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UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
 
DIGITALIZATION OF PAPER-BASED ENTERPRISE CONTENT AND WORKFLOW IN 
A PUBLIC SECTOR INSTITUTION: A DEVELOPING COUNTRY CASE STUDY 
 
 
BY 
EMMANUEL KWAME CUDJOE 
(10372894) 
 
 
A THESIS TO BE SUBMITTED TO THE 
DEPARTMENT OF OPERATIONS AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS, 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF AN 
MPHIL IN MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEGREE 
 
 
 
OCTOBER 2019 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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DECLARATION 
I, Emmanuel Kwame Cudjoe, do hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research 
and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. 
Wherever contributions of others are involved, every effort is made to indicate this clearly, with 
due reference to the literature, and acknowledgement of other collaborative research and 
discussions. I did the work under the supervision of Prof. John Effah and Prof. Richard Boateng. 
 
 
I therefore bear responsibility for any shortcomings. 
 
 
__________________               _____3_0_/0_4_/_2_0_2_0_ ___                                                           
Emmanuel Kwame Cudjoe        Date 
        (10372894) 
  
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CERTIFICATION 
I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the 
University. 
 
 
 
30/04/2020 
_________________                                                   _________________ 
   Prof. John Effah                             Date 
    (Supervisor) 
 
 
 
 
30/04/2020 
__________________                 _________________ 
 
Prof. Richard Boateng          Date  
   (Co-Supervisor) 
  
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DEDICATION 
I dedicate this work to the Almighty God who granted me life, strength, knowledge and wisdom 
to enable me carry out this research. I also dedicate it to Yawa Akorfa and my wonderful 
guardians and Godparents; Dr. Musah Adams, Prof. Anaba Alemna, Mr. Prince Quayson, 
Prophet Bernard Nelson Eshun, and Auntie Sarla for their endless love, support, encouragement 
and prayers. 
 
 
 
  
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
My greatest appreciation goes to the Almighty God for His love, mercy and favour shown me 
throughout this journey. In addition, I extend my utmost gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. John 
Effah and Prof. Richard Boateng for their enormous support, guidance, care and patience that 
created a conducive atmosphere to conduct this study. I would never have been able to finish 
this thesis without the guidance of my supervisors. 
 
I also want to express my profound gratitude to Prof. Anaba Alemna, Dr. Musah Adams and 
Yawa Akorfa for their financial support, motivation and encouragement. Again, I am grateful 
to Zelda Arku for her assistance, suggestions and advice throughout this journey. 
 
Finally, I express my immense appreciation to the Chief Director of the case institution and 
staff of the case institution, especially to Mr. Richard Essuman, Mrs Awurama Ofori-Ani, Mr. 
Yaw Agyare, Mrs. Evelyn Odonkoh and Auntie Emelia for making their institution and 
themselves available to collect all relevant data needed for this research. 
  
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................... i 
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................... ii 
DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... iii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................. x 
LIST OF ACRONYMS and ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................. xi 
DEFINITION OF TERMS …………………………………………………………………xii 
THESIS MATRIX …..……………………………………………………………………...xiv 
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... xvii 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 
1.1 Research Background ....................................................................................................... 1 
1.2 Research Problem ............................................................................................................. 3 
1.3 Research Purpose .............................................................................................................. 6 
1.4 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 6 
1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................... 6 
1.6 Chapter outline .................................................................................................................. 7 
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 9 
2.1 Chapter Overview ............................................................................................................. 9 
2.2 Digital Transformation Explained .................................................................................... 9 
2.3 Benefits of Digital Transformation ................................................................................. 12 
2.4 Drivers of Digital Transformation .................................................................................. 13 
2.5 Challenges of Digital Transformation ............................................................................. 14 
2.6 Digital Transformation in the Public Sector ................................................................... 15 
2.7 Enterprise Content Management (ECM) Systems .......................................................... 17 
2.7.1 Paper-based Contents Challenges and Opportunities ............................................... 19 
2.7.2 Workflow Management in ECM Systems ................................................................ 20 
2.8 Implementation of ECM Systems ................................................................................... 21 
2.9 Benfits of Enterprise Content Management Systems ..................................................... 26 
2.10 Challenges of Implementing ECM Systems ................................................................. 27 
2.11 Studies on ECM Systems and Research gaps Identified ............................................... 28 
2.12 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 31 
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CHAPTER THREE: THEORETICAL FOUNDATION ................................................... 32 
3.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 32 
3.2 Empirical Grounding of the Affordance Theory ............................................................. 32 
3.3 Brief History and Overview of Affordance Theory ........................................................ 32 
3.4 Basic Concepts of Affordance Theory ............................................................................ 34 
3.4.1 The Cognitive and Recognition Process ................................................................... 35 
3.4.2 Affordance Perception .............................................................................................. 35 
3.4.3 Affordance Actualization .......................................................................................... 35 
3.4.4 Affordance Effect ..................................................................................................... 36 
3.5 Principles of Affordance Theory ..................................................................................... 36 
3.5.1 Affordance is a rational concept which does not exist on its own ............................ 37 
3.5.2 Affordance is Subjective ........................................................................................... 37 
3.5.3 Affordance can be an enabler or a constrain ............................................................ 38 
3.6 Application of Affordance Theory in IS ......................................................................... 38 
3.7 Application of Affordance Theory in this Study ............................................................ 39 
3.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 40 
CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 41 
4.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 41 
4.2 Research Paradigms in Information Systems .................................................................. 41 
4.2.1 The Positivist Paradigm ............................................................................................ 42 
4.2.2 The Critical Realism Paradigm ................................................................................. 42 
4.2.3 The Interpretive Paradigm ........................................................................................ 43 
4.3 Choice of interpretive Paradigm ..................................................................................... 44 
4.4 Research Methodology ................................................................................................... 44 
4.4.1 Quantitative Research Methodology ........................................................................ 45 
4.4.2 Qualitative Research Methodology .......................................................................... 45 
4.4.3 Mixed Method .......................................................................................................... 46 
4.5 Choice of Qualitative Research Methodology ................................................................ 46 
4.6 Research Method ............................................................................................................. 47 
4.7 Fieldwork and Case Selection ......................................................................................... 49 
4.8 Data Collection Method .................................................................................................. 49 
4.8.1 Interviews and Discussions ....................................................................................... 50 
4.8.2 Documentation and Physical Artefacts ..................................................................... 52 
4.9 Data Analysis .................................................................................................................. 52 
4.10 Ethical Consideration .................................................................................................... 53 
4.11 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 53 
CHAPTER FIVE: CASE DESCRIPTION .......................................................................... 54 
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5.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 54 
5.2 Case Study Organization ................................................................................................. 54 
5.3 Information Systems and Technologies Used ................................................................. 56 
5.3.1 The Era Before Oracle E-Business Suite .................................................................. 57 
5.3.2 Oracle E-Business Suite Era ..................................................................................... 61 
5.4 The Era of Enterprise Content Management (ECM) System ......................................... 64 
5.4.1 ECM Software Selection and Implementation ......................................................... 67 
5.4.2 ECM Software Use and Maintenance ....................................................................... 72 
5.4.3 Benefits of the ECM System in the Institution. ........................................................ 74 
5.5 Key Concerns and Future Expectations .......................................................................... 86 
5.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 87 
CHAPTER SIX: CASE STUDY ANALYSIS ...................................................................... 88 
6.1 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................... 88 
6.2 Affordance Theory Analysis of the Oracle EBS Application ......................................... 88 
6.3 Affordance Theory Analysis of ECM System Era .......................................................... 91 
6.4 ECM System Implementation Strategy and Procedure ................................................... 95 
6.4.1 Information Gathering and Requirement Specifications .......................................... 96 
6.4.2 Installation and Deployment of the ECM System in Phases .................................... 96 
6.4.3 Perfect Integration with the Already Existing Information System ......................... 97 
6.4.4 Adequate Training of Users of the ECM System ..................................................... 97 
6.4.5 Assured Maintenance of the System ......................................................................... 98 
6.5 Enabling Affordances of the ECM System ..................................................................... 99 
6.6 Constraining Affordances of the ECM System ............................................................. 102 
6.7 Cross Case Analysis ...................................................................................................... 103 
6.7.1 Constraining Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization against the Oracle EBS Eras . 103 
6.7.2 Enabling Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization Era against Oracle EBS Era ........ 105 
6.7.3 Constraining affordances of the Oracle EBS Era against the ECM system Era ..... 106 
6.7.4 Enabling Affordances of Oracle EBS against the ECM System ............................ 108 
6.8 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 111 
CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ........................................................ 113 
7.1 Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................... 113 
7.2 Basis for the Implementation of an ECM System. ........................................................ 113 
7.2.1 Public Sector Institutions Implement ECM Systems to Meet Government Directives 
for Digital Transformation ............................................................................................... 114 
7.2.2 Public Sector Institutions Implement ECM Systems to Mitigate the Problems 
Associated with the Paper-based System ........................................................................ 115 
7.2.3 Public Sector Institutions implement ECM systems to transform into a Digital 
Workplace ........................................................................................................................ 118 
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7.3 ECM System Implementation in the Public Sector Institution ..................................... 120 
7.3.1 Planning the ECM System Implementation ........................................................... 120 
7.3.2 Training and Sensitization of the In-house Technical Team by Vendors. ............. 122 
7.3.3 Initial Installation and Integration with Existing Systems ...................................... 123 
7.3.4 Full installation of the ECM system in all Departments and Units ........................ 124 
7.3.5 Providing Training and Support for the ECM Software ......................................... 124 
7.3.6 Use of the ECM System ......................................................................................... 125 
7.3.7 Maintenance, Update and Upgrade of the ECM Software ..................................... 126 
7.4 Consequences of Implementing the ECM System ........................................................ 127 
7.4.1 Intended Consequences .......................................................................................... 127 
7.4.2 Unintended Consequences ...................................................................................... 130 
7.4.3 Enablers of the Consequences ................................................................................ 131 
7.4.4 Constraints of the ECM System for Digital Transformation .................................. 132 
7.5 Future Implications and Expectations ........................................................................... 133 
7.6 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 134 
CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE 
RESEARCH DIRECTIONS ............................................................................................... 135 
8.1 Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................... 135 
8.2 A Review of Research Questions .................................................................................. 135 
8.3 Contribution to knowledge ............................................................................................ 138 
8.3.1 Contribution to Theory ........................................................................................... 139 
8.3.2 Providing Rich Insights .......................................................................................... 139 
8.4 Implication for Research, Practice and Policy .............................................................. 141 
8.4.1 Implications for Research ....................................................................................... 141 
8.4.2 Implications for Practice ......................................................................................... 142 
8.4.3 Implications for Policy ........................................................................................... 143 
8.5 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 143 
8.6 Future Research Directions ........................................................................................... 144 
8.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 145 
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 147 
 
  
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 4.1: Summary of Interviews Conducted ......................................................................... 51 
 
Table 6.1: Constraining Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization against Oracle EBS Eras ..... 105 
Table 6.2: Enabling Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization Era against Oracle EBS Era ...... 106 
Table 6.3 Constraining affordances of the Oracle EBS Era against the ECM system Era .... 108 
 
Table 6.4: Enabling Affordances of Oracle EBS against ECM system ................................. 110 
 
Table 6.5: Issues Raised Against Affordances of the Implemented ECM ............................. 111 
  
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 5.1: The HR Workflow Interface of the ECM System ................................................. 78 
 
Figure 5.2: The Digital Form Creation Interface of the ECM System ..................................... 79 
 
Figure 5.3: The Account Workflow Interface of the ECM System ......................................... 80 
 
Figure 5.4: The Records Management Interface of the ECM System ..................................... 83 
 
Figure 5.5: The Security Features Interface of the ECM System ............................................ 85 
 
Figure 6.1: Process Flow of the ECM Software Implementation .......................................... 126 
 
  
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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 
BDA Big Data Analytics 
CEO Chief Executive Officer 
EBS Electronic Business Suit 
ECM Enterprise Content Management 
EDMS Electronic Document Management System 
EPR Enterprise Resource Planning 
ERMS Electronic Records Management System 
EULA End User License Agreement 
HR Human Resource 
HRMS Human Resource Management System 
ICT Information and Communication Technologies 
ID Identification 
IS Information Systems 
IT Information Technology 
MIS Management Information System 
PSI Public Sector Institution 
SDLC Systems Development Lifecycle 
TAM Technology Acceptance Model 
TOE Technology Organization and Environment  
WMS Workflow Management Systems  
 
  
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DEFINITION OF TERMS 
Actors Users of an IT artefact (Leonardi, 2013) 
Possibilities for goal-oriented action, emerging from the relation 
Affordance between an IT artefact, considered in terms of IT features and actors 
afforded to actors by technical objects (Markus & Silver, 2008). 
Authentication A security mechanism of verifying the identity of a user of a system. 
A security mechanism used to determine user privileges or access 
Authorization 
rights to system resources such as files, services and data. 
Institutional data or information. It consists of unstructured 
information such as videos, scanned images, word documents, 
Content PDFs or text matter of a document in any form that are stored and 
made accessible to the right people at the right time (Jaakonmäki et 
al., 2018) 
The creation of digital version of a physical artefact such as paper 
Digitization documents, microfilm images, photographs, sounds and the like 
(Abu-Shanab et. al., 2015). 
The transformation of socio-technical structures that were 
previously mediated by non-digital artefacts or relationships into 
Digitalization 
ones that are mediated by digitized artefacts and relationships (Yoo 
et al., 2010) 
The creation and putting into action appropriate technologies that 
Digital Innovation digitally support aspects of an institution’s operations (Demirkan, 
Spohrer, & Welser, 2016) 
The profound transformation of business and organizational 
activities, processes, competencies and models to fully leverage the 
Digital 
changes and opportunities of a mix of digital technologies and their 
Transformation 
accelerating impact in a strategic and prioritized way, with present 
and future shifts in mind (I-Scoop, 2017). 
Electronic Document A software system for organizing and storing different kinds of 
Management System documents (Grahlmann et al., 2012). 
A legal contract entered into between a software developer or 
End User License 
vendor and the user of the software, often where the software has 
Agreement 
been purchased by the user from an intermediary. 
An integrated approach to managing all of an institution’s content 
and workflow including digitized paper documents, electronic data, 
Enterprise Content 
reports, web pages and digital assets as well as all the strategies, 
Management 
tools, processes, and skills an institution needs to manage and 
process all its information assets (Laumer et al., 2017). 
A software that combines a number of systems and processes to 
Human Resource 
ensure the easy management of human resources, business 
Management System 
processes and data. 
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It comprises numerous technical objects, their component parts, the 
IT Artefact interface through which the actor interacts with it, and the outputs 
of the IS (Strong et al., 2014) 
It is an integrated set of business applications for automating 
Oracle E-Business customer relationship management (CRM), enterprise resource 
Suite planning (ERP) and supply chain management (SCM) processes 
within organizations (Oracle Corporation, 2018) 
Any form of information that printed on a physical paper and used 
Paper-based content 
for decision making (Langner, 2018). 
A work environment in which the use of paper is eliminated or 
Paperless Office 
greatly reduced (Leyer & Hollmann, 2014) 
A workflow consists of an orchestrated and repeatable pattern of 
activity, enabled by the systematic organization of resources into 
Workflow 
processes that transform materials, provide services and 
information (Lederer et al., 2017).  
A software systems that help support collaboration and 
Workflow 
coordination among workers, assisting them in the completion of 
Management System 
complex business processes (Smith et al., 2013) 
 
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THESIS MATRIX 
Research Purpose: To understand an ECM system implementation and use in a developing country’s public sector institution. 
Research Questions Findings Extant Literature Contribution 
 A Public Sector Institution opts Private organizations consider digital ECM systems are implemented in public sector 
 for an ECM system to: technologies as an important factor in institutions meet government directives for 
  enabling a digital workplace (Lederer et al., digital transformation.  
  Meet government directives 2017; Sousa & Rocha, 2019).  
Why would a Public for digital transformation.  The decision to implement ECM systems in PSIs 
Sector Institution in a  ECM system implementation and use has is therefore regulatory. 
developing country opt  Mitigate problems associated become critical for digital transformation  
for an ECM system? with the paper-based system. (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018; Alalwan et al., In a PSI, the decision to implement a specific 
 2014). ECM system originates from the in-house 
 Transform the institution into  technical team. However, management need to 
a digital workplace.  Most ECM implementation in developing own the idea as if they originated it before the 
 countries focus on the documents system can be implemented successfully. 
management aspect of the system  
(Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Katuu, 2012) Once government and management of a PSI 
 support a digital transformation project, all the 
ECM system are implemented to control necessary supports are made available so cost is 
problems associated with the manual system not seen as a hindrance. 
(Laumer et al., 2017; Alalwan et al., 2014). 
 
  ECM implementation planning  An observation has been made that the Government, management and staff of the PSI 
  Training and Sensitization of discourse about ECM mainly occurs in support the implementation of the ECM system. 
 the In-house Technical Team practitioners’ literature (Herbst et al., 2014).  
How does a Public by Vendors.  The ECM system implementation procedure is 
Sector Institution in a  Initial Installation and There is arguably limited or no literature on controlled by institutional policies such as data 
developing country Integration of Existing System ECM system implementation procedure. security policy of a PSI. 
implement an ECM  Full installation of the ECM   
system? system 
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  Providing Training and Initial cost, top management support and staff The in-house technical team needs to be trained 
Support readiness are seen as challenges of digital and sensitized by the implementers to understand 
 Use of the ECM system transformation (Majchrzak, 2016; Achatz, the system, and assist in carrying out an 
 Providing Maintenance, 2017; Abollado et al., 2017). implementation that conforms to institutional 
Update and Upgrade of the  policies, procedures and standards. 
ECM System Training gives users the requisite skills to  
effectively use an IS. Failure to do so creates Based on technical assessment, PSIs select ECM 
an end-user ignorance which may lead to a systems that is compatible and can integrate with 
system failure (Ali et. al., 2016; Laumer et already existing systems. 
al., 2017).  
 This research adds to the knowledge gap in ECM 
research by providing a process flow 
implementation procedure of an ECM system in 
the public sector. 
 
 Positive Consequences ECM systems enable automation of a One of the basis for implementing an ECM 
  Provision of security and paperless business process and improve the system in a PSI is to transform the institution 
 control over contents and overall efficiency of the process, eliminating into a digital workplace. 
 workflows  delays (Escalona, 2015; Zhao et al., 2015).  
3. What are the  Faster Access to  However, the ECM system has still not created 
consequences of Information for decision Further, ECM systems enhance the security of the paperless environment that will make the 
implementing an ECM making  tasks and content, save institutions time and institution a complete digital workplace.  
system in a Public  Effective monitoring of money and promote improved transparency  
Sector Institution? contents and workflows  (Alalwan et al., 2014; Bakunzibake et al., The PSI is forced to manage some paper 
 Change of staff attitude 2016; Laumer et al., 2017; Jaakonmäki et al., contents manually for litigation purpose. This is 
towards work 2018) due to the difficulty in the admissibility of 
  electronic contents as evidence in the country’s 
Negative Consequences ECM system depends on networked servers legal system.  
 System and Network and these servers can be an online cloud  
failure  service or an on-premise data centre. Issues In conclusion, the study contributes to the body 
  Incomplete digital about network failure is a challenge of knowledge in IS and ECM research. 
workplace (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). 
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ABSTRACT 
In an attempt to go paperless, public sector institutions (PSIs) in developing countries are 
beginning to position themselves in a manner that drives them to implement the necessary 
digital technologies to achieve this aim. Enterprise Content Management (ECM) systems are 
one of the technologies that enhances digital transformation by managing a wide range of 
contents and business processes or workflows of institutions. This research sets out to 
understand ECM implementation and use in a developing country’s PSI. The study extends the 
existing knowledge on ECM systems by drawing on the interpretive case study approach and a 
qualitative research methodology to explore the phenomenon. In order to gain a more detailed 
insight on the phenomenon, this empirical strategy and the affordance theory was used as a 
theoretical lens to understand the subjective meanings that various stakeholders in a PSI 
associate to why and how a PSI in a developing country implements an ECM system and the 
consequences encountered. 
 
