.on they got t'he 
tn-t s:rice tel" t'lo seas,;)!!, bt~t t.he 1 r~r the f;tcrn·o tho rreatt>r the damage by 
ve"vil. Ie 11~3,b..r''"'' r::t 'jllrve~tj~ tl"'lO for A kerOSine tinful of ~.aizo was ~/­
but, uy t ';I foll'l"lnr clM.rILe ~E"'50", it r')!':r' tv lC·/-. In 1961', U,e omount poid 
at .... rv~~tln· UMO f'lr t"'e srune rl:OAsure: was 7/- and by the 1961 clenring seRson , it 
rose t., ?O/- fot tho sal·& measure (T" is WOlS 8 yH.r f s~"rtllr:e due to drourht 
c ·mdl ti·)n8 rnB) . ThCl :/tand e.rd ti'HI:;1lre for llia.! r.e on "n10 :till ritot WI15 the k()r05ino 
tin an(! prI~e8 f-:.r II. oor Clf I:inIttJ were; ~ul'1ted by re:·ercnco to the number (1f kero -
:dne tins .,I' tho crop ttflt f111ei! tho tag (f?ur 1~. nucbH rna) . The retail 
:'lealluro i1l a tin f';o,llnd Monka , f. Kerc::;ene tin full .)! .f11zo wf:iChs 56 lbs and an 
odnnkn A lbo; I'lJ l'bt me uro. -It t',o O1onka fi 11 one klJNl!IenO til'. . (Sone l;tjn n r 
1"1r ~ t"!'adf r . ) 
~hO lDiddlolnon "':.1) at wnolfnele pricos, store nnd sell at retail ~.rices 
t" eonsu!:Jl"rl. Tl-ey U'C aleo t"olo t. :rllnt credit !"c1l1t:i.Ql!I to tuyers of maizo 
yhl"l purdhastJ i~ lsr'o wnrtlt1er. T1.Jis crt';A.tos aotlO s"lrt "'f rrie-ndshlp blltYeen 
tho ciddlo~on And tho buyer ' . T., e:.sare " c':'nstnnt su t"ly , l:I8izo t:],r~'(>rs are 
woood into frlrn1sbip by thC' 0 same !'Ildd.lUlpn . ....,thlr:· .Jl'Gvcnts tho fr.rl!;er'p 
vlfa tr·ll!1 .ell rJg irocti), t· c. or:!', b;Jt vl-J1t is rlllAlly d)ne is to sell 
to th mi4dle~.l!n. In thl) :-ftlA of riC", !!",. rlc~-::l'lll U·VII IlII t!.e ::aoetiDt 
ph.r- .. f .. r f "1"'1;101" .!lIt. r.ta iler. , ettier a £sle 15 ~ e vi t!: a ret~llor. eit"~ 16-
lIarl "r ,.~~. .... :or, !' 1'11'" 11: t. _ t l' r rtMt clc ent 1 tre.de. 
1!l l~ lilt t e tl-;ao rt t • aerYe,. VQ$ t;.U. to ,r d.ue. enou ~l1:itl -
til:" at a t11;le t du a trip t l'l erknt llO"er·r.r7. if plAetlll::l WI1 ";(:,Dt et all, 
it vas set al,r:{. wit ..-t r r< r' Rut. the &me [It or lla:tei 1 II. nllnt-'o 'it 
any part1cJl"'r ti . i' t b. ~ i!trable . ~e "I'lUn"e ciddh.mall .1'1&)': fj very 
useful rob ".1'0: .il:",~ tn "'11 ':{ll"nUtles until (!liN b l-h.nta1n 18 obte.lrlr;d 
to justify 1\ trip b:v truck t t ~ ~rh)t ..... 1IIl1 aEll ·l1nctly t~ th Cl-nsutr.or 
OD the markot .:;'1' t· .,tl-:or i· ~lr ' . me t ."-1' met 1 of £C: 1. ng tarlll pro1uc€ , 
lIIa.1nl, cassava, is t~ SaL !'l t II!t tar.:t . ero. 'I:".c: ar~a 1s Ileasurcd 1-: yards or 
'.ba. .. · and b1l:r,lli".d . 
