University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh HUMOUR IN AKAN: THE CASE OF DRAUGHT AND SELECTED RADIO PROGRAMMES BY VICTORIA OFORI (10637942) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL IN LINGUISTICS DEGREE JULY 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this research to my parents ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first and foremost appreciation goes to the Almighty God for giving me strength, hope, favour and protection in writing this research. My second appreciation goes to my supervisors, Prof. Kofi Agyekum and Dr. Grace Diabah for their patience and immense contributions towards the shaping of this research. This thesis would not be successful without their valuable and insightful inputs. Similarly, I am grateful to all the lecturers of the department alongside the administrative staff for their numerous supports in writing this dissertation. The University of Ghana and the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation cannot be overlooked, I am indebted to them for funding my Master’s degree programme. I would also like to thank Prof. Yaw Sekyi-Baidoo of University Education, Winneba for taking me through the basics of humour and the various theoretical frameworks, especially on the Incongruity theory. Dr. Mrs. Esther Nana Anima Wiafe-Akenten, I thank you for taking time out of your busy schedules and assisting me in the radio programmes. Dr. Onyame nhyira wo pii! My next appreciation goes to Nicholas Obeng Agyekum for giving me hope and helping me when I needed it at short notice. God bless you. I am thankful to Alex Ofei- Kwayisi and Michael Botwe of Peace 103.4 FM for aiding me on the data on Kookurokoo Morning Show. I am also appreciative of all the participants of the draught game especially (Mr. Ernest), Osei Kwabena, Rev. Charles Manson, Charles Mensah, Ahmed Siedu, Asante Daniel, (ɔyerepa) etc. for giving access to me to observe, record and interview them. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I am appreciative of my parents, siblings and everyone for their moral, spiritual and financial support throughout my education to this level. How can I forget Dr Seth Antwi Ofori, Mad. Patience Obeng, Nuuratu Mustapha and Kwabena Amponsem for their care and encouragement? God bless you too. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Humour is an integral part of our daily lives, however, it is one of the least studied phenomena. This thesis, therefore, discusses humour in Akan, a Kwa language of the Niger-Congo language family spoken in Ghana. The study focused on providing an ethnographic and ethnopragmatic description of the nature of humour and how it manifests in the language. Using the Incongruity theory (c.f. Kant, Cicero, Schopenhauer), the study provides explanations on why people find certain circumstances amusing in draught and some selected radio programmes in Akan. It was discovered in the study that humour in Akan involves insult, ridicule, mockery, etc. especially in draught games where members have a ‘license’ to use invectives on the other due to the lift of the social ban on insults in that setting. This research further shows that context is an integral component in humour appreciation in Akan because what one counts as humorous in one situation may not be so in another situation. The study discovered that unlike draught which has an informal setting, the radio programmes setting is formal where humour is used as a persuasive device, a softening mechanism, a tool of ridiculing, a politeness strategy, a tool of indirection, etc. to address delicate issues affecting the society. Outcomes from this thesis show that participants can tease each other with a humorous reference term which is known to all especially in draught games. The study also showed that the use of certain humorous expressions in draught games and radio programmes are also just for the fun of it. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... i DEDICATION .............................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. v LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... xi LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................................................................xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................. xiii CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Background of the study ..................................................................................... 1 1.3 The ethnolinguistic description of the Akan Language ...................................... 4 1.4 Statement of Problem ......................................................................................... 6 1.5 Research Objectives ........................................................................................... 7 1.6 Research Questions ............................................................................................. 7 1.7 Significance of the study .................................................................................... 8 1.8 Research Design and Methodology .................................................................... 8 1.8.1 Research design of the study ........................................................................ 8 1.8.2 Methodology ................................................................................................ 9 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.9 Organization of Thesis ...................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................ 12 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ......................... 12 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 12 2.2. Literature Review ............................................................................................ 12 2.2.1 What is Humour? ....................................................................................... 12 2.2.2 Context in Humour .................................................................................... 17 2.2.3 Insult and Ridicule ..................................................................................... 20 2.2.3.1 Laughter and jokes ............................................................................. 23 2.2.3.2 Compliments, apology and thanking .................................................. 24 2.2.3.2.1 Compliments ................................................................................... 25 2.2.3.2.2 Apology ........................................................................................... 26 2.2.3.2.3 Thanking .......................................................................................... 27 2.2.4 Social functions of humour ........................................................................ 27 2.2.5 The cognitive and emotive aspects of humour........................................... 30 2.2.6 Figurative Expressions ............................................................................... 33 2.2.6.1 Metaphor ............................................................................................ 34 2.2.6.2 Euphemism ......................................................................................... 35 2.2.6.3 Sarcasm .............................................................................................. 37 2.3 Theoretical Framework: The Incongruity Theory ............................................ 38 2.3.1 The Incongruity theory .......................................................................... 39 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1.1 Justification for the incongruity theory .............................................. 41 2.3.2 Supporting theories .................................................................................... 41 2.3.2.1 The Superiority theory ....................................................................... 41 2.3.2.2 The Release/Relief theory .................................................................. 43 2.4 Summary of the chapter .................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................... 45 HUMOUR IN GAMES .............................................................................................. 45 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 45 3.2 A brief history of dame ‘draught’ ................................................................... 47 3.3 The analysis of humour in Dame ‘draught’ in Akan ........................................ 50 3.4 The use of linguistic devices in draught games ................................................ 60 3.4.1 Figurative expressions in draught games in Akan ..................................... 60 3.4.1.1 Metaphor and Biblical Allusion ......................................................... 60 3.4.1.2 Simile ................................................................................................. 63 3.4.1.3 Sarcasm ................................................................................................... 67 3.4.1.4 Euphemism ......................................................................................... 69 3.4.2 The Emotive and Cognitive aspects of humour in draught ........................ 72 3.4.3 Summary .................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 77 HUMOUR IN A RADIO PROGRAMME ................................................................. 77 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 77 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2. The analysis of data in the radio programmes ................................................. 78 4.2.1 Humour in Newspaper review ................................................................... 79 4.2.1.1 Humour as a tool of indirection .......................................................... 79 4.2.1.2 Humour as a tool for ridiculing and just for the fun of it ................... 85 4.2.2 Humour in the sports segment ................................................................. 107 4.2.2.1 Humour and Honorifics .................................................................... 108 4.2.3. Humour in General discussion ................................................................ 113 4.3 General discussion and classification of Akan humour. ................................. 121 4.4. Summary ........................................................................................................ 123 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................... 125 CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................ 125 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 125 5.2. Summary of the study and key findings ........................................................ 125 5.3. Contribution to knowledge ............................................................................ 127 5.4 Recommendation for further study ................................................................. 128 APPENDIX 1 ........................................................................................................... 129 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................... 130 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: The rate of occurrence of the humour forms in Akan……………..122 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: An image of Alquerque …………………………………………………..48 Figure 2: Sample images of dame ‘draught’ in Akan……………………………49 Figure 3. The distribution of the humour forms in Akan……………………………123 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1: A sample of the semi-structured interview guide……………………129 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AC Ade Coker CB Chief Biney DKY Daniel Kwaku Yeboah F Female Voice KB Kweku Baako KP Kwesi Pratt KSK Kwame Sefa Kayi M Male Voice MBA Maame Biama Akwafo N D C National Democratic Congress N P P New Patriotic Party N Technical Member NYK Nana Yaw Kesse xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction This thesis discusses humour in Akan, a Kwa language of the Niger-Congo language family spoken in Ghana. The major focus of the thesis is to provide an ethnographic and ethnopragmatic analysis on the nature of humour and how it manifests in two domains of language use (games and media). The current chapter concentrates on the general introduction to the study. Section 1.2 presents a general background to the study. In section 1.3, I give an ethnolinguistic background of the Akan language. In section 1.4, I present the problem statement, while in section 1.5, I offer the objectives of the study. The research questions and the significance of the study are presented in 1.6 and 1.7 respectively. The research design and methodology of the study are provided in section 1.8. The organisation of the thesis is outlined in section 1.9. 1.2 Background of the study Research has shown that humour forms an integral part of any culture because it encompasses the personality, cognitive and emotional processes of the people’s culture (see Freud 1905; Palmer 1994; Ross 1998; Harris 2009; Obadare 2009; Agyekum 2017 etc.). Humour is defined as the tendency of experiences to provoke 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh laughter and amusement (Singh et al. 2011). O’ring (1992) defines humour as a message which comprises incongruous elements which are enacted playfully. According to Goldfarb (1998, cited in Obadare 2009:244) “humour is also vital to the way in which ordinary people endure social asperities, as well as negotiate, shape, and contest the public domain of critical deliberation.” Obadare (2009) indicates that humour and ridicule have become a means through which ordinary people attempt to deconstruct and construct meaning out of reality. From the above, one can infer that humour guides our social life because it is part of our cognitive, emotional and cultural processes. There has been extensive discussion and research on humour as a linguistic item globally. One notion that runs through almost all the research is the notion of incongruity (see Attardo 1991; 1993, 1994, 2002, Raskin 1985; Foot & McCreaddie 2006; Wu 2013; etc.). Incongruity is defined as the situation in which things do not usually move together, which replaces logic and familiarity leading to the creation of humour. The Oxford Advanced Dictionary (2015) defines an incongruous condition as one which is “strange, and not suitable in a particular situation”. According to Attardo (2001), incongruity can involve an opposition between overlapping scripts1. Kulka (2007:321) adds that “the object of amusement consists in some kind of incongruity and that 1Raskin (1979:325) states that “scripts are thought to represent the ‘common sense’ cognitive structures stored in the mind of the native speaker”. He adds that they are arranged to depict certain standard routines, processes and the way the native speaker pictures them. Interpreting a sentence semantically is based on a set of all the compatible combinations which are invoked by the constituents of the sentence. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh laughter is an expression of our enjoyment of the incongruous”. Archakis and Tsakona (2005) however, see incongruity as a violation of expectations. To researchers like Gruner (1997) and Holland (1982), the occurrence of the incongruity must be sudden. Miczo et al. (2009:444) state that “in-jokes, the incongruity occurs between the setup and the punchline; in many other forms of humour, the incongruity must be inferred from contextual cues (e.g., the sender’s tone of voice or facial expression)”. This suggests that context plays a vital role in the phenomenon of humour. Other people who have worked on humour include Bergen and Binted (2003) who have indicated that humour can be communicated via linguistic techniques like insult humour, formulaic jokes, satire, etc. They also propose another kind of humour called scalar humour, which according to them is based on the manipulation of a conceptual scale. This is further explicated in chapter two of this research. This work will also follow their description on humour. Freud (1960) identified two types of jokes: (1) tendentious jokes and (2) innocent jokes. He indicates that whereas tendentious jokes are jokes with the intended purpose to ridicule, innocent jokes, on the other hand, are those that make people laugh. Gruner (1996) also calls innocent jokes as humour. In this study, I will also analyze these two types of jokes identified above. Humour is a ubiquitous phenomenon and can manifest in different ethnopragmatic forms including compliments, prayer, games, greetings, songs, libation, etc. Whereas some are meant to create laughter, others are meant to ridicule. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The manifestation of humour in Akan can appear as insults, known reference terms, ridiculing, and the use of figurative expressions like metaphor, simile, sarcasm, irony, indirection, etc. which will be discussed in chapters three and four of this study. These are usually directed at the appearance, behaviours, weaknesses and misfortunes of others, etc. In this study, I seek to examine the phenomenon of humour as an ethnopragmatic concept in Akan, with focus on morning radio talk shows, invective games, major news bulletin, etc. 1.3 The ethnolinguistic description of the Akan Language Akan belongs to the Kwa group of languages found in West Africa (Dolphyne 1988, 2006; Agyekum 2010a). Akan refers to the language as well as their native speakers. They are the largest ethnic group in Ghana. Akan is a language spoken by the majority of Ghanaians mostly in the southern part of Ghana. The thirteen major dialects of Akan are Agona, Akuapem, Akyem, Akwamu, Asante, Assin, Bron, Buem, Denkyira, Fante, Kwawu, Twifo and Wassaw (see Agyekum 2018:9). However, due to the creation of new six regions in the country, the language can be projected to be spoken in 9 out of the 16 regions in Ghana. Duah (2013) also indicates that the language is the most prominent indigenous language spoken in Ghana. Thus, when several speakers are taken into consideration, it is the most widely spoken language across the country. The 2010 population and housing census indicate that Akans constitute about 47.5% of Ghana’s population and are the predominant ethnic group in Ghana (see 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana Statistical Service and National Population Census 2012:15). Diabah and Amfo (2015) add that three dialects of Akan; Asante, Akuapem and Fante have received literary status. Duah (2013) states that the language is increasingly used in several domains of communication across the country. It has been observed that the language over the years, has gained status as the language of the media. This is due to the proliferation of many radio stations. Akan is used to host many radio programmes like political talk shows, newspaper review segments in morning talk shows, the broadcasting of major news bulletins, health programmes etc. (see Duah 2013:7). In advertisement, for instance, Akan is used in the advertisement of goods and services on radio and television networks across the country (see Agyekum 2006a, 2017; Anderson and Wiredu 2007; Duah 2013 etc.). Another major area where the language is used prevalently is the entertainment industry, i.e. movie and music industry (see Duah 2013:8). It has also been observed that the language is also used in the major market centres in the country. The language is used in the buying and selling of goods across the various market centres in the country. Again, the education sector cannot be overlooked, when discussing the domains of the usage of the Akan language. The language is one of the languages used as a medium of instruction from primary (1-3) as expected with other indigenous languages due to the language policy of education in the country (see Owu-Ewie 2006). The language is studied as a subject from primary to the university level in 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana (see Agyekum 2010). Due to this, there abound written materials consisting of novels, poetry and drama in Akan. With such extensive use of the language, it is expected that data on humour may abound. 1.4 Statement of Problem Although there has been an extensive discussion on the phenomenon of humour as a linguistic item across the globe (see Attardo 1993, 1994; Fergusson and Ford 2004, 2008; Raskin 2008; Janes & Olson 2010, Takovski 2018; etc.), there seems to be no extensive work on the phenomenon in Ghana and Akan in particular. The only works on humour in Akan identified so far are Agyekum (2009, 2017) and Yankah (1983). However, these researchers did not provide a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon. In his discussion on the language of Akan herbal drug sellers and advertisers, Agyekum (2017) provided a short analysis of humour as one of the pragmatic and rhetoric strategies used by the herbal drug sellers. Yankah (1983), however, provided an elaborate discussion on the Fante tone riddle as a form of a verbal game where the riddles are meant to insult the addressee and the addressee, in turn, finds the right answer in a form of a riddle to the opponent. Again, there has been an extensive discussion on linguistic routines like compliments, thanking, apology etc. (see Obeng 1999; Agyekum 2006b, 2010b, 2015; Sekyi-Baidoo 2016 etc.), however, humour which manifests itself in our daily lives 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh like these routines mentioned above has not received much attention in the Akan literature. There is, therefore, the need for comprehensive research on the phenomenon and how it manifests itself in the language. This thesis, therefore, seeks to examine the phenomenon of humour as a linguistic item in the language. 1.5 Research Objectives This research has the following objectives: (1). To analyse the forms of humour in draught and some radio programmes. (2). To discuss the positive and negative functions of humour in these two domains of language use. (3). To identify the linguistic devices (figurative expressions) employed in creating humour in draught and radio programmes. 1.6 Research Questions On the basis of the objectives above, this research seeks to answer the following research questions: (1). What constitute humour in draught and some radio programmes? (2). What are the functions of humour in draught and some radio programmes? (3). What are the various ways through which humour is created and expressed in draught and radio programmes? 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Significance of the study This study is useful in the sense that it will provide a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon of humour in Akan. It will also examine the forms, functions and effects of humour in Akan. It will serve as a source of reference for future studies in Ghanaian linguistics/languages. It opens new gates in humour studies in Akan. 1.8 Research Design and Methodology This section presents the research approach and methodology adopted in this study. Whereas subsection 1.8.1 concentrates on the research design used for the collection of data, 1.8.2. focuses on the methodology which encompasses the primary and the secondary sources of data for the study. 1.8.1 Research design of the study The research approach adopted in this study which aided me in the collection of data is the qualitative method. Owu-Ewie (2012) indicates that qualitative research usually involves a detailed description of a phenomenon through the use of interviews, observation and documents. Agyekum (2010a:13) indicates that “naturalism proposes that, as far as possible, a social world should be studied in its ‘natural state”. Duranti (1997) adds that it is important for a researcher to investigate linguistic forms which are a constitutive element of social life, hence, it is the duty of the researcher to find ways of connecting linguistic forms with particular cultural practices (see Duranti 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1997:84). We can infer from the above that, it is imperative to collect data in a natural setting to enable us to understand the social behaviour of a group of people. Also, the main aim of any qualitative research is to discover the reason behind human behaviour (Micheal 2013). This approach will again help us to get the appropriate social and ethnographic contexts where humour appears thereby helping us to have an explicit and comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon in Akan (see Agyekum 2010a, Duranti 1997, Hymes 1974 etc.). 