The findings revealed that the PSI implemented the ECM system to meet government directive 
for digital transformation, mitigate problems associated the paper-based system, and make the 
institution a digital workplace. The ECM system was therefore implemented to fulfil regulatory 
requirement and meet institutional demands and expectations. These demands and expectations 
originate from management, the in-house technical team and staff of the institution. In view of 
this, the study revealed that when there is interest especially from government and management 
of a PSI, cost is not seen as a hindrance in the selection of an IS so far as the system is capable 
of meeting stakeholders’ expectations and demands. Though the idea to select the specific ECM 
system originated from the in-house technical team, management had to be interested and own 
the idea before the system was implemented. From the findings, the ECM system went through 
a seven stage process. During the planning stage of the implementation, factors such as 
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compatibility with existing systems, robustness, usefulness, user-friendliness and readily 
availability of support in terms of maintenance and customization were considered. Also, the 
system was implemented in a manner that conforms to institutional policies. As such, an on-
premise data centre was opted for at the expense of the system’s cloud services. The institution 
is keen in making sure that its sensitive contents are protected and prevented from unauthorized 
access in the system. As such, the findings revealed that the institution activated authentication 
and authorization mechanisms by assigning access control rights to specific users of the ECM 
system to ensure accountability, auditability and non-repudiation of activities. 
 
Further, the findings also revealed that the usefulness and ease of use of the ECM system, 
vendor’s timely systems support and staff interests and readiness for digital transformation 
influenced the effective interaction between the users and the ECM system. Though the ECM 
system helped the PSI to meet government directives and mitigate majority of the paper-based 
system problems, it did not make the institution a complete digital workplace as some contents 
were still managed manually. This is due to difficulty in the admissibility of electronic contents 
as evidence in the country’s legal system. Also, network connectivity problem due to server 
failures is a constraint of the ECM system. The institution did not subscribe to the system’s 
online and web-based cloud services due to data protection policy so when its data centre server 
is down, it leads to business discontinuity unless it relies on the manual approach. These 
findings contribute to the body of knowledge on the implementation and use of an ECM system 
in a PSI. The study is unique as it delved into the full implementation of the ECM system in a 
developing country’s public sector perspective. This study provides an in-depth insight on ECM 
systems implementation in the viewpoint of a public sector institution. The study also looks at 
the concept of ECM systems in a digital transformation perspective.  
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Research Background 
In this present age of technology, the exponential growth of information has influenced 
institutions to create different types of contents, which comprise institutional records, paper-
based records and other electronic documents. Irrespective of the fact that institutions rely 
heavily on the availability, accessibility and integrity of the content they create (Jaakonmäki, 
Simons, Müller, & vom Brocke, 2018), the upwelling in the amount of content to be created, 
managed and processed for decision making in these institutions has brought about a situation 
where the digital management and administration of content and workflow is needed (Simons, 
& Vom Brocke, 2014; Hinings, Gegenhuber, & Greenwood, 2018). As a prerequisite for 
operating in a cutting edge working environment to make an institution a digital workplace, 
there is the need for digital transformation technologies that would ensure that all institutional 
contents and daily routine business processes are electronically managed effectively and 
efficiently. One of the domain that studies these aforementioned subjects is known as Enterprise 
Content Management (ECM). 
 
Enterprise Content Management can be described as an integrated approach to managing all of 
an institution’s content and workflow including digitized paper documents, electronic data, 
reports, web pages and digital assets as well as all the strategies, tools, processes, and skills an 
institution needs to manage and process all its information assets (Hullavarad, O’Hare, & Roy, 
2015; Laumer, Maier, & Weitzel, 2017). ECM systems are positioned as specialized and 
technical solutions for an institution’s management of a wide range of content and business 
processes or workflows (Laumer et al., 2017) to ensure a digital workplace. Content in ECM is 
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basically an institutional data or information. It consists of unstructured information such as 
videos, scanned images, word documents, PDFs or text matter of a document in any form that 
are stored and made accessible to the right people at the right time (Bakunzibake, Grönlund, & 
Klein, 2016; Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). Content include the sum total of the reliability, 
readability, relevancy, and usefulness of the information presented, and the manner in which it 
is presented to intended users (Marutha & Ngulube, 2018). By eliminating dependence on paper 
documents and organizing unstructured information according to an institution’s business need, 
organizations are empowered to work more efficiently with ECM systems. Institutional 
contents that ECM systems manage may include invoices from vendors, resumes from job 
applicants, contracts, correspondence and research reports (Hullavarad et al., 2015; 
Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017). These contents may be captured via using 
electronic forms, scanning paper documents to be filed in a digital repository, managing an 
“already digital” content, including Microsoft Office documents, PDFs, photos and video and 
automatically filing and categorizing documents from servers and other shared locations 
(Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017). 
 
Current ECM systems now come with process automation modules. These modules ensure that 
workflows and business processes are systematically managed and institutional content are 
communicated seamlessly to all stakeholders through the system (Escalona, 2015; Zhao et al., 
2015). A workflow consists of an orchestrated and repeatable pattern of activity, enabled by the 
systematic organization of resources into processes that transform materials, provide services 
and information (Lederer, Knapp, & Schott, 2017). Workflow management is therefore seen as 
managing the sequence of administrative processes through which a piece of work passes from 
initiation to completion. Aside managing content from creation to storage, ECM systems also 
act as workflow management systems. This is because they come with features and capabilities 
that ensure collaboration and coordination that help departments and workers to share and 
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communicate content among themselves and assisting them in the completion of complex 
business processes (Smith, Rahman, & Schmitt, 2013). 
 
In a developing economy like Ghana, to enjoy the benefits of digitalization in the public sector, 
there has been awareness and enthusiasm for various e-government projects, including the 
implementation of information systems in the Passport Office and the Ghana Ports (Business 
Ghana, 2017). The expectation is that e-government and for that matter digital transformation 
will rise more quickly in Ghana as government institutions are gradually embracing 
technological innovation recently. ECM systems have been produced and used over the years 
in the advanced and industrialized world and is today easily institutionalized (Hullavarad et al., 
2015) for digital transformation. However, the effective and efficient implementation of ECM 
systems in developing countries’ public sector institutions (PSIs) will depend on some critical 
factors ranging from stakeholders’ demands, institutional practices, policies and IS tools to 
enable these institutions manage their content and business processes that conform to culture 
and institutional policies. This study therefore focuses on ECM implementation and use in a 
developing country’s public sector perspective. 
 
1.2 Research Problem  
A number of studies have been conducted in the area of ECM (Hullavarad et al., 2015; 
Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017; Svärd, 2017; Marutha & Ngulube, 2018; 
Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). Some of these studies focused on the adoption and implementation of 
ECM systems in various private sector institutions while others focused on implementation 
readiness, implementation challenges and lessons learnt in ECM implementation. Additionally, 
the critical success factors towards ECM implementation in the private sector as well as small 
and medium scale institutions have been established in previous studies. Though these studies 
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provide an indication that digital transformation in institutions can be achieved through the 
implementation and use of ECM system, they have been silent on how institutions implement 
ECM systems especially in the public sector. Additionally, an observation has been made that 
the discourse about ECM mainly occurs in practitioners’ literature. According to Herbst et al., 
(2014), whereas practitioners are already facing challenges towards the implementation and use 
of ECM systems in institutions, the implementation procedure from the viewpoint of institutions 
have still not been adequately provided by researchers. There is therefore the need for this 
research to understand the implementation procedure from the angle of a PSI. 
 
Most of the studies on ECM concentrated in the private sector environment and previous studies 
on ECM system in the public sector environment concentrated on the records management 
module of the system. In the sub-Saharan African countries, the few institutions that have 
implemented ECM system focus mostly on its records management module (content) with little 
focus on the workflow and process automation module. Though Bakunzibake et al., (2016) 
sought to find out how the critical success factors on ECM implementation relate to the situation 
in the Rwanda public sector, the study concentrated on the records management and document 
management aspect of the ECM system. This is also evident in a study by Katuu (2012) which 
sought to comprehend why ECM has been implemented in South Africa. Katuu’s study showed 
that majority of institutions are using ECM applications but the common ECM application 
modules installed within the institutions were records management, document management and 
imaging modules. This study seeks to look at the ECM system in a digital transformation 
perspective by focusing on electronic workflow and process automation aspect of the ECM 
system. 
 
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In the context of developing countries, especially in the sub-Saharan African region, the concept 
of ECM systems has arguably not been fairly researched into. Though most of the studies on 
ECM systems were conducted in the advanced countries, majority were also concentrated in 
the private sector (Katuu, 2012; Laumer et al., 2017; Svärd, 2017; Marutha & Ngulube, 2018). 
An IS implementation procedure and use in the public sector may differ from that of the private 
sector. This is because PSIs are controlled by the government, and as such guided by 
institutional policies and regulatory requirements. Factors such as the organizational culture, 
technology adoption, user perception and institutional policies in a developing country’s 
perspective such as Ghana differs from that of the advanced world. There is therefore the need 
for more studies to probe into how a PSI from a developing country’s viewpoint implement an 
ECM system and the consequences encountered. 
 
The gaps in this research have therefore been identified as follows: 
Issues gap: Though the above studies provide an indication that digital transformation in 
institutions can be achieved through the implementation and use of ECM system, studies have 
been silent on how PSIs implement ECM systems. Moreover, previous studies on ECM system 
in the public sector environment in developing countries concentrated on the records 
management module of the system. Few institutions that have implemented it focus mostly on 
its document management module (content) with little focus on the workflow and process 
automation module. This study focuses not only on document management but also the 
electronic workflow and process automation aspect of the ECM system. 
 
Context gap: Majority of studies on ECM systems conducted in the advanced countries 
concentrated on the private sector. An IS implementation procedure in a developing country’s 
public sector may differ from that of the private sector or the public sector in developed country. 
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This is because factors such as the organizational culture, technology adoption, user perception 
and institutional policies in a developing country’s perspective such as Ghana may differ from 
that of the advanced world. This calls for more studies to probe into how and why a PSI from a 
developing country would implement an ECM system to manage its enterprise content and 
workflow and the consequences encountered. 
 
1.3 Research Purpose 
Following the established research problem, and the relevant research gaps identified in 
previous studies, this study seeks to understand ECM system implementation and use in a 
developing country’s public sector institution. 
 
1.4 Research Questions 
Based on the research purpose indicated, this study will address the following research 
questions: 
i. Why would a public sector institution in a developing country opt for an ECM system? 
ii. How can a public sector institution in a developing country implement an ECM system? 
iii. What are the consequences of implementing an ECM system in a public sector 
institution? 
 
1.5 Significance of the study  
PSIs in developing economies are determined to keep pace with the rest of the world in terms 
of digital transformation to make their environment a smart digital workplace that ensures 
secured documents, effective information management and speedy decision making. This study 
is significant in three aspects and these are policy, research and practice.  
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Originally, this study is timely and will serve the purpose of informing policy makers on how a 
PSI in a developing country implements an ECM system and the consequences encountered.  
 
Moreover, the study will also add up to form a foundation for future studies since there is 
arguably limited literature on the implementation procedure of an ECM system and its 
consequences in developing countries. This will aid future researchers who aim to explore this 
phenomenon. 
 
Finally, in terms of practitioners, this study will inform them on how and why a PSI implements 
an ECM system in a developing country’ perspective and the consequences encountered. 
 
1.6 Chapter outline 
In order to understand the why and how a PSI would implement an ECM systems, and the 
consequences thereafter in a developing economy’s context, it is important to examine relevant 
literature on the digital transformation, ECM systems and paper-based system. Moreover, it is 
imperative to employ appropriate theoretical lens and methodological approach that can account 
for a better understanding of this phenomenon. Following the above introduction, the rest of the 
study is structured as follows: 
  
Chapter two: This chapter offers the literature review for the study. Literature relevant to the 
study is reviewed in this chapter taking into consideration relevant concepts that form the basis 
of the digital transformation and ECM systems in institutions, their possible linkages and study 
propositions. 
  
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Chapter three: This chapter explores the research theory used for the study. The theory guides 
the research strategy and design, data collection methods and instrumentations which serves as 
a benchmark for the data analysis and discussions. 
  
Chapter four: This chapter provides the research methodological approach highlighting the 
research strategy and paradigm used with justification. It also includes the discussion of 
sampling techniques and size indicating the data collection instrumentation, the method used as 
well as the data processing and analysis approach. 
 
Chapter five: This chapter presents the context for the study by providing an overview of G-
PSI (Pseudonym) as a case study. The chapter provides a detailed description of the data 
collected for the study. 
 
Chapters six: This chapter presents the analysis of the data from chapter five. It also gives richer 
insights on the findings by providing interpretation of the findings and a theoretical lens is used 
to explore the respective themes that are applicable in the research. 
 
Chapter seven: This chapter presents the discussion of the findings in relation to the relevant 
literature. The literature reviewed in chapter two was also discussed in relation to the findings 
from the study.  
 
Chapter eight: This chapter presents a summary of the key findings based on the research 
questions as well as implications, suggestions and recommendations to research, practice and 
policy. Future research directions, limitations and conclusion are also discussed in this chapter. 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.1 Chapter Overview 
The previous chapter gave a background into digitalisation and ECM systems. It also discussed 
the research problem leading to the development of the research purpose which is to understand 
ECM implementation in a developing country’s PSI. This chapter therefore tends to discuss and 
review relevant literature pertaining to digital transformation and ECM systems so as to 
discover the knowledge in this field and identify various research gaps that justify the need for 
this study. 
 
2.2 Digital Transformation Explained 
The world has been dubbed as the information age and technology is playing a vital role in 
ensuring that institutions create innovative ways to manage their content and operations. In 
order to cope with the rate of technological change that the world is experiencing, business 
institutions use IS to digitally innovate and transform their day-to-day business operations 
(Bianco & Covino, 2018) and this has resulted in concepts such as digital transformation and 
digital innovation. Digital transformation has been researched into since the concept began 
appearing in the 1960’s (Schwertner, 2017). According to I-Scoop (2017), digital 
transformation is “the profound transformation of business and organizational activities, 
processes, competencies and models to fully leverage the changes and opportunities of a mix 
of digital technologies and their accelerating impact in a strategic and prioritized way, with 
present and future shifts in mind”. From a business institution’s perspective, one of the key 
reasons for such transformation is to give businesses competitive edge for efficient and effective 
management of their contents, processes and performance (Hinings et al., 2018).  
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Researchers sometimes use digital innovation and digital transformation to mean the same 
thing, but the two terms are not necessarily the same. While digital innovation is about the 
creation and putting into action appropriate technologies that digitally support aspects of an 
institution’s operations (Demirkan, Spohrer, & Welser, 2016), digital transformation provides 
the combined effects of several digital innovations leading to a change in structures, practices, 
values, and beliefs that replace or complement existing operational procedures within 
institutions (Hinings et al., 2018; Solis & Littleton, 2017). This is an indication that digital 
transformation is beyond digital innovation and involves a complete digitalization of processes 
and making a working environment a digital workplace. Regardless of the fact that the two 
concepts are predominantly used in a private business sector context (Markovitch & Willmott, 
2014), they also impact institutions in the public sector which are involved in tackling societal 
and public challenges by leveraging one or more of existing and emerging technologies 
(Bharadwaj et al., 2013). In Japan, for instance, digital transformation even aims to impact all 
aspects of life with the country’s Society 5.0 initiative, which goes far beyond the limited 
Industry 4.0 vision in other countries (I-Scoop 2017). 
 
Developing new digital transformation competence revolves around an institution’s capacity to 
be more people-oriented, innovative, agile, streamlined, and efficient to be able to leverage 
opportunities to change the existing state of affairs and tap into new information-driven and 
service-driven prospects (Kane et al., 2015; Fitzgerald et al., 2013). In practice, optimizing 
institutions’ digital visions and needs, operational flexibility and innovation are key drivers and 
goals of digital transformation, along with the appropriate information-powered ecosystems, 
leading to business model transformations and a new form of digital experiences (Sarker, Wu 
& Hossin, 2018; Plesner, Justesen, & Glerup, 2018). For institutions to achieve the full benefits 
that come with digital transformation, there is the need for them to implement and use the 
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requisite Information System (IS) that ensures an effective paperless environment through the 
digitization and digitalization of enterprise contents and processes. 
 
Digitization is subset of Digitalization. Digitization is seen as the technical process of 
embedding digital artefact into technological objects (Pfeiffer and Jarke 2016). At a 
fundamental level, digitization can also be understood as the creation of a digital version of a 
physical artefact such as paper documents, microfilm images, photographs, sounds and the like 
(Abu-Shanab, Abu-Shehab & Khairallah, 2015). Simply put, digitization is a concept used to 
describe the process of changing a paper document into a digital format to be stored or used in 
an IS.  
 
Digitalization goes beyond digitization. Yoo et al., (2010) explains digitalization as “the 
transformation of socio-technical structures that were previously mediated by non-digital 
artefacts or relationships into ones that are mediated by digitized artefacts and relationships”.  
They further explained that in business, digitalization is seen to be the automation of processes, 
including existing manual or paper-based processes through the digitization of contents from 
being paper-based into a digital content. In view of this, the digitalization of a business and the 
elements of its value chain leads to a digital business (Markovitch & Willmott, 2014). As a 
result, an institution is considered as digital when it is operating by performing business 
activities through the use of information, resources and digital technologies that produce 
innovative competence designed to meet new expectations of the digital world. (Abu-Shanab, 
et al., 2015). In order to seize the opportunities that come along with digital technologies and 
stay competitive in the digital world, institutions have to fundamentally rethink through the way 
their businesses are carried out leading them to the creation of digital business models (Heavin 
& Power, 2018).  
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2.3 Benefits of Digital Transformation 
Digital transformation is of tremendous significance to institutions as it offers a wide range of 
benefits, both direct and indirect, quantifiable and non-quantifiable. Relevant studies have 
identified three levels of digital transformation benefits to institutions, indicated as; strategic 
benefits, tactical benefits and operational benefits (Markovitch & Willmott, 2014 Bianco & 
Covino, 2018). For instance, digitalization provides timely information to technical staff, non-
technical staff and management of an institutions to enable them make timely decisions (Heavin 
& Power, 2018). Through digital transformation, workflows are easily and timely created 
electronically and contents are readily shared among all relevant functional units within an 
institution eliminating delays and duplication, offering great transparency and reducing the 
occurrence of data inconsistencies (Heavin & Power, 2018).  
 
Timonen & Vuori, (2018) noted that the intention of managers for investing in an IS to digitally 
transform their operations is for enhanced customer service, the need to work efficiently, 
streamline business processes and saving cost. Organizations consider digital transformation as 
important tool to help make their working environment a digital workplace and achieve the 
needed completive advantage. This is as a result of the continuously changing, highly 
competitive environment, rapid development of economic globalization to support key business 
processes (Lederer, Betz, Kurz, & Schmidt, 2017; Sousa & Rocha, 2019). Due to the enormous 
benefits that come with digital transformation, it has disseminated into various domains of 
business such as the maritime industry, banking industry, health sector, agricultural sector and 
the educational sector (Jangra & Dua, 2012; Abollado, Shehab, & Bamforth, 2017). Even in the 
public sector, digitalization plays a significant role. For Instance, a study by Bakunzibake et al., 
(2016) shows how digitalization plays an important role in how well government institutions 
are able have access to a wide range of timely information for their decision making. 
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Digital transformation is no more just an emerging trend, but it is changing the business models 
of institutions in several ways ranging from the automation of complex business processes to 
how business is done electronically across functional departments (Bianco & Covino, 2018; 
Lederer, Betz, et al., 2017). Accordingly, while using an Information Technology (IT) device 
to create just data and information have lost momentum over the last decade, global data flows 
have grown forty-five times larger since 2005 (Manyika et al., 2016). In this regard, as the 
world economy is shifting from being industrial-based towards knowledge-based, the digital 
transformation of business operations is now generating more economic value than the 
traditional management of these processes. Digital transformation platforms like ECM systems 
are one of the key tools that give institutions the edge to digitally transform their business 
processes and workflows (Alalwan et al. , 2014). According to them, ECM systems change the 
nature of business operations from the traditional manner into a digitalized environment, 
minimizing unnecessary delay in business processes leading to an improvement in business 
performance and decision making. 
 
2.4. Drivers of Digital Transformation 
Obviously, adapting to changing demands of a digital information age calls for the need for 
institutions to implement digital transformation projects. In a globalized economy, the ability 
for PSIs to remain competitive requires the implementation of digital technologies to innovate 
and transform their business contents and processes. I-Scoop (2017) indicated that increasing 
efficiency and transparency and making the working environment a digital workplace are 
influencers of digital transformation implementation. To take advantage of an enabling smart 
environment and to bridge the digital divide, institutions in developing countries are 
implementing digital transformation and innovations projects to meet the changing demands 
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and needs of the information age and stakeholders (Demirkan et al., 2016; Jaakonmäki et al., 
2018). Therefore, one of the drivers for digital transformation is the passion for institutions to 
meet the needs and demands that come with the innovative way of doing business. Again, due 
to the benefits of digital transformation, top management of institutions and governments of 
some countries are implementing digital platforms to transform their content and business 
processes (Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Reis, Amorim, Melão, & Matos, 2018). In this regard, the 
decision to go paperless, innovate and automate processes and digitally transform an 
institutions’ operations may come from top management and government. When an institution 
needs to fulfil a business need and demand, it drives the top management of such institution to 
implement digital technologies that ensures the transformation of its operations (Reis et. al., 
2018). 
 