Th. t;ade ~rkct ~h.ee yb"," t!le b,fn:-- am :c111nc ·f t,odEtuffB 1s 
doa. 1. & ...1 1 area .sUneted at Lre,: ncres . ~nrke~s art'; hl'i thera l81ly , 
lMJt atteDdu.ce 1& sreater "n '!'\IesiB:"!' an-; Frt!l'!.j's. CI'Irkr't de:,a . U U:oe tl00 of 
«be stu.,. t ere vera 1'rcws of open steds and ,r si~~l~ st611~ se&tt~r~d 6bout 
:1::"'~:O::t~~ _rket . Tbo et.op bars cb.uncteristic ')f all CO~.oCIrcll)l 'l'l11at,;cs "'_!04~!'~l,.oo.b.risk Ie the 1!Ornln!,-s, w!:en farmers ' vives solI tm1r 
: I it is svitched on t~ the selline aLd buyi~ of 
cash thus obtained P'RB) . The total attendance r,;,t the 
1 
- 36 -
peak hours of trndc is estimated at enO persons . Tn tho villa~~n, th~r~ were 
:;;hopkoepcTs who sold tobncco, tinned fish and mont, sue-nr , :..llk nnd non pntJl"!Jc 
drug's . At Otumi, thoro oro six shops botter stocked than those at Subl; tria 
so bec8u~o f,ubi is so nenr Kadn that villafers could ItO to tho town nt nlly tlQli 
of tho dny t'l shop . 
PRICEr. PAID TO FAR~~R;' IN 1960 urn 1961 
(t" VILLAGE:;) 
N • i Z 0 R ! c 0 pIll n t • i n 
Honth : Kerosone tin 56 Ibs: Keroscno tin 56 Ibs : 1960 1961 
1960 1961 1960 1961 Fincors Valuo F'lnj;!:Ts Value 
~nuary 10/- 1</- 26/-: 25/- 6 12 3d 10 3d 
bruUl' : 10/- 12/- 2~/- 27/- 6 12 3d 1~ 3d 
~rCh . : 10/- 16/- 26/- ?7/- 6 12 3d 10 3d 
ril . 11/- 16/- 26/- 27/- 6 12 3d 7 6d 
12/- 20/- 26/- 30/- 6 12 3d 7 6d 
[:. .. 6/- 20/- 28/- 30/- 7 6 3d 6 - 4 6d 
~ 1Y . • 6/- 15/- 28/- 30/- 6 3d 5 6d 
gust . 9/- 26/- 6 3d 
~Ptcmbe; 9/- 20/- 6 3d 
tobor . 10/- 26/- 6 3d 
vernber: 10/- 28/- 6 3d 
F. cember ~ 10/- 25/- 6 3d 
In view of tho importance of cocOa in tho n:ltiorw.l economy. its 
market inc is or&anized on a national basis , In the past, both expatriate and' 
local firms wero licensod to buy cocoa on behalf of the Cocon l-Inrkoting Board . 
They had branch officcs at Kade, from 11here business in th(! district was orga-
nized . Lar&(! storaGe sheds were built fran. where cocoa was gradod and sealed 
before beill[' sent to the ports . There W['S competition runong these firras and, to 
boost up purchases, they appointed commission acents in tho villat:8s to buy coco 
on their behalf . These commission agents hAd no sheds but ~tor(!d cocoa in odd 
places such as livi~ rooms . Such brokers did not buy lllr,;e quantities of cocoa 
and oft(!n 5c:nt th(!ir ntocks regularly to Kado to avoid concestiun . However. whe 
sub - ab'ents were appointed, storn~e sheds wer~ rented in the villages; in al1 cas 
both brokers and sub-a£ents were given bass and c,ash advances for the purchase 0 
cocoa . There wore also the freo lance brokers who were not attached to any Fart 
euler fiI'm but accertcd contracts from main ab'8nts for li~it&d periods o~ly . 