1.8.2 Methodology In this study, I used only naturally occurring data for the analysis to obtain a true reflection of the phenomenon of humour in the language. The data for this study was gathered through both primary and secondary sources. On the primary source, I embarked on fieldwork to collect data through non-participant observation, elicitation, interviews, interaction with native speakers, audio recordings, etc. of the various ethnopramatic situations that facilitate the use of humour. Also, formal permission was taken to obtain audio recordings from popular Akan FM station Peace 104.3, from Monday to Friday between 6:00 am- 6:00 pm, which comprises of their newspaper reviews, major news bulletin and morning show. The data gathered were transcribed, translated and analyzed. The sampling technique adopted in this study is purposive sampling. It is selected because it will help us to get the needed information which will serve the 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh purpose of our study (see Owu-Ewie 2012:29). Cresswell (1994) states that it is important for one to purposefully choose documents that will answer the research questions best. Therefore, data on humour that were incomplete and incongruous were discarded because they could hardly be analysed. Appendix 1 shows a sample of the semi-structured interview guide in a draught. On the secondary source, literature was read from Akan written text and novels like Brako, ɛnnɛ nso bio, Mehunuiɛ a anka, journal articles, theses etc. to aid in the theoretical review. Concerning the interview on the draught, the interviewees composed of only males who are between the ages of 20-65 years. While some were formally educated to only form four level now Junior High school, others have their Bachelor’s degree and even reading their master's degree. They included drivers, teachers in Junior and High Schools, purchasing clerks, police officers, pastors, farmers, and retirees. The recordings of the various session on the games were done by myself and my research assistant. 1.9 Organization of Thesis This thesis is organized into five chapters. The general introduction to the study which contains the background of the study, the ethnolinguistic description of the Akan language, the statement of the problem, the research objectives, research questions, 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the significance of the study and the research approach and methodology are presented in chapter one. The literature review together with the various theoretical frameworks employed in the study is treated in Chapter two. Whereas chapter three concentrates on humour in games, chapter four, on the other hand, will examine humour in radio programmes. The final chapter provides the conclusion of the study, by highlighting the major findings, contribution to knowledge as well as recommendations. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on the literature review and the theoretical frameworks underpinning the study. It concentrates on the assumptions and issues that have been raised in the study of the phenomenon of humour. While section 2.2 concentrates on the review of the relevant literature in the study of humour, section 2.3 discusses the theoretical frameworks (i.e. Incongruity theory and Superiority theory) adopted for this study. The section on review of the literature highlights the themes that are relevant to this study. These include what humour is (section 2.2,1) context in humour (section 2.2.2), insult and ridicule (section 2.2.3), laughter and jokes (2. 2. 3. 1), compliments, apology, and thanking (2.2.3.2.), social functions of humour (2.2.4), the cognitive and emotive aspects of humour (2.2.5), and figurative expressions (2.2.6). Section 2.4 provides a summary of the chapter. 2.2. Literature Review 2.2.1 What is Humour? Over the years, researchers have given various definitions on what humour is, so far, there is still not an agreed view on the definition of the term (Attardo 1994; Wu 2013; 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Afflerbach 2015). Wu (2013) states that humour has been described in aesthetics as the ability of an individual to make one laugh and is also used for ousting serious emotions like anger, fear, hatred, sadness, etc. Romain Gary’s common quote on humour states that ‘‘humour is an affirmation of dignity, a declaration of man’s superiority to all that befalls him” (see Ferguson and Ford 2008:283). Gary links humour to the happenings in life and how a man can rise above obstacles in the daily experiences he goes through. In dichotomizing between humour and jokes, Long & Graesser (1988) explain that “humour is anything done or said, purposely or inadvertently, that is found to be comical or amusing. In contrast, jokes are defined as anything done or said to deliberately provoke amusement. Jokes are also context-free and self-contained in the sense that they can be told in many conversational contexts”. (1988:37) This suggests that the measure of a statement or scene as humourous is about how comical or amusing it is and is also based on the speaker’s or/and hearer’s humour competence (see also Martineau 1972; Attardo 1994). Norrick (1993) aptly states that “[e]veryday conversation thrives on wordplay, sarcasm, anecdotes, and jokes. Certainly, these forms of humour enliven conversation, but they also help us break the ice, fill uncomfortable pauses, negotiate requests for favours and build group solidarity” (1993:1). Humour manifests itself in late-night comedy shows, daily 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conversations, political talk shows, major news bulletins, the passage of life (for example naming ceremony, marriage rites, weddings etc.). According to Holmes (2000), humour is defined as instances of utterances where participant(s) signal amusement to one another, through the analyst’s assessment of paralinguistics, prosodic and discoursal clues. These instances of utterances can be classified as either successful or unsuccessful according to the addressee's reactions. Here, humour can be as a result of either intentional or unintentional humourous behaviour from participants. In the words of Schnurr (2005:44) ‘humour refers to utterances which are intended and /or perceived as being funny, and which result in a change of emotions in the audience, which then triggers some kind of response’. This definition by Schnurr (2005) presupposes that there are responses that always follow the act that is considered as humourous. Afflerbach (2015) posits that “the question of what humour is would seem fairly simple to answer since it is such a ubiquitous experience. However, providing a definition has historically proven to be particularly tricky”. His conclusion is very true because humour, even though is a common phenomenon, scholars see and present it from different angles. It is mostly discussed per the causality, its intensity, or even the effect of it. Considering the intensity, one may link humour to jokes and assert that, humour should not be taken seriously, for humour is an antidote to the seriousness and vice versa. Lockyer and Pickering (2008) explain that 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh …humour is far from trivial. It is integral to social relationships and social interaction. It may be taken in certain contexts as light-hearted banter, but in other contexts, it can injure people’s social standing, or cut deeply into relationships and interaction between people within and across different social groups. (2008:2) This shows that humour guides us in our social interaction and its appreciation is context-bound because what may seem humourous in one context, may not be so in another context. Afflerbach (2015) states that “[h]umour and laughter are linked in a deep way, and it is difficult to tease out the specific cause and effect relationship in all cases… Humour, while spontaneous and often surprising, is not a complete mystery in terms of its causes and mechanisms… In humour, laughter has some mental stimulus, some form of content which evokes; and justifies a reaction. It is an experience that incorporates the worlds of language, social expectation, intersubjective relation, and aesthetic experience. It potentially involves various aspects of our experience and can lead to laughter, enjoyment, and recognition. When shared with others, the effects can be very positive, at least for those included through understanding, agreement, and recognition.’’ (2015:12) 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the above discussions on the various definitions on humour, one can state that humour is a complex phenomenon which influences the social behaviour in our daily interactions and its appreciation is context-bound. Humour is an important aspect of human behaviour and communication. As stated earlier in section 1.2. Bergen and Binted (2003) indicate that humour types are expressed through linguistic modalities such as puns, insult humour, formulaic jokes, satire, non-sequitur humour, etc. They, however, propounded a new type of humour called scalar humour. To them, this kind of humour centres on the manipulation of a conceptual scale and they postulated the formulae X IS SO Y THAT Z, therefore, X's being Y causes Z. This is exemplified in 1 below: 1 (a). I was such an ugly kid that when I worked in a pet store, people kept asking how big I’d get. (b) I was such an ugly kid that when I was born the doctor slapped my face. (see Bergen and Binted 2003:1) . It can be observed from the above that an entity like a person, an object, or a situation is described in the first clause which has an important property embedded in it. This property is then followed by a second clause which provides a punchline and has a relationship characteristic of the first clause. According to Bergen and Binted (2003), in scalar humour, there is a kind of pragmatic relation between the first and second clause which is expressed through imagery, metaphor, etc. Also, there exists a kind of 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resulting mismatch which occurs between the hearer's expectations, the utterance and its actual realization, together with the imagery evoked which makes the utterances funny. So, this goes back to support Archakis and Tsakona’s (2005) point on incongruity noted in section 1.2 that there is a violation of expectations concerning the incongruous. These humour kinds mentioned above can also be found in Akan. Of particular note is the insult humour which is considered as verbal games (see Agyekum 2010a:139). According to Yankah (1983), the Fante (an Akan dialect) tone riddle which is seen as a verbal game involves the use of riddles which are meant to insult the addressee and the addressee, in turn, find the right answer in a form of a riddle to the opponent. These are used to create humour, friendship, tease one another, etc. However, Agyekum (2010a) notes that sometimes, these verbal games lead to verbal aggression and hence can be considered as a taboo. In this study, I seek to examine such verbal games as a means of creating humour and also analyze the context in which these games lead to verbal aggression and the consequences thereof. 2.2.2 Context in Humour Context is an integral component of any discourse, and for that matter, humour studies. Ross (1998) states that while the primary goal of any humorous act is to create laughter, the context within which the humourous event occurred is also very 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh important to its appreciation. Humour has a discoursal or pragmatic manifestation and therefore contingent on context. Context is generally defined as the circumstances that structure the setting for an event, statement, or idea etc. which can be fully understood based on it. Cook (1992:1) indicates that the context of any communication act entails “who is communicating with whom and why; in what kind of society and situation, through what medium; how different types of communication evolved, and their relationship to each other”. This shows that context is a very crucial element in any act of humour because context is what makes a particular statement humourous or not. Therefore, to understand humour and how they are enacted through language use there should be a certain kind of a working social relationship between the humour sender and the recipient, and a specific context to ensure the success of the humour event (Sekyi-Baidoo, personal communication November 30, 2018). In discussing workplace humour, Murata (2014:2) states that it “is context-bound and often cannot easily be understood by non-group members”. This reveals that one’s familiarity with the context of a humourous act has a great effect on his or her ability to understand and cope with the act. Bell (2011) states that, given an appropriate context, virtually any topic may be exploited for humorous ends. This means that humour is not restricted to a topic but the context of it can make it humourous or not. Driessen (2004) suggested that the following six areas/context are most commonly 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh used for humour appreciation around the world: sex or gender, age, language, politics, religion and ethnicity. Fine (1983) intimates that humour and laughter usually involve a social relationship i.e. a connection between oneself and the other. He further indicated that the context and the social forces that motivate the creation and appreciation of humour should not be overlooked. Agyekum (2010b) describes context as one which is based on ethnographic conditions like setting, participants, historical background, socio- cultural, and genres. Obeng (2000:293) states that “the context of a discourse affects people’s judgments about a language”. To Attardo (1994:294), the term context is ambiguous because it can be interpreted in two ways: (1) “the non-linguistic environment of an utterance” and (2) “the other utterances that precede and/or follow a given utterance”. He further noted that the context of an utterance can be any relevant entity in the universe which includes non-existent, imaginary or abstract entities which encompass nature, position and socio-cultural relations. From the above, one can infer that context can be either the linguistic and non-linguistic aspects of a given utterance and as such in as much as the linguistic component is key in understanding a humorous event, non-verbal components like gestures, mood, facial expression etc. are also important. This goes back to support Wu (2013) who stressed that in so far as the humour object that is the humour language and humour recipient is key, other aspects like context, the humour recipients etc. are also essential to a successful humour event. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jacobson et al. (2011) report that a social context affects psychological responses (in our case; humour) in two different ways: a social context provides descriptive norms, which inform people how others in the context typically behave. The context also provides injunctive norms, which inform people of how they ought to behave. This suggests that as the descriptive norm describes the behaviour of the members in the group, the injunctive norm set rules that will depict a required behaviour. Thus, it possible that manipulating the context wherein one encounters or imagines encountering sexist jokes could prime different descriptive and injunctive social norms for how to interpret the jokes and, thus, differentially foster the adoption of a critical versus non-critical mindset for interpreting sexist jokes. 2.2.3 Insult and Ridicule Gruner (1978:14) has argued that “ridicule is the basic component of all humorous material” and as such ridicule is socially more acceptable than an insult. Ridicule has been described as one form of disparagement humour i.e. a humorous material by which one party is oppressed, belittled, humiliated or suffers some misfortune or an act of aggression (Zillmann, 1983). The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2015) defines ridicule as unkind comments that make fun of somebody or someone or to make somebody or something look silly by laughing at them. On his part on ridicule, Afflerbach argues that “…this experience is a necessary part of being human that helps us to understand what it means to be self- conscious participants within a society, who 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are held to standards, and whose words and actions have effects on others” (2015:16- 17). Wilson (1979) opines that ridicule tends to be more personal (usually directed at an individual) rather than a group. For example, in Akan there exist a kind of invective game played by peers known as aborɔme. This game is similar to the social practice recorded by Labov (1973) in ‘the Dozens’ or the ‘Snaps’ which is done by young adult males in the city. According to Agyekum (2010a) “[t]he word aborɔme (NP) is derived from the root bɔre ‘to dig or ‘search’ (Verb) and me ‘me’ (Pro.) and then the nominalizing prefix a- . The game involves digging or searching one another for correct answers to some riddles which are meant to insult the addressee. When the addressee is able to find the right answer, he also poses a riddle to the opponent and the game continues”. (2010a:172) In this game, two or more people can play either by sitting/standing (on the ground). One interesting thing about this game is that the call and response are done at the same time and with a relative tone. Another important feature of this game is that most of the words are full of insults. This is illustrated in (2) below: 2. Call Response (a) Aborɔbɛ kɔɔ Wifo sɛ wo pineapple red thief like 2SG.OBJ. ‘red pineapple’ ‘a thief like you’ 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (b) Ankye prukusuww ankye Wo ho bɔn na ma wɔnkã - - - 2SG.SUBJ. self stings CONJ let 3SG.OBJ.say You sting so let them say’ (Aggrey 1977 cited in Agyekum 2011:173). From the example (2) above we could see that there is a call in the form of a riddle which is meant to insult the addressee. In (2a), for instance, the addressee is referred to as a thief. Although the game is full of insults, it is used to tease one another thereby creating friendship and social bonds among the peers. Obeng (2000) reports that name-calling, insults, etc. are the pragmatic strategies used by Legon students in their expression of their language attitude towards one another based on their ethnic affiliations. He further indicates that the graffiti on Legon doors and walls which contains insult etc. shows some fascinating intergroup tensions which help to maintain and project prejudices and stereotypes present in Ghanaian society. Takovski (2018) however, states that humour on ethnic relations /group provides tolerance and lessens the severity which is attached to an offence in the daily lives of the group. Afflerbach (2015:3) adds that “understanding how humour works helps to explain how agents are formed through linguistically-mediated perspective taking; especially through the impression that one is recognized by others.” 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.3.1 Laughter and jokes Wirth (2016:51) states that “laughter allays the crisis of the absurd and allows the understanding to resume its composure.” Citing Kant’s (1790) famous Critique of Judgement, Wirth (2016) explains that laughter quickly helps us to understand something nonsensical and unexpected which brings a subsequent relief from it. Attardo (1994) intimates that in defining humour, we sometimes subtly use laughter as one of the common criteria which is based on the assumption that “…what makes people laugh is humourous, and hence the property is incorrectly seen as symmetrical-what is funny makes you laugh and what makes you laugh is funny. This leads to the identification of a mental phenomenon (humour) with a complex neuro-physiological manifestation (laughter)”. (1994:10) From the above, one can infer that whereas humour involves a complex cognitive process, laughter, on the other hand, is the physical manifestation of humour. Ruch (2008:23) adds that “laughter is often seen as synonymous with humour”. This he attributes to the fact that laughter has not been defined as a distinct concept in the literature. However, in psychology, he noted both concepts have been set apart by McGhee (1979), who carefully stated that “there is laughter without humour, (e.g. social embarrassed, nervous laughter) and enjoyment of humour does not always involve laughter (McGhee 1979 cited in Ruch 2008:23)”. (see also Attardo 1994: 10- 13; Kuipers 2008: 385-388; for further discussions on laughter). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Regarding jokes, O’ring (1995) defines them as expressions of aggression which are socially acceptable by a group of people, shown by way of contempt and the display of superiority. Attardo (1994) identified two kinds of jokes: canned and conversational. Whereas “a canned joke is a joke which has been used before the time of utterance in a form similar to that used by the speaker, such as those which are found in books, collection of jokes, etc.” A conversational joke, on the other hand, is one which is based on context and are created during a conversation within a specific time, situation and interpersonal relationship in a particular socio-cultural setting (Attardo 1994: 296-297). This shows that conversational jokes are context and situational specific which would also be seen in our study. 2.2.3.2 Compliments, apology and thanking As linguistic routines, apology, compliments, and thanking have fairly been researched into by researchers including Obeng (1999), Reiter (2000) Agyekum (2006b, 2010b), and Sekyi-Baidoo (2016). While compliments have been discussed in the literature under the theory of politeness, apology and thanking are often analyzed under expressive speech acts (see Brown and Levinson 1987, Leech 1983, Bonvillain 1993, Agyekum; 2006b, 2010d). Grundy (2000:146) intimates that linguistic politeness “refers to the ways in which linguistic actions and expressions are properly and appropriately carried out in social interaction so as to be respectful and avoid offensive face-threatening acts.” 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh An important concept in politeness theory is ‘face' (Brown and Levinson, 1987). Whereas the face concept discussed by Brown and Levinson (1987) has been critiqued for catering for individual needs and based on Western culture (Kasper, 1997), researchers like Goffman (1967), Matsumoto (1988), and Agyekum (2004c, 2010b) however, see ‘face’ as a public property which is loaned from the society. For instance, in Akan, the ‘face’ concept encompasses communalistic and societal needs (Agyekum 2010b:14). As stated by Brown and Levinson (1987:311) “adult members of a society have (know each other to have) ‘face’ which is the public self-image that every member wants to claim for him/herself”, which consists of positive ‘face’ and negative ‘face’. Holmes (2000) postulates that a fundamental aspect of the Politeness Theory is that it serves as a basis for analyzing and examining the impact of humour on the participants ‘face’ needs. As humour occurs in our daily lives, it can also be employed to perform the face-saving function (Liu Naishi and Xiong Xueliang 2003). This will be shown in chapter four of the thesis. 