2.5 Challenges of Digital Transformation 
Despite the fact that the emergence of potent digital technologies, digital platforms and digital 
infrastructures has transformed business operations in significant ways (Nambisan, Wright, & 
Feldman, 2019), there are challenges associated with such transformation. One of the challenges 
is initial cost of implementing a digital transformation project (Majchrzak, 2016; Cho, 2018; 
Sousa & Rocha, 2019). Aside the benefits that digital transformation brings, it comes with the 
cost of implementing it. The cost of implementing digital technologies include cost of 
acquisition, cost of training, cost of data storage and cost of maintenance of the digital platforms 
used for the transformation (Cho, 2018; Heavin & Power, 2018; Pelletier, 2019). Therefore, 
when an institution does not have enough resources to acquire, secure and maintain the requisite 
digital technologies that ensure digital transformation, it becomes a challenge. 
 
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Further, the attitude of users of the digital technologies for digital transformation may also cause 
a challenge (Achatz, 2017; Heinze, Griffiths, Fenton, & Fletcher, 2018). The world is evolving 
so institutions need to position themselves in a manner that will enable them be in line with the 
change. As a result, there is the need for management and staff in institutions and the institutions 
as a whole to develop themselves for an organizational change (Heinze et al., 2018). Making 
an administrative environment a digital workplace becomes problematic when users of the 
digital technology show a negative attitude towards using the digital technologies (Achatz, 
2017). This negative attitude may be as a result of the specific system in place. According to 
Abollado et al., (2017), when a digital technology has a complex user interface it may 
negatively influence users attitude towards using the digital technology and this fails digital 
transformation projects. Moreover, since digital transformation depends on networked digital 
technologies, they are supported by network servers (Lederer, et al., 2017; Loonam, Eaves, 
Kumar, & Parry, 2018). A technical error in a server is likely to cause a downtime in using the 
system which might slow or halt business processes. Nevertheless, juxtaposed to an on-premise 
data centre, cloud services can help reduce the severity of network failures and can help ensure 
the flow of operations (Vithayathil, 2018; Varghese & Buyya, 2018). In view of this, network 
failure is a major challenge of digital transformation. 
 
In a nutshell, lack of management sponsorship (cost), network issues and staff resistant to 
change are the main challenges facing digital transformation in institutions. 
 
2.6 Digital Transformation in the Public Sector 
Across the globe, government agencies are implementing digital technologies and innovative 
initiatives for a myriad of reasons. Some of these reasons include satisfying citizens’ needs, 
improving business efficiency and cost savings (I-scoop, 2017; Sarker et al., 2018). 
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Specifically, digital transformation and innovation may happen in PSIs and areas such as the 
ports and harbour, national healthcare, national airport and the like. Obviously, adapting to the 
changing demands of such institutions in a digital information age is not just driven by internal 
factors (Besson & Rowe, 2012; Lederer et al., 2017) but is also driven by external factors 
(Janowski, 2015). In the public sector of developed countries, the ability to remain competitive 
requires an effective implementation of digital technologies and information excellence 
(Ciuriak, & Ptashkina, 2018). Similarly, PSIs in developing countries have seen the need for 
digital transformation and have positioned themselves for its implementation. 
 
Regardless of the challenges that is accompanied by digital transformation and innovation 
(Heavin & Power, 2018), it has affected the public sector positively by increasing efficiency 
and transparency, improving, streamlining and aligning processes, transforming government 
transaction services, having better access to timely information and creating a data-driven 
government (Besson & Rowe, 2012, Janowski, 2015; Yu, 2017). This reveals why international 
organizations are calling on economies to embrace digital transformation in this age of 
information. For instance, organizations such as the European Union (EU) and the Organization 
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) have made a call to member states with 
recommendations on implementing digital strategies to bring their governments closer to 
citizens, streamline processes, automating processes and safeguard government and 
institutional data (I-scoop, 2017; Sarker, et al., 2018). 
 
Digital transformation in Europe, North America, Asian economies appear to have generated a 
high level of progress. However, the rate of digitalization of contents and business process in 
the public sector is still relatively low in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa (von 
Leipzig et al., 2017; Chetty et al., 2018; Srinivasan, Diepeveen & Karekwaivanane, 2019). 
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Though there is an indication of e-government implementation in Ghana to provide institutions 
and citizens with a more accurate and real time information (Mensah, 2016), the concept of 
digital transformation has still not been adequately researched into. This is because the concept 
has practically not been fully implemented in PSIs in the country, hence the reason for 
inadequate literature. To help bridge this gap, digital platforms such as online passport 
application, digitalized ports and harbour project and digital platforms have been implemented 
even though most of these platforms are not completely paperless (Mensah, 2016). But for a 
developing economy like Ghana, it is good for a start as the country is aiming for its institutions 
to digitally transform their operations. Moving forward, if the country wants its institutions to 
be digitally transformed, there is the need to acquire and implement digital technologies that 
have the capacity to make a working environment a digital workplace (Lederer et al., 2017) and 
also train and sensitize staff in the new digital workplace. To achieve this, ECM systems are 
seen as one of the digital technologies that can serve this purpose. 
 
2.7 Enterprise Content Management (ECM) Systems 
With the rapid growth of unstructured corporate contents, institutions face increasing 
difficulties in managing their contents and business processes (Alalwan et al., 2014; 
Grahlmann, et al., Laumer et al., 2017). An ECM system is therefore designed to help 
institutions with effective management of their contents and workflows digitally to achieve the 
benefits that come with digital transformation. With the implementation of the ECM system, an 
established process is created that allows electronic flow of the entire document-oriented 
business processes and workflows from the creation of documents and tasks through to the 
completion of tasks and archiving of documents (Hullavarad et al., 2015; Svärd, 2017). Not 
only will this allow for tighter control of business standardized operating procedures, but it will 
also allow for individual performance accountability, and the opportunity to trace and track 
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tasks pending their next actions and completion (Alalwan et al., 2014; Hullavarad et al., 2015; 
Katuu, 2018) 
 
Unlike first, where ECM systems were used interchangeably for Electronic Documents/Records 
Management Systems (EDMS) or (ERMS) due to their concentration in managing mainly 
contents (Grahlmann et al., 2012), the situation is different now. Currently, ECM systems are 
seen as a final point in a digital transformation procedure, where different concepts, like EDMS 
and ERMS have become predecessor concepts accommodated in the evolutionary process 
(Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). ECM systems have evolved and developed in the course of recent 
years, and are substantially more extensive in scope than its starting points. As a result, 
Grahlmann et al., (2012) proposed a steadier and far reaching explanation of ECM systems. 
They explained that ECM comprises the strategies, processes, methods, systems, and 
technologies that are necessary for capturing, creating, managing, processing, storing, 
preserving, and managing contents and workflows within and between departments in 
organizations. Further, the definition points out that ECM systems are not limited to document 
management technologies only, but they also include a specification of the content lifecycle and 
workflow management. The concept of ECM has been identified as an important and complex 
subfield of Information Systems (IS) research, but there is still a lack of research on ECM within 
the field of IS (vom Brocke, et al., 2011; Grahlmann, et al., 2012). 
 
ECM systems come with various models and functionalities that can make an administrative 
working environment a digital workplace (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). Depending on the ECM 
system, the modules may include document capture and imaging, records management, 
electronic workflow and process automation, web forms and others (Katuu, 2018). The latest 
ECM systems ensure the management and optimization of contents and advanced business 
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processes. As a result, institutions are able to maintain control by ensuring efficient and 
effective flow of contents and workflows. Workflow and business process automation, a key 
component of an ECM system is a predefined set of rules that allow users to focus on their 
assigned tasks preventing them from chasing paper from office to office (Laumer et al., 2017). 
As such ECM systems can easily be used as an extension of an institution’s ERP, CRM or other 
core systems whose contents are link to the business transactional records so that documents 
and processes can be retrieved with just the click of the mouse. 
 
2.7.1 Paper-based Content Challenges and Opportunities 
Content can be institutional data or information which are either electronic or paper-based. It 
consists of unstructured information such as physical documents, videos, scanned images, word 
documents, PDFs or text matter of a document in any form that are stored and made accessible 
to the right people at the right time (Langner, 2018). Paper-based content is therefore any form 
of information that printed on a physical paper and used for decision making (Langner, 2018). 
Juxtaposed to digital content, working with paper-based content come with some challenges. 
Creating, capturing and storing documents digitally eliminates many of the obstacles created by 
paper-based content (Langner, 2018; Leyer & Hollmann, 2014). They explained that labour-
intensive, duplication, slow distribution, document deterioration, misplaced originals, storage 
space problems and the inconvenience of retrieving files from offsite storage were some of the 
problems associated with paper based system of managing contents or documents (Leyer & 
Hollmann, 2014; Hwang et al., 2013). These challenges affect the speed of getting information 
for decision making which in turn affect business continuity negatively (Hwang et al., 2013). 
Inasmuch as there are problems with the paper-based system, it however comes with some 
positive effects.  Business continuity is one of the advantages of having a paper based system 
(Leikums, 2012). According to Leikums (2012), when there is power outage or system failure, 
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the paper-based system ensures business continuity because documents and information needed 
to be retrieved for decision making are not dependent on any IT system. Hence system failures 
do not affect the creation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information. 
 
ECM systems are therefore implemented to enable institutions mitigate the problems associated 
with the paper based system and enjoy the benefits that come with digitalization (Alalwan, 
2013). With the ECM system, institutions are able to manage their contents by capturing and 
importing information into a secure digital repository (Leyer & Hollmann, 2014). They further 
indicated that, apart from an ECM system being able to keep track of the movement of 
documents, it also reduces the time, cost, and complexity associated with managing documents 
throughout their life cycle, to ensure compliance with organizational record retention policies. 
Retrieving contents without hassle is yet another why institutions implement and use ECM 
systems. ECM software helps eliminate time spent searching for information, enabling 
employees to answer information requests immediately without delays (Bakunzibake et al., 
2016). The system empower employees have instant access to the information required to make 
better decisions which ensure organizational and operational efficiency (Laumer et al., 2017).  
 
2.7.2 Workflow Management in ECM Systems 
One of the key component of an ECM system is workflow and process automation and this is 
important for digital transformation. Though an ECM system is not primarily a workflow 
system, it has capabilities that ensure collaboration and coordination (Alalwan, 2013). 
Workflow Management Systems (WMS) are software systems that help support collaboration 
and coordination among workers, assisting them in the completion of complex business 
processes (Smith, Rahman, & Schmitt, 2013). WMS support the operation of digital workflows, 
which describe business processes in a way that allows a certain degree of automation and focus 
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on automating processes or parts of a process (Lederer, Knapp, & Schott, 2017). WMS represent 
the business process as a sequence of activities, with tasks that can be either fully automated or 
assigned to employees, who might carry out the tasks supported by a computer (Abollado et al., 
2017). Sakowska, Thomas, Connor, and Roberts, (2017) indicated that a typical workflow 
system controls and tracks the progress of processes by pulling and supporting all the activities, 
and after completion of each task, it checks that it has been correctly performed. 
 
Since the latest ECM systems have electronic workflow technologies embedded in them, it 
allows for efficient process automation and streamlined processes (Alalwan et al., 2014; Laumer 
et al., 2017). As a result, the system is capable of allowing for the creation of key metrics, 
helping to measure and analyse the efficiency of the business processes (Deelman et al., 2015; 
Mapleson, Drou, & Swarbreck, 2015; Sacks, Barak, Belaciano, Gurevich, & Pikas, 2013). 
Similar to a typical WMS, ECM systems are often integrated with other company tools and 
systems, such as e-mail, databases, ERP, and other communication tools to make to make 
workflow smooth and give structure to business processes (Sacks et al., 2013; Mapleson et al., 
2015). ECM systems therefore have high level of flexibility, scalability, reliability and 
interoperability as it allows for integration with existing systems to enhance business process 
automation and improve a digital workflow. 
 
2.8 Implementation of ECM Systems 
Implementation in IS refers to all the activities that are involved in working towards the 
adoption, management and routinization of an information system (Kornkaew, 2012). This type 
of activities may be as a result of a fresh implementation or a modified one where an existing 
or a legacy system is being upgraded (Wyrwicka, Zasada & Mrugalska, 2017). ECM systems 
like any other IS system are implemented through policies, procedures and standards of an 
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institution and as such required different implementation strategy from different institutions 
(Laumer et. al., 2017). In the process of implementing an ECM system, Saffady (2017) 
indicated that there is the need to implement controls such as technical, physical and 
administrative controls. According to him, technical controls refers to the access control and 
data security control mechanisms while administrative control refers to the guideline and 
policies of the institution such storage privileges. This is to help towards the successful 
implementation and use of the ECM system. Specifically, the controls are necessary to prevent 
manipulation of data, unauthorized access and destruction by malicious programs (Saffady, 
2017) to ensure integrity in a digital transformation environment. 
 
As indicated by Kaur & Aggrawal, (2013), there are a number of recommended practices for 
implementing a successful IS in institutions. One of such critical success factor is obtaining 
management support (Katuu, 2012; Tokosi & Naicker, 2015; Abollado et al., 2017). It is 
important that management support is visible and available not just for IS project approval but 
throughout the entire implementation process. While Abollado et al., (2017) indicated that a 
complex users interface influence the use of a system negatively, having a top management 
support provides a justification for end users of the system to be committed in using an IS 
(Bakunzibake et al., 2016). This is an indication that top management support as well as having 
a user friendly interface is key in the implementation of an ECM system. 
 
Moreover, the benefits that technology will give to an institution is somehow dependent on the 
attitude and the willingness of staffs who are going use the technology (Sakowska et al., 2017; 
Singh & Hess, 2017; Laumer et al., 2017). When top management support an IS implementation 
project, it does not automatically mean the users of the digital technology also support the 
initiative (Effah & Abbeyquaye, 2013). As such, Achatz (2017) indicated that staff readiness is 
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key when implementing an IS to be used in an institution because in the digital environment, 
the staff act as the end users of the system. In effect, when the staff are not ready, the full 
benefits that the technology bring will not be actualized since the interaction between the 
technology and the end user is what brings the needed benefits that the technology provides 
(Pozzi, Pigni, & Vitari, 2014; Wang, Wang, & Tang, 2018). But in order for the end users to 
interact with the IS easily, Abollado et al., (2017) and Ardolino et al., (2017) revealed that the 
system should come with an easy to use interface that is capable of helping them perform their 
functions efficiently with very little or no technical support and problems. End users of an ECM 
system will therefore be ready to accept an ECM system implementation when the technology 
is easy to use and at the same time can help them in the performance of their tasks efficiently 
(Laumer et al., 2017). Further, Yeh & Xing (2016) indicated that staff who are yet to have a 
feel of digital technologies find it difficult to accept new technologies in institutions due to lack 
of experience. On the contrary, others are of the view that such staff are motivated to accept 
digital transformation in their institutions due to the growth of digital transformation strategies 
in most institutions across the world as they are motivated and are willing to be trained to get 
the needed experience to use the digital technologies (Li, 2018; Sousa & Rocha 2019). 
 
Moreover, institutions do not want to spend money to completely migrate from systems to 
systems so a key factor for implementing an ECM system is its compatibility with already 
existing IS systems and tools. The integration of existing information systems and an ECM 
system enhances digital transformation, an almost paperless workplace, adding flexibility, 
availability and integrity to a business process (Escalona, Domínguez-Mayo, García-García, 
Sánchez, & Ponce, 2015). Additionally, all stakeholders must be involved in all phases of the 
ECM system  implementation from the onset throughout the entire process (Hullavarad et al., 
2015; Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016). Stakeholders have to be aware that the ECM systems 
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implementation will fail without their commitment (Alalwan, 2013; Hullavarad et al., 2015) 
and the aim to digitally transform their institution’s content and workflow will not be achieved. 
 
Conducting a digital transformation project is challenging, especially in institutions that are new 
to the digital world (Bonfante, 2016; Heavin & Power, 2018). There is a massive number of 
factors that influence IS implementation such as an ECM system, but a proper implementation 
plan that takes into consideration the organizational culture, standards and policies of an 
institution usually to produce a successful outcome (Ilvonen, Thalmann, Manhart, & Sillaber, 
2018; Ndemo & Weiss, 2017). Institutions that are new to the digital age therefore need to seek 
a scalable solution, so as to start small, integrating their institutional policies and culture but 
then be capable of growing using the chosen technical solution (Escalona et al., 2015; Maican 
& Lixandroiu, 2016) which is an ECM system. In summary, for an ECM system to be 
implemented, these pre-determined benchmarks will aid in having a successful implementation 
provided the appropriate ECM software and vendor is selected. 
 
Once an institution identifies and makes a decision for ECM systems implementation, priority 
should be given to those ECM solutions which have a positive impact on an institution 
(Alalwan, 2013; vom Brocke, et al., 2013) to help the institution achieve its digital 
transformation agenda. ECM systems can be expensive, requiring a variety of resources to 
manage. As such, cost including the purchase price of the ECM application and IT tools, 
development and implementation, customisation of the system, and the training of end users 
should be considered in order to optimise the digital transformation process. Even though the 
usefulness of an ECM software influences its selection (Alalwan et al., 2014; Laumer et al., 
2017), when the cost of acquiring the software is higher than an institution’s financial strength, 
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it becomes a challenge to obtain the software and implement it (Haug, 2012). ECM software 
are therefore selected not only based on the cost but also the usefulness of the software.  
 
Institutions also select IS taking into consideration the implementation plan of the software 
vendor and the ability of the software to be compatible and integrate with other systems.  
(Sakowska et al., 2017). The implementation plan may include the all forms of laid down 
implementation procedure such as deployment, training, maintenance and support and the like. 
There ECM system selected should come with support to help institutions solve technical 
problems in a digital transformation environment. As noted by Effah and Abbeyquaye, (2013), 
an IS implementation plan should enable the in-house technical teams to seek for assistance 
with consultants or vendors so as to solve technical issues. In order to digitally transform an 
institution and make it a digital workplace, an ECM software should be selected only when it 
has the capacity to ensure a paperless environment. This means that an electronic workflow and 
process automation capabilities should be embedded in the software providing support in a 
workflow configurations (Deelman et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2013). There is therefore the need 
for an ECM system that supports these iterations in a simple and configurable way. Another 
concern is the ability of the software to integrate and collaborate with the existing IS tools in an 
institution (Escalona et al., 2015). As such, when an ECM software is capable of integrating 
with the already existing IS tools, it has a high chance of being selected. Without proper 
integration of useful IS tools and the ECM system, it would be difficult to realise the full 
benefits of an ECM system and a digital workplace. 
 
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 2.9 Benefits of Enterprise Content Management (ECM) Systems 
The introduction of digital workflows in ECM systems is an opportunity to improve, automate 
and streamline underlying processes in business to realise several benefits. Automation of parts 
of a paperless business process helps in reducing the number of unnecessary steps within a 
workflow, thus improving the overall efficiency of the process and eliminating delays 
(Escalona, 2015; Zhao et al., 2015). A properly implemented ECM system with a digital 
workflow does the same job as an employee, but faster and without or with little human errors, 
leading to lower operational costs (Mapleson et al., 2015). Further, similar to any workflow 
management system, ECM systems with digital workflow solutions provide visual tracking of 
the workflow status since roles are assigned for each task (Máriás et al., 2013) showing clearly 
which tasks are required, the employee responsible for its completion and when the task should 
be completed. 
 
ECM system ultimately save institutions time and money, secure institutions’ content and 
promote improved transparency (Haug, 2012; Jaakonmäki et al., 2018; Laumer et al., 2017). 
ECM system structures an institution’s content by what they are instead of where they are. As 
such, instead of spending time searching for document, a search by keywords retrieves 
documents since documents from all sources are properly indexed in the ECM system (Laumer 
et al., 2017). Moreover, ECM systems protect confidential documents from unauthorized access 
(Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). The system uses access control mechanisms to allow users to have 
access to workflow and documents from a central storage location. This provides an audit trail 
of each activity in the system and every touch of a document provides information about the 
name, date and time and the action performed on the document to see who is doing what on 
each document (Alalwan et al., 2014). In a nutshell, ECM systems provide efficiency by 
ensuring a seamless collaboration of documents and contents to work on processes and 
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workflows more efficiently. Consequently, employees from departments within an institution 
are able to work efficiently since collaboration occurs across functional departments. With an 
ECM system, institutions benefit from time and cost savings, secured documents, increased 
efficiency and productivity as well as improved collaboration among departments. 
 