The or£aniso.tion of the cocoa '1\D.rket hns now boen chall6ed ntd "nl~' th 
Ghane Farme:rs ' '"~Ilrketinc Cooperatives havo bOOD licensod to buy COC,)s . HI shed 
owned by the former buyine agents haVe boon taken over by tho MW firo and servi 
of their rortlor employees havo also becn sGcurod . Kade t;till ror.lnins the centro 
from ~/hClro businos!> in the district pivots. Ona aspoct of tho new or_"anizntL:>n 
that all villagos capllbla of producinc lno tons of cocoo. form soparate buying 
societieo and , whero production is under 100 tons , a number of villneos are 
_roupeo tocothor to form ono society . otumi and Subi aro unable t~1 pr oduce Ion 
tons each nnd havo therofore beon advi50d to join the 50ciotie~ at Kwantano.n, an. 
Kodo roopectivoly . 
Tho produco inspoction division of tho ~linistry of ,Vri culturo prdll'idQ 
tho aorvic(Js no()dod to sUlJorvbe tho qunlity of COCOIt p\lrcho.sod f r om the t i.JbQ • 
t'or:nar 13011s his cr()~ to thO! tll~C' it loavos tho r,ho~l:-; at Kndo for tho por ts . 
- 31 - • 
This is ensured by gradine and soalin~ all bees of Cocoa before they leave the 
sheds. '''eichts and Grades ere checked at the ports. 
Agricultural Practicas 
The rains determine the farminG seasons, Bnd there arc two rainy 
seasons in each yeel' . The major season rains start in about Harch and ends in 
June; there is a break in July-'.ugust followed by the r.1inor season rains in 
september ending in l?ovemhcr . Farm sites arc therefore prepared in the drier 
months and planting of crOps follows during the rains . " The farmine methods 
are simple and do not entail the usc of farm machinery . The first operation 
is to clear the forest undergrowth, followed by the fo111n& of some of the large 
forest trees on the site. This is done to break the canopy of shdde . At Gubi , 
!:lost clearCld sites are clean-felled to suit their type of farming . The next 
operation is to chop the veGetation debris into'heaps, then allo~1 a few days 
for these to dry up before settinc them on fire . Cloaring- the unburnt debris 
from the site and reburning is a slow and hard job and is therefore spread 
over a number of months. This operation considered in its detail is unnecessary 
where maize and rice are cultivated , The final operation is the plantill£ of the 
crop whiCh, at its earliest, is st,arted in late February and continues throughout 
the major season rains. 
Haize and rice are usually planted early so that they !:lay r.\ake the 
fullest use of the rains in Harch, April, May and June. The plantIng of cocoyam, 
plantain and cocoa is done in the middle of the rainy season - Nay . Rice is 
Ilhlays grown as a mono-crop of! a site, but all other crops are grown hlainly in 
mb:tures' of t\10 or more crops , Mai ze, however , at time s s tends as D. mono - crop 
on farms, 1.'!herc thGrG is a crop mixturG of more then hlO, the ratio for onG is 
of course reduced to al'ow 'space for others (But at any stage of growth, however, 
only one crop dominates a farm FRB) . Rice is'broadcast over the site and plent-
in8' is done later in the un~erminated patches , The first month or so after 
broadcasting is used in scaring away birds . Thi" is stopped after the crop has 
ger~inatcd, Sc~ring starts asain in July - August and continues unt.il harvesting 
is completed in about late August or september . Only one crop of rice is har -
vested in a year . In crop mixtures, maize is first p lanted, followed by cocoyam 
and later plantain and cassava . The anount of yam grown is insignificant, but 
it usually precedes all crops on a farm site. Other crops bTown arc suc;sr cano, 
pineapple, bonano., garden eggs and peppers. 