2.2.3.2.1 Compliments As stated earlier, compliments are often analyzed under the theory of politeness. A compliment, according to Holmes (1986:485) “…is a speech act which explicitly or implicitly attributes credit to someone other than the speaker, usually the person addressed, for some ‘good’ possession, characteristic, skill, etc. which is positively valued by the speaker and the hearer.” Two key factors that are central in giving a compliment are: (1) the cultural background (in which the complementizer and the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh addressee are found) and (2) the perlocutionary effects that the compliments have (Agyekum 2010b). Agyekum (2010b) provided an in-depth analysis of the ethnopragmatics of Akan compliments. He observes that in Akan compliments target four key areas of the addressee’s life: appearance, character and comportment, performance and possession which attend to the hearer’s needs, wants or good. He identifies two major functions of compliments: positive and negative. Whereas the positive function enhances the image and says something good about the hearer, the negative function causes face- threatening acts and can even be regarded as an expression of envy. Agyekum (2010b) posits that when a compliment involves some degree of sarcasm it can constitute verbal harassment. The use of sarcasm in compliment can imply that the complimenter may intend to ridicule the addressee which may lead to humour, anger, and hatred. This study will look at the general phenomenon of humour which includes humorous ridicule. 2.2.3.2.2 Apology Generally, an expressive can be triggered by what the speaker or hearer does, however, they are based on what the speaker actually experience. They are subjective because they depend on the relationship between the speaker and the participants (Agyekum 2010d). As put by Yule (1996:53) “expressives are those kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow.” As an expressive speech acts, apology 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is used to enhance social harmony (Obeng 1999; Agyekum 2010d, Murphy 2014, Sekyi-Baidoo 2016 etc.). Apology is generally defined as a word or statement used for expressing sorry to something that has been done wrong to someone. Agyekum (2006b:54) intimates that “the breach can be past, perfect or future. It means that one can apologize for a future action that one thinks can inconvenience the addressee.” Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984:206) posit that “apologies are generally post-eventive acts. Sekyi-Baidoo (2016) however, states that several instances indicate that apology can be seen as a pre-eventive act in Akan (see Sekyi-Baidoo 2016:1-10). 2.2.3.2.3 Thanking Thanking as an expressive act is an important aspect of the linguistic routines among Akans because grateful people are cherished by them (Agyekum 2010d). According to Agyekum (2010d), Akans give thanks under ethnographic situations like after childbirth, joyful occasions: marriage and wedding, survival from accidents, achievements; funeral activities, ironical thanking (indirect thanking), etc. 2.2.4 Social functions of humour Attardo (1994) posits that in linguistics, when investigating humour in its spontaneous setting i.e. conversation and its relevant functions in communication, one needs to consider the communicative and social functions of humour. Gray (2011:13) explains that “a context, or setting, informs an individual as to what behaviour is expected or 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh acceptable”. This depicts that the response to a humourous act depends on the setting of the act. Holmes (2000) states that the most fundamental social function of humour is that it helps in creating and maintaining solidarity among members in a group which ensures a sense of belongingness to that group. Attardo (1994) grouped the social functions of humour into four classes:(1). social management (2). decommitment (3). mediation and (4). defunctionalization. As a tool of social management, humour facilitates in-group interaction and strengthens in-group bonding or the rejection of an outgroup. By this humour functions as a social control where a speaker uses it as a corrective tool either to embarrass or intimidate members of a group (see Long and Graesser 1988:53 as reported in Attardo 1994). Humour also conveys social norms where it can be used by a speaker to attract attention on taboos and unacceptable behaviours. This facet of the social function of humour can also be seen in aspects of some festivals in Akan where subjects can openly insult the king or a chief without any sanctions. This can be seen in the Kundum festivals amongst the Nzema’s, Apoɔ festival among the people of Techiman and Nkoranza in the Western and Bono East regions in Ghana respectively (Agyekum 2010a). Attardo (1994) further indicates that the function of humour as social control can serve as a tool of integration, discourse management, establishing common grounds, cleverness, social play and repair mechanism. These insult traditions can also 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contain humour which functions as a tool of social integration and discourse management. Decommitment as a social function of humour is defined as “denying any harmful intention for an action” where a speaker states that “he [/she] did not have any intention for carrying out or treating seriously an action that had been initially started” (Kane et al. 1977:14-15 reported in Attardo 1994). As a communicative function of humour, decommitment falls under the social management of humour because it facilitates the social interaction of the speaker (Attardo 1994). This function is sometimes considered as ambiguous due to its retractability feature.) Under this function of humour, a speaker may back off or retract from his/her joke without losing his/her face (Brown and Levinson 1978, Reiter 2000). This particular feature fit the face-saving function of apology and humour discussed above in section 2.2.3.2 Another important social function of humour identified by Attardo (1994) is mediation. The mediation function of humour talks about the sociological aspect of humour (Mulkay 1988). Here, one can use humour to tease the other which is seen as a device for criticizing someone without an overt attack on an individual. This function of humour that permits one to tease the other was also confirmed by Mr. Adiyea (personal communication, December 24, 2018). He stated that he can even refer to an opponent who is losing a game in draught by saying woyɛ cockroach ‘you are a cockroach’ or woyɛ antelope ‘you are an antelope’ just for teasing sake because it is a characteristic of the game. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh He further indicated that although when one is losing it is really painful, the one on the winning side rather enjoys the loser’s misery. In the end, such expressions will affect and divert the attention and judgement of the opponent hence leading to his eventual defeat. The last important social function of humour identified by Attardo (1994) is defunctionalization i.e. the loss of meaning which encompasses the ‘non-sense aspect’ i.e. pun. According to Long and Graesser (1988:57), this function of humour is known as social play which may be used as a tool for strengthening social bonds and maintaining the cohesion of the group. Hence defunctionalization involves the entertainment function of humour (Attardo 1994). In draught game in Akan, for instance, not all the participants play the game but some even go there just to entertain themselves. They also go there to escape problems at home using humour as an escape valve. Asiedu stated that “looking at the entertainment aspect, there are some people who do not know how to play the game but they always come here, why? Because when they come, the things we say over here are very entertaining even if he is bored, he can become happy and forget about his problems” (Kwame Asiedu, personal communication, January 2, 2019). 2.2.5 The cognitive and emotive aspects of humour It has been shown in the literature that humour touches on the emotions and cognition of the recipient in any communicative event (see Gruner 1997; Agyekum 2017 etc.). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Van Ramshort (2017) reports that usually, studies on the daily life of immigrants talk about violence and brutality without taking into consideration one important aspect of their journey (i.e. humour which includes laughter and play). Discussing the affective and emotional aspects of humour in the voyages of the immigrants, Van Ramshort (2017) states that migrants use humour to make light of their plight i.e. generally, migrants evoked humour to laugh and joke about grave topics (i.e. illegality and immobility). When these immigrants (who are of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras descent) are challenged on the Mexico-US border by the immigration officials during their escape, they poke fun on their illegality and means of transport to show how vulnerable they are. The use of humour by the immigrants are characterized by both outward emotional and affective dimensions. These are expressed through smiling and laughter and the ability to be moved by play and prank which promotes the cohesion of the group. Sometimes, when these immigrants are detained, they can even request sandwiches and dominoes. Their request is utterly incongruous with reality because it is impossible to get their request for them. The incongruous nature of the instance stated above give credence to humorous laughter. Using ridicule, migrants can even mock the immigration officials’ action. Here, humour is sourced as a tool of social management to draw attention on the relationship that exists between power and resistance. Browne (2016) acknowledges that humour and laughter easily help in discussing difficult intimate issues in everyday practices like cleanliness concerning the body, 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh home and clothes which will be impossible to do without the use of humour. Sharpe (1975) classified amusement as a kind of emotion based on the assumption of family resemblance which is derived from standard emotions and humour. He noted that emotions and amusement have intentional objects, admit of degrees, objects of self- deception, both are pleasant intrinsically, etc. hence, if we find a humorous situation amusing, then it is a type of emotion. Morreall (1983), however, opposes this notion of family resemblance and indicates that family resemblance alone does not qualify amusement to be considered as a kind of emotion. However, it is the similarities that exist between the two i.e. physiological disturbance and features shared between them that makes amusement a sort of emotion. This shows that our amusement at something alone at an event does not qualify it to be emotion because emotion transcends amusement. Jewell (2005) explains that as a creative activity, humour builds on cognitive and social development in gifted children. He maintains that humour involves a complex cognitive capacity to decipher different concepts and that even in comic, for a comedian to develop a rapport with his audience, he must have a sense of empathy and also create a scene for a story to be enacted which involves a higher cognitive ability. This ability stems from his personality trait, the cultural context, the particular content, personal taste, a cognitive ability etc. which are also features of humour. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.6 Figurative Expressions Figurative language encompasses the communicative use of linguistic devices such as sarcasm, humour, irony, metaphor, analogy, simile, etc. to convey indirect meanings which reflect the patterns of thought of a group of people (see Pérez 2012: v). Generally, a figurative expression is described as a statement or phrase which is not intended to be understood literally. Agyekum (2013:183) opines that “a figure of speech is basically a sort of comparison based on association, and their meanings must be inferred or derived from larger cognitive, cultural or environmental context”. He further stated that a figure of speech relates to words and their extended meanings which touch on the emotions and feelings of an audience. Usually, figures of speech are categorized into five groups: 1. Figures of resemblance or relationships, e.g. simile, metaphor, personification, euphemism etc. 2. Figures of emphasis or understatement e.g. hyperbole, litotes, rhetorical question, oxymoron etc. 3. Figures of sound e.g. alliteration, repetition, onomatopoeia, and anaphora 4. Verbal games and gymnastics e.g. pun etc. and 5. Errors e.g. malapropism, spoonerism etc. (see Agyekum 2013:184 for further details). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.6.1 Metaphor Metaphor as a linguistic item has received much attention in the literature (see Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Cormac 1985; Amuts et al. 2001; Semino 2008; Sevor 2015; etc.). Metaphor has been described over the years as a figurative expression which compares two things which are dissimilar or unrelated but have some shared characteristics. Agyekum (2013:185) defines a metaphor as “a statement that one thing is something else which in the literal sense is not”. These notions about metaphor have been contested by contemporary cognitive linguists who believe that metaphors can be understood based on one’s knowledge and experience and not just ordinary words. Thus, one can understand a concept based on another concept based on his experience (see Lakoff and Johnson 1980; Turner 1987, 1991; Kӧvecses 2002; etc.). Lakoff and Johnson (1980) were the first cognitive linguists to propose the notion of conceptual metaphors. They further intimate that metaphor is prevalent in everyday language, thought and action. This shows that the way we think, experience and act are all influenced by metaphor and that, most of our everyday conceptual systems are metaphorical. Sternberg et al. (1978) suggest that metaphors are important factors that contribute to the construction of both social and political reality i.e., the setting of political and social problems. They added that metaphors have a cognitive bearing with recurrent sets of objects, and events like parties, visiting restaurants, etc. which occur regularly in the daily lives of a group of people, aid them in conceptualizing and 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh structuring of their realities. These notions about metaphors are also shared by Agyekum (2015). He observed in his discussion on the concept of metaphors of anger in Akan and stated that a people’s conceptual, environmental, cultural experiences and their linguistic systems are strongly related, hence, to understand expressions of emotions like anger one must resort to the strong three-way relation body-emotion- language. The use of metaphor as a figurative expression to talk about the knowledge, behaviour and life experiences of a group of people can also be seen in draught games in Akan. This will be demonstrated in chapter three of the thesis. 2.2.6.2 Euphemism Generally, euphemism is regarded as an inoffensive word or expression which is used to replace one that may be counted as distasteful or unpleasant which is intended to amuse or say something unappealing. Chilton (1987) indicates that euphemism is usually associated with the notion of taboo in anthropology or the notion of repression in psychoanalytic which are seen in topics like death, sex and the sacred. In the view of Agyekum (2013:190) “euphemisms are verbal art forms which the speaker uses to embellish his speech in an attempt to show his communicative competence and linguistic politeness within the socio-cultural norms of communication”. To Wardhaugh (1992:237) euphemisms are “the result of dressing up certain areas in life to make them more presentable. Euphemistic words and expressions allow us to talk about unpleasant things and ‘neutralize’ their unpleasantness”. The use of 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh euphemism by speakers of a language serves as an avoidance technique of most important taboos in their culture. Euphemisms in Akan are known as kasambrani which literally means ‘covered up terms or polished up language’ (see Agyekum 2013:189). Euphemism can also serve as a code for secrecy in organizations due to the presence of the culture of taboo and bureaucratization that prevail in such organizations (see Bollinger 1980). Johnson-Laird (1983 cited in Chilton 1987:13) provided psychological research on euphemism and proposed the theory of discourse processing. He explains that the theory of discourse processing works in two stages: (1). The first stage encompasses superficial and propositional which is close to the surface form of the sentence. (2). The second is optional which taps on the first stage as a source for creating ‘mental models’ i.e. a structural mental representation of analogous to a state of affairs in the real world. Johnson-Laird (1983) observes that euphemisms function due to the probability of the processing discourse which works superficially at the first stage and then, at the second stage we are required to make a lot of effort within a specific time. He adds that mental models can be triggered by obscene scenes which serve as a tool to avoid being literal in any communicative event in any language. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.6.3 Sarcasm Sarcasm is defined as a way of using words that are the opposite of what you mean in order to be unpleasant to somebody or to make fun of them. Agyekum (2013:257) explains sarcasm as “a form of verbal irony in which the speaker who seems to be praising rather hides behind the screen and sends a bitter expression of strong and personal disapproval to the addressee”. He further states that sarcasm involves the use of bitter remarks which are ironic to wound or hurt the feelings of other people to denote strong disapproval. Filik et al. (2016:2130) add that “[m]ost theorists agree that sarcasm serves some communicative function that would not be achieved by speaking directly, such as eliciting a particular emotional response in the recipient”. They further noted that sarcasm serves as a means of muting the positive or negative nature of a message and that sarcastic criticisms were seen as less negative as compared to the literal based on the two experiments they conducted. According to Lee and Katz (1998), sarcasm varies from irony because sarcasm carries ridicule of a specific victim while irony does not. This was based on experiments they conducted on the role of ridicule in sarcasm and irony. Drawing inspiration from Kreuz and Glucksberg (1989) research, Lee and Katz report that with sarcasm it was easy for the participants to identify incorrect prediction of the other than their own. This is because probably identifying someone else's mistake is seen as an important means for ridicule than a speaker's own mistake due to their identity. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, the identity of a victim did not affect the degree of irony conveyed by a speaker's allusion to an incorrect prediction. In draught game in Akan for instance, there is the use of the figure of speech (resemblance) like metaphor, simile, euphemism, etc. The study will discuss some of the figurative expressions identified in the draught game and how they contribute to the general study of humour. The studies above will serve as a guide to the research and contribute to the current study and its analysis. 2.3 Theoretical Framework: The Incongruity Theory In this study, I have adopted the Incongruity theory as the main theory for the analysis. The study will again fall on the Superiority theory for some of the discussions. This is because the incongruity theory alone as it has been shown in the literature cannot cater for explanations on some of the humourous acts especially those on aesthetic pleasure (see Kulka 2007, Martin 1987, etc.). Traditionally, theories of humour are divided into three major branches: (1) The Incongruity theory (Cicero, Kant, Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer) (see Attardo 1990:47). (2). The Superiority theory (Aristotle, Hobbes, Plato etc.), (3). The Release theory (Freud, Spencer), 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 The Incongruity theory The incongruity theory emphasizes the absurd, the unexpected, and the inappropriate i.e. the out-of-context situations as the source of humour. Attardo (1994) posits that the incongruity theory belongs to the cognitive family of the theories of humour. Incongruity is defined as a kind of condition whereby entities do not normally move together, thereby replacing logic and familiarity with the unexpected which leads to the creation of humour. Proponents of this theory describe it as a group of philosophical explanations on humour which state incongruity as the source of amusement (see Attardo; 1993, 1994, Morreall 1983, Raskin 1985, Straus 2014, Wu 2013, etc.). This theory is usually credited to Kant (1724-1804) and Schopenhauer (1788-1860) as indicated in Attardo (1994:47). Aristotle in his Rhetoric (3,2) also affirms that a speaker can elicit laugher in the audience by creating an expectation and then violating it. Straus (2014) states that the incongruity theory works at two levels which are summarized below: 1. Firstly, it gives an explanation as to why people react with laughter in varied situations which includes why people laugh in some situations which are not funny. This means that the incongruity theory seeks to explain why humans find some things funny. 2. Second, it explains what makes a situation itself funny. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the above, we can infer that the incongruity theory helps in getting explanations to why we find a particular situation funny. Morreall (1983:299) agrees on the views shared by researchers on incongruity and states that “something amuses us because it does not match up with what we expect things of that kind to be, or because it is out of place in the setting in which we find it.” He further adds that we find something amusing if it somehow violates our perception of how that thing is supposed to be and if we enjoy this violation. McGhee (1979 as indicated in Attardo 1994:48) explains that the concept of congruity and incongruity can be perceived in the relationships that exist amongst components of an object, idea, event, social expectation, etc. When there is an incompatibility with the normal or the arrangement of the constituent elements of an event then they are seen as incongruous. Context, which is a vital element in the appreciation and interpretation of humour, is also a key feature in incongruity according to proponents of this theory (see also Chen 1999, Wu 2013). Moreover, the prerequisites of the humour, according to exponents of this theory, are incongruities and cooperative interpretation of the humour object. This is based on the resolution of the incongruities which ensure the success of a humorous event by the recipient (Wu, 2013). This notion on incongruity is also shared by Kulka (2007) who asserts that it is the resolution of the incongruity that gives rise to humour. This must occur together with the Superiority and/or the aesthetics, and that, the incongruity alone cannot account for pleasure or the aesthetic. Attardo (1994) intimates that 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Incongruity is compatible with the Superiority and Release theories. Sekyi-Baidoo (personal communication November 30, 2018) adds that the main theory of humour is incongruity, and then the incongruity itself is also the basis but cannot create humour except it is done with the idea of the Superiority. These show that the incongruity cannot work alone without the other two theories. 