2.10 Challenges in Implementing ECM Systems 
The benefits of ECM systems appear to be significant for large institutions. Just investing in an 
IS tool to digitally transform an institution’s contents and processes will not solve problems 
related to the underlying institutional contents and processes if the underlying challenges are 
not mapped out and optimised prior to its implementation and post implementation (Shovlin, 
Ghen, Simpson, & Mehta, 2013 ; Heavin & Power, 2018). Similar to the findings of Heinze et 
al., (2018), one of the challenges is end users’ commitment and this happens due to staff 
willingness  to accept technological change (Herbst et al., 2014; Hullavarad et al., 2015). In 
order to ensure success, it needs to be considered that a significant amount of time and resource 
is needed to educate the end users on the usefulness of a system and how to operate it (Sakowska 
et al., 2017; Laumer et al., 2017). The current ECM systems ensures digital transformation by 
ensuring process automation and in most cases, human factor issues are the main obstacle to 
the acceptance of such workflow applications (Abollado, et. al., 2017). Because employees may 
see electronic workflow as a way of reducing their decision-making power, as management has 
a greater visibility of the process (Mosweu, Bwalya, & Mutshewa, 2017), they are reluctant to 
use the system. Other employees might feel put off by being monitored and could feel that the 
system is invading their privacy. These issues need to be closely managed and balanced against 
the benefits ECM systems bring. 
 
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Cost and network issues is also a challenge in the implementation and use of an ECM system 
(Cho, 2018). Haug, (2012) indicated that cost play a vital role in the whole implementation 
process of an ECM system. Cost become a challenge when an institution do not have enough 
resources to effectively put in place the requisite tools, skills and human resource to successfully 
carry out a smooth ECM implementation  (Hullavarad et al., 2015). Also, the ECM system 
depends on networked servers and these servers can be an online cloud service or an on-premise 
data centre. Issues about network failure become a challenge especially when an institution 
implement an on-premise data centre (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). In effect, when there is a 
network or server failure leading to system downtime, it affects the use of the system causing 
delays in business processes. 
 
In or order to successfully implement an ECM system, all stakeholders must play a critical role 
in setting up priorities and objectives (Haug, 2012; Hullavarad et al., 2015; Demirkan et al., 
2016). They should get involved in the decision making process and be informed of every step 
in the implementation plan. Engaging the right stakeholders will help to attribute roles and 
responsibilities to different stakeholders, so that the implementation is successful with little or 
no conflict arising between the stakeholders and the system ( Brocke, & Derungs, 2014; 
Bakunzibake et al., 2016). Involving the right people from the beginning contributes to the 
development of a realistic ECM implementation scope and consistent implementation 
procedure that would ensure that the full benefits of the ECM system is achieved. 
 
2.11 Studies on ECM Systems and Research gaps Identified 
From the reviewed literature, it is evident that a number of studies have been conducted in the 
area of ECM systems (Katuu, 2012; Alalwan et al., 2014; Hullavarad et al., 2015; Bakunzibake 
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et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017; Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). While some of these studies focused 
on ECM systems implementation readiness (Katuu, 2012; Marutha & Ngulube, 2018), others 
also concentrated on challenges and lessons learnt in ECM systems implementation (Haug, 
2012; Hullavarad et. al., 2015). Also in this regard, other studies have been conducted to 
identify and analyse the critical success factors towards ECM implementation in institutions 
(Alalwan, 2013; Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017). They established that the 
success of ECM implementation is influenced by top management support, organisational 
readiness and the service quality of the ECM software. However, most of these studies focused 
on the private sector and the document and records management modules of ECM systems 
paying attention to factors that influences the system’s adoption.  
 
Moreover, a study of ECM implementation in South African aimed at assessing how ECM has 
been implemented in institutions (Katuu, 2012). The study indicated that most private sector 
businesses in South Africa had implemented ECM systems. The findings also indicated that 
institutions have as much as eight years of ECM implementation experience with majority using 
the records and document management and imaging modules of the ECM applications. Also, 
Bakunzibake et al., (2016) sought to find out how critical success factors on the implementation 
of ECM systems relate to the situation in the Rwanda public sector. However, the study 
concentrated on the records management and document management aspect of the ECM 
system. This is consistent with Katuu’s study which showed that majority of institutions are 
using ECM applications focused on records management, document management and imaging 
modules. Further, according to Alalwan  and Weistroffer (2012), the discourse about ECM 
mainly occurs in practitioners’ literature and is limited in the IS field. Whereas practitioners are 
already facing challenges towards the implementation and use of ECM systems in institutions, 
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understanding an ECM system implementation process from the viewpoint of institutions have 
still not been adequately provided by researchers in the IS field (Herbst et al., 2014). 
 
In the context of Ghana, a developing country from the sub-Saharan African region, the ECM 
discourse has arguably not been fairly researched into. Though these studies were conducted in 
the context of the sub-Saharan African region (Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Horne & Hawamdeh, 
2015; Katuu, 2012), they are arguably not adequate enough. It is therefore important to explore 
the phenomenon using available literature and findings to understand why and how a PSI 
implement an ECM system. 
 
A number of theories, models and frameworks have been used extensively to study ECM 
systems implementation. Most of these theories are factor-based theories such as Dynamic 
Capabilities, Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), Technology, Organisational and 
Environmental (TOE) framework and Delone and McLean IS Success Model and the like. 
These theories have been used to study the adoption and implementation of ECM system and 
evaluating the performance of ECM systems in institutions (Alalwan, 2013; Herbst et. al., 2014; 
Horne & Hawamdeh, 2015; Laumer et al., 2017; Bakunzibake et. al., 2016). These theories 
have gained much attention in IS research especially on ECM system adoption, development, 
implementation and use. Generally, factor-based theories treat the process part of an IS 
phenomenon as a black box and do not explain how and why the predictors and outcomes are 
related (Bartleby, 2014). Therefore, these theories and models offer partial understanding of the 
ECM system phenomenon by representing it with human-centred constructs. This study uses 
the affordance theory, which is an interpretive theory. The interpretive theory is useful when 
the research aims to gain deep insight into IS phenomena, including its development, 
implementation and use (Klein & Myers, 1999). The theory makes it possible to comprehend 
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the reasons that accounted for the choice of an ECM system. It also helps to gain more insight 
into the subjective interpretations of people associated with the phenomenon. Moving away 
from factor-based theories, this study uses the affordance theory, an interpretive theory, to 
explore the ECM phenomenon. 
 
2.12 Chapter Summary 
This chapter aimed at finding out the most explored issues in the field of digital transformation 
and ECM systems. The findings from the review suggested the need for more studies to be 
conducted away from the adoption of ECM systems in the private sector and in the developed 
countries. The review also suggested the need to move away from just the document 
management aspect of the ECM system, which makes up the bulk of the studies in this area, 
and focus on the ECM system in a digital transformation perspective. More so, indicated the 
need to understand ECM implementation procedure away from practitioners’ viewpoint as this 
study contributes to literature in the field of IS. Based on the discussion of this literature review, 
this study identified and chose to understand why and how a PSI a developing country would 
implement an ECM system and the consequences encountered. The next chapter presents an 
overview of the affordance theory and how it applies to this study. 
 
  
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CHAPTER THREE 
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 
3.1 Chapter Overview 
The preceding chapter delved into relevant literature to identify gaps which this study is going 
to fill. This research is premised on the Affordance Theory, hence this chapter gives a brief 
history of the Affordance Theory; its basic tenets, the reason behind its application to find 
answers to the research questions of this study. 
 
3.2 Empirical Grounding of the Affordance Theory 
Theories and research frameworks provide the means by which concepts or variables are studied 
concerning a phenomenon to investigate the solution for a research problem (Boateng, 2018). 
Theories also enable researchers in terms of the methods to use in a quest to find answers to the 
main research questions of a study. As such, the Affordance Theory was selected as this 
informed the researcher’s data collection and guided the analysis and discussions on how and 
why a PSI in a developing country implemented an ECM system and the consequences 
encountered. 
 
3.3 Brief History and Overview of Affordance Theory 
The theory of affordance as it has been used in some studies, (Volkoff & Strong, 2013; Seidel 
et al., 2013; Schrock, 2015) was propounded by Gibson (1986) in ecological psychology. 
Gibson (1986) describe the theory as the interaction between an actor and the environment, 
which is defined by the surroundings of the actor itself. According to Gibson, actors are 
organisms perceiving and behaving in the environment. The conditions that enable this 
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interaction include both the properties of the actor and that of the environment (Gibson, 1986). 
Affordances are preconditions for an activity, but do not imply that the specific activity will 
occur. Gibson envisioned an affordance to mean an action possibility available in the 
environment to an actor. An affordance is independent to the actor’s ability to perceive its 
possibility (Hartson, 2003).  The first researcher to apply the original theory of affordance 
replaced the environment with technologies, known as IT artefacts (Hutchby, 2001). The 
functional and relational aspects of affordance were considered as possibilities for action and 
the potential of this approach for studying the complex relationship between technologies and 
the actors was acknowledged. IS literature has described affordances as possibilities for goal-
oriented action, emerging from the relation between an IT artefact, considered in terms of IT 
features, and organizational systems (Zammuto et al., 2007), afforded to actors by technical 
objects (Markus & Silver, 2008).  
 
An increasing relevance and interest has been given to the theory of affordances in IS research 
(Seidel et al., 2013; Volkoff & Strong, 2013; Yoo et al., 2012). The affordance theory is used 
in IS because its application ensures new insights in explaining the consequences of IS use in 
institutions (Majchrzak & Markus, 2008) and the related institutional change (Volkoff & 
Strong, 2013). As affordances are just potentials for action, studies recognize that affordances 
need to be triggered or actualized (Strong et al., 2014) by a goal-oriented actor to achieve an 
outcome. The tantamount usage of the terms actor, user, person, individual, and agent 
(Majchrzak & Markus, 2012; Markus & Silver, 2008; Zammuto et al., 2007) is meant to point 
out the human decision to take advantage of an affordance. This shows there is an active role in 
relation to the IT artefact played by users of the technology. The choice for IT artefact should 
therefore be consistent with the development of the affordance theme, at the intersection of IS 
and technology (Savoli & Barki, 2013; Volkoff and Strong, 2013). IT artefact may comprise 
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numerous technical objects, their component parts, the interface through which the actor 
interacts with it, and the outputs of the IS (Leonardi, 2013; Strong et al., 2014) 
 
Based on the above discussion, it is clear in literature that the affordance theory is based on the 
concept of actors (users of IT), the artefact or object (IS itself) and the environment that the IS 
functions as they emerge from the entanglement between users and the technologies in use. In 
addition, neither the human or the technology is favoured above the other, hence when humans 
experience constraints from technology, they may change it, whereas a feeling of affordance 
triggers humans to change their routines to comprehend other features of the technology 
(Majchrzak & Markus, 2012). 
 
3.4 Basic Concepts of Affordance Theory 
Affordance exists as a relationship between an actor and an artefact. Affordance is relative to 
the action capabilities of the actor, and reflects possible actions on the artefact itself (Majchrzak 
& Markus, 2012; Volkoff &Strong, 2013; Zammuto et al., 2007). Affordances are objective in 
that their existence do not depend on value meaning or interpretation, but also subjective in that 
an actor is needed as a frame of reference (Wang et al., 2018). In this sense, Gibson’s 
affordances introduced the idea of actor-environment mutuality, which makes the actor and the 
artefact an inseparable pair. Pozzi et al., (2014) proposed a four steps based framework on the 
temporal-causal relationship between affordance existence, perception, actualization and 
effects. Firstly, they recognize affordance existence as a cognitive process, the product of the 
interaction between IT artefact and organization. Secondly, affordance needs to be perceived or 
recognized by the organization. Thirdly, affordance is actualized as organizations adopt a 
procedure to act on the perceived opportunities for action to produce effects. 
 
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3.4.1 The Cognitive and Recognition Process 
The cognitive process of affordances existence indicates that affordances exist from the 
interaction between IT artefacts and an organization. Organizations need to perceive or 
recognize IT affordances and adopt the potentials for action which they perceive to actualize 
the affordances in support of institutional goals (Pozzi et al., 2014). This behaviour will produce 
immediate concrete outcomes as a result of the interaction between an IT artefact and actors. 
 
3.4.2 Affordance Perception 
The perception of affordances is a process of recognition (Wang et al., 2018) of the affordance 
existence, which is influenced by the information that actors perceive about affordances. The 
symbolic expression of objects, defined as “the communicative possibilities of a technical 
object for a specified user group” (Markus & Silver, 2008), is one of the information that actors 
perceive and to make sure whether the affordance exists or not. For instance, the interface of an 
interactive software provides “message from designers to users about how users must interact 
with the system in order to achieve a certain range of goals and experience” (Markus & Silver, 
2008). This means that affordance perception is influenced by features of IT artefacts, which 
originate from intentions by designers, and by actors’ capabilities and goal. Based on different 
goals and needs, institutions can achieve multiple outcomes through the perception of the IS 
and the use of features of the IS 
 
3.4.3 Affordance Actualization 
More researchers have shown interest in affordance actualization process (Volkoff & Strong, 
2013; Volkoff, 2016; Strong et al., 2014). Strong et al., (2014) explained actualization as “the 
actions taken by actors as they take advantage of one or more affordances through their use of 
technology to achieve immediate concrete outcomes in support of organizational goals” Volkoff 
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and Strong (2013) introduced IS affordances into the research perspective of generative 
mechanisms to understand the IT/IS-associated organizational change. They claim that 
affordances are actualized over time by organizational actors interacting with an IT object 
leading to various effects. Affordance actualization is therefore goal-oriented. 
 
3.4.4 Affordance Effect 
Through the process of affordance actualization, actors can achieve multiple effects. These 
effects are also called “immediate concrete outcome” (Bygstad, et al., 2016; Strong et al., 2014) 
in the short term. An immediate concrete outcome refers to the result that can help us support 
the primary goals of an institution. For example, if an organization wants to improve the 
efficient use of resources (the primary institutional goal), it will install IS like an Enterprise 
Resource Planning (ERP) in order to achieve this goal. Through the interaction between the 
actors and the IS, users of the ERP take actions to actualize the system’s affordances and achieve 
some immediate concrete outcomes such as coordination and collaboration which can lead to 
the efficient use of resources. In the example of implementing ERP, the IS affordances refer to 
the potential for standardization and coordination, and the immediate outcomes are standardized 
business process and coordinated work environment. The concrete outcomes connect IT/IS 
affordances with organizational goals and make the IS what it is (Strong et al., 2014). 
 
3.5 Principles of Affordance Theory 
The theory of affordance is based on some principle that need to be identified and explained. 
First, affordance is a rational concept which does not exist on its own. Secondly, affordance is 
subjective, and thirdly, affordance can be an enabler or a constraint. 
 
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3.5.1 Affordance is a rational concept which does not exist on its own 
Adaptations have been made to emphasize the specifications of the interlacing of object (IT 
artefact) and actor (user of the technology) (Pozzi et al., 2014).  According to Pozzi et al., 
(2014), affordance does not exist on its own. This considers that affordance is derived 
relationally from the interaction of an IT artefact characterized by its features, and an actor 
(institution, group, department or individual) with expertise and goals. IT artefact may comprise 
numerous technical components, features and the interface through which the actor can interact 
with it (Markus & Silver, 2008). Despite all the features that an IT artefact may have, the 
affordance actualization depends on highly on the entanglement between the IT artefact (IS) 
and the actors (users of the system). Affordance therefore does not determine how people will 
use a technology, while at the same time the technology’s potential uses are not fully open-
ended due to its features and materiality (Wang et al., 2018). Rather, affordance depends on 
how the actors interact with the features of the technology. Affordances are therefore 
possibilities of a goal-oriented action afforded to specific users of a system by an IS that come 
about as a result of the interaction between IS and users of the IS 
 
 
3.5.2 Affordance is Subjective 
While objective affordances address the potential possibilities of the IS that depend on the 
predicted and planned activity for users, subjective affordances are the unplanned affordances 
explored through users’ creativity and skills  (Wang et al., 2018). Subjective affordances are 
formed together with users’ creativity and skills to use an IS. Affordance is subjective when it 
is derived from an interaction between an individual’s or group’s subjective perception of IS 
and the objective qualities of the IS (Pozzi et al., 2014). An IS can result in multiple action 
possibilities because users have interpretation in its use. In this regard, an IS becomes a platform 
that give meaning and structure through people’s interpretations and people’s behaviors 
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determined by the IS.  Therefore, the existence of affordances is objective, it does not rely on 
the meaning and interpretation given by potential users whereas the users are subjective, 
perceiving and actualizing affordances according to their own goals to produce different effects. 
 
3.5.3 Affordance can be an enabler or a constrain 
According to some researchers, an affordance can be an enabler or constraint of an action and 
should include both the properties of enabling and constraining affordances (Leonardi, 2013 
Volkoff & Strong, 2013). In the field of IS research, this makes sense because in the use of an 
IT artefact, there will certainly be enabling and constraining possibilities that act 
simultaneously. For example, an IS security technology can afford institutions security by 
providing the enabling affordance of confidentiality and integrity while at the same time 
providing constraining affordance of limiting availability. In effect, when affordances become 
a constraint, the institution or actors might not accept it because they produce undesirable 
effects. Again, when an institution chooses to implement an ERP system to unify its business 
processes, individual departments can be constrained in their ability to adapt to the business 
process when their existing systems cannot be integrated. This shows that the efficiency of 
individual departments will decrease to improve the efficiency of the entire organization. So it 
is necessary for institutions to implement IS in an enabled environment to correctly understand 
the enablers and constraints of affordances. 
 
3.6 Application of Affordance Theory in IS 
The studies that have adopted this theory have taken a variety of forms. For instance, Zammuto 
(2007) used affordance theory in his study and came out with a contribution that IT/IS has 
become a factor that cannot be ignored in organizational change. He indicated that IS 
affordances can affect the form and function of institutions and the evolving relationship 
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between IT and the institutions. Also, Strong, et al., (2014) extended the theory of affordances 
to develop a mid-range theory for Electronic Health Records associated organizational change 
in a healthcare organization. In doing so, it offers a template for other mid-range affordance-
actualization theories and a more general affordance actualization lens which considers the 
materiality of an IT artefact and the process by which IT leads to organizational change. Further, 
Dremel, Herterich, Wulf, and vom Brocke, (2018) used the theory to probe the actualization of 
four big data analytics (BDA) affordances at an automotive manufacturing company. They 
introduced a theoretical perspective to BDA research which describes how organizational 
actions contribute to actualizing BDA affordances. Finally, Pan, Sandeep, Hu, Lu, & Liu, 
(2018) used the theory of affordance to explore the perspective of manufacturing Enterprise 
Innovation Ecosystem based on describing two important transformation stages through the 
modes of technological innovation and internet innovation. 
 
3.7 Application of Affordance Theory in this Study 
Since this study intends to understand why and how a PSI in a developing country implement 
an ECM and the consequences encountered, the affordance theory will help to comprehend the 
affordance perception that led the PSI to implement an ECM system. Based on the goals and 
needs of the PSI, the institution can choose an implementation procedure or approach for the 
affordances to be actualized to achieve multiple outcomes through the use of features of the 
ECM system by actors. Affordances can be actualized over time by the institutional actors 
interacting with the ECM system leading to various effects. Therefore, the theory of affordances 
in this interpretive study will help in understanding the why and how a PSI in a developing 
country implements an ECM system and the consequences encountered. 
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3.6 Chapter Summary 
This chapter discussed the affordance theory as the analytical lens for this study. It began by 
giving a brief history and overview of the affordance theory and further discussed the basic 
tenets and principles of the theory. The chapter ended by discussing the application of the 
affordance theory in IS as well as the application of the theory in this study. The next chapter 
discusses the method used to collect data that answers the research questions of this study. 
 
  
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CHAPTER FOUR 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 
4.1 Chapter Overview 
This chapter focuses on the methodology used in conducting this study. It starts by outlining 
the paradigm used for this study and then goes on to choose the interpretive paradigm and 
justifies why it is suitable for this study. Furthermore, the research methodology, research 
method, case selection and the field work of this study are also outlined. In addition, the 
chapter provides the methods of data collection and analysis used. 
 