The v!ecding of now farr:Js starts in about Apri 1 at the earliest and conti -
nues ur.til the harl1estinG cf r.lD.ize in July-··.u(;ust. '.Ihile vleeding goes on, cocoa 
seedlin[s may be introduced. On the other hand, if a farm is under a crop mixture 
and weodint; is delayed, both the harvesting of naize and the ~/eedinG' are done at 
the same tirne , If rnnizo planted as pure st(lnd cra::- is not outEro~m by waeds, no 
~/o<ldinG is done befora the crop is harvested . 
Baiz.e f-arns at .'Cub! are usually about ten acres or ",ore in size and 
therefore too iar[;e to be plantod vlith cocoyar:]s o.nd plantain at one planting 
sanson . dhat is normally done is to plant a portion of such fart.'5 v/ith theSe 
crops !lnd leave the rest of the farm to g:lback to bush after the uain harvest . 
If a farmer dosires, he nay cultivate the remaininG portion in a subsequent season , 
The rains ")ften do not come on time, but 0. fartler may still ~Iant to 
plant his food crops and cocoa. :olhat he does is to clear tho forest si to, plant 
his cocoya:J, plantain and cocoa beans, wait until tho :Jiddle of the rains and then 
fell the forest trees , Pith the rains and tim~, the veGetation debris decays, 
result in!! in vigorous GTo ..... th of the crops , This method is known in tho locality 
Q~' 't>roka lf • 
Followint; closely behind the tlajor season is the minor soason which 
starts in september and ends in December - January . Claarinc of farm sites starts 
in thCl drier months of July - Aul;ust, followed by planting in the first week or 3) 
of soptclJber, dependiflb on the rains . !formally. farmers do n_t burn tha vc[;ctation 
01, :;uct: farm:; . The renson for this is that in most cases no new areas aro cloarGdi 
ir.stead , sites planted to pure stand maize in the major season are weeded end made 
ready for 8notr.er crop . A fev farmers plant vcrctablcs in the oinor season . Lar .·0 
faros are nJt t:nde because }f the inpendinr cocoa saas.::>n , ;.ttnnti:m is directed to 
V t ~ ajar food fllrl:1i'l' '-(·'lBOn , 'OC08 1 l'lntoA 11 ,~j f'nd eroptl. 
'bis ro.:soa V-a G.Jonti"";n of .'lothol" ,';:'.ICM is '.he l:f-i,r~:luet )1' f'. <l. f r 111f:. 
In v own~' 1~\)t:, fl.!' Ho ~n fl.S 8 "flr'nl)r p]'nt!; C C';:"l 1 hi!! nllv f-,("I(1 r~rIII, t.he 
ulU.,o.te aim i t) nhbllsh n C)co'! f'rt. FGod era' I nprt. fr'.:I l,ro'l'lr11ng 
t'lr.lp~rnry ah.!ldo 4'')1' C )C<"HI 1 also ovo t',o fllrw:t':'r U;I) trot:' le f· "'vi:. to 
a soparate food r rm t dIS oe ,nomisi l~ 1i9 r(05"l1rC(I->, 
"'horo i!'l 11 cood kill of C'flroll)sf!1"JosS i t ,0 dotal10:1 maictfJ.:,flr.cQ of 
far::ns. On tho w;Jolo I woodi n, of r:aturod Ooeon ic :\r ',0 )] "..y nco 1~ oVllr:t :f&a.r , 
but toe oxtension of forms ~s on YfJlirly . mr.is i Crf"}tl~e8 t.bo overall 6l:]"U'Ilt 
of weeding roquirod I)n all fnrms , 'Ihen n [01'1:-1' is V1nbl'! to cope vltl. . th1s. 
b:l noclocts somo of tho farms . In Claturo COCf)~ fnr.'iB, :'10 tlir-or C'C~"tl cr"p 1:3 
harvosted on any Eit;nificant ~calo . !"I.lrm£lr~ th(lrororo do .Ir,t woad tl,oir fere!! 