2.3.1.1 Justification for the incongruity theory In this study, I have adopted the incongruity theory because it stands out as the most prominent and popular in most researches in the current discussions on the nature of humour (see Attardo 2001, Kulka 2007, Miczo et.al 2009, Takovski 2018). The theory will also help us to get an appropriate explanation for any act of humour. Humour is a pervasive feature in draught game and radio programmes in Akan. There is, therefore, the need to provide appropriate explanations on how the phenomenon occurs in the language, hence the incongruity theory serving this need or purpose. 2.3.2 Supporting theories As indicated above the analysis relies on a combination of the Incongruity theory and other supporting theories. Consequently, this section discusses the other supporting theories: Superiority and Release. 2.3.2.1 The Superiority theory The Superiority theory, according to Janes and Olson (2010), dates back to the early Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. In the view of Plato and Aristotle, people see 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the weaknesses of others as humorous hence “laughter is an expression of derision or malice directed at the less fortunate” (see Ferguson & Ford 2008:288). Hobbes (1968) who is considered as the “father” of modern humour theory and the first researcher to provide a precise description of this theory postulated that amusement and laughter are the outcomes of how glorious we feel when we compare ourselves favourably with the less fortunate (see also, Janes and Olson 2010:48). He further indicates that humans are constantly in competition with each other, hence searching for the weaknesses of others. As such, the higher the dignity of the victim, the higher the subsequent amusement. Harris (2009:7) indicates that Superiority theory functions better in political humour because a political opponent can easily laugh at the loss or detriment of another political party. To Janes and Olson (2010:49), “the concept of schadenfreude (delight in the misery of others) captures the essence of this superiority dynamic—it sometimes makes us feel good to see other people fail”. They further add that when we enjoy the misery of others, we may turn out to be more aware of the fact that others may similarly enjoy our misery. Gruner (1997) postulates that all forms of humour encompass hostility and aggression, no matter how ostensibly inoffensive they are. These views shared by these great theorists on humour can be challenged because laughter which is a facet of humour, for instance, is not only expressed by comparing ourselves to the less fortunate. Again, one would like to ask/find out whether one laughs at the weakness of the other alone. What about the appearance of a person? 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dressing or costume could also evoke humour. For example, there is a comedian called Bob Okala of blessed memory in Ghana whose appearance i.e. his style of dressing alone creates laughter, hence equating laughter to only the weakness of another is somehow flawed. Again, laughter is not only expressed based on the weakness of others, however, one can laugh even on a pleasant experience or make fun of oneself due to a mistake he or she has made. This is an indication that laughter is not only expressed at the weakness of the other but also it can be seen in other situations that are non-aggressive or in other absurdities of life. This theory will be useful in this study because it will help in explaining the ridicule aspect of humour in the research. 2.3.2.2 The Release/Relief theory Another important theory in humour research is the Release theory. Proponents of this theory believe that laughter is a release of tension or nervous energy. Attardo (1994:50) adds that proponents of the “release theories maintain that humour releases tensions, psychic energy or that humour release one from inhibitions, conventions and laws.” Freud (1905) is credited as one of the most influential proponents of this theory. Concerning linguistics, the release theories cater for the liberation from the rules of languages (see Attardo 1994:51). Typical examples are puns, other word-plays and the violations to Grice’s (1975) principle of Cooperation. The Release theory has been criticized by researchers that it does not take into consideration the context which is an important factor in humour appreciation (see Wu 2013). 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Summary of the chapter The chapter concentrated on the review of the relevant literature to the study under the following themes: what humour is, context, insult and ridicule, laughter and jokes, compliment, apology and thanking, the cognitive and emotive aspect of humour, figurative expressions, and the social functions of humour. The discussions on the above themes helped us in appreciating the general phenomenon of humour. The theoretical frameworks i.e. Incongruity and Superiority that were adopted in the study were also explained. Although the Incongruity theory served as the main theory for the study, the Superiority theory was adopted to help us to get an adequate description of the phenomenon in the study as indicated earlier. The subsequent chapters provide the analysis of humour in the language. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE HUMOUR IN GAMES 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, I will show the significant role humour plays on the cognitive and emotional processes on both the humour recipient and the sender in an Akan traditional game called dame ‘draught’. In 3.2, I will provide a brief history of the game and show the possible changes that have occurred in it with time. The analysis of how humour manifests in the game is presented in 3.3. The linguistics of humour in draught game is presented in 3.4. The summary of the chapter is presented 3.4.1. There has been extensive research on humour across the globe. However, its understanding is very minimal because it is usually difficult to get a clear appreciation of the nature of humour. Mostly, laughter and comic expressions are equated to humour which is not always the case. Important factors/issues like the non-verbal forms used by the interlocutors, the tone of the speaker and other nonhumourous stimuli are relegated to the background. Morreall (1983) rightly notes that of all the phenomena which come under the investigation of empirical and philosophical psychology, humour is easily the least understood. Part of the difficulty in getting clear the nature of humour is that laughter, the bodily manifestation of our amusement at something funny, is also our reaction to many nonhumourous kinds of stimulation like tickling, winning a lottery and embarrassment (1983:297). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most of the researches on humour over the years have been based on four aspects: (1) those that focused on the definition, (2) those that concentrated on the history and the development of humour, (3) humour initiator and (4) humour object (i.e. the humour carrier also referred to as the humour language). All the above did not take into consideration the cognitive, social and emotional processes of the recipients (see Pan 2012:20 and Wu 2013:54). It is only Wu (2013) that focused on the important role played by the humour recipient in his discussion of the laughter-eliciting mechanism of humour. He stressed that in as much as the humour object i.e. the humour language is important, other aspects like the humour recipients, together with context, etc. are indispensable to the success of a humour event. Foot and Hugh (2006) add that “[m]uch of the research on humour has occupied itself with explaining why we find jokes funny and why we are amused by certain episodes in real life”. As indicated earlier, it is very difficult in understanding the nature of humour. To understand the nature of humour, there is the need to provide an adequate description of the phenomenon coupled with both explanatory and appropriate theoretical frameworks in a specific language. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 A brief history of dame ‘draught’ Draught, also known as checkers, is a generic name given to several board games where the other opponent’s pieces can be won by just ‘jumping’ over2. In Akan, draught is called dame which is believed to have been borrowed from the French word Jeu De Dames, or simply Dames which literally means lady or queen. Draught began as the Alquerque or Quirkat game. However, no one knows how exactly the Alquerque was played by the ancients, but it has been observed that this game has a sharp resemblance like the modern-day draughts. An Alquerque unlike draught which presently has 20×20 grid has a board which is only a 5×5 grid and spots intersecting diagonal lines with only 10 pieces per side. Modern Draught has been described by historians to have been invented in the 12th century CE in Southern France (source: http://idf64.org/a-history-of-draughts/). In Akan society, the game was usually played by the elderly after they have returned from their farms in the olden days (Kwame Addai personal communication, December 24, 2018). However, in modern times dame in Akan is played by the young, the middle-aged and the old. Below is an image of an Alquerque. 2 Draught is the name of the game in British English and other English-speaking countries while the American name is checkers. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure1. An image of Alquerque Image source: http://idf64.org/a-history-of-draughts/ 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2: Sample pictures of dame ‘draught’ in Akan (Asante-Bekwai, 24/12/2018, 02/01/2019). The pictures were taken with the permission of the participants. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 The analysis of humour in Dame ‘draught’ in Akan One of the important factors that facilitate the understanding of social reality is humour because it comes from our daily lives. The social management function as discussed by Attardo (1994) is similar to the work of Agyekum (2010a). He analyzed Akan Verbal Taboos and stated that “there are certain situations during which the expressions which are regarded as offensive, insults and verbal atomic weapons and, therefore, tabooed are not considered as such” (2010a:138). They are however considered as verbal games by peer group members where insults could be hurled at one another just for teasing. They include aborɔme, ɛpetoɔ, anyansini. The invectives used in these games are also known as quasi-euphemisms which are similar in games like dame ‘draught’, ntɛtoɔ ‘playing of marbles’, oware etc. These insults which function as a tool of social management can be observed from the excerpts (in dame games) where a participant can insult the other. The participants in this discussion are both the players and observers (those standing by). Excerpt 1. Match between Osei Kwabena and Mr Ernest- (Asante, Bekwai- 24/12/2018). [Background/Context: Osei Kwabena and Mr Ernest were playing this match. Boateng had already lost a match to Adiyea, and he was leaving the venue. He insulted Osei Kwabena when he asked if he was leaving.] 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation Osei ɔnyɛ adeɛ nti aba no ɔne wo reto a, Because he does not know Kwabena: na ɔrewia mu. Na Boateng how to play very well, so he wasɔre? cheats when he is playing with you. So, Boateng, are you going? Boateng: Firi me so kɔ! Go away! [The audience burst into laughter] We can observe from the excerpt (1) above that Boateng used the invective firi me so kɔ! ‘go away’ on Osei Kwabena. This brought laughter to the audience in this context. This negates it as a potential face-threatening act (Brown and Levinson 1989), even though Boateng is a young man; if it was not for the context, he could not have had the opportunity to insult him. Hence, the setting provides the ‘license’ because there is the lift of the social ban on insult. Again, in a typical Akan setting, it will be outrageous for the young to engage in such an act, which could be classified as disrespectful hence, saving his face. The humour aspect started when Osei shouted Na Boateng wasɔre? ‘So Boateng are you going’ in a ridiculous manner. Here, the ridicule was not perceived as an ‘offensive’ one; hence leading to the insult which brought the laughter from the audience. This corroborates arguments in the literature 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on humour that the context which entails setting is an important element in humour appreciation (see Fine 1983, Ross 1998, Wu 2013). Another instance that insult can be used in dame ‘draught’ in Akan just for the fun of the game is illustrated in the excerpt (2) below: Excerpt 2. Match between Osei Kwabena and Amanseɛ- (Asante, Bekwai- 24/12/2018). [Background/Context: Even though the match is between Osei Kwabena and Amanseɛ, Adiyea saw that Osei Kwabena was not able to win any piece so he commented and Adiyea insulted him.] Participants A k a n Translation Adiyea: Aba wei wantumi ankye no a… If you are unable to beat him in this game… Osei ɔse ayɛ dɛn? Wommu adeɛ What is he saying? You don’t Kwabena: wae! respect! [This was said via chuckling which brought laughter in the audience] Again, the use of the expression wommu adeɛ wae! ‘you don’t respect’ by Osei Kwabena from excerpt (2) above outside the context of the game could have amounted to an offence. This shows that even though the insult is meant to offend the recipient (Adiyea) under normal circumstance, it was not so here. Rather, it brought laughter to the audience because the sender chuckled when he was saying it. Hence, negating the 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh potential face-threatening act it contains (Brown & Levinson 1989). Also, because this insult is embedded i.e. it occurred within the context of an on-going social relationship which is understood between the participants, the recipient (Adiyea) did not perceive it as an insult. This affirms what Agyekum (2010a:140) indicated that “the insults are meant to provoke and divert the attention of the opponent so that he loses concentration and thus loses the game”. In the view of Emerson (1969) even when the recipient gets offended by the insult its seriousness can be justified by the speaker when he relies on the context (i.e. upon the group’s assumption of good fellowship i.e. the setting of the game). This is also similar to the decommitment function of humour indicated by Attardo (1990) as discussed in section 2.2.4. Fine and De Soucey (2005:1) assert that every social group creates a joking culture i.e. a set of humorous references which are known to members of the group alone to which they can refer to overtime. This joking culture can also be seen in the draught games in Akan. This can be illustrated in 3 and 4 below: Excerpt 3. Match between Mr Ernest and Charles- (Asante, Bekwai-02/01/2019) [Background: In this match, Mr Ernest had won most of his opponent (Charles) pieces, but he (Charles) was finding it difficult to win any pieces from Mr Ernest.] 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants A k a n Translation Mr. Ernest: … I don’t like my legs, don’t come who! [The audience burst into laughter] ɔyerepa: I don’t like my legs. Hahaha! (Good wife) [He giggled] Mr. Ernest: …Woyi a, na mede agu so! …If you win then I will drop mine on it! Charles: ɛnneɛ ma yɛnnyae toɔ ɛɛ? Then, how about we stop playing? Excerpt 4. Match between Gyimah and Adiyea- (Asante, Bekwai-24/12/2018) [Background/Context: Here, Gyimah had already scored most of Adiyea pieces. Therefore, when Kwame wanted to ruin his efforts to cause his defeat, he could not come to terms with his behaviour.] Participants Akan Translation Adiyea: Hmm, aba yi reyɛ apae. This game is almost a draw. Gyimah: Adɛn? wayɛ mmerɛ anaa? Why? Are you weak? Kwame: Lae wɔ mu! There is a trap in it! 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Adiyea: Kwame hwɛ yie Kwame be careful. [The audience laughed] Gyimah: Wo ntumi wo nnoɔma a wose If you cannot carry your load then wo kahyire nyɛ. you blame your head pad. From the excerpts (3) and (4) above, we could see in (4) that Mr Ernest used the humorous reference I don’t like my legs, don’t come who! which is known to the group to ridicule his opponent Charles, who was losing the game. This made the audience to burst into laughter. This was also repeated by ɔyerepa (Goodwife) a bystander who even giggled at him. We can also infer from the expression that Charles could not decipher the tricks used by Mr Ernest. This shows literally that he is ‘defective’ therefore his legs cannot take him anywhere, thus he is not good playing the game not to talk of winning. A similar thing happens in (4) where Kwame used lae wɔ mu “there is a trap in it” to give a clue to Gyimah. Adiyea was not pleased by it because he had already lost the previous match and was about to lose the second time. The use of these known humorous reference terms created an interesting atmosphere which made the game fun and entertaining. After the game, I enquired about the essence of such expressions and it was confirmed by ɔyerepa (Goodwife) that, all of them know the meaning of such terms because they use it to make fun of someone when he is unable to make out a trick by his opponent. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another interesting aspect of humour in Akan in dame ‘draught’ game is that some of the expressions (invectives) are not meant for insult alone but they are also used to mock or ridicule a participant who is losing. This is meant to provoke and confuse him to play a bad game. The use of ridicule in draught in Akan is demonstrated in excerpts (5) and (6) below: Excerpt 5. Match between ɔsɔfo and Charles- (Asante, Bekwai-02/01/2019) [Background/Context: When the match began, Charles was leading, however, he was deceived by his opponent (ɔsɔfo), and he lost the match.] Participants Akan Translation Charles: Wo boa! boa! boa! You are lying! ɔyerepa: Hɛɛ, ooo, daabi, daabi, in fact, Hɛɛ, oh, no! no! in fact, what is wode sɛn? Sɔfo woayɛ adeɛ pa your name? (Good wife) ara! Watricke Charles Sɔfo you have really done well! papapapa. You have tricked Charles very well. Charles: ɛyɛ asɛm oo Is something oo 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 6. Match between Osei Kwabena and Gyimah-(Asante, Bekwai- 02/01/2019). [Background/Context: Osei Kwabena and Gyimah were playing this match, however, Gyimah could not win even when it was not too difficult to do so.] Participants Akan Translation ɔyerepa: Aba yi koraa wontumi nni bi You can’t even score any of (Good wife) these marbles. Osei Yɛnkɔ afuom nanso yɛbɛdidi! We won’t go to the farm but Kwabena: Yɛnkɔ afuom nanso yɛbɛdidi! we will eat! We won’t go to the farm but we will eat! [The song energized and motivated him to win while his opponent, on the other hand, was demoralized] Adiyea: ɛyɛ a to nnwom pa! It is better to sing good songs! [He giggled] ɔyerepa: ɛnneɛ sɛ aba yi apae! Then this game is a draw! (Good wife) Gyimah ɛdeɛn aba na apae? What game is a draw? As can be seen from the excerpts above, we could also identify the manifestation of humour in Akan dame games through the use of some expressions by the participants to ridicule the other. In the excerpt (5) for instance, ɔyerepa who is an observer used 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the expression wode sɛn? ‘what is your name’ which is intended to ridicule Charles who was losing the game. He further became confused and played a bad game which is clearly seen when he (Charles) used the expression ɛyɛ asɛm oo ‘is something oo’. Nana Amanseɛ proudly stated that sometimes if you want to thwart the attention of someone/an opponent, you intentionally use an offensive word to divert his attention to win. He gave an instance that there is a guy who has been expelled from his church and that, the moment you mention that incident you will easily win against him due to the negative emotions he attaches to that incident (Nana Amanseɛ, personal communication, December 31, 2018). In excerpt (6), Osei Kwabena used the expression yɛnkɔ afuom nanso yɛbɛdidi! ‘we won’t go to the farm but we will eat!’ to mock his opponent. The use of this expression according to him demoralized his opponent while he was motivated and was energized to win the match. Again, the expression shows that even though he won’t work, he can still eat, which can be interpreted to mean that he is probably not putting in any effort (or not playing very well) but he will still win. This shows how weak his opponent is. This comment further distracted his opponent (Gyimah) more which led to his eventual defeat. There are also instances where the humour object contains incongruous elements. This incongruous element occurs when things do not move as expected. Straus (2014) states that a humorous event is explained better with the incongruity theory because it explains why people find something or certain situations funny. The theory also talks 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh about the unexpected and out of context situations. This can be illustrated in the excerpt (7) below: Excerpt 7. Match between Charles and Chief- Asante, Bekwai (31/12/2018) [Background/context: Charles and Chief were playing this match, Chief tricked Charles to win his masterpieces and ɔyerepa was explaining what transpired.] Participants A kan Translation Gyimah: Adɛn? Why? ɔyerepa: ɔde aba bi kɔsii hɔ na Charles He brought a piece and Charles scored it, and he also (Good wife) kɔyiieɛ na ɔno nso yii no bɔkɔɔ. scored it easily. He is also ɔreyi Charles akorɔma no nso scoring two masterpieces of mmienu oo! haha haha! Charles oo! Haha! Haha! In the excerpt (7) above, ɔyerepa who is an observer is explaining to Gyimah why Chief was able to win that much in the game. He explains that Chief brought a piece of the draught forward and Charles scored it easily, and Chief, in turn, scored two master cards of Charles. The incongruity can be established through the explanation stated above that Charles was tricked by his opponent when he brought a piece first. The Incongruity theorists posit that there is a connection between the aesthetic and the humorous and that when we enjoy the incongruities then they form the basis for the 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aesthetic enjoyment (Wu 2013). This contains the incongruous element hence making the situation funny because Charles could not see the tactics used by Chief to win against him. ɔyerepa even laughed at Charles with haha haha. 3.4 The use of linguistic devices in draught games This section concentrates on the use of linguistics devices as a means of creating humour in draught game in Akan. The section will also discuss the use of figurative expressions in the draught game. It will look at the emotive and cognitive aspects of humour in draught games as well. 3.4.1 Figurative expressions in draught games in Akan As noted in Chapter two, draught in Akan involves the use of figurative expressions. These figurative expressions in the context of humour help in preserving the face of the interlocutors and also show their competence in the language (Brown and Levinson 1987). They also made the game interesting and fun. The discussions below show some of the figurative expressions identified in the study. 