4.2 Research Paradigms in Information Systems 
Paradigms are “integrated set of assumptions, beliefs, models of doing research and techniques 
for gathering and analysing data” (Neuman & Robson, 2004). Research paradigms direct the 
researchers in identifying and clarifying their beliefs in terms of reality, methodology, 
knowledge and ethics (Mertens, 2010). Ontology, Epistemology and Methodology constitute 
the main perspectives of a paradigm. The ontological viewpoint focuses on the objectivity or 
subjectivity of reality and its features (Creswell, 2013). The epistemological perspective 
explains the nature of knowledge and how it can be applied to define whether it is objective or 
subjective (Ritchie et al., 2013). The methodological perspective deals with the methods and 
tools used in data collection, analysis and making conclusions when conducting a study. This 
next sub-section gives an overview of the three main paradigms that exist in the field of IS 
research, as classified by Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991). 
 
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4.2.1 The Positivist Paradigm 
The positivistic researchers’ aim is to explain and ultimately enable the prediction and control 
of a phenomena by conducting a study in a deductive manner to reveal causal relationships that 
form the foundation of generalization (Dubé & Paré, 2003). The ontological perspective of 
positivism says that reality exists and is objective due to some form of a general cause-and-
effect principle. This implies that there is an objective truth of the reality that researchers can 
accurately measure and use statistics to test, irrespective of the researcher, and the phenomenon 
being researched, (Neuman & Robson, 2004). In terms of epistemology of the positivist, 
knowledge can be replicated, as such, when different researchers at different times conduct 
different studies, the same results will be documented (Sahay & Robey, 1996). It also maintains 
that researchers play passive neutral roles in the phenomenon of interest, so as not to influence 
the validity of the findings of a study (Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991; Sahay & Robey, 1996). 
Usually, the use of laboratory experiments, field experiments and surveys is adopted by 
positivists in a study. They collect large data which is statistically analysed to validate or falsify 
research questions and hypotheses to identify underlying regularities, (Weber, 2004). 
 
4.2.2 The Critical Realism Paradigm 
According to this paradigm, researchers identify oppositions, inconsistencies and conflicts that 
exist in societies and institutions as a result of structural problems, so that the causes of these 
variations can be accounted for and possibly eliminated (Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991; Wynn 
Jr & Williams, 2012). Research conducted from the critical realist view is used to develop in-
depth explanations and descriptions of the outcomes of specific social phenomena by taking 
into account factors which may have played a causal role in their occurrence (Wynn Jr & 
Williams, 2012). This paradigm allows researchers to conduct studies and propose theories and 
frameworks and effect changes in the phenomena under study. Ontologically, the critical 
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paradigm recognizes the existence of an independent reality and assumes that social reality is 
constituted and constructed by people. However, despite the deliberate effort to change their 
social and economic conditions, they are usually limited by social, cultural and political powers 
(Wynn Jr & Williams, 2012). Epistemologically, the paradigm postulates that knowledge is 
grounded in social and historical practices, thus a whole phenomenon cannot be studied in 
isolation of its society and setting within which it operates, because of the potentials of 
influences of historical, economic, social and political conditions on the phenomenon 
(Orlikowski & Baroudi, 2001). Critical researchers in this area tend to adopt long-term 
historical studies, and ethnographic studies of institutional processes and structures (Orlikowski 
& Baroudi, 2001). This offers researchers new opportunities to investigate complex 
organizational phenomena in a holistic manner by providing a comprehensive causal 
explanations of the phenomena (Wynn Jr & Williams, 2012). 
 
4.2.3 The Interpretive Paradigm 
This Interpretive paradigm advances that truth about a phenomenon depends on the 
environment in which the phenomenon is being observed. Researchers in this field try to 
comprehend the way other researchers interpret, view and understand events, partially because 
they assume that these events influence the behaviours of individuals (Kaplan & Duchon, 1988). 
Ontologically, the interpretive paradigm embraces multiple realities and explains to the social 
world from the viewpoint of organizational actors that are directly involved in the construction 
of reality (Creswell, 2012; Goldkuhl, 2012). The paradigm supports that the researcher cannot 
be separated from a phenomenon since it involves the researcher’s subjective understanding of 
the phenomenon. The perception people have about the real world is dependent on their 
experiences so the real world cannot be disconnected from the observer. Epistemologically, the 
interpretive paradigm postulates that knowledge of reality is based on social construction by 
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human factors. As such, people allocate meanings and values to their distinctive context to 
explore a phenomena of interest in its natural settings, without imposing any previous 
understanding on it (Kroeze, 2011; Orlikowski & Baroudi, 1991). Interpretivists intends to work 
with the subjective meanings that already exists in the social world in order to reconstruct them, 
understand them, avoiding distorting them, and use them as a building block for theorizing 
(Goldkuhl, 2012). The interpretations of realities in interpretive study are likely to shift when it 
constituents and circumstances change as a result of the transformation, transfer and usage of 
the meanings. Interpretivists employ qualitative methods in finding answers to their research 
questions making the use of case studies, ethnographic studies and phenomenology as its 
preferred research methods (Weber, 2004). 
 
4.3 Choice of interpretive Paradigm 
Interpretive research is useful when the research aims to gain deep insight into IS phenomena, 
including its development and implementation (Klein & Myers, 1999). Since this study aims to 
understand why and how a PSI in a developing country implements an ECM system and the 
consequences encountered, employing an interpretive research helps to gain more insight into 
the subjective interpretations of people associated with this phenomenon. Interpretive research 
requires the understanding of how practices and meanings are formed in order to understand 
social reality, making it possible to comprehend the reasons that accounted for the choice of an 
ECM system. 
 
4.4 Research Methodology 
Research methodology is an indispensable tool in research. This is because it empowers a 
researcher to analytically solve the research questions that have been defined in phenomenon 
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(Boateng, 2018). Robson (2011) explains methodology as “the theoretical, political and 
philosophical backgrounds to social research and their implications for research practice and 
the use of particular research methods.”  There are three types of research methodologies that 
are used in contemporary research namely, quantitative, qualitative and the mixed-method 
approach (Creswell, 2013). 
 
4.4.1 Quantitative Research Methodology 
The quantitative approach is a highly structured research methodology that is used for testing 
objective theories by examining how variables of a phenomenon relate (Creswell, 2013). In 
order to ensure reliability, generalizability and replication of research findings, quantitative 
researchers strictly follow, throughout the research, the deductive procedures of the 
methodology (Chen, 2011). It is characterized by positivism, objectivity, scientific methods and 
experiments and data is collected in the form of numbers using predetermined instruments 
(Creswell, 2013). Quantitative research collects data with the use of questionnaires and mainly 
focusses on deducing, confirming, testing of hypothesis and theories by explaining, predicting 
and analysing statistics. With this approach, researchers employ experiments and surveys, and 
do not bring their own personal interests and values into the research (Chen, 2011). 
 
4.4.2 Qualitative Research Methodology 
Qualitative research is employed to find answers to research questions without the use of any 
statistical procedures (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In this regard, the qualitative approach is 
suitable for exploring and understanding the meanings that individuals or groups give to a 
phenomenon. This will help to obtain details such as thoughts, feelings and emotions that 
partakers of a research attribute to a phenomenon which otherwise may be difficult to obtain by 
the other research approaches (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Creswell, 2013). The researcher 
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conducts his research in a natural setting and collects textual data through interviews, 
observation, and document analysis using strategies of inquiry such as grounded theory, 
ethnography action research and case study (Creswell, 2012). Qualitative research is subjective, 
and this implies that the findings of a study is influenced by the interpretations of the researcher. 
The major features of qualitative approach include exploration, discovery, induction and theory 
generation, with the researcher being the primary tool for data collection and the analysis. 
 
4.4.3 Mixed Method 
According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004), mixed method research is a class of research 
where the researcher employs the combination of qualitative and quantitative research 
strategies, approaches, techniques and methods into a single study. They explained that it helps 
researchers to gain a deep understanding of a phenomenon since the strengths of both the 
qualitative and quantitative approaches are employed so as to override their weaknesses. This 
approach is targeted at obtaining findings that are more trustworthy (Cronholm & Hjalmarsson, 
2011) and provide an acknowledgement that the combination of qualitative and quantitative 
approaches provides a more holistic understanding of a phenomenon than either of the two. The 
inquiry assumption behind this mixed method approach is based on the fact that collecting both 
numeric and textual data best provides an understanding to the research problem (Creswell, 
2013).  
 
4.5 Choice of Qualitative Research Methodology  
As indicated already, the choice of a research methodology is guided by the paradigm adopted 
for this study and since qualitative strategies emphasize on the subjective meanings, 
perceptions, norms and beliefs that people associate with a phenomenon to find answers to 
research questions (Creswell, 2013), it is appropriate to use it in the study.  Since this study 
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seeks to use the theory of affordance as a theoretical lens to understand ECM implementation 
and use in a developing country’s PSI, the qualitative approach is helpful as it provides an 
interpretive in-depth understanding of the social groups that exist within the case institution. 
 
4.6 Research Method 
Research methods refer to “the techniques used to acquire and analyse data to create 
knowledge” (Petty, Thomson & Stew, 2012). Since this study is based on a qualitative approach, 
it is only natural for the study to adopt a qualitative research design. The basic research designs 
in qualitative research include grounded theory, ethnography, phenomenology and case study.  
 
Phenomenology is a method used to uncover and understand “the constructs that people use in 
everyday life to make sense of their world” (Ritchie et al., 2013). It is based on the assumption 
that there is an essence to shared experience and therefore seeks to understand the phenomenon 
of a life. The approach focuses on understanding the distinctive lived experience of individuals 
by exploring the meaning of a phenomenon (Petty et al., 2012). The experiences of the 
individuals are studied to comprehend the thoughts of how people live their lives (Ritchie, et 
al., 2003). 
 
Ethnography seeks to understand the social world of people being investigated by allowing the 
researcher to live with them in their community in order to produce a comprehensive description 
of the people, their culture and beliefs (Ritchie et al., 2013). Participant observation, 
unstructured interviews and document analysis are usually used to collect data in ethnographic 
research. 
 
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Grounded theory provides the researcher with the opportunity to theorize from evidence that 
exists in data. A grounded theory suggests that the data collection and analysis stages of a study 
should be conducted simultaneously as it is useful for developing context-based, process 
oriented explanations of a phenomena (Myers & Avison, 2002).  
 
A case study is used to study complex phenomena within their context using a diversity of data 
collected from different sources to irradiate the case (Baxter & Jack, 2008). The case study 
allows the researcher to study socio-cultural phenomena, capture reality in a more detailed 
manner to understand people and the context in which they operate (Ritchie et al., 2013). A 
Case study is mostly helpful in gaining holistic, contextualized and comprehensive 
understanding where a full account of the phenomenon under study can be achieved. Case study 
is an appropriate method when the research tries to find answers to ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions 
that the researcher has little control over (Yin, 1994).   
 
This study employed the use of the interpretive qualitative case study. This is on the basis that 
the study seeks to achieve an in-depth understanding on why and how a PSI implements an 
ECM system and the consequences encountered. Additionally, this research method helps the 
researcher to be directly involved with the data collection and analysis of the research, making 
it possible to present the researcher’s own interpretation as well as participants’ opinions and 
perspectives (Andrade, 2009). A case study from an interpretive paradigm perspective may be 
a single case or multiple cases within a single study. Multiple cases are used when the researcher 
seeks to understand more than one bounded system to find the uniqueness of each bounded 
system. On the contrary, this study employed a holistic single case study approach because the 
study sought to understand a unique case. 
 
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4.7 Fieldwork and Case Selection 
The fieldworks concerning this study were conducted in Ghana. The selection of case and 
gathering of data occurred within the period of November 2018 to March 2019. A Public Sector 
Institution (G-PSI) in Ghana was selected purposively because the G-PSI (Pseudonym) is the 
only PSI that has fully implemented and used an ECM system. The researcher then decided to 
select the G-PSI based on extensive and comprehensive implementation and usage of the ECM 
system by the institution. The researcher’s lead supervisor was then consulted to discuss the 
selection decision. Further, the researcher through the help of the in-house technical team of G-
PSI got access to the vendors and implementers of the ECM system, G-Consult (Pseudonym). 
The G-PSI and G-Consult were both consulted to gain a holistic understanding of the 
phenomenon.  
 
Signed formal letters from the researcher’s department in the University of Ghana introducing 
him as a student researcher were sent to the office of the Chief Director and the HR department 
of the case institution to enable him gain access to the needed data to answer the research 
questions of the study. The researcher was then contacted via an official email and this guided 
the researcher to place a follow up call. The researcher physically met with the HR department 
to schedule dates and times for the data gathering. The snowballing sampling method was 
employed so as to enable the first known respondents to direct the researcher to get access to 
the other people who could give information related to the study. The next section provides the 
data collection methods used by the researcher. 
 
4.8 Data Collection Method 
Data collection helps the researcher to find answers to the research questions in order to 
establish the purpose of the study. Participants of the data gathering included individuals with 
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diverse roles within G-PSI and G-Consult. Data can either originate from a primary or 
secondary source (Creswell, 2013) and this research employed both sources of data. Data was 
collected from these sources through observations, interviews and data from documents.  
 
4.8.1 Interviews and Discussions 
The qualitative stance of the study makes it relevant to employ an in-depth semi structured 
interview and this was to get in-depth insights about the phenomenon being researched. 
Stakeholders who were actively involved in the implementation and use; from the decision to 
the buying of the ECM system, the requirements gathering, the installation and training 
processes were interviewed to better understand how the ECM was implemented and used. The 
interview with these stakeholders were done using an interview guide which guided the 
researcher in conducting the interviews. Generally, questions were asked on the decision for 
ECM system, ECM system planning, requirements analysis, training, testing and maintenance 
of the ECM system. Questions were also asked on the consequences of using the ECM system. 
As earlier stated, the stakeholders from G-PSI (the case institution) and the ECM system 
implementer (G-consultant) were interviewed respectively to ensure the authenticity of the data 
in order to gain a richer understanding of the phenomenon. Notes were also made to give the 
researcher direction on the follow-up questions for the respondents. 
 
Table 4.1 gives a numerical summary of respondents who took part in the interview. 
 
 
 
 
 
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Table 4.1: Summary of Interviews Conducted 
G-PSI Number of Interviewees 
MIS Department  4 
Top Level Management 2 
Administrator 1 
Human Resource Department 2 
Account and Finance Department 2 
Registry Document Management Unit 2 
Engineering Services Department 1 
Thermal & Hydro Generation Department 1 
Technical Services Department 1 
Audit Department 1 
General Services Department 1 
Procurement Department 1 
Corporate Risk Management Department 1 
Sub-total 20 
G-Consult Number of Interviewees 
Software Implementers 3 
Sub-total 3 
Total Interviewees 23 
 
A total number of twenty-three (23) staff were interviewed for the study, consisting of 20 from 
G-PSI and 3 from G-Consult. These included the heads of the various departments, units and 
branches, the top management who made the final decision to implement an ECM system, 
administrators and various staff of the institution who used the system at different level based 
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on their needs as well as the vendor who implemented the system. The researcher sought 
participants’ consent and recorded the interviews which lasted between thirty (30) and sixty 
(60) minutes. Because the interviews were recorded, the interviewees were assured of the 
confidentiality and security of the tape recordings by protecting it from unauthorized access. 
The interviews were then transcribed simultaneously with the data analysis. Moreover, during 
the data collection process, the researcher had a discussion with some staff and notes were made 
to enable the researcher provide an accurate report on every information that was discovered 
during the data collection process. 
 
4.8.2 Documentation and Physical Artefacts  
The institution previously used a manual systems and standalone systems. The institution is 
currently using an ERP in some departments before the implementation of the ECM system. 
Data was collected to trace all attempts made by the institution to transform their content and 
operations electronically. This enabled the researcher to obtain evidence of the former and 
current systems, the consequences involved and their role in the institution’s digital 
transformation journey. 
 
4.9 Data Analysis 
The data collection and analysis were done simultaneously (Myers, 2013). The data analysis 
was inductively done to develop themes. The inductive feature of the analysis enabled the 
researcher to identify the themes from the data gathered through interviews, observation and 
documents. These themes were developed using the theory of affordance as the theoretical lens. 
The interviews were recorded thoroughly and carefully read by the researcher to get an in-depth 
insight to develop the themes in relation to the affordance theory. 
 
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4.10 Ethical Considerations 
Researchers need to protect their study respondents, gain their trust, promote the integrity of 
the study and guard against misconduct when conducting research. This study complied with 
various ethical codes and conducts so as to move away from the unacceptable ways. In view of 
this, the case institution was duly informed about the original intent of the study. The 
confidentiality, anonymity and the right for respondents to withdraw from taking part in this 
study were considered. Throughout the study, ethical considerations were kept in mind at every 
stage of the study. All academic works used in the study have been dully acknowledged to 
prevent plagiarism.  Finally, the researcher strictly adhered to the University of Ghana code of 
conduct governing research work. 
 
4.11 Chapter Summary 
This chapter discussed the methodology used for this study. The chapter started by discussing 
the research paradigms in IS and moved on to explain why the interpretive research paradigm 
and the case study research design was the ideal choice for this study. The chapter further went 
on to discuss the criteria used for selecting the case for this study. Finally, the data collection 
methods and how the data was analysed in this study were also discussed. The next chapter 
presents the case description of this study based on the research questions. 
 
 
  
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CHAPTER FIVE 
CASE DESCRIPTION 
5.1 Chapter Overview 
The previous chapter presented the interpretive research paradigm, justified why it is applicable 
in this study and also justified the application of a single case study as the research strategy 
employed. The chapter ended by stating the data collection methods used in the study. Moving 
forward, this chapter begins by giving an overview and history of the case institution, its 
mission, functions and functional departments. The chapter also provides a description of the 
IS used by some key departments before the ECM was implemented. It therefore presents a 
comprehensive explanation of why and how the institution implemented the ECM system. 
 
5.2 Case Study Organization 
The case institution, G-PSI, is one of Ghana’s public sector institution. It was established in 
1961 with the mandate to generate, transmit and distribute electricity in a reliable, safe and 
environmentally friendly manner to raise the living standard of the people of Ghana and West 
Africa.  In order to strategically carry out its mandate effectively, the G-PSI has four major 
branches of which the functional departments are grouped. These include the Office of the Chief 
Executive (with two deputies; one from the Finance branch and the other from Engineering and 
Operations branch), the Engineering and Operations, the Services and the Finance branches. 
 
The office of the Chief Executive is serves as the highest office superseding all other 
departments and units. It has a Corporate Communications Unit, Board Secretariat and an Audit 
Department. The core function of the Chief Executive is to design and build appropriate, 
sustained communication strategies for both internal and external stakeholders with the required 
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mechanism to create institutional advantage and strengthens reputation by collaborating and 
providing long term strategy for the case institution using an interactive information platform. 
The office is also responsible for providing legal and administrative support for effective 
running of the institution as well as providing financial audits, IS security, management audits, 
monitoring and investigations. 
 
The Engineering and Operations Branch comprises the Hydro and Thermal Generation, 
Engineering Services, Environment & Sustainable Development and Technical Services 
departments. The core responsibilities of this branch is to generate and provide a reliable cost 
effective hydro and thermal power, to enforce sound and sustainable environmental 
management practices in the institution by providing knowledge sharing and constant learning 
while preserving and recording appropriate information. 
 
The Finance Branch consist of the Procurement, Finance, MIS, and Planning & Power Business 
departments. The branch sets out to coordinate the development of procurement policies and 
guidelines, facilitates procurement processes and undertake competitive sourcing and effective 
inventory management. The branch also accurately coordinate, direct all financial transactions 
and report the financial position of the institution, its departments and business activities to all 
stakeholders. Again, MIS department at the finance branch provide customer-focused ICT 
services 
 
Finally, the Legal Services, Corporate Risk Management, General Services, G-PSI Academy 
and Human Resource Departments form the Service Branch of the institution. The function of 
the Legal Services Department is to provide legal advice and services to the institution and its 
subsidiaries and manages insurance portfolio. The Corporate Risk Management department 
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exist to study the corporate policy and strategy to identify and assess potential risk that may 
hinder the institution’s reputation by managing processes and procedures of potential risks to 
achieve corporate objectives. The Academy exist to provide quality training in Engineering and 
leadership development and equip the workforce competency gaps. The General Services 
department provide services in air-conditioning, fleet management and maintenance as well as 
air ticketing and bookings. Lastly, the HR department provide quality human resource services 
to attract, develop, motivate and retained workforces with a supportive work environment. 
 