in the first hlllf of tho yoar. 'l'ho Yo'irly Min cr' ) suU'err, ·'t.e woedlr't;:' is 
done in :"uGUst-~.optor.lber, just bef~ro the mAin crop '0' :;on shrts. ,!,1:1& ::ablt 
of nOL"loctir.r.; fllrl!lS that will not £,ivc imLiediBtc [oir. ie alL) mlJ.nifoct 1~_ tt)od 
faroing. For instance, fl)t)d ferms fr,)tn \II: lch hnrvostit1& tas baon ·t:ins; or. for 
about 18 'onths arc nei,lected os soon as :.".ew fllrms rn~t\lra . Tn the os~abl1-' 1!18. 
of now cocoa fl'lrJ;ls, which nortllllly contain foodstutf" - Il<-'''ltt:lin, cocayau -
weedinf; is dono twice in 18- 24 r.1onths . This i~Qy be f'lllowod by SlDothcr weed 
operation in the third yonr and the OrM is then left to ';0 back to bus' . 
the fi ftt yesr r the f IlrU • Clay be weeded ami t)O:J r:PIlCC~ t:8,pcd wi t 1 c')C'.,a . 
is then done "nCf) 11 year . 
One cr.IlN.cteri sti c foature of the area is tho e de:. t ',f re-cu Hi va ti. 
abo:ndoned cocoa farms . "1hat is beil. done in the "roclaoati"nl'work" i~ to eto! 
recultivati on from a ;ood looking pi'tch of cocoa Ilnd oxteoc (frc this pcir.t~ 
the area annually i:1 any direction . The rAte of rt - cultlvlltion is in~rea .. tll6. 
perhaps, bec·"juse it roquires less -labour to work in $lch old aren:> t:ll~r. it doL'! 
in new areas; not lauch nNI plantinJ: of cocoa 1- -101'.0 , ("'~e ~rice-el)st sltt:'1t 
is unfavourable to fundamental long term eY.pa!!.sior:. FRB . ) 
Bofore 1958, the widespread US£! of "Gotnt:lo.lin 20" wn:; unknown; the 
results achioved by the eArly '\lsers of the insecticide as control on tne capdd 
buS holpEld to draw attention to tho old and abandoned cocoa faros . !.t the 
all farms sprayod with tho insecticide are reported doinC well. Tn 'i.-,HUon to 
the capsid bu,_, the I:lOSt troublesome pests are r'1t:& 'lnd t"';rass cutters W!IO ",.tv." 
them destroy any tUnc from cocoa secdlin€s to pinoap,)los . r:ico al:. . t ~f(lovil ara 
serious posts on stored mnizc , while birds do daruoi~o en rico f(lr]t"~ . rho ~nly 
rnethcx1s adoptod to control these t'ests nro uy fencit'~ farms , Bottin,!;, trer~, 
settinc fire under stored nc.ize b·. .. rns and by sh')uti:11' mway bir'ls fr.'s:: rico f 
f, few forUlers t..'lVC '3tarted spr.'1ying t\a i .. o in shonf with "'lr!!':'llin t: '" t<of"re 
stacking it Of, barr::; . The result is SQid to be cncorf' 'in" , 
Tr.t: sGlcction of fllr!"' sitc:s is litlit ... cl ~y t ,0 nroo "1' lan~ e fArmer 
owns or is entitled to; the dominant f'lctor i:.; tbo 'll"C: 'f tr,,O voretcti-on . The 
10n£er an area is loft to re~onerate . tr.e bot~er it is for for~in:; but t;~ 
6oloctiof\ of crops to e:r('lw dope1ds ')n s~i ls. BOt 'I s-,i 1:' in virctn h~,ds ftre 
'.J.!;ed for all t;rpcs of Cl"J1,!3 but in secl)n-iary bush arc:. ... !'uci: lands are put tl'J 
rice: or,d l'1iz<::. cl"y loam and ';'l.ldy 11',11:") (',ro r.aid to bl:! J,iaol f"r ~ll crops. 