3.4.1.1 Metaphor and Biblical Allusion As shown in section 2.2.6, metaphor is an integral component in the conceptual, environmental, cultural experiences of a group of people which has a strong connection with their linguistic systems. Metaphor is used draught games. An example of this is found in excerpt 8 below in which the behaviour of one of the participants 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has a relationship with the general behaviour of the Pharisees in the Bible (a reference to a hypocrite). Excerpt 8. Match between ɔsɔfo and Mr Ernest – (31/12/2018, Yemon Ghana Limited -Asante, Bekwai). [Background/context: ɔsɔfo and Mr Ernest were playing the match, ɔyerepa gave a clue to ɔsɔfo. This made Osei Kwabena called him gossip and Mr Ernest also compared him to a Pharisee.] Participants Akan Translation Osei Hɛhɛ! hɛhɛ! kɔnkɔnsani no He laughed! the gossip will let him score Kwabena: bɛma yɛabɔ wo, ɔyerepa! you, ɔyerepa! ɔyerepa! ɔyerepa! ɔyerepa! Kɔnkɔnsani biara nni haha! No one is a gossip here! Haha haha! So, haha! Enti mene am I the gossip? (Good wife) kɔnkɔnsani no? Osei Na wo deɛ wonnim? So, you don’t know? Kwabena: Mr. Ernest: Kɔnkɔnsani din baako nso Another name for gossip is a Pharisee. ne Farasiini [They all laughed at him] 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From excerpt 8 above, we could see that Mr Ernest compared the behaviour of ɔyerepa (Goodwife) to that of the Pharisees in the Bible who are seen as hypocrites and gossips. ɔyerepa (Goodwife) was caught giving a clue to ɔsɔfo. Osei Kwabena called him a gossip due to his behaviour he portrayed. Thus, instead of him to stop or bark off he rather denied it and said there was no gossip there. This shows that he was being hypocritical which is typical of the Pharisee which can be found in Luke 18:9-14. Here, the Pharisee compared himself to the other for not being like him due to his religiosity without taking into consideration his salvation but rather judged his fellow human being. Mr Ernest further stated that another name for gossip is a Pharisee which is metaphorical. This comment made all the participants laughed. Thus, when we consider the behaviour and posture of ɔyerepa (Goodwife) we can infer that he is being a hypocrite. This is because even after he was caught for giving a clue and he was called out, he asked if he was the one being referred to as gossip and even said that there is no gossip at that place. This is incongruous to the reality or rules of the game because they were expecting him to stop. This particular act helped in bringing out the incongruity which led to humour. By saying there is no gossip and laughing haha! made the entire situation funny. By enquiring if he is the gossip made the whole act hypocritical too. This also affirms the general behaviour of the Pharisees in the Bible who will do something and pretend as nothing of that sort had happened. The audience laughing at ɔyerepa 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Goodwife) due to the expression used by Mr Ernest made the game interesting and humorous. Also, it is expected that when ɔyerepa (Goodwife) was caught, he should have kept quiet but he denied it instead. This pushed Mr Ernest to use the metaphorical expression on him which affirms what Hutcheson (1750) commented on the incongruity that humour (comic) “…is based on the use of somewhat inappropriate metaphors and similes to trigger ideas that clash with each other” (Hutcheson 1750, reported in Morreall 2008: 226) 3.4.1.2 Simile Another figurative expression identified in draught games in Akan is simile. As a figure of resemblance, simile states the similarity between two things with the use of like, as, than, etc. This is expressed in the excerpt 9 below: Excerpt 9. Match between Papa Wee and Bɛɛko- (31/12/2018, Yemon Ghana Limited Asante, Bekwai) [This match is between Papa Wee and Bɛɛko, Papa Wee, Papa Wee boasted about how he was going to win the match easily, but in the end, he lost.] 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation ɔsɔfo: Apae! Apae! It is a draw! It is a draw! Akwadaa: Wayɛ dinn? Are you quiet? Owusu: Hwan na wayɛ dinn? Who is quiet? Akwadaa: Me nana My grandfather Owusu: Wo nana no ɔne deɛhene? Which one is your grandfather? Akwadaa: Deɛ ɔhyɛ white no The one who is in the white ɔyerepa: Ayi, Papa Wee? ɛnneɛ ne ho Papa Wee? Then he is suffering rekyere no enti kɔka kyerɛ wo so go and inform your mother. (Goodwife) maame [The audience burst into laughter] Papa Wee Me ho yɛ den sɛ atekuleta tae I am strong like the articulator [A bystander laughed] tyre From the excerpt 9 above, we can infer that one of the participants i.e. Papa Wee was being mocked for struggling getting to the end of the game because he started with full energy and boasted about how he would win the game hands down. Sensing how quiet he has become all of a sudden, his grandchild even said wayɛ dinn? ‘are you quiet’. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This comment set the stage for the ridiculing to begin. We can see that Owusu sarcastically asked hwan na wayɛ dinn? ‘who is quiet?’ intentionally so that the others can ridicule him. The humourous comment ɛnneɛ ne ho rekyere no enti kɔka kyerɛ wo maame ‘then he is suffering so go and inform your mother’ by ɔyerepa made them laugh. Thus, his situation of having to be reported to his daughter, who happens to her mother. The man recognizing how embarrassing the game was becoming retorted by saying me ho yɛ den sɛ atekuleta tae ‘I am strong like the articulator tyre’ to show that he is strong and still hopeful to win the game no matter his present circumstance. By comparing his strength and a tyre (this is not an ordinary tyre, but an articulator). This is strong enough to carry the body of the vehicle which has a heavyweight, hence, making it ironic and entire the situation more humourous. This comment even made a bystander laugh. The comment by Papa Wee shows that he is resilient no matter the situation in which he finds himself. By comparing himself to the tyre of a heavy-duty vehicle shows that he is still optimistic about winning the game. This behaviour put up by him is also incongruous to the reality of the game at that time, hence making it humorous. Another instance of simile can be seen in excerpt 10 below. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 10. Match between Osei Kwabena and Gyimah- (Asante, Bekwai, 02/01/2019)- [Osei Kwabena and Gyimah were playing this match, Osei used an invective on his opponent to win the game.] Participants Akan Translation Osei …Woresu koraa na mereyɛ no …Even if you cry then I am Kwabena: more oo doing it more oo Osei anya adeɛ a ɛfo, Osei has gotten an easy fellow, Twa bi di wɔ hɔ nom a, wose If there is an easy way out, then worekɔtɔ ayi… you are saying you are going to W’ano sɛ nwa, w’anim nso buy… huhuuhu! Your mouth is like a snail, and [Here, the audience burst into your ugly face too! laughter] Gyimah: Wo deɛ w’ano yɛ ya oo! You are full of insults! Nana Wo dame toɔ nyɛ fɛ koraa Osei! Your style of playing the Amanseɛ: draught is not nice at all Osei! The use of w’ano sɛ nwa ‘your mouth is like a snail’ by Osei Kwabena in the excerpt above to Gyimah his opponent is meant to demean him which was humorous because the audience burst into laughter. The speaker mentioned in an interview after the game that he used that expression to gain an advantage over the opponent. He further stated even though it was an insult, he did it funnily, to touch on the emotions of his opponent which will eventually help him win the game. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.1.3 Sarcasm The use of sarcasm in draught game to ridicule an individual to him, but rather hiding behind praising words are indicated in excerpt 11 below. Excerpt 11. Match between Bɛɛko and Kwabena Agyei- (Asante, Bekwai, 24/12/2018). [Bɛɛko and Kwabena Agyei were playing this match, the bystanders saw that Bɛɛko was quiet which was unusual of him so they ridiculed him.] Participants Akan Translation Adiyea: Bɛɛko asɛ ɛnnɛ deɛ wayɛ Bɛɛko it seems your quiet today! dinn! Bɛɛko: Me? Me? Adiyea: Yɛabɔ wo? Did you lose a game? ɔyerepa: Yɛabɔ no! He’s been beaten! Kim! That’s right! Kim! That’s right! Bɛɛko: Osei Kwabena akyerɛkyerɛ Osei Kwabena has been given clues mu saaa all through ɔyerepa: Hɛhɛɛhɛ! Aba no wode gu Hɛhɛɛhɛ! it will be better for you if so a ɛbɛboa oo you accept defeat and stop playing oo 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh We can infer from the excerpt 11 above that Adiyea was sarcastically ridiculing Bɛɛko. By using the expression Bɛɛko asɛ ɛnnɛ deɛ wayɛ dinn! ‘Bɛɛko it seems your quiet today?’ even though he knows very well that Bɛɛko was losing the game shows how sarcastic he can be. The use of sarcasm in the above excerpt shows that one can mock someone without being blunt about it even though he wants to hurt the other by making fun of him. We can also see that, the use of the expression Hɛhɛɛhɛ! Aba no wode gu so a ɛbɛboa oo ‘Hɛhɛɛhɛ! it will be better for you if you accept defeat and stop playing oo’ by ɔyerepa was intended to ridicule Bɛɛko sarcastically because he was losing the game. The use of sarcasm to make fun of the other in dame ‘draught’ game in Akan can also be illustrated in excerpt 12 below. 12. Match between Adiyea and Asante- (Asante, Bekwai-25/12/2018) [Adiyea and Asante were playing this match, Adiyea saw that Asante could not win and of his pieces, so he and a by-stander mocked him (Asante).] Participants Akan Translation Adiyea: … Aba no ayɛ dɛɛdɛɛdɛ, anka …The match is becoming so sɛ sɛɛ Asante aho me kwakwa interesting, by now Asante might de agu ne nsa fɛɛfɛ no so! have scored me easily and placed the pieces on his beautiful hands! Asante: Hmmm Hmm Adiyea: Kɔ! kɔ! kɔ! kɔ! Go! Go! Go! Go! 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ɔyerepa: Akoa no ayɛ sakaa! Haha! He is being weakened! Haha! ( Haha! Haha! Goodwife) Here, the participant (Adiyea) hid behind the expression ne nsa fɛɛfɛ no so! ‘His beautiful hand’ to mock Asante even though he saw that the game was not going in his favour. The speaker ridiculed him when he knew perfectly that he was losing the game. The use of akoa no ayɛ sakaa! Haha! Haha ‘he is being weakened! Haha! Haha!’ by ɔyerepa also gives credence to the fact that Asante was in a tight corner. The comment was used to deride the addressee which made the scene interesting because the speaker ɔyerepa (Goodwife), a bystander even laughed after his comment. 3.4.1.4 Euphemism In draught game in Akan, participants also use euphemism as a taboo avoidance technique to talk about things which cannot be said literally but done with the intention to mock and ridicule the other. The use of euphemism in draught game in Akan can be demonstrated in excerpt 13 below: Excerpt 13. Match between Osei Kwabena and Amanseɛ- (Asante-Bekwai, 04/01/2019) [Background: This is a match between Osei Kwabena and Amanseɛ, a fair lady was passing by and she greeted Efo who was standing by when the match was ongoing] 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation ɔyerepa: ɔrekyea wo, wo na ɔrekyea wo She is greeting you; you are the one she is greeting. Efo: Eee! Buroni, Madina buroni Eee! White woman, Madina white woman. ɔyerepa: W’adapaa na ada adi no, You have been exposed, Madina Madina buroni? white woman? Efo: ɔse ɔrekyea me adɛn? She says she is greeting me why? ɔyerepa: Wɔn a wode moto yi fefa wɔn no She is one of the people you have bi, na sɛ maka sɛ moto yi deɛ yɛn been giving rides on your motor, nyinaa bɛtɔ bi. right? I have said that we will also buy one. Efo: Na sista kaa ne moto nea ɛwɔ But sister, a motor and a car which hene na sɛ wode kɔtena mu a, one is more attractive to women mmaa ani gye ho. when you sit in? ɔyerepa: Aaa! Moto a wode wia nkorɔfoɔ Aaa! The motor you are using to sei! Moto a wode wia nkorɔfoɔ. steal people like that! The motor you are using to steal people like that Efo: ɔse ɔrekyea me adɛn? Wo haw She says she is greeting me why? ne sɛn? Haha! Haha! What is your problem? Haha! Haha! In explaining the euphemism above, we can draw inspiration from the psychological research on euphemism by Johnson-Laird (1983) who proposed a theory of discourse processing. As it has been explained in chapter two, this theory works in two stages: 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1). The first stage encompasses superficial and propositional which is close to the surface form of the sentence. (2). The second is optional which taps on the first stage as a source for creating ‘mental models’ i.e. a structural mental representation of analogous to a state of affairs in the real world. If we look at the expression Aaa! Moto a wode wia nkorɔfoɔ sei! Moto a wode wia nkorɔfoɔ. ‘Aaa! The motor you are using to steal people like that!’ used by ɔyerepa in the excerpt above, just the surface form, one can interpret it as ‘stealing people’ which happens like the stage one of Johnson-Laird (1983) theory. But if we consider it from the deeper perspective i.e. euphemistically, we can say that ɔyerepa was talking about the sexual escapades of Efo. Thus, Efo uses his motor to have affairs with many women. The use of Aaa! Moto a wode wia nkorɔfoɔ sei! helped to reduce the severity of the expression. Even though stealing is deemed to be ignoble and more despicable than womanising, which therefore could be more face-threatening, but looking at our context we can say that using stealing helped him to avoid further confrontation from the addressee. This even made Efo say ɔse ɔrekyea me adɛn? Wo haw ne sɛn? Haha! Haha! ‘She says she is greeting me why? What is your problem? Haha! Haha!’. If he had gone straight to say wode repɛ mmaa ‘you are using it to woo women’ it could have triggered a different reaction (negative) which could have threatened Efo’s face leading to face loss (Brown and Levinson 1987). Thus, the use of euphemism by 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ɔyerepa served as verbal avoidance technique which persevered the face of Efo the recipient in the public. The laughter by Efo also softened the issue which made the whole situation humourous. 3.4.2 The Emotive and Cognitive aspects of humour in draught Draught in Akan which has an informal setting involves the use of certain expressions which stir on both the emotions and cognition of the participants. As indicated earlier in chapter two, humour can touch on the emotional and cognitive capacities of individuals. This feature of humour also occurs in draught game where the emotional abilities of the participants are affected which influence their overall performance in the game. This notion of humour in a draught game is confirmed by Asiedu a participant I interviewed after he won a game on why he was talking throughout the game. He stated that: “If someone is in a community, there is a time he might have gone through something bad. For example, if that person had a case with the police, we can even say you went to sleep with a little girl. Whether what we speculate is true or not we just want to prevent the person from thinking straight which will affect his thinking. Also, we can use your political affiliation to divert your attention. For example, my opponent belonged to the National Democratic Party (N.D.C), when the game was ongoing, I said former President Mahama has done this 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh or that. You see, you just have to say something to hurt your opponent so that he can’t focus on the game. It is cognitive, you want to divert the attention of your opponent from the game, so you will do everything possible so that he thinks of something else and that something else is emotional. Hence, touching on the emotions of the individual. You see, draught is purely cognitive, and the moment your mind is processing on how best you can win, some people cannot take pressure or tension, i.e. the more you are talking or saying something your opponent cannot think right, his attention is therefore distracted hence, losing the game. (Kwame Asiedu, personal communication, January 2, 2019). We can conclude from the above interaction that humour in draught game affects both the emotion and cognition of an opponent so as to enable the other to win. Excerpt 14 below shows that humour affects the cognition and emotion of participants in a draught. Here, he mentioned in an interview after the game that the humour served as a source of motivation by boosting his morale when he sang and chanted. However, on the side of the recipient, it rather distracted him from calculating mentally to win the game. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 14. Match between Osei Kwabena and Mr Ernest- (02/01/2019, Asante Bekwai) Participants Akan Translation ɔyerepa: Aba yi pa ara deɛ, sɛ aba yi As for this game, it is a draw. (Goodwife) apae? Mr. Ernest: Wei ɛmpae! It will never be a draw! Charles: Na sɛ wei kyerɛ ara na But you are just giving a clue! morekyerɛ mu! Adiyea: Mr Ernest deɛ wode reba yi Mr Ernest what you are doing is deɛ wo dame toɔ nyɛ fɛ not fair, your style is not nice. Osei Osei dame toɔ yɛ ateetee, Osei makes you suffer in his Kwabena: Osei dame toɔ yɛ ateetee, game, Osei nim dame to, ɔnim to Osei makes you suffer in his Osei nim dame to, ɔnim to game, Wo ara na wo baeɛ, wo ara Osei knows how to play draft, he bɛba! knows how to play Osei knows how to play draft, he knows how to play the draft You came on your own, you will come! [All the people started smiling] Adiyea: Osei pa ara deɛ! As for you Osei! 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the excerpt 14 above, we can see that Osei Kwabena who was winning, chanted and sung to divert the attention of the opponent. He mentioned that, when he sings or chants, it gives him energy and also motivates him to win the game. By using expressions like Osei nim dame to, ɔnim to ‘Osei knows how to play draught, he knows how to play’ by the speaker served as a source of encouragement, self-praise and the spreading of fear e.g. Osei dame toɔ yɛ ateetee “Osei makes you suffer in his game”, hence, giving him the energy to win the game. The chants caused his opponent to lose the game because they touched his emotions and diverted his attention. This goes back to support what we noted earlier on Agyekum (2010a:140) who states that “the insults are meant to provoke and divert the attention of the opponent so that he loses concentration and thus loses the game”. 3.4.3 Summary The chapter discussed humour in draught games in Akan and indicated that it involves invective, ridicule, and mockery. Here members have a ‘license’ to hurl all kinds of insults on the other without meaning it or without being charged with any severe sanctions due to the lift of the social ban on insults. It was further shown in the chapter that context is an integral component in humour appreciation in Akan because what one considers as humorous in one situation may not be so in another situation. The study also revealed that humour in draught game is cognitive and the use of certain expressions in the game is meant to touch on the emotions of participants which will 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh eventually divert their attention hence, making them lose the game. The chapter again discussed some figurative expressions like metaphor, simile, euphemism, etc. and how they influence the general study of humour. The chapter also showed that participants can use known humorous reference term to tease each other. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR HUMOUR IN A RADIO PROGRAMME 4.1 Introduction Radio is a channel of transmitting a message via electronic waves which fall under the broadcasting media. Radio programmes like proverbs competition, morning shows, sports programmes, etc. also involve the use of humour. In Ghana, the media has the main responsibility of educating, informing, entertaining and also serving as the mouthpiece of the citizenry. Agyekum (2000) explains that due to the presence of the media, oral literature has shifted from interpersonal face-to-face interaction to sound and airwave interactions. He added that due to the proliferation of several private FM stations, most of the programmes are produced in the Akan language. These stations organize different talk shows, and in these shows, humour and comedy abound. This supports what we projected in chapter one that due to the extensive use of the language, data on humour in the language will thrive. Currently, TV shows that involve the use of humour include Fa bi yɛ sereɛ, sre kwakwa, Agorɔ o, etc., where contestants are allowed to act or joke on a particular topic. This chapter concentrates on the role of humour in the selected radio programme in Akan and how it contributes to media discourse in the Akan community and the entire Ghanaian society. There are (16) excerpts in all for the discussion of humour in radio programmes. Whereas (8) are from the newspaper review segment, (4) are from the 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sports segment and (4) are from the general discussion. Each of the excerpts will be analyzed by showing the contextual background, events and by incorporating the theories; Incongruity and Superiority in the discussion. In 4.2, I will provide the analysis of humour in radio programmes which consist of segments; newspaper review, sports segment and general discussions from Kookurokoo morning show on Peace FM. Whereas section 4. 3 talks about general discussion, section 4.4 provides a summary of the chapter. 4.2. The analysis of data in the radio programmes Humour in radio programmes in Akan manifests in many folds. It can appear as an expression of indirection, innuendoes, ridicule, etc. Generally, humour in radio programmes functions as persuasive strategy, a mitigation strategy, softening mechanism, and for the fun of it etc. (see Agyekum 2006, Bonvillian 1993, Chen 1999, Cook 1992, etc.). As stated in section 2.2.1, humour like meaning is a complex multidimensional concept which transcends beyond just the interlocutors in discourse (see also, Ahmadvand 2011). This shows that in radio programmes there is the need for the interlocutors in any discourse to take into consideration societal norms and cultural values in Akan and the Ghanaian society as a whole (see Agyekum 2000, 2010c). For example, the setting of radio programmes is formal, unlike the draught game which is informal where participants can hurl insults at the other due to the lifting of the social ban on insult. Here (in radio programmes), insult is used in the form of 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indirection by the sender to address issues which could have had a negative repercussion on him if he had avoided the use of humour. The section discusses humour as it occurs in newspaper reviews, sports segments and general discussion on the Kokurokoo morning show on Peace FM. 4.2.1 Humour in the Newspaper review Humour in newspaper review involves the use of figurative language and discourse pointers/expressions, just like it occurs in Akan draught game as discussed in chapter three. However, these figurative expressions, although humorous and ridiculous, are meant to criticise, inform, cause change and create awareness about the happenings in the country. In 4.2.1.1. I will show the use of humour as a tool of indirection in the newspaper reviews in the Kokurokoo Morning Show. 4.2.1.1 Humour as a tool of indirection Indirection is one of the major strategies used by the media (especially in radio) in discussing issues affecting the nation (Wiafe-Akenten, 2015). Indirection has been described as the lack of straightforwardness in a speech, action, etc. for avoidance technique. In Akan, indirection is used when discussing tabooed topics (see Agyekum 2011:24). In the newspaper review, the reviewers use indirection via apologetic, idiomatic expression, humour, etc. to show that they are polite and competent in the language, and also as an avoidance strategy in order to evade face-threatening acts 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Agyekum; 2003, 2010a, 2010b, Brown and Levinson, 1987, etc.). Below are excerpts from Newspaper review on Kokurokoo Morning Show on Peace FM where the reviewers critique the behaviours of leaders when the newly constructed facility at the Kotoka International Airport i.e. Terminal 3 was reported in the dailies to be flooded. Excerpt 15 Newspaper review on October 2, 2018, Kokurokoo morning show [Background: It was reported that a newly constructed facility (Terminal 3) at the Kotoka International Airport was flooded] Participants Akan Translation M: …Yaa na wonim sɛ ɔman yi yɛ …Yaa, do you know that in this problɛm kɛseɛ yɛ baabi a yɛmfaa country, the three problems that yɛn ani nhwɛeɛ yɛ nnipa mmiɛnsa we haven’t paid attention to are: bi: PROfoɔ wɔmo deda nnwuma the PRO’s for companies, when ano asɛm no ba pɛ na wɔmo there is an issue they will retwitwa gye wɔn nnwuma. Afei defend/save their companies. paati kɔmmuniketɛse, deɛ ɛyɛ The party communicators, even koraa a ɔse ɛnyɛ, deɛ ɛnyɛ nso a if is good they will say it is not ɔse ɛyɛ. ɛnna soo-kɔɔl ɛɛm! so. And the so-called ɛɛm, serial siriakɔlɛse ebi na yɛrehu no aha callers, this is a clear instance. no. Ade no asi nanso wokɔfrɛ The thing has happened but even (even) obi a ɔyɛ kasamafoɔ ma if you call this spokesman for adwuma no a, ɔbɛba abɛka adi ho the company, he will come and adanseɛ sɛ hwee koraa ɛnsiieɛ. d e n y and bear witness that nothing has happened. F: Eee! nyɛ ebia ara ne sɛ Eee! That is exactly what the NADMOfoɔ se hwee nsiiɛ nti NADMO officials are saying mfoto yi a ɛwɔ ha yi sɛ ɛnyɛ that nothing has happened. So, Ghana ɛɛpɔt a momma yɛnhunu these photos if they are not from 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sɛ ɛnyɛ Ghana ɛɛpɔɔt. Na ɛduru Ghana airport then they should mmerɛ bi a monya pɔletekal ɔfese let us know. Sometimes, if you hɔ kɔpuei a, monsusu nwene sɛ get political office you think we yɛn a aka no nyinaa sɛbe yɛmmɔ don’t have a number (we don’t nɔmba. Sɛbe sɛbe mpanimfoɔ wɔ have sense). With all apologies, ɔman yi mu. Animdefoɔ bebree we have elderly people in this wɔ ɔman yi mu, anyansafoɔ country. We have learned men bebree wɔ ɔman yi mu. Yɛmfa in this country. We should give wɔmo buo ne anidie mma wɔmo them their due respect and kakra. Na yɛnnyae sɛ (position) honour. We should stop that nti yɛbue yɛano a na yɛaka no because, of the position we just watraa, na yɛaka no watraa, na open our mouths and say yɛaka no watraa. Saa kasa wei; whatever we like, we say yɛkasa (with impunity) na ɛkyerɛ whatever we like, we say yɛn ho. whatever we like (and say it just like that, we say it just like that). This speech: we speak with impunity to each other. M: …Nana, kafra, mo, mo, mohyɛ Grandmother, sorry you, you, me wɔfaase abufuo anɔpa saa why do you annoy my niece this adɛn? morning like that? F: Hihihi! Hihihi! Excerpt 16 Newspaper review on October 3, 2018, Kookurokoo Morning Show. [Background: Cocoa farmers in the country were expecting an increase in the price or bags of cocoa, however, it was not so. So, the Ghanaian Times newspaper conveyed the displeasure of the farmers.] 