5.3 Information Systems and Technologies Used 
Before the implementation of the ECM system, the institution had previously used ISs, of which 
some of them were standalone systems that were being upgraded from time to time before 2012. 
Additionally, the packages in the Microsoft Office Suite such as word, excel and access were 
and is still is one of the main tools used for operations. However, based on the constraints of 
the standalone systems, in 2012, the institution went in for an Oracle Electronic Business Suite 
(EBS) with the account and payroll module, HR module and procurement & requisition 
management module activated. The decision to secure an Oracle EBS was to provide efficiency 
and security when conducting the institution’s day to day activities in the finance, procurement 
and HR departments. A technical staff from the MIS department indicated that: 
the institution needed to get a more robust IS which ensures efficiency because 
there were some limitations in the old standalone systems. 
 
The limited security, interactivity and efficiency of the standalone made the management of the 
institution to opt for the Oracle EBS. Though the institution opted to face out their standalone 
systems and implement a real-time IS to provide efficiency, interactivity and security for a 
better institutional performance and efficiency, the system was limited to just a few departments 
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which did not make the entire institution a digital workplace. An administrator in the institution 
noted that: 
even with the Oracle EBS system in place, we still had lots printed papers and 
still dealt with papers; the Oracle EBS was used mainly in the Finance and HR 
departments so there were still lots of paper work in other departments. 
 
In terms of communicating information, the staff used the institutional mail to send information 
and documents across. The Oracle EBS ensured the creation of electronic data and collaboration 
between the three departments but documents that needs official approval needed to be printed 
out. Even though the modules of the Oracle EBS were integrated, it did not provide a nearly 
paperless environment. However, it was comprehensively used to manage the overall activities 
of the HR, the account and the procurement and requisition departments electronically. 
 
5.3.1 The Era Before Oracle E-Business Suite 
The manual and standalone systems that were used for administrative work presented many 
challenges to the users, staff, managers and top management and the entire institution. 
Operating manually brought about delays, and regular cases of misplaced and missing files as 
well as storage space problems. 
 
With regard to the standalone systems, the account and payroll application for instance was no 
longer robust and could not fit the requirements of the institution’s regulators which is the 
Controller and Accountant General’s Department and the Ghana Audit Service. These 
regulatory institutions require the case institution to keep all financial data safe and secured and 
make them available in real time for accountability and probity purposes. Due to increased 
volume of information over the years, the standalone systems had difficulty in managing and 
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securing the data and could no longer manage it effectively. In an interaction with one 
accounting staff from the finance branch, he indicated that: 
with the previous standalone system, it took a whole lot of time to work with it; 
it had little modern accounting software features. This made it is very 
problematic use it. 
 
According to the technical unit of the MIS department, the standalone software was not robust 
and the institution needed a robust system to work with to ensure efficiency, effectiveness as 
well as security. The institution needed to make available real time report of the financial and 
other administrative reports to the Audit Service and Controller and Accountant General’s 
Department (CAGD) periodically for coordination and control of the institution’s finance. In 
order to achieve this, there was the need to get a system that would meet the requirements of 
these regulators. The accounting and payroll application was however, unable to meet these 
specifications since it was a standalone system operating separately and therefore lacked 
coordination and collaboration. One of the key stakeholders explained that:  
the institution wanted to align with the requirements of some key regulatory 
institutions so we had to get a standardized robust software that would enable 
us meet their demand. 
 
Moreover, the management of the accounting processes and procedure, payments and 
receivables was manual and aided with the use of Microsoft Excel since its inception till 2009. 
The management of accounts of the departments, hospital, guest houses, schools etc. and all the 
various units of the case institution were all either manual or supported by the Microsoft Excel. 
With time, the institution’s manual system and use of Microsoft Excel even became more 
tedious because of the complex and increased activities carried out. A staff noted that: 
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as the amount of information to be managed increased, it resulted in duplication 
of documents which brought lack of storage space. 
  
Another issue has to do with flexibility and collaboration. Before the Oracle EBS was 
introduced, there was difficulty in terms of collaboration, communicating and sending of data 
electronically from one department to another. The Database Administrator indicated that: 
staff data needed to be sent from the Human Resource department and be 
processed by payroll, then finally sent to the account section. Since the system 
available was not collaborative, it took time to process an activity. The 
institution needed a system that would ensure that account is prepared in a 
timely manner and the whole process becomes efficient. 
 
Collectively, it was observed that the first accounting software used could not meet the 
specifications of the regulatory institution that they are accountable to. Again, there was some 
limitations in the previous accounting system in terms of interconnectivity, communication and 
performance of some key accounting tasks. Hence, the challenges illustrated triggered the 
institution to acquire a more robust system, the Oracle EBS. 
 
The case institution, just like any other PSI has employees who play a vital role in the institution 
as indicated by the staff. According to the HR manager, the institution collected, stored, 
retrieved and performed updates manually and these were done using hard copies of employee 
files kept in folders. These folders of records were arranged, described and store on shelves and 
in cabinets, at offices hosting semi-current records. Initially, the records generated was less and 
there was enough physical storage space so it was easy to manage the basic functions of the 
human resource department and store their data manually. However, when the number of 
records and information increased over the years, the manual process of managing employees’ 
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data became a challenge. This is because the number of data to be managed had increased and 
it was difficult to manually search, retrieve and update personnel data. In, an interview 
conducted with one of the HR staff, she indicated that:  
it was becoming hectic to search and retrieve files of employees to update an 
employee’s data; for instance, requesting for a leave. It was taking a lot of time 
to retrieve such file and go ahead to work on a request from an employee. 
 
Even though the staff files were arranged in some predefined order, the security of the records 
was a concern to the HR department. A staff of the HR department noted that:  
when it comes to security, the HR files were not adequately secured; 
confidentiality is key when it comes to managing data but inasmuch as we tried 
to control who got access to what file, it posed a security problem since we were 
using only paper records and it could be accessed by unauthorized staff’. 
 
During a discussion with a staff from the MIS department, she explicitly explained that data is 
a vital commodity in this age of information. As such, she noted that data should be managed 
effectively in terms of security and privacy to ensure that the confidentiality, integrity and 
availability of data are established. She added that they needed a system that would secure 
documents from its creation to its storage of and dissemination. In view of this, it called for the 
need to secure an Oracle EBS. In a discussion with an HR staff, it was indicated that: 
The HR department needed a system that will allow electronic data entry so that 
we can create, edit, update, delete and generate report digitally for decision 
making while having a backup on-site plan. 
 
Apart from the HR and accounting departments, documents indicate that all the other 
departments performed their functions manually before 2012. For instance, a staff explained 
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that, in the requisition unit, once a need was identified, a formal request is initiated, typically 
using a purchase or requisition form. The purchase or requisition request is then validated by 
the initiator’s immediate supervisor and the procurement and requisition management unit 
control the process to prevent potential frauds and irregularities. He indicated that the paper 
work revolving a simple requisition created some delays. Sometimes, there are cases of 
misplaced files and this also bring about delays in the whole process. The staff noted that: 
Requests were manually received from other departments which contained the 
time and the date the requests were made; it became difficult to retrieve items as 
the number of records kept growing coupled with the limited storage space.  
 
The Oracle EBS was therefore the best system to help improve the activities of the requisition 
department. A staff noted that: 
The implementation of the Oracle EBS was the first software to help in the 
institution’s requisition activities and we are happy to be using it. It eliminates 
delays. 
 
5.3.2 Oracle E-Business Suite Era 
As indicated above, the first module of the Oracle EBS was implemented to replace the already 
existing standalone legacy software and the manual system so as adhere regulatory standards 
and mitigate some challenges in the manual system. Similar to other ERP products, documents 
indicate that this system contains a number of product modules which the institution 
implemented in the various departments. Specific modules selected to suit their business 
processes were each licensed separately. The implementation of the Oracle EBS started with 
the Oracle HRMS. The HR department was therefore the first department to experience the 
Oracle EBS and it served as a pilot study in 2012 towards the full activation in 2013. Later in 
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2014, the Finance and the Procurement departments were signed up to the other modules. One 
of the users noted that: 
this institution has been working with the Oracle HRMS for some time now since 
January 2012 but in November 2013, the HRMS went into full activation. 
Starting from January 2014, the two other phases and modules came into being. 
 
As at now, the case institution is using three modules of the Oracle EBS. These modules are 
Oracle Procurement and Requisition Management, Oracle Financials (for accounting and 
payroll) and Oracle Human Resource Management System. The Financial application include 
Cash Management, General Ledger, Account Payables, Account Receivables, Fixed Assets, 
Treasury, Property Management and Financial Analyser. The HRMS application helps the 
institution to manage their recruitment-to-retirement process. The application gives users a real-
time view of all HR activities, including recruiting, time management, training, compensation, 
benefits, and payroll. The HRMS module supplies the institution with an analytics package that 
allows the extraction of HR data with ease. According to a staff from the procurement and 
requisition department, the module has reduced paperwork and has helped the institution 
streamline its purchasing processes. Because the three modules are integrated and collaborated, 
the business processes within the three departments are efficient.  In an interview with one of 
the MIS staff, he also added that: 
the Finance, HR and Procurement and Requisition departments controls the 
resources of the institution; that is why this institution focused on these three 
main modules of the Oracle EBS. Ever since the full activation was done, there 
has been proper coordination and collaboration between these departments. 
 
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One of the purposes for this software implementation was to provide an electronic facility for 
the departments in the case institution to communicate and interact with information. A staff 
from the HR department noted that: 
the HR module allows us to collaborate and send staff information to the 
Accounting and Payroll module in the finance branch. This saves time because 
we do not physically have send the information.  
 
In terms of meeting regulatory requirements, another staff indicated that: 
with the Oracle EBS, the institution is able to send accurate real time reports to 
the regulators in a timely manner. 
 
The IT team explained that the Oracle EBS is an internet-enabled software that can be managed 
from a single site. The feature made it possible for the institution to operate a single data centre 
with a single database that contains contents from all modules of the application so the 
institution moved away from the oracle’s cloud services. The decision to reject the cloud service 
was due to the data protection policy of the institution. A staff from the MIS indicated that: 
the institution is keen on the privacy and confidentiality of its data so we built a 
data centre that stores all the information generated by the system. 
 
Though the modules of the Oracle EBS are integrated, the system did not make the institution 
a complete digital workplace. However, the Oracle EBS was comprehensively used to manage 
the overall activities of the HR, the account and the procurement and requisition departments 
electronically. The other departments and units still operated manually and still experienced the 
challenges of the manual system. There was therefore the need for a system that would reduce 
the challenges of the manual system and also allows for collaboration in all the departments. 
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5.4 The Era of Enterprise Content Management (ECM) System 
The institution’s decision to implement the ECM system was triggered by several reasons. 
According to the head of MIS department, in February 2017, a final decision was made by 
management to implement an ECM system known as Laserfiche. This decision was based on 
recommendations the in-house technical team spearheaded by the top management managers 
of the various departments in the institution. According to the Chief Director, government had 
given directives for its key institutions to be digitally transformed and this institution was part. 
The decision to implement the ECM was taken to fulfil the directive, demands and expectations 
of government to digitally transform its institutions. In an interview with a member of the top 
management, he noted that one of government plans is to make its key institutions a digital 
workplace so the ECM system was selected because it had the possibility to digitally transform 
the institution into a nearly paperless workplace. He noted that: 
the plan of government is to make its institutions paperless; this is a key 
government institution so government definitely influenced the decision for 
digital transformation; but as to the specific system to use, it came from the 
institution. 
 
He added that the institution had its demands and needs that the ECM system was also expected 
to cater for. First, the institution wanted to transform into a digital workplace to enjoy the 
benefits of digital transformation. Secondly, the institution needed a system that can minimize 
the problems associated with the paper-based or manual system. The Chief Director noted that: 
though we wanted our institution to be a digital workplace, we also needed the 
digital technology in place to mitigate the problems of duplication, slow 
retrieval, regular cases of misplaced files, inadequate storage facility, insecure 
documents and ineffective monitoring. 
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The MIS director explained that the idea to select the Laserfiche ECM system originated from 
the technical team based on requirement specifications. However, they had to communicate it 
to top management for them to accept and own the idea so as to inform the government about 
the type of system to implement for institution’s digital transformation. One of the technical 
team noted that: 
we evaluated a lot of systems and selected one that can help in digital 
transformation but then the idea had to be owned by top management before it 
became a reality. 
  
For a successful digital transformation project, one IT staff indicated that there was the need for 
collaboration and integration of all the systems used in the institution. He explained that once 
the staff and management were ready for a digital transformation project, obtaining a system 
that would ensure an effective integration and seamless collaboration was of priority. He 
indicated that: 
our expectation was to get a system that would be compatible with the Oracle 
EBS so as to ensure seamless collaboration and reduce the number of paper 
records drastically. 
 
The management, staff and the entire institution needed to benefit from digital transformation 
as explained the administrator. The institution for instance, wanted a system can would not only 
ensure document management but also ensure records management and at the same time 
enhancing the security of institutional contents and workflow across all departments and units. 
One of the executive secretary also explained that her responsibility is to make timely 
information available to the Office of the Chief Director so she wanted a system that would 
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make her responsibility efficient by reducing the retrieval response time. Management also 
explained they needed a system that would help them in the supervisory and monitoring roles 
and obtain timely information for speedy decision making. The ECM system was therefore 
expected to fulfil all these expectations, needs and demands. A staff indicated that: 
 to ensure digital transformation, the institution needed a system that can secure 
contents and collaborate with the other systems to make electronic workflow, 
searching and retrieval easy and prevent documents from being exposed to 
unauthorized persons in the institution. 
 
The technical team together with top management had two seminars with the software 
implementers and other private institutions’ technical team to get a comprehensive 
understanding of the system before the selection and implementation began. Based on some 
recommendations, together with evaluations from the technical team, the institution was able to 
know the benefits and features of the ECM system and were able to evaluate the outcomes of 
implementing and using the ECM system. One of the MIS staff indicated that: 
we attended a digital transformation conference where some key members of 
various institutions were present. There were Laserfiche representatives from 
Canada, Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Representatives from the 
institutions using Laserfiche gave comprehensive reports on the ECM system. 
Since some private institutions had implemented the system, they served as a 
reference point to seek for more information about the system. 
 
It was revealed that since the top management were ready for digital transformation, it was not 
too difficult for management to be convinced in acquiring the ECM software. The technical 
team explained that the implementation decision was fast and quick because the CEO believes 
in digital transformation and innovations. They indicated that: 
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since the Chief Director wants to monitor every activity and tasks to be 
performed from all departments in the institution, he was and is the number one 
influencer and beneficiary of the Laserfiche software implementation. 
 
In this respect, it was noted that the case institution made a final decision to buy the Laserfiche 
ECM software because of influence from the internal and external stakeholders which include 
government, top management, in-house technical team and staff of the institution. In an 
interview with one of the technical team members from the MIS department, he elaborated that 
there was a ten-member implementation team which consisted of six technical people from the 
software vendors and four technical people from the case institution. This implementation team 
were tasked to ensure that the whole digital transformation process is carried out successfully. 
 
5.4.1 ECM Software Selection and Implementation  
Laserfiche ECM software is proprietary software for content management, workflow 
management, business process automation, and productivity-boosting data analytics. It is a 
privately owned software developed in the United States that creates and manages enterprise 
contents, business process automation, workflow, records management, document imaging and 
web form software. Documents reveal that the software license is renewable periodically based 
on the End User License Agreement (EULA). Laserfiche ECM solutions digitally transform 
enterprises by making organizations digitally smarter, more collaborative, more efficient and 
more effective. Laserfiche sells its software through value-added resellers distributed 
throughout the world. In Ghana, G-Consult is the vendor that sells and implement Laserfiche 
ECM software on behalf of its parent company in the United States. Since the implementation 
team comprised of people from both G-Consult and G-PSI, collaboration was done in terms of 
customization, conforming to policies and other technical aspects that requires the system to 
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work perfectly to suit the case institution’s needs. According to the deputy MIS Director, the 
institution needed a system that could transform the institution into an efficient digital 
workplace. He explained that one of the specifications they wanted the ECM system to have 
was to integrate and interconnect with the Oracle EBS used in the institution. Also they wanted 
a system that users will find easy to use and operate with little training. In addition, the technical 
team noted that the institution needed a system that is robust and can help meet management 
and staff demands to monitor and help employees in the efficient performance of their task. The 
team added that another unique feature of the system taken into consideration was the readily 
availability of support in terms of customization, updates, upgrades and maintenance by the 
software vendor or implementer. One of the members noted that: 
we needed a flexible system that could help in easy customization, updates and 
maintenance. 
 
Further, in a discussion with some of the staff of the Executive Registry, they explained that 
their responsibility is to receive, store and make available information and documents to the 
Office of the Chief Executive. As such, they needed a system that has an electronic archival 
facility to help them easily retrieve documents in order to meet the demands of the Office of the 
Chief Executive. One senior staff from the registry noted that: 
our job is to provide and receive information to and from the Chief Executive 
Office so they can make informed decisions for the institution; sometimes, they 
urgently need a document to use but retrieving it may take time. When we heard 
the new system to be implemented had an electronic archive facility to make 
retrieval easy, we were very excited. 
 
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The Laserfiche ECM system was selected based on the concerns from government, senior 
management, department heads, in-house technical team and staff of the institution; hence the 
software had to meet the aforementioned concerns for its selection and implementation. 
 
According to the vendors of the Laserfiche ECM system, the team explained that the system 
has compatibility capacity to run on a network platform that interconnects with the modules of 
the Oracle EBS. As indicated above, the institution has been working with three main modules 
at three different departments and so far, usage has been successful. The vendors stated that the 
ECM software provides an integration with the account module which include the general 
ledger & cash management and payroll, the Human Resource (HR) and the Procurement and 
Requisition modules. This is to prevent the Oracle EBS from working in a separate environment 
away from the ECM system. The MIS department head stated that: 
the Laserfiche ECM software is a network-based system and it interconnects 
with all the modules of our Oracle EBS used in the departments. Outstation 
departments and units of the institution can use the system through the 
institution’s network since the application is a web based application. 
 
The vendors explained that they first implemented the document imaging and records 
management modules of the Laserfiche ECM system in the Engineering, Finance, HR, 
Procurement & Requisition and the Information & Document Management departments of the 
institution. This was to serve as a pilot study to see the implementation readiness of the 
institution. It was also to test the system in to see its operational abilities in the case institution. 
According to the MIS team, various types of testing were conducted during the piloting stage. 
This included usability testing, load testing, recovery testing, functional testing and hardware 
testing. One member indicated that: 
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we had to implement the system in phases so that we can conduct some tests to 
see the institution’s readiness and the system’s operational abilities. 
 
The implementation process from the decision to implement the software continued after the 
institution have acquired the ECM system. According to the MIS technical team, it was 
explained that they prepared their servers and data centre as well as all the technological 
infrastructure required to carry the project. Five weeks was therefore used for the installation, 
implementation and testing of the ECM system in the five departments. During the 
implementation period, the MIS technical team were trained by the Laserfiche ECM system 
vendors on the effective use of the system. The parallel and incremental methods were the 
implementation approach used for the digital transformation since the system was not yet fully 
implemented in the institution. Sensitive information and workflows were therefore managed 
and controlled both electronically and manually. The five departments were choosing because 
these departments have the most workflows and access to information within the institution. At 
the same time, they prepared the requisite technological platforms to integrate the ECM system 
with the Oracle EBS and test for its compatibility. A staff from the MIS department noted that: 
it was ideal to use these departments for the pilot study since they have the 
capacity to give a clear picture of what to expect when the ECM system is 
implemented fully across all departments. 
 
These departments used both the manual system and new systems for close to seven months to 
ensure that everything about the system works perfectly well before they extended the 
implementation to the rest of the departments in the institution. Based on the functionality and 
reliability of the system, after close to seven months, the institution made a decision for the 
system to be fully implemented in all departments, units and branches. As such, the 
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implementers had to widen the system’s scope and usage by installing and creating the 
remaining departmental accounts in the systems. A member from the G-Consult indicated that: 
the Laserfiche system is flexible so when the institution was ready for the full 
implementation, we did not have any difficulties. Expansion and integration was 
successfully done. 
 
In both implementation processes, the institution opted for an on-premise data centre to store 
their information as explained by a technical member. This was in conformity with the 
institution and government policies on data protection. One of the staff noted that: 
as an institution, we have sensitive documents and since we do not know where 
and how our data will be store in the cloud, we decided to store data on our own 
on-premise servers. 
 
Additionally, to enhance documents and systems security, the implementers noted that 
authentication and authorization techniques were used. They explained that accounts were 
created for every user of the system. Users are required to have user IDs and passwords to grant 
them access to the system. Also, the implementers together with the in-house technical team 
agreed on implementing role-based access control mechanism to control which user have access 
to what workflow, resource or information in the system. The MIS head noted that: 
the system has been designed such that only authorized users have access to the 
system through authentication means; and also the system gives access rights to 
users in the system. You can be a user but it’s not every resource you can access. 
 