crr,p rr.tll.thn is not dcfl.n1to And thereforo d!rf1e~!lt to state 
It fol1)wa roughly thiA [)nttorr.: plantain , cocoynm, ynm, mni:r;c and VOt·ctllbl •• 
first tr". ... n in any n(;w forrJst farm. By thn IiInd of tho ::ocond )o'l)nr . all crop. 
hervested IJY.COl:.t ... l!'lnto! n . COCOI') mtly be -intrllducod. I'lnntaln rJfty rOll1&ln 0 
r'.rn fro]. th, flr:ll t .... tho d.xU yonr . "'!£:!lS of plantain fallure 81'0 s:Dall. . 
bur.ch(jl!l 'lnd. tlnc:;c'l"fI ,md ttl/} aL:;oflcfJ \)f flew sueklJrFl l!Ihootinb frolll the 
:-;')OlL BS tho!:r 8rr vil':tblo, the frornl is l'lol~lBetod . Tho lond i8 
r~ront pGri,,'h: IHLd may turn tnto tl)condnry foroet . 'hon tho land 18. 
11)[1 ~r p~ri"'(],o ,r ~ny flvo t<) t(lt' yosrs or mora. plantain 1. 
u~ hllw\nc; III OVI'JF I!I short period of Bny tvo to f'ov.r 
f,n tho alto on altorMtt) yonrG ror six yoar_. Mal •• 
UBve In tho 1 at y~nr aftor which tho .re~ 1. ral1owo4 
I I, 
- 39 -
• 
Tho cheice of the crop to be £ravn is 0 matter f~r the individual farm6r 
to decide . The otUn consideration is the demand for a crop and tho time taken 
for retur:1s to start COlllint; iI': , At tub! . the tlain aic of fnrw6rs is to Get the 
tiQhe~t ~nd 1uickcst return from all money invested in faroing . Even in the sale 
of r.:.aizc. the earliest crop fctc:.es the best price and the very last crop to be 
sold at aTlY :Jlantinb' season 1:.150 reaches a .;ood prico . The ,~ractice in Sub1 is 
to iJlar.t .:;.: ize ellrly and also to uclay se.les until later when ;riccs improve . 
~t .)tuI,i, tl-.c Mount of raaize cultivated is relatively smoll , the 
emphasis is on plantain , cocoyam ond cocoa. For the ~rescnt, tho roturns on the 
farms cay not be ,_5 hirh as subi . }!aize and rice take about four months to mature 
and two cro~:1 are po~sible in a year . On tiH3 ot:ler hand , cocoyam and plantain 
t;:ko over h.rclvc: :tonth:::; to mature and , for sales to be important , farJ:ls must be 
biE" enout"h to satisfy housoho l d needs and still have enouCh to 5011. Naize is 
not a stapln food of tho AkiL'~ and so the lart;cr part of what is produced i s sold . 
J.~ucL I!1<l:r be said f'!bout tho vary inC incor.1O sizos of farmers at Subi and' 
'ituni but to my r.dnd the short term return docs not matter a; ..b h as the long te r m. 
The value or 'lny i'cr:'inc land increase!; '<lith devolopr.lonts carried out on it . .r.t 
otuoi, tho developr.lont of the lnnd is in the re - establishI!1ent of old and abandoned 
fare (with some less bOod new 1.,IOlntitli) of cocoa) . In the long tcrt:! , this type of 
far:::int.; \li 11 be .::.dvant>;;.;eou:::; becr.usc tho i:':prove.~cnts ~ladc on tho land do not 
destroy tt.e natural vGCetation of the area . 
<':ubi's 1'art:!i:lg Q'steD produces a crop \'It.ich bives a quick return' in cash 
without con:;iderin(,; the effect this system has on the land in the lODb run . The 
land i~ bein.~ "opened up" and exposed yearly as f.'lllowcd areas ore put into culti -
Vtlti1n . \ W1l1~{ tt.roul!h the bush at t"ubi vi 11 I'juickly reveal that lar;~e tracks are 
Cy.?OSOd by this f3r: i~~ system . One wo~ders if this area will not look like areas 
arrrund l:sfI\le.m IlnCl ~dc:iso if this is not checked and a new farninl; systom developed . 