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation M: …ɛɛ, mohyɛɛ me wɔfaase …ɛɛ as you annoyed my niece the abufuo na Kookoo akuafoɔ cocoa farmers chest has also burst! nso bo paeɛ! [said with giggles at the background] F: Ayiri! It is full/ It is on [She shouted and ridiculed] M: Sɛɛ kookoo boɔ nso yɛanto mu. Meanwhile, they did not increase Enti sɛ wofa Ghanaian Times the price of cocoa. So, if you check peegye 7 a, mmom anim hɔ the page seven of the Ghanaian wɔde Owura Joseph Boahen Times, but they have the picture of Aidoo COCOBOD CEO Mr Joseph Boahen Aidoo, the CEO mfonin ato hɔ sɛ akuafoɔ se deɛ of COCOBOD at the front page asie no nyɛ adeɛ a wɔmo te that the farmers are complaining aseɛ, nanso, mpanimfoɔ nso that they do not understand what is akyerɛ mu sɛ nyɛ wɔn pɛ … going but the leaders are saying it is not their fault… From the excerpts 15 and 16 above, we can infer in 15 for example that the reviewer (F) used the apologetic expression sɛbe which is a politeness strategy to talk about an unpleasant issue (Brown and Levinson 1987). This will help in saving the face of both the sender and the addressee (in this case, the leaders). This is because, in African societies and by extension Akan, face transcends beyond just an individual, it encompasses both the individual and the entire society (Agyekum 2010b). The 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reviewer used both idiomatic and apologetic expressions sɛbe yɛmmɔ nɔmba ‘we don’t have number ’as a form of indirection and a softening strategy as against yɛnni adwene ‘we don’t have sense’. If she had used the expression yɛnni adwene ‘we don’t have sense’, she might have been taken on for insulting the leaders of the country that morning. By utilizing the idiomatic expression sɛbe yɛmmɔ nɔmba ‘we don’t have number’ softened the issue thereby reducing the sensitivity of the expression. Following Brown and Levinson (1987) Politeness Theory, Holmes (2000) adds that humour can be used as an expression of politeness. Here, humour can function as positive and negative politeness. The positive politeness function of humour according to Holmes (2000) works in two ways: (1) “Humour can address the hearer’s/addressee’s positive face needs by expressing solidarity or collegiality. (2) Humour can be used to protect the speaker’s positive face needs by expressing self-depreciatory meaning or apologetic sentiments”. (2000:167) Looking at the second function in our case, we can say that the speaker (F) used sɛbe which is an apologetic sentiment or expression to protect her positive face needs which are a public property loaned from the community. As stated earlier in 4.2, the setting of radio is formal, hence the need to use appropriate language in that space. In addition to the above, Džanić (2013) states that idiomatic expressions help in describing a person who said something inappropriate, embarrassing, stupid, or wrong to the plight of a group of people. We can infer from the above that the speaker used 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the idiomatic expression to describe how the leaders make the citizens feel whenever they behave in such a hypocritical manner in this instance. The behaviour of leaders was seen as hypocritical because the speaker mentioned in a prelude to the discourse that they issued a statement to disclaim that the flood did not occur. This was false because there are pictures that showed that the place was flooded as seen from the extract. There was a similar case on June 3, 2015, at the Kwame Nkrumah circle during a rainstorm. Several people sustained various degrees of injuries, others lost their lives and properties. The leaders promised to ensure that such incidents never occur but we can all attest to it that such things still occur four years on. In the same excerpt, her co-reviewer, seeing how incensed she has become combined the honorific Nana ‘Grandmother’ as a persuasive strategy and the humorous expression kafra, mo, mo, mohyɛ me wɔfaase abufuo anɔpa saa adɛn? ‘sorry you, you, why do you annoy my niece this morning like that?’. The pronominal expression mo, mo, ‘you, you’ is a reference to the leaders which was said via giggling. The speaker (F) laughing hihihi! to that, calmed the waters hence serving as a softening strategy to reduce the level of her anger and making the program fun and interesting. In excerpt 16 the reviewer (M) mentioned that …ɛɛ, mohyɛɛ me wɔfaase abufuo na Kookoo akuafoɔ nso bo paeɛ! ‘…ɛɛ! as you annoyed my niece the cocoa farmers chests have burst!’ to the leaders by giggling at the background to show that what goes around comes around. The expression … kookoo akuafoɔ nso bo paeɛ! ‘…the cocoa 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh farmers chest has also burst!’ is an idiomatic expression which means that the cocoa farmers are also angry/annoyed! The use of that expression made the discussion funny due to the tone he used. We can also compare that expression koko apae ‘chest burst’ which implies being angry. People humorously use the sound reference to say kookoo apae ‘cocoa has burst’ or kooko apae ‘piles have burst’. They use the humorous version to indicate extreme anger. The incongruity which is a reference to anger can also be seen through the use of … kookoo akuafoɔ nso bo paeɛ! ‘…the cocoa farmers chest has also burst!’ even though it is also an idiomatic expression. This is because in reality even if the farmers are angry, no matter the extend, their chest cannot burst. By citing how the behaviour of the leaders caused an emotional pain in this situation anger to his niece who is the co-reviewer to the leaders, and the farmers also getting disgruntled by their inability to increase the price of cocoa serves as payback to their action. The co-reviewer shouting ayiri ‘it is full/ it is on’, and ridiculed at the same time made the show very hilarious. We can also see that the humour was sourced as a tool to criticize social reality (Džanić 2013). 4.2.1.2 Humour as a tool for ridiculing and just for the fun of it The use of humour as a tool to ridicule and talk about issues in society is indicated in the excerpts below. As noted in chapter two, ridicule is the basic component in any humourous act/event because its perlocutionary effect is more acceptable than insult (see Austin 1962; Grunner 1978; Agyekum 2004b, 2010b). This indicates that a 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh speaker or addressee can determine whether a particular act is funny i.e. humorous or not based on a specific context (Raskin 1985). In this newspaper review, the reviewers discussed the stories affecting the citizenry, especially those living in Accra (Pokuaase), and by extension the whole nation, due to the poor nature of roads. The reviewers mentioned that due to its poor nature (as a result of the reconstruction, and even though the contractors are doing their best), most of the workers come to work late. This is as a result of heavy vehicular traffic. Also, they bemoaned about the attitudes of leaders as they do not attach importance to a serious issue like road construction and repairs. They added that there is enough evidence in the news about road accidents as a result of potholes, sharp curves (u-turn), poor road signs, etc. Combining mocking, direct speech, ridicule, jokes, compliments, etc. the reviewers dissected the issue and their displeasure over it. The excerpts 17 and 18 below indicate the use of jokes, ridicule, etc. by the reviewers in discussing issues affecting them and the entire nation. Excerpt 17. Newspaper review, October 5th, 2018, Kookurokoo Morning Show. [Background: In this extract, the discussants talked about the poor nature of roads in the country especially the one at Pokuaase how they are negatively affecting the daily lives of Ghanaians]. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation Abusuafoɔ! yɛma mo nyinaa Our family members good akye ma mo ahyiahyia ooo, morning and welcome ooo, ehe! It ehe! ɛyere oo, Akyemfoɔ no has been tight oo, there are two mmienu, baako asɔre ama aka Akyems here, one just went baako… outside and it is left with one… M: ɛyɛ sɛ woka no sɛ me padi padi You should have said that my bosom friend just went out! MBA no wasɔre! MBA ɔbaa tenten a tall giant woman ha! Latecomer! gramoo ha! Leetekɔma! F: Sɛ wote Pokuaase? Wobɛdi You live at Pokuaase, right? You trafeke so ama woannu wo ho! will be in traffic and even regret! M: …Ghanafoɔ te aseɛ hɛ! ɛnyɛ me …Ghanaians understand hɛ! I am nko ara na meyɛɛ leete, NYK not the only one who is late, NYK nso woyɛɛ leete, ‘mene no you are also late, ‘both of us were nyinaa na ɛdii trafeke mu, in the traffic, I called him old one merefrɛ no sɛ akora waduru? are you in? He said oh I am at First ɔse oo mewɔ First Choice, na Choice and I said then I am ahead mese me koraa mewɔ m’anim of you, I am at Pokuaase. So, by kyɛn wo, mewɔ Pokuaase’. Enti God’s grace, I have a partner who Nyame adom manya leetekɔma is also a latecomer, so say baako aka me ho, enti ka sɛ hallelujah! halleluya! F: Aaa! Daabi! Wei deɛ menhyɛɛ Aaa! As for this one, I will not ho halleluya da! Leete deɛ ɛyɛ share any hallelujah to it! Late is leete! late! M: Hehe! Hehe! Leete yɛ leete… Hehe! Hehe! Late is late!... 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 18. Newspaper review, October 5th, 2018, Kookurokoo Morning Show Participants Akan Translation F: …ɛkwan no nso deɛ ɛrekɔ so The road construction is going on kamakama, ɛkɔ ntɛmntɛm… very well, it is done in speed… M: ɛkɔ kama, Kɔntratas a wɔreyɛ It is well, as for the contractors Pokuaase kwan no deɛ! metu working on the Pokuase road! I kyɛ ma mo, soo faa soo guudu! tip my hat to you, soo far soo good! F: Na Ghana Highwaysfoɔ na yɛne It is Ghana Highways that we wɔn wɔ problɛm! have a problem with them! M: Sɛ sɛn? Why? F: Sɛ u-tɛɛn u-tɛɛn adane That the u-turns have turned into amenaamena no… potholes… M: Ooo, sɛ ɛno deɛ Yaa yɛaka Ooo, as for that one we are tired abrɛ…me firi sɛ ebia na ɛno nso of saying it Yaa…I thought it is ka kwan no ho ɛno nti na mato part of the road that’s why I have mebo wɔ hɔ no. been patient on that. F: U-tɛɛn no? Na wose ɛkwan no The u-turn? Are you saying that wɔmo bɛyɛ akɔduru Tooman? they will construct the road up to Na ɛwɔ sɛ ɛkɔka hɔ anaa Tooman? Must it get there or ɛbɛduru? maybe? M: ɛsɛ sɛ ɛduru, Tooman…mesusu It must get there, Tooman...I sɛ ɛkɔduru baabi a (Y-junction) think it will get to the Y-junction, no, daabi, daabi, nanka yɛnte no, no, else we will not aseɛ! Tie, manpanin Kuffour na understand! Listen! That road ɔbɛyii ɛkwan wei oo, enti sɛ aseɛ was constructed by president 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh na woreyɛ no yie a, wontumi nyɛ Kuffour, so if you are no ayi… ponponi agyanan, wo reconstructing it you cannot like.. mfa fitaa bi ntua toɔ, na wonka the excreta of the male lizard sɛ deɛ aka no yɛnkɔne, sɔɔre, poponi, then you leave a white daabi ɔwɔ sɛ moreyɛ dea … fragment at the end and you tell us to go and relieve ourselves the rest, sorry, if you are doing then… F: Ka kyerɛ wɔmo sɛ wɔmo mmɛyɛ Tell them to come and fix the pɔɔthoosu no ma yɛn aa!... potholes for them for us ah! M: ɛne relee no? And the relay! F: Wɔmo mɛyɛ relee so na They should come and do the amenaamena no mfiri so. Na u- tɛɛn no nso Ghana Highwaysfoɔ relay so that the potholes will not wɔmo nyɛ! be there. The u-turn too Ghana Highways should also fix it! M: Ghana Highways sɛ ɛkwan no Do Ghana Highways have an so wɔmo ɔfese wɔ hɔ, Amasaman? office on that road at Amansaman? F: ɛno yɛ urban roads… That is urban roads… M: Enti wɔmo wɔmo reyɛ dɛn? So, what are they doing? F: ɛkwan no yɛ Ghana That is the Ghana Highways road. Highwaysfoɔ kwan. M: Enti u-tɛɛn kɛkɛ no wɔmo ntumi So, they cannot fix an ordinary u- nyɛ? turn? F: Anha, wowerɛ fi sɛ Honourable No, have you forgotten that Clement kɔɔ ho a wɔmo stɔpoo Honourable Clement went there no? ɛno ne papa baako a … 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and he was stopped? That was one good deed that… M: … Enti Honourable Clement So Honourable Clement went …kɔɔ hɔ na wɔmo stɔpoo no na there and he was stopped and he wamma ammɛka ankyerɛ yɛn? didn’t come and inform us?.. That … Adeɛ no bɛtumi akum thing can kill people!... nnipa!... anka ɛbɛyɛ mu-ga- It will be a war! they will run for mu! wɔmo bɛguan!.. their lives! [he said it via scoffing] F: … asedɛnt nko ara!.. …It only accidents!.. Based on the excerpts 17 and 18 above, we can deduce in 17 that the reviewer (F) intended to mock her co-workers who were late to work that morning especially with the use of the expression ehe! ɛyere ooo ‘ehe! It has been tight oo’ because they were stuck in traffic as one of them got up to leave. Her co-reviewer said she should say her bosom friend Maame Biama has stepped out. Using the description ɔbaa tenten gramoo ‘a tall giant woman’ which we can interpret the gramoo ‘giant’ as an honorific, and later ridiculed himself as a latecomer. His co-reviewer knowing very well that he stays at Pokuaase intentionally asked him sɛ wote Pokuaase? ‘but you live at Pokuaase’, wobɛdi trafeke so ama woannu wo ho! ‘you will be in traffic and regret’ through giggling to give a clue that he was also late to work that day. The reviewer (M) who already knew what she was talking about tried to justify himself and make light of the situation by using Ghanafoɔ te aseɛ hɛ!, ɛnnyɛ me nko ara na meyɛɛ leete, NYK nso woyɛɛ leete, mene no nyinaa na ɛdii trafeke mu ‘Ghanaians understand hɛ!, I am not the only one who is late, NYK you are also late, both of us were in the traffic’. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh We can infer that the reviewer (M) bringing NYK in as his partner in that activity tends to reduce the burden on his head and make it look like a shared responsibility or wants to reduce the seriousness of the issue by joking with it. This shows that even though he is late, he is not the only person so MBA should take it easy. What makes the situation funnier and more humorous is when he jokingly said enti Nyame adom manya leetekɔma baako aka me ho, enti ka sɛ halleluya! ‘So, by God’s grace, I have a partner who is also a latecomer, so say hallelujah!’. Telling his co-reviewer to say hallelujah made the show interesting due to the tone he used. His co-reviewer mentioned she won’t shout hallelujah! to that, because lateness is something, she will not be happy to condone. We can see the use of compliment in excerpt 18 when the reviewer (M) commended the workers for their effectiveness in the work by the use of the expression Kɔntratas a wɔreyɛ Pokuaase kwan no deɛ! metu kyɛ ma mo, soo faa soo guudu! ‘as for the contractors working on the Pokuase road! I tip my hat to you, soo far soo good!’. He tipping his heart for them is a sign of respect and also show that he appreciates what they are doing. In using the direct speech enti sɛ asɛe na woreyɛ no yie a, wontumi nyɛ no ayi, ponponi agyanan, wo mfa fitaa bi ntua toɔ, na wonka sɛ deɛ aka no yɛnkɔne, sɔɔre ‘if you are reconstructing it you cannot do it like the excreta of the male lizard poponi, then you leave a white fragment at the end and you tell us to go and let out the rest, sorry, …’. This show that the issue is very delicate and a sensitive one so the leaders 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh should treat it as such. When he realized that he had avoided the use of indirection and mentioned a tabooed word yɛnkɔne ‘we should go and ease ourselves’ he said sorry through giggling because he knew the perlocutionary effect attached to such an expression. This also shows that he is polite and that radio discourse is formal as indicated in 4.2 so he cannot say whatever he likes. This also attests to Agyekum (2009) when he indicated that humour and jokes can serve as an indirect means of communicating implicit meanings that could have caused a face threat to the addressees. The humour was seen when he giggled and said sɔɔre ‘sorry’ after he saw that he used yɛnkɔne ‘we should go and ease ourselves’. It can also be seen in the same excerpt that the Ghana Highway Authority are preventing goodwill citizens who are trying to fix the potholes. These potholes are supposed to be fixed by the authority they have shirked that responsibility. The reviewer (F) cited one Honourable Clement who was stopped by them. Her co- reviewer was shocked that he didn’t come and inform them because those potholes can kill people. He told them that if they stop anyone again, they will face them squarely. The incongruity is seen via the expression Anka ɛbɛyɛ mu-ga-mu! wɔmo bɛguan!... ‘It will be a war! they will run for their lives!’ because he is a journalist and calling for war is outrageous, and making it humourous. Saying it via scoffing, even though it is also a serious issue made the discourse interesting. Another instance through which humour manifests in radio programmes by the use of ridicule is shown in excerpts 19 and 20 below. Here, ridicule is used to make 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fun of politicians and political leaders. The reviewer cited the name given to the presidential aspirants of the New Patriotic Party (N.P.P) by the General Secretary of the National Democratic Congress (N. D.C) party in a ridiculous manner. He went ahead and asked him the name which will be given to the N.D.C. This type of humour has been described in the literature as political humour where certain expressions are used to ridicule politicians and their political parties, social institutions, ideas, political systems and issues that occur in everyday life (see Coulson 2005 2006; Coulson and Oakley 2008; Džanić and Berberović 2017). The excerpts below illustrate the use of humour to ridicule politicians. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 19. Newspaper review on October 2nd, 2018, Kokurokoo Morning Show. [Background: It was reported that Ade Coker, the Greater Accra Regional Chairman of N.D.C has told Kwadwo Bonsu, a presidential aspirant in his party to go and sleep when he decided to join the presidential race of their party. Participants Akan Translation F: …Na Ade Coker nso reto mane …Ade Coker is giving it to Kwadwo Bonsu nso wɔ Daily Kwadwo Bonsu by saying that Satelite mu ɛnna ɔse Kwadwo Kwadwo Bonsu go and sleep! in Bonsu kɛda! the daily statesman. M: ɛhum, ɛhum [He exhaled] F: Pɛ baabi da na ɔmanpanin Go and find someplace and sleep diberɛ no yɛrenkɔ no saa kɛkɛ because the presidential position ɛnyɛ fo saa, wate! Kɔda! kɔda! is not a cheap one, we don’t go ɛmma sɛ worebɛpere manpanin. for it like that! Go and sleep! Go Enti Kwadwo Bonsu ahyɛ ne and sleep! and stop this spɛɛse da ha. Ade Coker no a presidential position. So ɔreka akyerɛ no no deɛ ɔnni ha. Kwadwo Bonsu is in his Na waka akyerɛ no sɛ Nɔma 12 spectacle here. Ade Coker who man kɔda na ɛnyɛ (Beauty made that statement is not here. contest), yɛrenkɔ Miss Ghana He told him that number 12 man, enti kɔ na kɔda… go and sleep because it is not a Beauty contest, we are not going for Miss Ghana so go and sleep… 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 20. Newspaper review, October 2, 2018. Kookurokoo Morning Show [Background: In this extract, the discussants were talking about the number of presidential aspirants of N. D.C after it was reported that a new candidate has filed for nomination.] Participants Akan Translation M: …Na wose N.D.C [flagbearership] …So, you are saying the no wɔmo ayɛ 12? N.D.C flagbearers aspirants are now 12? F: Aane, na yɛwɔ 11, Kwadwo Bonsu Yes, they were 11, it is na ɛbɛkaa ho maa no yɛɛ 12. K w a d w o B o n s u w h o j o i n e d them and they are now 12. M: Yɛmfrɛ General Asiedu Nketia na We should call General yɛmmisa no sɛ, afe bi a ɛtwaa mu na Asiedu Nketia and ask him yɛwɔ akorɔmfoɔ 17 na deɛbɛn na that some time ago we had 17 yɛwɔ yi? Deɛbɛn na ɔdebɛhyɛ thieves so what do we have weinom anan mu? anyansafoɔ 12 now? What will he use to anaa ahotɔfoɔ? Asoro abɔfoɔ? replace these? The wise men haha! haha! Asorobɔfoɔ deɛ mma or peaceful men? Angels? wɔmo mfa mfa hɔ. Wɔde fa hɔ pɛ Haha! Haha!... As for angels, ntɔkwa a ɛbɛsi wɔ Ghana no! they should not go there. If they go there the war that will occur in Ghana! F: Na sɛ Ghana ha yɛwɔ ɔsoro abɔfoɔ But in this country, we have an angel here. wɔ ha. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh M: Nikofram ne Ayitefrɛm. Obinim Nikofram and Ayitefram. As deɛ wonnim na sɛ wokɔfa asoro abɔfoɔ nsɛm ba a ɔne wo bɛko. for Obinim if you talk about Nyame bɔfoɔ baako pɛ a ɔwɔ angels issues he will fight you. asaase yi so seisei ara ne Obinim, haha! Haha! Enti amanfoɔ The one and only angel of Asoroabɔfoɔ dummienu deɛ… God presently on this earth is Obinim, haha! Haha! So, listeners as for 12 angels… From excerpts 19 and 20 above, we can see in 19 for instance that the reviewer used ridicule to make fun of the aspirant based on what Ade Coker (the Greater Accra Regional Chairman of the N. D.C) has said. He is reported to have told Kwadwo Bonsu to go and sleep. The reviewer mimicking, repeating and saying Kwadwo Bonsu kɛda! ‘Kwadwo Bonsu go and sleep’ in the Fante dialect of Akan made it ridiculous. The use of the injection ɛhum, ɛhum without saying anything was done intentionally by the discussant as an indirection strategy to lessen the bluntness of the issue they were talking about. This is because it is sensitive and embarrassing. Even though it was humorous, the reviewer did not use it just for the humour of it, but it served as a mitigation strategy concerning the embarrassment from the Regional Chairman that he should go and sleep. We can also see in the same excerpt that the speaker (reviewer F) used that form of humour to belittle the capabilities of a political figure/politician which is 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh typical of the Superiority Theory. The use of … Pɛ baabi da na ɔmanpanin diberɛ no yɛnkɔ no saa kɛkɛ, ɛnyɛ fo saa wate! Kɔda! kɔda! ‘Go and find someplace and sleep because the presidency is not a cheap one, we don’t go for it like that! Go and sleep! Go and sleep!’ shows how ridiculous he can be. Also, the expression Nɔma 12 man kɔda na ɛnnyɛ beauty contest, yɛnkɔ Miss Ghana enti kɔ na kɔda… ‘go and sleep because it is not a beauty contest, we are not going for Miss Ghana so go and sleep…’ further buttress the argument on the superior posture taken by the chairman. Agyekum (2004b) describes such expressions as mediatized political invectives which focus on politicians. The superiority dynamic adopted by the Regional Chairman tends to reduce the recipient to nothing which in this case makes the utterance humorous. Here, we can see that the reviewer projected the message sent by Ade Coker to Kwadwo Bonsu 3as a warning while they were enjoying the receiver’s misery and making fun of him at the same time. This is a clear feature of the Superiority Theory where people feel happy by enjoying in the misery of the other (Hobbes 1968). What makes the expression more ridiculous is the source -Ade Coker who is the Greater Accra chairman of the N D C. He is a political leader of the same party, hence him telling Kwadwo Bonsu to go and sleep is ridiculous and humorous at the same time because of the manner the reviewers presented it. 3 Kwadwo Bonsu was the mayor for the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly during former President John Dramani Mahama’s administration. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In excerpt 20, however, the ridiculous humour was directed to the General Secretary, all the aspirants and probably the entire N D C party by the reviewer (M) and not just an aspirant. The reviewer (M) started by asking first the number of aspirants from his co-reviewer. This was done strategically for him to get the opportunity to ridicule Asiedu Nketiah and by extension the N.D.C. He did this by hiding behind the earlier statement made by Asiedu himself when the N.P.P. flagbearers were 17 in number in 2017. In the review, the reviewer mentioned that Asiedu Nketiah referred to them as akorɔmfoɔ 17 ‘17 thieves’ Referring to the N.P.P flagbearer aspirants as thieves is an insult. However, what makes the excerpt ridiculous and humorous is how the reviewer asked for the name that will be given to the N.D.C aspirants. The reviewer asked deɛbɛn na ɔde bɛhyɛ weinom anan mu? anyansafoɔ 12 anaa ahotɔfoɔ? Asorobɔfoɔ? haha! haha! ‘What will he use to replace these? The wise men or peaceful men? Angels? Haha! Haha!’. If Asiedu Nketiah can call the N.P.P aspirants as thieves then he wonders what name he will give to his party aspirants. What also makes the comment more sarcastic is the contrast between the two representation. Thus the N.P.P. were referred to as thieves which denote a negative representation. While the N.D.C. were seen as angels/wise men etc. which denote a positive representation. Laughing haha! haha! at the end by the reviewer-M (speaker) softened the issue and made the discussion interesting because of how ironic the situation is and the posture the secretary put out. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The most interesting and sarcastic aspect in excerpt 20 is the comment on Obinim4 by the reviewer (M) when he said that Asoroabɔfoɔ deɛ mma wɔmo mfa mfa hɔ ‘As for angels they should not go there’ and if they venture, he will fight them. The reviewer (M) referring to such a controversial figure i.e. Obinim and asking what name to be given to the aspirants is a clear example of ridicule, where the speakers (reviewers) were hiding behind Obinim to mock politicians. We can see again that the reviewer intended to mock the General Secretary and by extension his party in general. We can also infer that the agents of the ridicule (the reviewers) were using the number of aspirants just to ridicule the recipients (the General Secretary and his party). The use of humour to ridicule politicians, political parties, public leaders, social institutions, etc. can also be indicated in excerpts 21 and 22 below. Here, the reviewers used stories in the dailies and ridiculed the leaders. The review in excerpt 21 was geared towards ridiculing the borrowing attitude of the government in power when the president tried to distinguish between his style of borrowing and that of the previous government. In 22, however, the reviewers talked about Nyantakyi the estranged former Ghana Football Association (GFA) president who was sanctioned by 4 Emmanuel Obinim popularly known as Angel Obinim is a famous Tele-evangelist who claims to be the only human being who has been ordained by God to be an angel. This prophet is so funny and controversial that he even threatens anyone who speaks against him that he will come to the dream of such individuals in a form of snake. Obinim always associate himself with Nikofram and Ayitefram the two angels he claims to work with. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the Federation of International Football Association (FIFA). This was after an exposé on a corruption scandal he was believed to have been involved in. Excerpt 21. Newspaper review, Kookurokoo Morning Show, November 1, 2018. [Background/context: One of the key campaign messages of the N.P.P against N.D.C during the 2016 electioneering period was borrowing. So, when the N.P.P won the election and assumed office and also started borrowing, the citizens also talked/displayed their displeasure on that attitude.] Participants Akan Translation M: Na ɔmanpanin Akuffo Addo na And president Akuffo Addo ɔreka sɛ ɔnkɔtenkɔte a yɛabɔ says he has been hearing some bosea! yɛbɔɔ bosea, obiara tua ne rumours that we have yɔnko deɛ! borrowed! if we have borrowed each one pays the debts of the other! F: He! He! M: Enti me nso mebɔɔ bosea na wo So, if I have borrowed and you nso wobɛtua na ayɛ dɛn? Na aban come and pay it what is wrong rebɔ bosea dodo! Na ɔse oouu! with it? And the government is bosea no yɛwɔ 2! borrowing too much! And he says oh! We have two types of borrowing! F: Ookay Okay M: Yɛwɔ bosea: sɛ wakɔbɔ bosea na We have one: that you go and wode akɔgu wo bɔtɔ mu na wakɔdi borrow and keep it in your bosea no, pocket and squander it, 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh F: Mede akɔbɔ premane! I have used it for a lavish lifestyle! M: ɛhɛɛ, makɔbɔ bosea abɛkyɛ adi ɛhɛɛ, I have gone for a loan and ɛno no wɔ hɔ! ɛna yɛakɔbɔ bosea I have squandered it with others de abɛyɛ investment, yɛde abɛyɛ that one is there, and we have adwuma! gone for a loan but we used it for investment, we have used it in development! F: Saaa? Really? M: ɛnoo no no, enti Nana Addo ɔse ne That is it, so Nana Addo asserts deɛ no agyapadeɛ no deɛ bi ne no. that his own is the asset type F: Aaaaa! Agyapadeɛ? Aaaaa! Asset? M: Makɔbɔ besea de abɛyɛ I have gone for a loan for agyapadeɛ enti wotumi de wo nsa development, so you point to it kyerɛ so sɛ ɛnie! and say this is it! F: Aaa, but na ɛyɛ bosea? Aaa, but it is a loan? M: Yee! Yee! F: All bosea bi bosea! Every loan is a loan! M: ɛɛ Nana Addo ɛyɛ bosea? ɛɛ Nana Addo is it a loan? Nana ɔmanpanin, Nana Yaa rebisa wo? Yaa is asking you Mr President? [There was laughter at the background] F: ɛɛ, ɔmanpanin na ɛyɛ bosea? ɛɛ, Mr President is it a loan? 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh M: Oo, sɛ ayi, borrow sɛ ɛyɛ bosea? Oo, but to borrow is a loan, right? F: Akɔyɛ akoa yi asɛm yi, ɔse: every It is like the saying of this man: pente bi pente, every bosea bi bosea every pente is pente, every loan is a loan M: ɛnna ɔkyerɛ sɛ ɛyɛ bosea, He says it is a loan, he has not ɔnnwane mfiri hɔ nkaa sɛ ɛnyɛ run away from there that it is bosea not a loan F: But ɛyɛ bosea? But it is a loan? M: Wɔasɛm wa! tie na ma me You talk too much! Listen and nkyerɛkyerɛ mu let me explain it F: Aaa! kyerɛkyerɛ mu! Aaa! explain it! [She scoffed] M: Nana Addo kyerɛ sɛ bosea no Nana Addo says that the loan is wabɔ, ɔde.. woaahu? Woahu?... meant for, do you get it? do you get it? M&F: Haha! Haha! Haha! Haha! Haha! Haha! M: woahu? woaahu? anaa Nana Do you get it? Do you get it? or Addo nyɛ saa na wo kaa no?... Nana Addo you did not say it like that? [there was laughter at the background] F: Ahaaa, ahaaa… Ahaaa, Ahaaa 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh M: ɔno nso deɛ ɔtie Peace! Nana As for him, he listens to Peace! Addo sɛ wogu so rebɔ? but Nana Addo are you continuing the borrowing? F: Ahaa! bisa no! bisa no! Ahaa! ask him! Ask him! M: ɔgu so rebɔ, ɔno no deɛ no ɔse ɛyɛ He is saying that his own is according to deɛ no bi, kyerɛ sɛ according to type, this means ɔrebɔ de ayɛ adwuma! Aaa, that he is working with it! And adwuma no nso a ɔreyɛ no wotumi de wo nsa kyerɛ so sɛ ɛnie! Obi wɔ the work he is doing you can hɔ a ɔkɔbɔ bosea a na wadi. Obi point at it! Someone else will go nso de yɛ adwuma ma yɛhu sɛ and borrow and squander it. ɛnie! Another one will borrow and we will see it! F: Enti bosea no ɔbɛkɔ so abɔ anaa So, is he going to continue the ɔbɛkɔ break? borrowing or he will go on break? M: ɛno deɛ gye sɛ wobɛgye bisa no…. As for this one you have to come and ask him yourself…. F: (Google his name he is known Google his name he is known everywhere!) Ee Papa yi a ɔrekɔ everywhere! Ee, I am referring yi na mereka n’asɛm oo… to this man going oo… Excerpt 22. Newspaper review, Kookurokoo Morning Show, November 1, 2018. [Background: This discourse was on Kwasi Nyantakyi the GFA president who was at the centre of the Anas exposé on the alleged corruption scandal at the GFA]. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation M: … Kwasi Nyantakyi ɔse ne ho …Kwasi Nyantakyi says he is adwiri no pa ara ɛfiri sɛ yɛwoo no, shocked to the bone ever since sɛ FIFA na ayɛ no saa no? FIFA he was born, is it FIFA that na ayɛ no saa no? Na Yaa, ɛno nso has done that to him? is it ɛyɛ me sɛ wonim deɛ amanfoɔ FIFA that has done that to binom rekeka? Wonim deɛ amanfoɔ him? And Yaa, do you know rekeka? Wɔnom kyerɛ sɛ Kwasi what others are saying? do Nyantakyi baabi a waduru no anka you know what others are daakye biara anka ɔbɛtumi akɔyɛ saying? They are saying that (FIFA president) sɛ woahu? where Kwasi Nyantakyi reached, there was the likelihood that he could have become the FIFA president in future, do you get it? F: Mmm! sɛ ɔno deɛ wadi akyiri akyɛ Mmm! As for him, he has followed it for a long time M: Oo wayɛ oo! ɔnim mu waben! GFA Oo he has served oo! He is yi wayɛ aa, (vice president) de ma well versed and skilled in it! CAF, na FIFA hɔ no ankasa no He’s done it with GFA, the wɔnom (governing council) no vice president of CAF, and koraa, enti baabi a ɔrekorɔ no even at the governing council ɔbɛtumi abɛyɛ FIFA (president) no of FIFA so where he was ama no ayɛ yie. Enti ɛbaa saa no na heading to, it could have been wɔnom a wɔrekɔto ne so aba no fom possible that he could have deɛ wafom, mmara no deɛ wato na become a president. So, when akoa wei sei sɛ yɛgyae no daakye bi they were going to vote on his a, enti wɔmo a wɔkɔto ne so aba no section, they say we know he 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh binom wɔ hɔ a wɔmo hunu Kwasi had made a mistake, he has Nyantakyi sɛ ɔyɛ (potential FIFA violated the rules, but if we president) a ɔsane yɛ Bibini… leave him, we know that this Kwasi Nyatakyi could be a potential FIFA president and he is an African too… F: Enti ɛnneɛ ɛsɛ sɛ yɛstɔpe no So, we have to stop him M: ɛnna ɛnneɛ ne mfe sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! Then they stabbed his ribs sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! F: Sɛ wode wo ho aba deɛ a, But you have brought yourself (You have caused your problem) M: Yɛma no (for life), yɛnyi no mfiri We should give him for life, agorɔ no mu koraa!... we must take him out of the game. The excerpts 21 and 22 above indicate the use of humour to ridicule politicians and public figures. This can be illustrated in excerpt 21 for instance when they combined mockery to make fun of the President. The reviewer (M) started with what the President is reported to have said that Nana Akuffo says ɔnkɔtenkɔte a yɛabɔ bosea! yɛbɔɔ bosea, obiara tua ne yɔnko deɛ! ‘he has been hearing some rumours that we have borrowed! if we have borrowed each one pays the debts of the other!’. This particular statement sets the stage for the ridiculing because it contains the punchline. We could see that the whole excerpt was geared towards ridiculing the president because the 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reviewers strategically and intentionally asked the questions as if they are not aware of the issue. For example, the reviewer (F) played the devils’ advocate by using rhetorical expressions like saa? Really? Aaaaa, Agyapadeɛ? Aaaaa, asserts? Aaaa, but ɛyɛ bosea? Aaaa, but is a loan? and Aaa! kyerɛkyerɛ mu! Aa, explain it! etc. and scoffing at the same time made the discourse funny and interesting. His co-reviewer also took his time to explain it but got stuck on the way. So he resorted to appealing to her conscience by using Nana Addo kyerɛ sɛ bosea no wabɔ, ɔde… woahu? woahu?... Nana Addo says that the loan is meant for, do you get it? do you get it?... What makes it more ridiculous is when reviewer (M) stated that Nana says there are two types of borrowing but his (own) is the according to type, which he uses for development and investment unlike someone else who will go and borrow and keep the money and squander it. We can infer that the reviewer was trying to cast an insinuation to the previous government. We can see again that the whole discourse was intended to ridicule the president. The use of the expression Enti bosea no ɔbɛkɔ so abɔ anaa ɔbɛkɔ break? ‘So, is he going to continue the borrowing or he will go on break?’ by the reviewer (F) and the response ɛno deɛ gye sɛ wobɛgye bisa no…. ‘As for this one you have to come and ask him yourself…’ given by the reviewer (M) give credence to the ridicule. The tone of the discourse was ridiculous because they intended to mock the president. After all, he tried to differentiate between his style of borrowing and that of the previous government. Whether you use it for development or not it is still borrowing and that the borrowing culture of our leaders should tone 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh down because whatever it will be used for, that loan will come with interest which will become a debt the nation will have to pay in future. In excerpt 22, the ridicule was directed towards Kwasi Nyantakyi who has been banned by FIFA for life. What made the discussion humourous is the statement by the reviewer (M), he mentioned Kwasi Nyantakyi said ne ho adwiri no pa ara ɛfiri sɛ yɛwoo no, sɛ FIFA na ayɛ no saa no? FIFA na ayɛ no saa no? ‘he is shocked to the bone ever since he was born, that, is it FIFA that has done that to him? is it FIFA that has done that to him?’. The expression FIFA na ayɛ no saa no? ‘is it FIFA that has done that to him?’ was rhetorical and was repeated intentionally to mock him because of the tone he used. What makes the discourse funnier is the use of the term ɛna ɛnneɛ ne mfe sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! ‘then they stabbed him in his ribs sɔ! sɔ! sɔ!’. This statement contains the ideophones sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! sɔ! which connotes piercing pain. This was done in a way which made the show interesting and seem real. 4.2.2 Humour in the sports segment As indicated in 4.1, humour in radio programmes functions as a persuasion device, a softening strategy, indirection, for the fun of it and may involve the use of honorifics. In the sports segment, humour can appear through the usage of honorifics, compliments, etc. to make the programme fun, interesting and entertaining at the same. Section 4.2.2.1 illustrates the use of honorifics, compliments, etc. to create humour and laughter. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2.1 Humour and Honorifics Honorifics are address terms which are specialized in a certain way to show that one is polite and competent in a particular language and culture (Agyekum 2003). They are also used to elevate the status of an individual. In this section, we can observe that there is an exchange of honorifics by the participants. We can also observe the use of humour between the main host of the Kokurokoo morning show, Kwame Sefa Kayi (henceforth KSK) and the host of the sports segment Daniel Kwaku Yeboah (henceforth DKY). This is seen when the host of the sports segment is ushered in by the main host of the Kookurokoo show. This is fun, and it creates some cordiality between the two. The excerpts 23 -26 below attest to this: Excerpt 23. Kookurokoo Morning Show: Sports Segment, October, 2nd 2018. Participants Akan Translation KSK: ɔsagyefo! The redeemer of wars/ the Liberator! DKY: Yɛnwura Kwame Sefa Kayi Our lord Kwame Sefa Kayi KSK: Na biribiara bɔkɔɔ deɛ? Is everything alright? DKY: Oo, asomdwoeɛ oo, divine Oh, everything is peaceful, by selection. the divine selection KSK: Yɛda Nyame ase. We thank God DKY: Hwee nnya nka yɛn, wabobɔ We are not down with any nnwom no nso. misfortune; you have played the songs too. KSK: Yɛabobɔ awie, hehe! hehe! We have finished playing, hehe! hehe! 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DKY: Wo nnwom yi deɛ ɛno ara na It is your song that I use to mede hyɛ me ho nkurane oo motivate myself oo. KSK: Masa, ɛnte sei ara daa! Master, it won’t be like this Daabi! Daabi! forever, No! no! DKY: Enti na woyɛ kokuorokoo That is why you the king of king no oo morning shows KSK: Hehe hehe! Hehe! Hehe! DKY: Enti na woyɛ akokɔ no That’s why you are the rooster KSK: Akokɔ masta, hehe! Hehe The master of roosters, hehe! Hehe! DKY: Yɛnkyekyɛ We don’t share it KSK: Ayɛ sɛ Brigadier General no It is like the Brigadier general DKY: Yɛnkyekyɛ no baahat We don’t give it out by the heart Excerpt 24. Kookurokoo Morning Show: Sports Segment, October 3, 2018. Participants Akan Translation KSK: Dan Kwaku Yeboah! Dan Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Chairman General, ɔdɛɛfoɔ! Chairman General! The Wakyi no obi nni hɔ! charitable one, there is none like you! KSK: Na apɔ mu? How are you? DKY: Bɔkɔɔ, adepa akye yɛn I am good, we are up KSK: Mo! Toa so… Well done! Continue for us… 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As can be seen in the excerpt above, both KSK and DKY addressed each other with honorifics. In excerpt 23 KSK started with ɔsagyefo! ‘The redeemer of wars’ while DKY responded Yɛnwura Kwame Sefa Kayi ‘Our Lord Kwame Sefa Kayi’. This was done to show the kind of affiliation between the two and also indicate that they are polite. DKY stated that KSK is the king of morning shows by saying that enti na woyɛ kookurokoo king no oo ‘This is why you are the king of morning shows’ and also stated that he is like the Brigadier General, which is a senior rank in the military. This shows that he is well versed in the morning show business, which makes him a king. DKY said that KSK enti na woyɛ akokɔ no ‘That is why you are the rooster’ and he responded Akokɔ masta, hehe! Hehe ‘The master of roosters, hehe! Hehe!’. We can deduce that DKY equated KSK to rooster because a rooster wakes people up in the traditional rural setup. As the host of that morning programme, he then performs the role of a rooster. Currently, it is the media circles especially FM stations that operate 24 hours that have taken up that function entirely. The exchange of these humourous forms in that context creates a kind of affiliation between the two which makes the show fun and interesting. A similar thing can be realized in excerpts 25 and 26 below: 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 25. Kookurokoo Morning Show: Sports Segment- July 23, 2019. Participants Akan Translation KSK: Mr. Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Ghana’s multiple award-winning journalist! KSK: Mr. Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Presidential MC KSK: Mr. Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Hall of Famer! Chairman/Brigadier General Kwame Sefa Kayi aka Peace FM’s Lionel Messi! And still! KSK&DKY Haha! haha! Haha! haha! KSK: Kwaku! Kwaku! DKY: Wokɔbɔ boxing wie na woretwɛn If you are a boxer awaiting your wo results a, wonya te: and still results after a game and you hear: and still KSK: ɔda mu! It’s on! DKY: Na ɛkyerɛ sɛ Then it means DKY&KSK Hɛhɛ hɛhɛ! Hɛhɛ hɛhɛ! DKY: Na wonya te: the new… But if you hear: the new… 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 26. Kookurokoo Morning Show: Sports Segment- July 31, 2019. Participants Akan Translation KSK: Mr. Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Ghana’s multiple award-winning journalist! KSK: Mr. Kwaku Yeboah! DKY: Presidential MC! Hall of Famer! Soldier pikin! Chairman/Brigadier! KSK: Hɛ! hɛɛ! ɛno nso abɛka Hɛ! hɛɛ! so these are added too? ho? DKY: Peace FM’s Lionel Messi! DKY&KSK Haha! haha! Haha! haha! KSK: Kwaku! Kwaku! [He giggled] DKY: Ntifo! Ntifo! KSK: Kwaku! Kwaku! DKY: Ntifo! Ntifo! KSK: Dan Kwaku Yeboah! haha! Dan Kwaku Yeboah! Haha! Haha! haha! DKY: Chairman/ Brigadier General Kwame Sefa Kayi! KSK: Haha! haha!... Haha! haha!. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the excerpts above, we can see that in 25 for instance, there is an exchange of pleasantries between KSK and DKY. We can observe that DKY gave accolades to KSK which made the show interesting. Also, we can realize that DKY addressed KSK with different honorifics, he even called him Peace FM’s Lionel Messi! Lionel is a highly skilled and famous international footballer who has won a lot of awards. To call KSK as the Peace FM’s Lionel Messi means that he is skilled in the radio business. We could see that there was a lot of laughter in both discourses. Examples include; Haha! haha!.., Hɛhɛ hɛhɛ!, Dan Kwaku Yeboah! haha! haha! etc. 4.2.3. Humour in General discussion The section focuses on how humour manifests in the general discussion. 4.2.3.1 Humour and the incongruous elements Another important feature of humour identified in radio programmes in Akan is incongruity which is typical and popular in humour research. Incongruity, as indicated earlier, has been defined as a violation of expectations. Usually, the theory explains why something is funny which consists of a violation of an expectation due to surprise or punishment for being arrogant. Incongruity stems from an expectation which is strained resulting in nothing (Kant 1790, cited in Attardo 1994:48). The incongruous nature of the expression used by Ade Coker (AC) in the excerpt (27) gave rise to laughter. This happened during the discussion on the medical drone which was meant to deliver medical essentials to remote areas in the country in November last year. 