Again, in both implementation processes, users of the system were trained on how to use the 
ECM system effectively. The Laserfiche software vendors explained that based on the results 
of the training, the users were ready to use the ECM system as they saw and experienced the 
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system as easier to use and to work with. According to the ECM software vendors, the technical 
team of the MIS department assisted them in training the users for the three weeks on the 
respective sections of the implementation. A member from the technical team noted that: 
together with the vendors, when we did the pilot study, users were trained; and 
when the full implementation was done, the new users were also trained. The 
training took us three weeks in each case.   
 
Although the ECM software was not developed by the vendors in Ghana, the team made sure 
they followed the required software development lifecycle (SDLC) in its installation, 
customization and setup. The vendor support team explained that: 
though the technical team was not directly involved in the customization, 
installation and setup of the system, they supported to implement the system that 
conforms to institutional policies. The entire project was planned and all the 
necessary systems requirements were properly analysed. 
 
During the installation and testing of the system, according to the vendors, one of the initial 
challenges encountered were network issues and this made the process a bit slow. In a 
discussion with one of the staff from the MIS department, he stated that: 
sometimes, there are network issues and this slows down the system; when the 
system goes down, the users become idle as they would have to wait for the 
network to respond. 
 
5.4.2 ECM Software Use and Maintenance 
According to the users, there are some benefits that come with the implementation of the ECM 
system despite some pitfalls that accompanied the initial implementation. The users explained 
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that one of the main reasons for the use of the software was to enhance the efficiency of 
managing content and workflow to boost performance. An Engineering Services staff noted 
that:  
the ECM system has made work easier and faster. I no longer spend too time 
trying to perform a task; I always have notifications informing me on tasks I 
need to perform and I do it right on my desktop with any paper work. 
 
Based on the documented EULA agreement, customization of the software was an advantage 
since it allowed the institution to implement the software in a way that responds to the key 
demands of the institution. In an interview with one of the staff, she noted that: 
since we have been working with the Oracle EBS, training and using the ECM 
system became easy for us because we have had digital innovation experience 
with the Oracle EBS system already.  
 
Another user added that: 
before the introduction of this ECM system, we had been communicating 
electronically via the institutional emailing system. Even though workflow was 
not automated, we used the emailing system to communicate and collaborate. 
This made it a little bit easier for us to accept the new ECM system. 
 
The ECM system is updated periodically and the security features ensure that the security of 
the institution’s contents and workflow is safeguarded. The technical team explained that since 
the ECM software was developed by a third party company and not in-house, when they 
experienced some challenges, they first try solving it themselves if the issue is minor and is in 
their control. But when the situation is beyond their control, as it has happened a few times, 
they consult the vendors of the system who act on behave of the developers to rectify such 
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errors. Another challenge is that sometimes a few staff make a few mistakes that sometimes 
affect the efficiency the system is supposed to provide. This is attributed to the fact that some 
staff from other departments were still working using the manual approach even after the 
introduction of the Oracle EBS and the initial implementation of the ECM system. Inasmuch as 
these users have been trained on how to use the ECM system, a few users have still not got used 
to the system in its entirety. The MIS director explained that: 
since the manual system has been used by other departments for long, for quite 
some time, changing to this digital transformation environment has been a little 
challenging for some staff that are now practically experiencing digitalization 
for the first time in the institution. 
 
When it comes to maintenance of the software, the technical team explained that when the issue 
is minor, as it is most of the time, they usually attend to the users’ needs, but they sometimes 
bring on board the vendors technical team to respond to some major issues either electronically, 
online or they come physically. This is because of the EULA agreement signed between the 
two parties and the nature of the system as explained by the vendors. One of the staff from the 
MIS department indicated that: 
support and maintenance of the ECM system has been great so far; we solve 
minor issues that comes out when using the system. Vendor support has also 
been great. Any time we call the head of solutions from the G-Consult to solve 
some major issues, he punctually comes with his team to rectify the situation. 
 
5.4.3 Benefits of the ECM System in the Institution. 
The institution’s Oracle EBS had an integration with the Laserfiche ECM system to ensure a 
seamless collaboration. The Laserfiche ECM software was introduced to meet government 
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directive for digitalisation and to make the institution a digital workplace. The system was also 
introduced because of the challenges that emerged from the document security, information 
storage and retrieval causing delays in the decision making as stated by the users. In order to 
help solve this issue, each module of the Oracle EBS was connected to the ECM system to 
enable easy workflow, communication and dissemination of information without having to print 
documents from the Oracle EBS and digitize them into the ECM system. The MIS manager 
noted that: 
these features of the ECM system allow for digital transformation and at the 
same time secure all our data that comes out from all the business transactions 
processed with the system.  
 
As explained by the Database Administrator, the ECM system ensures that data is created by 
capturing it electronically or scanning it from paper into softcopy, workflow is carried out 
electronically and data is stored and updated with ease by users regardless of the department.  
A staff from the Information and Document unit explained that, with the ECM system, the 
institution has transform most of its workflows digitally and the need for paper work which 
consequently result in lack of storage space for the records is gradually been eliminated despite 
the fact that institution have decided to manually store certain vital documents like land titles, 
contract documents and huge receipts. According to the Deputy Chief Director: 
law courts in Ghana have challenges accepting digital evidence so the institution 
by policy manually keep such vital documents for litigation purposes. 
 
The Laserfiche ECM system has a log interface that give authorized users the opportunity to 
access the system as indicated a technical team member. Each user of the system in the 
institution is given log in credentials and assigned rights in order to access the system and its 
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resources. The purpose for this according to one staff from the Finance department is to make 
sure everyone using the system is held accountable for his or her actions. So it was observed 
that, before a file is created or a business process initiated electronically, users ought to log in 
with their credentials and any modifications made on a file can be traced.  
 
After logging in, it was observed that the ECM system gives users the chance to digitize 
contents, organize documents and automate daily business processes. In an interview with a 
manager from the Technical Services department, he noted that: 
when we need to undertake a project in our department, unlike first, now, all we 
need to do is to either scan an already existing document or we use the system 
to create a new one and send the document to the respective departments and 
consequently to the CEO for approval. This is very fast and efficient. 
 
Another staff from the Registry indicated that: 
when our external partners bring correspondence that do not need to be 
returned, we digitize it and send it to the respective departments for 
consideration. Even when you brought your data collection letter from your 
University, it needed to be approved by the HR and the office of the CEO so we 
digitized it and sent it to these department using the system. It was easy and fast. 
 
It was also observed that tasks are initiated and assigned to staffs in an electronic workflow in 
the ECM system. Previously, documents to be approved had to be sent physically to offices for 
signature and approval but now the ECM system ensures that this same task is performed via 
the system as explained by the head of General Service’s department. According to management 
of the institution, the system has brought about a reduction in paper and printing cost. The 
Deputy Chief Director noted that: 
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documents do not need to be printed in order to be signed; the system has an 
electronic signature and a stamp that allows managers to approve a document 
digitally. 
 
But in ensuring that staff desist from printing from the system, sensitization is always given to 
them to allow for a paperless system. The head of MIS department noted that: 
after we have agreed as an institution to implement a certain system, we create 
the awareness, we train and sensitize people towards the use of the system. When 
this system came into being, we decided to give the staff an electronic view of 
their leave request approval letter. This was to reduce paper and toner costs. 
 
According to the HR manager, authorized staff can create and initiate workflows using the 
system and this carries the task and assign it to authorized users to work on the task. She added 
that the ECM system has made work so easy since she can sit in her office to perform tasks on 
the desktop without any difficulty due to systems integration. She indicated that due to the 
system’s user friendly nature, it is easy to perform every task in the system without the need for 
any advanced technical skills. She indicated that: 
I do not have to print a file from the Oracle EBS to perform my basic task which 
sometimes delay my schedules for other activities. Look at this workflow, newly 
recruits need to be oriented in a manner that will make them sociable in the 
organisation; these staff will be in the Engineering department so the Directors 
of the Engineering, Finance and the Chief Director need to know and approve 
it. The process was initiated here; it has to go to all these directors, and a 
feedback needs to be sent here. My daily activities have been streamlined with 
this system. 
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Figure 5.1: The HR Workflow Interface of the ECM System 
 
 
Figure 5.1 shows an electronic workflow of an activity in the HR department. According to the 
HR manager, the ECM system is enabling automation in almost all the stages of on-boarding 
and training as well as updating and working on staff records such as reviewing staff leave 
requests. With the ECM system, the HR manager indicated that she can create one view for all 
new hire documents and tasks which makes retrieval easy. The system also help route hiring 
decisions to the HR department to enable the on-boarding process as explained by the HR. 
 
According to the HR manager, the Laserfiche ECM has really streamline her personnel 
responsibilities; it has eliminated the paper processes for most of her personnel actions. It has 
hosted web forms on the institution’s intranet sites that are created for employees to submit 
travel and various types of leave requests. She noted that: 
the Oracle EBS automatically tracks when employees’ eligibility for work 
benefits is due and when the HR department wants to get the information across, 
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reminder emails are schedule for employees and distributed using the ECM 
system. 
Figure 5.2: The Digital Form Creation Interface of the ECM System 
 
 
Figure 5.2 shows an electronic interface for a job application. New applications are obtained 
via this platform limiting of paper-based application processes. 
One of the key factor for the selection of the ECM system was its ability to integrate with the 
Oracle EBS. The integration makes it possible to instantly access employee documents in the 
HR module of the Oracle EBS. The integration provides a single access point that allow access 
to all employee information from the HR module as explained by the technical team. According 
to the MIS Director, the integration has made it possible to automate processes that triggers 
personnel workflows from the Oracle EBS. This has created easy access to supporting 
documents from HR applications directly in the ECM system.  The HR manager noted that: 
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almost every single time, I get a request from one of our directors for record 
from an employee’s personnel file. Even though the record may be in the Oracle 
EBS, Laserfiche makes it easy to satisfy their requests by quickly sending exactly 
what they need through the system. 
 
Figure 5.3: The Account Workflow Interface of the ECM System 
 
 
 
Figure 5.3 shows an electronic workflow of a collaborative activity between the HR and account 
departments regarding receipts and payments. According to Deputy Finance Director, the 
implemented system has enable more timely payments and receipt of transactions. With the 
ECM system, information from the Oracle EBS and multiple invoices can be scanned 
and capture at once and invoices to multiple employees for review, approval and cheque 
processing are being route by the system automatically. One of the finance staff explained that 
the nature of the system makes auditing easy. He noted that:  
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audit activity throughout the process maximizes productivity because the system 
securely stores invoices and related financial records for easy retrieval; this 
ensures accountability. 
 
Similar to the HR department, the integrated ECM system makes it possible for the system to 
facilitate information transfer between the ECM system and the Oracle EBS. As explained by 
one of the staff from the Finance branch, the ECM system has answered most of their needs in 
the institution. She explained that there is a reduction in data entry and this is due to automatic 
lookups for vendor or invoice numbers coupled with the scanning of invoices directly into the 
system. They technical team explained that, this is possible because the system has an inbuilt 
scan, electronic import and flexible uploads. The invoices are stored in an orderly manner in 
the system so retrieval and access to the invoices stored in Laserfiche directly from the Oracle 
EBS becomes easy and files can be transfer from the network directories. With this ECM 
system, accounting processes are automated and invoicing review and approval from the 
institution’s Oracle EBS is triggered. A senior staff noted that: 
since July 2018, invoices have to be stored in the Laserfiche repository. Once 
the document is scanned and indexed, data is entered into the relevant template 
fields and some other relevant metadata based on what has been stored in the 
database. Other information, such as invoice number, invoice date and invoice 
total is entered manually because we are dealing with financial matters. 
 
Another senior staff indicated that: 
staff used to move around different departments to verify invoice amounts; now 
all those documents have been link so just a click of a link opens up the 
documents for verification. The system has allowed this department to move from 
a paper-driven account payable department to a nearly paperless department. 
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The Documents and Information Management department need to make information readily 
available for management when the need be. In order to facilitate their function, the institution 
has archival facilities in Tema, Akosombo and Aboadzi. According to one of the archivists, 
they were faced with some challenges. He indicated that: 
retrieval response time, storage space and getting a requested material to the 
main head office for management came with some challenges; this created 
delays in decision making. The ECM system has catered for these challenges.  
 
The introduction of the ECM system has therefore brought some relieve to staff working in the 
Information and Document Management unit of the institution. First, they do not need to worry 
too much about storage space because the ECM system comes with an electronic archival 
facility that accepts semi-current and non-current documents with an institutional retention 
policy. Whether current, semi-current or non-current records, the ECM system ensures a better 
the day-to-day storage, modification, retrieval and dissemination of digital files within the 
institution as indicated by the unit head. According to the Senior Archivist who also doubles as 
an Administrative Assistance to the Office of the CEO, the ECM system has helped her to 
perform tasks with ease. She indicated that: 
I am happy this system is in place; the system has help to curb the situation of 
lost, misplaced and misfiled documents and slow retrieval. 
Figure 5.4 shows the records management interface of the ECM system. The records 
are grouped according to year and subject. The life cycle for each record is also 
specified to determine the which record should be kept or deleted. 
 
 
 
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Figure 5.4: The Records Management Interface of the ECM System 
 
 
In a discussion with the Procurement & Requisition, Technical Services, Thermal & Hydro 
Generation, Engineering Services, Audit, Corporate Risk Management and Environmental & 
Sustainable Development departments, the findings are not different from the other 
departments’ findings on the use and benefits of the ECM system. Unanimously, they explained 
that the ECM system helps them to recapture lost hours, improve transparency, improve 
collaboration, optimize daily tasks and transform the way they carry out their tasks. For 
instance, a staff from the Audit department indicated that: 
the system ensures transparency because we are able to track and trace activities 
of users of the system. It helps us to know who did what at what time; any 
modifications done on a document is easily traceable. 
 
 Moreover, a staff from the Thermal and Hydro department noted that: 
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by digitally transforming our workflow and approval processes, we have 
significantly improved our communication response time; we can sort through 
incoming documents much faster to determine reply as soon as possible. 
 
Further, another staff from the Procurement and Requisition department indicated that: 
the integration of this ECM system with Oracle EBS has eliminated the need for 
multiple reviews before an approval is made. The system speeds up institution’s 
requisition cycle and provides a complete view of all our approval processes. 
 
The security of data is of significant concern to the institution as explained the technical team. 
According to management, this also necessitated the need to go in for the Laserfiche ECM 
system. The needed a system that can effectively secure the institutions business processes, 
information and all records that are generated and make them available only to authorized users. 
Management indicated that their perception about the system to effectively protect their 
document has been manifested because the system comes with some security features that 
protect their resources. The technical team explained that there are configurable security levels 
in the system which allow the system administrator to implement access control mechanisms 
that best fit the institution’s information security needs. One member of the technical team noted 
that: 
the features of the system allow the administrators of the system to assign rights 
and privileges to authorized users of the system. Authentication and 
authorization mechanisms have been ensured; this prevent illegal entry into the 
system and illegal access to resources in the system. 
 
 
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Figure 5.5: The Security Features Interface of the ECM System 
 
 
Figure 5.5 shows the security features of the ECM system. The system provides authentication 
and authorization mechanisms by assigning access rights and privileges to users of the system. 
The system also provides an efficient Information Systems Auditing platform to monitor the 
use of the system.  
 
In a very brief discussion with the Directors of the Finance and Engineering & Services 
branches, who also double as the Deputy CEOs for the institution, they described the system as 
one that is meeting their directive, demands of government and also meeting the perceptions 
and expectation of management and the institution as a whole. They explained that despite a 
few challenges they face regarding using the system, the system is up to expectation. The 
implementation procedure adopted has help them in realizing their expectations as explained 
by management. Finally, the system allows the Chief Director, Deputy Chief Directors to know 
and analyse who is working and who is not working since the system allows them to track all 
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workflows. The system has enhanced their monitoring and supervisory roles in the institution. 
The Deputy Chief Director noted that: 
with this system in place, we are able to monitor the staff effectively; this has in 
a way positively change the staff attitude towards work. 
 
5.5 Key Concerns and Future Expectations  
According to management and the technical team, they indicated that their future expectation 
is to allow all users to have a mobile version of the ECM system where they can perform their 
tasks as they do with their various desktops. This is to allow for performance of task irrespective 
of their location within the institution. They further explained that even though this initiative is 
good, they are concern with the security of the users’ mobile devices. Another key concern is 
their business partners. Because there are no workflow links electronically to conduct business 
externally with them, at the end of the day, documents need to be printed from their system and 
endorsed so it can be sent to their respective business partners. In view of this, they expect the 
management of such institutions to collaborate and implement a similar system for easy 
collaboration. Also management mentioned that despite their efforts to go digital completely, 
some important documents like land titles, documents of properties, receipts of huge amount of 
money and some sensitive contracts are still kept manually. The reason management gave was 
that, in terms of litigation, the admissibility of electronic documents in the country’s legal 
system is challenging so such sensitive documents that will serve as evidence in a law court 
needs to be kept physically. Finally, management also wish to subscribe to the cloud services 
of the ECM system to prevent unexpected system downtime as a result of the on-premise data 
centre server failures. However, the security of the documents to be stored in the cloud remains 
a concern to them. 
 
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5.6 Chapter Summary  
This chapter started by presenting a background of the case institution, stating its history, its 
mandate and responsibilities, various departments and their functions. It further traced the 
institution’s digital transformation journey by explaining some of the previously used systems. 
The challenges encountered in the use of these systems were established, which influenced the 
institution to implement a more robust system (Oracle EBS) and subsequently an integration 
with the ECM system. Moreover, the reason behind the case institution’s decision to opt for the 
implementation of the ECM system was further revealed. This chapter additionally explained 
the implementation strategy of the institution in meeting the institution’s policies, demands and 
expectations. It then ended by stating the concerns and future expectation of the institutions 
regarding the ECM system. The next chapter presents the analysis of the case description. 
  
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CHAPTER SIX 
CASE STUDY ANALYSIS 
6.1 Chapter Overview 
The intent of this research has been to understand how and why a PSI in a developing country 
implement an ECM system and the consequences encountered. The preceding chapter provided 
a detailed description of the selected case for this research. It further presented the pre-
digitalization era and provided a comprehensive description of the Oracle EBS. The chapter 
again presented reasons that finally resulted in implementation of the ECM system. The ECM 
software selection, implementation procedure, use and consequences were further explained. 
This chapter therefore presents the analysis of the findings using the affordance theory as a 
theoretical lens. The chapter presents the affordance perception, affordance actualization and 
affordance effects of the ECM system implementation. This chapter also by analyses the 
affordances of the various systems used in the case institution’s digital transformation journey. 
The chapter further presents a cross case analysis of the Oracle EBS and the ECM system using 
the affordance theory as a theoretical lens. 
 
6.2 Affordance Theory Analysis of the Oracle EBS Application 
The efficiency of administrative work was hindered due to the challenges that originated before 
the Oracle EBS was implemented in the institution. From the case findings, the institution 
implemented an Oracle EBS in 2012 with the aim of curtailing the constraints that came with 
the manual and standalone systems. Even though the Oracle EBS had a few constrains 
experienced after its implementation there were significant enabling affordances that have been 
experienced. The institution had its expectation about the Oracle EBS and order to actualize the 
affordances, the institution implemented the system in a manner that fit the institution’s needs 
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and regulatory requirements. The implementation was done to ensure that the users easily 
interact with the system to achieve positive results. Using the Affordance Theory as a theoretical 
lens, technology adoption and effective use enable users to achieve positive results. The next 
sub-section explains the affordances in the era of the Oracle EBS.  
 
The case findings reveal that a technology that is potential in achieving institutional goals and 
objectives afford stakeholders the opportunity to work easier and efficiently. When a 
technology exists and its affordances are actualized through a requisite implementation process 
and use, the affordance effects give institutions the edge to improve productivity and 
performance. The section describes the affordances experienced with respect to the Oracle EBS. 
 
Conforming to Regulatory Standards and Requirements  
The Oracle EBS enabled the case institution to meet the regulatory standards and principles, 
which in effect meets the requirements of the regulating bodies. The Oracle EBS was designed 
to meet the requirements and standards such as making real time data available for the regulators 
to have access to them. The implementation and use of the system enabled the institution to 
abide by government regulations and meet the reporting standards of the Controller and 
Accountant Generals Department as well as the Audit Service. The standardized Oracle EBS 
enabled the institution create and send real time reports as and when the need be. 
 