Livestock docs eat ~lay "lny role 1"t 0)1 in tho far!:1inC system of the area. 
J,t Dtumi, except at the 7onCO t no sheep or goats arc allowed in the village for ~ani 
tary rersons . The n\lI~bcr of c~.ickens ouncd by a hou~eheld docs not excoed ten. 
,t sub1, she." 11nd ;yc.ts arc allo\/ed to roam durinG tho day in search of food; in 
tho eve .inl>:" , they arc found takiot:; sholtor under tho eaves of hOUSElS and on 
voranda~~. T~o li~o~tock population does not exceod 100 . 
t-'t 01l!>CrvF..tionz .- Tho very 100.8e Inlld tenuro systor.1 has resulted in 
individualllr'.lin-' lands boir:u widely ~cllttcrcd. There is 11 desiro to learn nC~1 
farmine tee niRucs nnd to r,lant new crops if advice i:::; offered and a market found 
for the cr') "'·.i9 EiI"j',ly r:'I,.,ans tht..t the extension sorvices offared are inadequate.: 
Third oal 1 t, tho indiscrL)innte usc of Innd for crof.:; which could have been 
planted 11" c· ..... 1' are:!.:! of no country profitcl::ly I::; uncerminiO£; tho forest 
::;tr'.1cturc . ("."lSt is needod ir.ter aIle is n ~ettcr ovorall ocriculturul policy 
wC'rkc~ .... U.1 -;o"'ce incontives, ronding )r~ rt;,::....,os, ~I;...'ld Uf;O ar.u oxtcnEion . (.luao 
be.' "'een ;) )vi ~ t·.., ~l"rol iros of Ol.:r dj.scu: 'iun 1n these p~rn.L"Taphs FRB) . 
r • .l  •• Jeet.j' he e b .. th tl:.ll 'IllIG lind t e fllI"ll"trs to bo i.r:cluded 
in thl urve)' . "'''0 ho co rovo1. ':l DC'>t ~.'l..t',.. 'I ~ ... e tl.OO t 10 i L.niflc"ncc of this 
survc:,!, ~orlv tr!':tt: t ';1"" r_&.)ns that car; b: 1IID.t:!,; in ,tu.1 and -ubi fe.J'~in 
B·· te:..:.: r. Jo ... ty .r.nlti=>. ad the a.~·t aJ. r')c rdi .... 01 i ~r r~"tiol hut wa.s soon 
Tal-eved \;, ~:r . • ':CC, ","0 he::; iJl"ClVllrl a I:_!.it 10'.1111 ,a-I" .r'lto and roliable 
fi.e1!. rccor~or vh has ,:rOY led. e. vf:ry ("::' "t6"t do crt rtf In )f till) f'lrmins 
'8tt rr.-s f t '" area . . 
l' tb those .Il~Glste. t o.s we_ 'l- \r . • ~-iovor i1 the lort .ern ~urvcy 
d.'" r-":""IC1u~h' 1;y tto.t ad·JG.!'c'ld adl ":eti ,: is ot ty ar,y rea'.S tt.e. com; late ~olution 
t :> t:.=il:U '£ fo r a-r"colturc. ne f thcsG £i~- sta"lt or l"'!d .... n d 8 . 1. 'gyare: I!, 
t\c . crt ..... tl ur\'e;y ad _ t.b .. n 'hc-r·~n<i IJ. r:. • .id~!t sc;-.001 ,r socondarJ o::ducatlor: . 
yet I;• . _'VI'T C 'I. c~1'i T' . IT. t~c Absta.r.ce rf t air V\",r" , rof1ectll".g tt,e world 
a.rC'..l:~ :..os, tel' (1.1' S .,t r t. t . ., ~r .!Jct f the ni""er lty . Bc.. k ,;:no wlGdte iE 
~ot 0 tarrier se, -atl t_ ir r~~l!t. 
F.f . F.