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Each of the panel members was asked by the host to submit the cost, as compared to that of Rwanda. Ade Coker, who is the Greater Accra Chairman of the NDC, begun his submission by asking whether the blood which will be carried by the drones will be put in a freezer before transporting to avoid melting by the sun. Below is an excerpt from the discussion: Excerpt 27. Discussion on the medical drone, Kookurokoo Morning Show, November 2018. [Background: This except is on the medical drones the government brought to supply medical needs to distant areas in the country.] Participants Akan Translation Chairman wei deɛ wo nso wobɛkyerɛ Chairman, I would like you KSK: w’adwene kakra afa drones yi ka ho. to express your opinion on the cost of the drones. Kwame ansa mɛkɔ so no, mepɛ dɛ Kwame before I start, please AC: wobisa Nana Addo ne NPPfoɔ ma I would like to ask Nana me sɛ, na sɛbe oo, drones no wɔmo Addo and the NPP a de mogya no gu mu rekɔ a, question, so are they going to anyanyabiaa wɔmo de bɛhyɛ fridge freeze the blood mu anaa? ɛfiri sɛ Ghana ha awia before they distribute them? yi… You know the condition of the sun in the country… All the panel Haha! Haha! Haha! Haha! members 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh KB: Kwame, menim sɛ me nua yi yɛn Chairman, I know my brother nyinaa yɛ Fantefoɔ a yɛwɔ (sense of and I are Fante’s and we have humour), nanso saa deɛ yi yɛ a good sense of humour but (important), nanso hwɛ sɛ ɔde adane the issue at hand is very pɔletiks ne (trivialities). important. But look at how he is engaging in politics and trivialities. From the excerpt 27 above we could see that the expression …sɛbe oo drones no wɔmo de mogya no gu mu rekɔ a, anyanyabiaa wɔmo de bɛhyɛ fridge mu anaa? ‘…with the due respect will they freeze the blood in the drones before they distribute it?’ used by Ade Coker contains incongruous elements because it contains the punchline, which is reconciled and brought laughter to the members of the panel. The incongruous element can be found in the question about whether the blood will be put in the freezer. This is out of expectation because the discussion at that time was on the price as compared to that of Rwanda. This made the situation funny and absurd hence, containing incongruity. A similar thing can be seen in the excerpt 28 below. Usually, these forms involve a violation of an expectation which is humorous. In one of the discussions, Kwesi Pratt (KP) a guest on the show, violated an expectation because he assumed that because he assumed Kelly, another guest, was a lawyer because of his dressing. Below is excerpt 28, providing the expression that contains the incongruity which led to laughter. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Excerpt 28. General discussion, Kookurooko Morning Show, November 6, 2018. [Background/context: This excerpt is about an alleged corruption scandal in the banking sector.] Participants Akan Translation KSK: …Yɛabobɔ din, Pastor Mensah …We have mentioned the Otabil, Ato Essien, Oheneba names, Pastor Mensah Otabil, Mensah Akoto, Rev. Gerald Ato Essien, Oheneba Mensah Donkor, Agyei Kofi Mensah Akoto, Rev. Gerald Donkor, nom, mekae mɛmo bi a na wo Agyei Kofi Mensah, I recall that sirilise, yɛde wɔn akɔ kɔɔt, seisei you were serializing their memo, mo kɔɔt keesi no nso ɛte sɛn? you were taken to the court, so Kwesi nti wohunu saa adeɛ wei how far with that? Kwesi what do na ɛte wo sɛn? you make of this when this came out? KP: Hmm! Kwame asɛm no ka yɛ Hmm! Kwame this issue is a den, deɛ woreka no nyinaa yɛ dicey one but all that you have nokorɛ…mekae sɛ wɔnom de yɛn said are true… I recall that they kɔɔ kɔɔto sɛ yɛresɛe wɔnom sent us to the court that we are adwuma ….na wɔnom de yɛn kɔɔ destroying their work…and kɔɔto no, ɛyɛ me sɛ papa yi when they sent us to the court, I wonim mmara kakra? guess you are a lawyer and you know a bit about the law? KSK: Kelly nyɛ Lɔya oo Kelly is not a lawyer oo KP: ɛna waspoti saa no! And you have dressed nicely like this! All Hahaha! Hahaha KP: ɛɛ, ok… ɛɛ, ok… 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh We can infer from the above that, the expectation of Kwesi was violated due to the perception he had about Kelly. By asking ɛyɛ me sɛ papa yi wonim mmara kakra? ‘I guess you are a lawyer and you know a bit about the law?’ established the stage for the incongruity. He looked at just his appearance and decided that he might be a lawyer. The expression Kelly nyɛ Lɔya oo ‘Kelly is not a lawyer oo’ from the host KSK brought his expectation to nothing, which is typical of the incongruity. This shows that there is a mismatch between his expectation and that of the outcome/ the actual realization. When he said ɛnna waspoti saa no! ‘And you have dressed nicely like this?’ brought laughter ‘haha’. The incongruity was resolved based on the explanation given by KSK (Kulka 2007). Excerpt 29. General discussion, Kookurooko Morning Show, October 24, 2018. [Background: The panel were discussing the demonstration that occurred at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology by the aggrieved students. KB came in late and the host (KSK) ushered him into the discussion.] 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Participants Akan Translation KSK: …Abdul-Malik Akwaaba …You are welcome Abdul-Malik KB: Yea Kwame Yea Kwame KSK: --- I have received so many messages directed at you even before you arrived… KB: --- Why? what’s the problem? Adɛn wɔse makɔgye obi ne yere Why? Are they saying I have anaa? gone to snatched somebody’s wife? KSK: Hɛhɛ! oo! daabi! abei! wɔse: (He laughed!), oh! no! what! (1) wayɛ late, They are saying: (2)-- (1) you are late (2) greetings from Juventus KB: … I am not talking about that! All Haha! haha!... Haha! Haha!... From the excerpt 29 above, we can also see some form of incongruity by the expressions used by KB. He was welcomed to the discussion by the host (KSK), and when he informed him (KB) that he had received several messages, he asked the host the reasons for such messages. The punchline can be seen through the expression adɛn 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh wɔse makɔgye obi ne yere anaa? ‘Why? Are they saying I have gone to snatched somebody’s wife?’, this made the recipient (the host) laughed. This is because he was late to the programme but he feigned ignorant of that, and when the host read the messages to him, he retorted ‘I am not talking about that!’. This again brought laughter to all the panel members. Excerpt 30. General discussion, Kookurooko Morning Show, October 31, 2018. [Background: The panel were welcomed to the show by the host and he asked one of them a question about the banning of the Kwasi Nyantakyi (a Member of the FIFA Council, Vice President of the Confederation of African Football and GFA president) by FIFA]. Participants Akan Translation KSK: …Abdul -Malik, ɔte dɛn? Abdul-Malik, how are you? KB: Me yɛnko, wo ara wo nim My friend, you know it already KSK: Amanfoɔ se yɛn ho ye, hɛ! hɛ! hɛ! hɛ! We are fine as people are saying, hɛ!.. [he laughed] It’s all good KSK: Kweku! Kweku! KB: Yea, me yɛnko Yea, my friend 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh KSK Kwasi Nyantakyi --- Kwasi Nyantakyi, are you happy now? KB: Oo!--- Oh! What a question! [He paused] CB: ɔyɛ good question pa ara! Is a good question, so is this the sort Enti question wei bi na anka worebɛ of questions you were going to ask bisa me? me? KB: --- Is question driven by some mischief All: Ha! ha! Ha!ha! ha! Ha! ha! Ha! ha! ha! KSK: Ou! ɛbɛn mischief a?... Oh! What kind of mischief? We can see in the above excerpt that KB was not expecting such a question from KSK. Even though he knew that something inappropriate had happened at GFA or was not pleased with the happenings at the GFA he could not do anything about it until the exposé. It was expected that the GFA president (Kwasi Nyantakyi) would step down from his position as the president. However, it was not until when FIFA had banned him from all football-related matters before he stepped down. He was not expecting that question from KSK hence, making the comment an incongruous one because even though he was anticipating the GFA’s president resignation he was not expecting to be asked if he was happy for someone else’s misfortune. This is because in Akan 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh society, no matter how grievous the crime is, we do not expect one to openly display happiness or joy over the others calamity. The punchline was found in the expression Kwasi Nyantakyi, are you happy now? by KSK who is the host. By asking/ responding with Oh! What a question! and pausing at the same time by KB shows how his expectation was brought to nothing. When he further stated that Is question driven by some mischief, he the speaker, host and other members of the panel burst into laughter. This affirms the literature on humour that “the punch-line, which is incongruous with the body of the text, must be detected and then reconciled with the lead, in the end of which a pleasurable emotional state is obtained…” (Wu 2013:52). 4.3 General discussion and classification of Akan humour. This section discusses the data presented in the work. The section attempts to classify the forms of humour in Akan by grouping them according to the shared contextual features. Consequently, the section has based on the two domains of language use examined above and identified 10 forms of humour in Akan; insults/invectives, ridicule, the use of known reference terms, incongruous elements and through figurative expressions like metaphor, simile, sarcasm, and indirection. Table 1 and figure 3 below show the rate of recurrence of the humour forms as they appeared in the study. 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1. The rate of occurrence of the humour forms in Akan. Forms of humour Rate of occurrence Percentage (%) Insult(s) 2 6.7 Known reference term(s) 2 6.7 Ridicule/fun 8 26.7 Incongrous element(s) 5 16.7 Metaphor 1 3.3 Simile 2 6.7 Sarcasm 3 10 Euphemism 1 3.3 Honorifics 4 13.3 Indirection 2 6.7 Total 30 100 The table above shows that ridicule/fun has the highest rate of occurrences (8) representing 26.7%. This is followed by the incongruous elements with (5) manifestations which represent 16.7%. Sarcasm has (3) rate of occurrences (10%), while, the use of known reference terms, simile, indirection, and insults to create humour appeared 2 times each (6.7% each). The lowest amongst them is metaphor 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which appeared just once (1) and represents 3.3%. Figure 3 below also shows the distribution of the humour forms in the language. Figure 3. The distribution of the humour forms in Akan. 9 8 7 6 5 4 8 3 5 2 4 3 1 2 2 2 2 1 1 0 4.4. Summary The chapter focused on humour in Akan as it appeared in the Kookurokoo Morning Show on Peace FM. The chapter again analysed humour as it appears in the Newspaper review, sports segment and the general discussion in the show. It was seen in the 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chapter that humour in radio programmes in Akan involves the use of indirection which was done via insinuation, idiomatic and apologetic expressions. These mechanisms function as politeness, softening and avoidance strategies. The chapter also showed that ridicule of the politicians, public figures, institutions, etc. is a prominent element in the newspaper review, which makes it fun and interesting. It was also observed in the chapter that humour in radio programmes can appear in the form of honorifics and incongruous elements. The section has also attempted to classify and discuss the representations of the various forms of humour found in the data set. In this regard, the work has identified 10 different types of humour in Akan; insults/invectives, ridicule, the use of known reference terms, incongruous elements and through figurative expressions like metaphor, simile, sarcasm and indirection. Regarding their distribution, the work has shown that, while ridicule is the highest type of humour in the two domains of language use, metaphor is the least. It was pointed out in the chapter that since radio is a formal discourse, participants cannot use certain expressions without taking into consideration the societal norms and values in Akan and the Ghanaian society as a whole, hence resorting to the use of indirection, apologetic expressions, honorifics, etc. in discussing delicate issues. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction This study focused on the description of humour in Akan, as manifests in draught game and selected radio programmes. This chapter presents the summary and key findings identified in humour in Akan as examined in the work, contribution to knowledge and the recommendations for further study. 5.2. Summary of the study and key findings Chapter one concentrated on the general introduction to this thesis. The background for the study was given by exploring the Akan language and its people, the research objectives which includes analyzing the forms of humour in draught and some radio programmes, identifying the linguistic devices (figurative expressions) that are employed in creating humour and discussing the positive and negative functions of humour in these two domains of language use. Based on the above objectives, the research sought to answer these questions (1). What constitute humour in draught and some radio programmes? (2). What are the various ways through which humour is created and expressed in draught and radio programmes? (3). What are the functions of humour in draught and radio programmes? In order to answer the research questions above, there is a need to provide some of the key findings in the study. For example, the study revealed that humour in dame 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ‘draught’ can manifest in the form of ridicule and invectives where participants can hurl insults at each other due to the context. In other words, due to the lifting on the ban on social insults in this context, a participant can hurl an insult on the other without any offence. This answers the research questions one and three which talk about the constitutive elements of humour and its functions in draught and the selected programme in the language. In answering research question two, the study shows that humour in Akan radio programmes, for example, can occur through indirection, idiomatic and apologetic expressions which function as politeness and softening strategies. It was also discovered in the study that participants can use known reference terms to give a clue, and also use figurative and certain expressions against the other which outside that context could have amounted to an offence. We also pointed out in the thesis that humour in radio programmes can manifest as the incongruous elements, ridicule, honorifics, etc. which were explicated via the Incongruity and the Superiority theories. The research also treated the relevant literature that guided it under the themes: what humour is, context in humour, insult and ridicule, social functions of humour, the cognitive and emotive aspects of humour and figurative expressions in the context of humour. It was shown that humour is a complex cognitive phenomenon which guides our social life. 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3. Contribution to knowledge As noted earlier in 1.4, the literature on humour in Akan is very inadequate; this research has consequently contributed by providing ethnopragmatic and ethnographic evidence on how humour manifests in draught and a selected radio programme. For example, the study has revealed that in both draught and radio programmes in Akan, humour can appear in the form of ridicule. However, since radio is a formal discourse, unlike draught which, is informal, participants cannot use certain expressions because there is a ban on social insult on such setting. To avoid face- threats, discussants especially those in radio programmes, resort to the use of humour as a tool of politeness to protect their face and that of their addressees which are public property loaned from the community. In addition to the above, the study showed that humour in Akan, especially in draught games, is cognitive hence the use of some expressions by a participant on the opponent is intended to stir the emotions of an opponent, which could eventually lead to his defeat. Like the general study on humour globally, the research was able to show that humour in Akan can also appear as the incongruous elements and just for the fun of it in both draught game and radio programmes. Thus, this study has contributed to the literature on Akan ethnography that has been pioneered by Yankah, Obeng, Agyekum and others, and to the global literature on humour. This was done by investigating the linguistic devices used in the creation of humour in draught games and radio programmes. 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moreover, an attempt was made to classify and discuss the various forms of humour found in the data. Due to this, the work has identified 10 different kinds of humour in Akan. These are insults/invectives, ridicule, known reference terms, incongruous elements and the use of figurative expressions like metaphor, euphemism, simile, sarcasm and indirection. These were represented in a frequency distribution table, where ridicule was seen as the highest type of humour in the two domains of language use, and metaphor occurring as the least as discussed in section 4.3. Again, I emphasized on the importance of humour especially on the maintenance of social cohesion among members in a social group like our draught context and in the discussion of delicate issues in radio programmes. 5.4 Recommendation for further study Although this study has been able to provide a description on the phenomenon of humour in both draught game and radio programmes in Akan, not all aspects of humour research were catered for in the language in this study. For instance, the research could not touch on conversational humour, internet forms, humour on ethnic relations, etc. therefore, further studies on humour in the language could examine them in this regard. I also recommend that further studies can look at humour in other traditional games as well as tone riddles and folksongs. 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX 1 A SAMPLE OF THE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW GUIDE. (1). Why were you talking throughout the game? (2). I observed that you used certain expressions that contained insults on your opponent, why did you do that? (3). Were they able to cause any effect (positive and negative) on you or your opponent? (4). I observed that some of the expressions brought laughter amongst the audience, why did it happen? (5). I observed that your opponent used expressions that contained insults during the game, did they have any effect on you? (6). You were quiet throughout the game, why? (7). 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English Linguistics Research 2 (1), 52-63. Yankah, Kwesi. 1983. From loose abuse to poetic couplets: The case of Fante tone riddle. Maledicta VII: 167-177. 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yule, George.1996a. Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press Yule, George.1996b. The study of language. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Zijderveld. Anton C. 1995.Humour, laughter and sociological theory. Sociological Forum 10 (2) 342. Zillmann, Dolf 1983 Disparagement humour. In McGhee, Paul E. and Jeffrey H. Goldstein (eds.), Handbook of Humor Research, 85–107, New York: Springer. 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NAME: VICTORIA OFORI INDEX NUMBER: 10637942 TITLE OF THESIS: HUMOUR IN AKAN: THE CASE OF DRAUGHT AND SELECTED RADIO PROGRAMMES PROGRAMME: MPHIL LINGUISTICS 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1: Examiner 1 Comments NO. COMMENTS STUDENT’S RESPONSE TO COMMENTS The author should focus her study The author has discussed the issue on the form on three objectives and clearly (pages 121-124), hence, the objective (4) has been 1. describe what the form is. deleted as suggested by the examiner. The three objectives can be seen on page 7. a). Briefly explain in clear terms This has been clearly explained in a footnote as what a script is in a footnote. pointed out by the examiner on page 2. 2. b). Rephrase sentences to make I have rephrased the sentences to make them clear them clear. (see page 14, paragraph 2 lines 3-4; the last paragraph on page 9, lines 1-3, the last paragraph on page 29 and 40). Resolve the contradiction ‘the The source of the contradiction “the research approach will be descriptive in approach will be descriptive in nature” has been 3. nature” while the “Incongruity resolved by deleting it (see page 8, paragraph 3). theory and Superiority theory is adopted for the study” 4. Clearly indicate where the laughter Where the humour occurs has been indicated by or any evidence of humour occurs giving the appropriate background/context and the and by whom. humourous expressions as they are highlighted/ bolded (in a dark colour). Also, the transcriber's comment is given to show the point of view from which the humour occurred. For example, a). The audience burst into laughter (page 51, 54,), b). He giggled (54) c). He said it via scoffing (page 90), [These are all shown in the transcribers ’comment]. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. The author seems to repeat some of This has been resolved by starting with a short the literature reviews in chapter introduction and preview in the chapter as pointed three in the analysis. out by the examiner (see page 50). 6. Grammatical mistakes in the work I have corrected the grammatical mistakes indicated out by the examiner. For instance, a). Page 3, paragraph 2 line 1. Other people who have worked on humour include instead of includes. b). Page 4, paragraph 1 line 5, deletion of this will be shown in the subsequent chapters c). Page 6, paragraph 3 line 5, deletion of will and also Page 6, paragraph 2 line 4, use Akan in particular rather than by extension d). Page 7, research question 3, the omission of and expressed e). Page 10, paragraph 3 line 5, retirees rather than those on retirement f). Page 30, paragraph 2 line 7, deletion of go there to 7. Excerpt 1 seems to contrast with Yes, this is because in excerpt 1 the sender is a excerpt 2 (p.49-50), why? young man who insulted an old man, but in excerpt 2, it was from an older man to a young man. However, the contrast has been resolved by providing further explanation on its potential face- threatening effect (see page 51-53) 8. Make figures 2-4 into a photo grid I have made the photo grid of figures 2-4 on the so they are on the same page since same page (see page 49). they are not very different. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 The author may employ the This was already done in the work (see pages 51, Politeness Theory to compliment 71, etc.), however, additional literature on it has the already discussed theory. been done on pages (24-27). I have also used it to support my discussion (see pages 51-53, 82-85, etc.) 10. References and citations: I have ordered the references chronologically as a). Arrange the references in noted by the examiner. These can be found in pages chronological order and place a 1 and (6). semi-colon after each cited I have followed the department’s (2018) edition reference. style sheet to ensure a uniformed presentation of the b). There seem to be different styles various references in the work and the list of of citation. references section. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2: Examiner 2 Comments NO. COMMENTS STUDENT’S RESPONSE TO COMMENTS 1. The literature review should tie in This has been done as noted by the examiner by providing an additional review in the areas with the problem statement of compliments, apology and thanking as stated in the problem statement (see pages 24- 27). 2 Both the research questions and the I have resolved this by focusing the objectives objectives seem to focus on Akan and research questions on the cases of study. rather than on the 2 cases of study. This can be seen on page 7. I have addressed this issue by providing instances that triggered the establishment of 3. Analysis should be based on the the incongruity in the data analyses in the establishment of the incongruity work. For example, a). Pages (59-60, 62-63, 85, 115) I have given the background which led to the incongruity. b). Pages (117-121) I have also provided additional data to support the discussion on the incongruity. 4. Explicitly link insults and metaphor This has been resolved by providing the effects that insult and the metaphor used had to humour. in the body of work by indicating the reaction of the sender, addressee and the audience. (see, pages: 51-53, 61-65) 5