Speedy Transfer of Data between Departments 
The findings of the study reveal that the pre-digitalization era slowed down the rate at which 
information needed to be transferred between departments. However, the modules of the Oracle 
EBS were connected so it was faster to send information from one module to another 
seamlessly. Since it was time wasting to transfer information from the HR department to finance 
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department, the institution needed a system that can curb this challenge and the Oracle EBS had 
the solution. The Oracle EBS enables easy transfer of information from one department to 
another due to its interconnected modules. 
 
Documents are Easily Updated Electronically 
Since data is important in every institution, it needs to be updated to provide a true reflection of 
the changes that has been made to the data over time. Unlike the manual approach and the 
standalone system, the Oracle EBS makes provisions for data that is created to be updated 
easily. This created the issue of storage space since any update required for additional 
documents to be added to the older one. For instance, previously in the HR department, it was 
almost impossible to update employees ‘data electronically. Now data on staff is stored using 
the HR module of the Oracle EBS, data is backed up periodically and updates are made easily. 
 
Back up of Data to Prevent Data Loss  
It is essential to have backups of institutional data to avoid loss of data because data is seen an 
indispensable resource in every institution. The backup helps the departments to retrieval 
documents faster and the auditing process of the institution become efficient. The technical 
team were able to have a real time backup of the daily tasks saved in the institution’s data centre. 
In effect, the findings demonstrate that data could always be retrieved due to a backup in their 
data centre. This facilitates ease of access to departmental data whenever requests are made. 
Backups ensure that there is business continuity whenever there is physical data loss. This is 
because, when there is loss of physical data resulting from any human error, the backups will 
make it possible for work to continue. 
 
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6.3 Affordance Theory Analysis of ECM System Era 
The implementation of the Oracle EBS provided crucial solutions to the challenges and 
constraints experienced in the pre-digitalization era which hindered the efficiency of 
administrative work in the institution. Even though the Oracle EBS provided solutions, the 
system was limited to just three departments with three modules. That is to say, only three 
departments experienced the digital innovation. Since the institution wanted to digitally 
transform its institutional contents, business processes and workflow management in all its 
departments, they needed a system that would enabled that. From the findings, the institution 
selected an ECM system meet government directive for digitalisation, solve the challenges of 
the manual system and make the institution a digital workplace. The affordance actualization 
of the ECM system depended on a careful implementation and use strategy so as to enjoy the 
affordance effects as a result of an interaction with the ECM system. This section presents the 
affordance existence, perception, actualization and effects of the ECM system. 
 
Affordance Existence and Perception 
From the case findings, the ECM affordance existed way before the institution made a decision 
to implement it. The affordance of the ECM systems spells out what the system can do and the 
benefits it brings to institution when there is an interaction between the system and the users. 
In this case, the system had the capacity to digitally transform an institution’s workflows, secure 
its content and bring efficiency. However, for the institution to implement the system, they had 
an affordance perception of the system. From the case findings, the institution met with the 
implementers and other institutions in a seminar about digital transformation. Institutions that 
were using the ECM system gave reports on the features of the system and how beneficial the 
system can be. The implementers also practically demonstrated how to use the system to 
achieve an efficient digital workplace. Based on the recommendations from the reports and the 
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in-house technical team, the institution had an affordance perception which they intended to 
actualize to produce the needed outcome they expected. 
 
Affordance Actualization 
In order to be actualize the affordances there should be an interaction between the users and the 
system. The institution used an implementation procedure that would create an enabling 
environment for the users, departments and institution as a whole to interact with the ECM 
system to yield the expected outcome. The findings indicated that in order to fully actualize the 
affordances, users were trained to effectively use the system, the system was integrated with 
the Oracle EBS and the implementation procedure was based on the institution’s policies. For 
instance, the institution implemented the ECM system in two phases. This was to create room 
to check the system’s operational capacity. Also the was the need to integrate the ECM system 
with the Oracle EBS so the institution can have a full digital transformation project. Again, even 
though the ECM system have storage options, in order for the institution to actualize its data 
protection affordance, they opted for an on-premise data centre at the expense of server failures 
that can lead to business discontinuity when the system goes down. 
 
Affordance Effects 
The actualized affordances bring about affordance effects. Affordance effects does not exist on 
its own but they come about as a result of an interact between the institution (user) and the 
system. Based on the implementation procedure the institution adopted, user training, user 
friendly interface and usefulness of the ECM system, the users were able to interact with the 
system to produce outcomes which are both positive and negative. For instance, when users 
interact with the system and document is stored in the on-premise data centre, it secures and 
protects the institution’s document since the institution’s data is not store by a third party (cloud 
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services). However, this becomes a constraining affordance because, when there is a sever 
failure from the on-premise data centre resulting to system downtime, it leads to business 
discontinuity. Also, the integration of the ECM system with the Oracle EBS gave the institution 
the platform to operate in a relatively high paperless environment with the vision of making the 
environment a digital workplace. 
 
The affordance theory has enabled the researcher to establish why the ECM system was selected 
as it identified the institution’s affordance perception of the ECM system. This subsection starts 
by establishing the affordances of the ECM system that influenced the institution for its 
implementation. It then describes the implementation strategy that was used to ensured that the 
perception of those affordances were being actualized to gain the affordance effects. It then 
compares the affordances of the Oracle EBS and the ECM system. The findings revealed the 
following factors influenced the institution to implement an ECM system. 
 
Government Directive for Digital Transformation 
In order not to be left behind, government is putting the necessary measures in place for its 
agencies, departments, ministries and key institutions to transform and innovate their processes 
digitally as indicated from the findings. The findings revealed that the government believes in 
digital transformation projects and wants its institutions to digitally transform their operations. 
Government was therefore ready to accept an IS that can help in meeting and achieving its 
objectives and directives. Though the idea to implement the ECM originated from the in-house 
technical team, management bought into the idea, owned it and communicated it to government. 
The management of the case institution saw the ECM system as the requisite system that can 
provide solutions to government expectations. To achieve this, government through 
management of the institution made sure that budget had already been made available and the 
needed structure and assistance were available for the implementation to kick start. 
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Effective and Secured Information and Document Management 
Information is essential to the existence of an institution and as such, it needs to be effectively 
managed and well secured. The constraints of the manual approach in some departments were 
that sometimes sensitive documents were accessed by unauthorized users which was not 
appropriate. The finding reveal that though management instituted some policies that sensitizes 
staff to keep sensitive data safe in their cabinets, it was still not enough to properly secure such 
content. Management wanted a system that has access control mechanisms like firewalls, user 
accounts, passwords to check and prevent unauthorized access to institutional data thereby 
ensuring data security and privacy in the institution. Management were made aware in a seminar 
attended that the ECM system could offer an environment for a secured and effective 
management of their institutional records to meet the institution’s legal and regulatory 
obligations. 
 
Going Paperless to Ensure Timely Workflow of Activities 
Institutional periodic goals are best achieved when there is a timely workflow of business 
processes and tasks. Though workflow was performed by various departments manually, 
sometimes, it slows down because some managers and directors allowed files to sit in their 
offices for a long time before it could be passed to another department for decision making. 
This attitude, first delay workflow and decision making processes and secondly, endanger 
sensitive files to be accessed by unauthorized users. The ECM system was seen to prevent these 
delays due to its electronic workflow capabilities. 
 
Mitigating Problems Associated with Paper-based System. 
For an institution to be efficient, there is the need to put measures in place to reduce its cost of 
operations. The findings show that management of the case institution had an expectation of 
reducing the problems associated with the paper-based system in the institution. These problems 
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range from slow retrieval, regular cases of misplaced files, duplication of documents, lack of 
storage space which in the long run increased the cost of operations in the institution. They 
therefore wanted a system that will lower the cost of capture, use and storage of content to 
reduce the impact of document loss in the paper-based system. According to the findings, there 
were cases of document loss and misplaced files probably due to lack of secured storage space 
and this increased the cost of operations, hence the need for the ECM system to curb this 
challenge. The institution also wanted to reduce their printing costs and the ECM system was 
seen as a platform that would bring about a paperless workplace. 
 
As a means to go paperless, the institution also needed to implement a technology that would 
be compatible with their existing IS. Eliminating an institutions current system and completely 
implementing a new system is costly. The ECM system was therefore selected and implemented 
based on its capacity to integrate with the institution’s already existing IS (Oracle E-Business 
Suite) so as to ensure a seamless flow of information and activities electronically. The findings 
reveal that the institution was very keen in making sure that, before the introduction of a 
completely new system, an assessment was made to ensure that there is a high possibility of 
integration with the institutions’ current system.  
 
6.4 ECM System Implementation Strategy and Procedure 
As indicated already, management of the institution opted for the ECM system because they 
wanted to achieve their institutional goal of going paperless and mitigating the paper-based 
system problems to effectively perform their mandate. The affordance perception of the ECM 
system enabled the institution to implement it in a manner that would allow management and 
the various departments to actualize the affordances to yield the needed outcomes that matches 
with the institution’s expectations of the system and fulfil the reasons they opted for the system. 
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The findings reveal that even though the decision to purchase the Laserfiche ECM software 
originated from the in-house technical team, management needed to own that idea in order to 
communicate it to government for its implementation. Once management is in the position of 
owning the idea as if it was their thoughts, implementing the system becomes fast and stress 
free. The next sub-section provides details on how the ECM was implemented to realize 
institutional and government expectations. 
 
6.4.1 Information Gathering and Requirements Specifications  
Requirement gathering is key for a superior system with less hassle and frustration. This is 
because, not gathering the right amount of information and specification requirements creates 
a chaotic environment where stakeholders may be disappointed with the system, creating a loss 
in the end.  With good requirements gathering and specification, developers and vendors are 
able to implement a system that suits institutions’ needs by adding or taking away features, 
reducing project chaos and defects in delivering the system. The findings reveal that all the 
twenty-two departments in the institution were consulted one after the other to know their 
workflow and activities in order to agree on a standardized corporate implementation plan. The 
involvement of all stakeholders in the implementation gives users some sort of digital 
transformation readiness which puts them in a position to properly interact with the system to 
actualize its affordances after implementation. 
 
6.4.2 Installation and Deployment of the ECM System in Phases 
It is important to sometimes conduct a pilot study when implementing a system in institutions. 
A pilot study is a pre-studying of a system by using a limited number of actors than the whole 
actors in the full study. A pilot study helps stakeholders of a system to conduct various types of 
testing. This often provides the stakeholders with ideas and approaches that may not have been 
foreseen before conducting the pilot study. Such ideas increase the chances of shaping the 
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system in a way that fit the environment in which it will be used. The findings show that a 
number of five departments were used for the initial installation and deployment. This was to 
reduce the number of unanticipated problems and find out the digital transformation readiness 
of the institution as well as the capacity of the system. The institution therefore made sure that 
measures were put in place to create an environment that allows for the full potential of the 
ECM system to be actualized to bring positive results when it’s in full operation. After about 
close to a year, the ECM system was installed and deployed in all the departments. 
 
6.4.3 Perfect Integration with the Already Existing Information System 
Institutions wants their staff to maximize the use of a technology implemented to gain maximum 
benefits at reduced cost. This is possible when there is compatibility between institution’s 
current system and the new system to be implemented. The findings indicate that, in order to 
ensure a seamless collaboration and communication among departments, there was the need for 
an integration. In effect, the implementation strategy involved integrating the ECM system with 
the existing system, the Oracle EBS. This has given the institution the right environment to 
explore the system for its affordances to be actualized since it will not create any extra work of 
migrating the activities and documents onto the new system. 
 
6.4.4 Adequate Training of Users of the ECM System 
Training users to use an Information System is necessary if an institution wants to benefit from 
the full potentials of the system. Users need to have the requisite knowledge on how a system 
must be used effectively to gain the maximum benefits that the system can provide and this can 
be achieved through a well-organized training sessions for users of the system. The findings 
reveal that an intense training sessions were organized for users of the system so they can find 
it easy and gratifying using the system. In the process of training, adequate awareness was 
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created and users were sensitized enough towards the best use of the system to create a digital 
workplace. Since the ECM system has a user friendly interface, users were for instance, trained 
on how to effectively start a workflow on their own since it did not require any complex IT 
expertise to perform such task. In effect, users were able to create and start their own workflow 
processes without any assistance from the technical team. 
 
 
6.4.5 Assured Maintenance of the System 
It is sometimes annoying for users of a system to experience system failure and downtime and 
this put users in an environment that does not motivate them to use the system. The findings 
reveal that, the technical team of the case institution were specially trained to maintain the 
system and solve minor issues that may arise during the use of the system. This was to allow 
work to continue to as to enjoy the benefits the system brings to the institution. They were also 
trained to perform preventive maintenance to prevent the occurrence of system downtimes 
leading to expensive repairs. Switching from reactive to proactive maintenance does not only 
provide an enabling environment for business continuity but also extend the life of the system. 
In addition, the vendor and developers signed a contract with the case institution to perform 
maintenance services when the system problem is beyond their expertise. Having vendors 
support and maintenance does not only ensure an enabling environment for the users to interact 
with the system but also reduces the operational costs regarding systems maintenance. 
 
In a nutshell, based on the affordance of the ECM system, the institution needed to place the 
actors, that is, the various departments and offices that will be using the system, in an enabling 
environment that would positively influence them to interact with the system to actualize all the 
potential affordances for an expected outcome. This therefore necessitated the need for the case 
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institution to employ an implementation strategy that users interact with the system for the 
affordances to be actualized and consequently, produce positive concrete outcomes. 
 
6.5 Enabling Affordances of the ECM System 
According to the theory of affordance, through the process of actualization, the departments 
and the institution as whole can achieve multiple effects which can be immediate concrete 
outcomes, intended outcomes or unintended outcomes. The affordance effects are the actualized 
immediate outcomes that help institutions and departments to assess whether the process of 
actualizing the affordances made it possible to achieve government, management and 
institutional goals and expectations. IS affordances therefore affect the form and function of 
institutions since actors perform some actions as they take advantage of the affordances through 
the use of technology to achieve immediate concrete outcomes in support of institutional goals. 
This subsection compares the affordances that the case institution obtained from implementing 
the ECM system as compared to the pre-digitalization era. The subsection presents the intended 
affordances and outcomes of the ECM system. 
 
Efficiency of Workflow and Easy Collaboration among Departments 
Digital transformation ensure that institutions are able to easily manage content and workflow 
efficiently and effectively. This is as a result of easy collaboration among departments in the 
institutions which in effect speeds up the decision making processes. The findings reveal that, 
since users were effectively trained to use the ECM system, directors and managers from almost 
all the departments could initiate their own workflow targeted to various departments. With 
this, managers do not need to physically send files to offices to be worked on. This in essence 
has reduced the movement of managers and ensure a speedy decision making process and a 
streamlined business processes. 
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Easy Monitoring of Tasks Performed by Managers 
In performing the function of supervision and monitoring, it is important for top management 
to strategically position themselves in an environment that enhances the performance of this 
mandate. The ECM system provides the platform for supervisors to effectively and efficiently 
monitor work processes and assigned tasks. The findings show that the ECM system give top 
management the platform to supervise managers and staff by effectively monitoring them in the 
performance of their tasks. When there is a delay in workflow, top management is able to trace 
and determine which department and manager or secretary is causing the delay for the necessary 
measures to be taken. 
 
Improved Retrieval Response Time 
A faster decision making process results in high productivity. But in order to ensure a speedy 
decision making process, information needed should be made available at the right place, time 
and quantity. From the findings, the ECM system ensure a timely and efficient capture, storage 
and a timely retrieval of documents to enhance the decision making process. Since the ECM 
system allows documents to be stored digitally, retrieving data for decision making is efficient. 
The relatively low retrieval response time results in a faster decision making process. 
 
Improved Documents Security and Privacy 
Since digital transformation involves using IS to store and transfer information, one key issue 
is the security of information, whether at rest or in transit. The findings reveal that the 
implementation of the ECM system has helped in document security and privacy. The system 
provides access control mechanisms such as user name, user accounts, passwords and firewalls 
to check and prevent unauthorized access into the system thereby ensuring user authentication. 
Moreover, to ensure integrity and confidentiality of contents, the ECM system allows the 
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systems administrator to assign rights and privileges to users of the system based on their roles. 
This ensures user authorization. That is, only authorized users are allowed to have access to 
some classified contents. The security features of the system therefore ensures that the sensitive 
data stored on the system is secured and protected from unauthorized users. This feature is 
available not only to ensure the security and privacy of content but also aid in ensuring non-
repudiation of activities. 
 
Eliminating the Duplication of Information 
When an institution has a challenge with storage space for its contents, duplication of 
information worsens the situation. Documents in institutions is duplicated when there are 
regular cases of misplaced files, inability to retrieve a document and so on. This mostly happens 
when a manual system is used to store and keep institutional contents. So if the records 
management strategy of an institution is poor, it affects the rate at which information is 
duplicated which in effect, create storage space problems. From the findings, the manual system 
of storing data posed problems such as loss of data and frequent duplication of data due to the 
inability to retrieve the data. The ECM system has provided the institution with an electronic 
archival facility that stores all business transactional information in a secured environment. This 
has eliminated the duplication of data and at the same time reduce the impact of document loss. 
 
Reduction in Operational Cost 
The findings reveal that before the introduction of the ECM system, almost every internal 
document needed to be printed for approval and endorsement. Documents that need to be 
endorsed and approved by directors and mangers from other departments needed to be printed 
in order to be approved. Thus, the cost of printing in the case institution was relatively high. 
However, the introduction of the ECM system has reduced the cost of printing which include, 
buying toners, papers and maintenance of the printers. This is possible because the ECM system 
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has an electronic signature, a stamp and a message that accompanies contents to signify their 
approval internally. However, documents need to be printed, signed and endorsed when they 
are going out from the institution. This is so because, according to top management, other 
institutions do not have systems that ensure digital approval of documents. 
 
6.6 Constraining Affordances of the ECM System 
When an Information System is implemented, an interact with it results in some affordances. 
However, these affordances also trigger some constraints that create some challenges in the 
systems’ use. The next subsection explains the constraints of the ECM system. 
  
Delay in Work Due to a Major System Failure  
From the findings, the acquisition of the ECM software was done through a vendor that serves 
as an intermediary between the developers and the institution. Therefore, when there are some 
downtimes that are beyond the in-house technical team, the vendors will have to be contacted 
to either work on it electronically or come physically. Where the fault is supposed to be fixed 
electronically, the developers log in remotely but when the fault requires an on-site solution, 
the developers come to the case institution to rectify the problems. In effect, this sometimes 
causes delay in carrying out task in the system because when the system is down, most of the 
users cannot work and will have to rely on the manual approach. From the findings, frequent 
systems downtime in the institution is as a result of sever or network failures. This is because 
the institution opted for an on-premise data centre to store their operation at the expense of the 
Laserfiche cloud services. The decision was based on the institution’s data protection policy. 
 
 
 
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Control of Departments’ Activities is Reduced 
From the findings, when the Finance, Procurement and HR departments started using the Oracle 
EBS, the other administrative departments operated manual system before the ECM system was 
implemented. The findings revealed that before the introduction of the ECM system, the 
individual departments had full control over their day-to-day activities since they were working 
silos. Management of departmental activities was done without having to consult external 
developers, software vendor or the IT technical team. The various departments’ heads were able 
to effectively control their activities without restrictions from network failures and system 
downtimes. The ECM system has eliminated that control by improving the level of 
collaboration due to the system’s interconnectivity. Also, managers using the system are 
monitored through the system’s tracking facility so there is that feeling of loss of control. 
 
6.7 Cross Case Analysis  
This section presents a cross case analysis with respect to the era before the Oracle EBS against 
the era of the Oracle EBS and the era of the ECM system. As indicated earlier, the Oracle EBS 
was implemented to curtail the challenges of the manual and standalone systems, and the ECM 
system brought about some level of digital transformation in all departments in the institution. 
However, the findings revealed that inasmuch as the ECM system have enabling affordances, 
there are also some constraining affordances. The enabling and constraining affordances before 
the institution’s digital innovation era, the Oracle EBS era and the ECM system era are 
presented below. 
 
6.7.1 Constraining Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization Era against the Oracle EBS Era 
As stated earlier, the case institution encountered some challenges during the era of the manual 
and standalone systems and that led to the introduction of the Oracle EBS in some key 
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departments. The findings reveal that activities in the manual environment delayed the case 
institution from making timely decisions due to loss of documents and poor retrieval response 
time. Moreover, the manual approach increased the human intervention which in effect made 
contents documents insecure. This resulted in lack of the confidentiality, integrity, security and 
privacy of institutional contents. For instance, documents were put on files and sent manually 
to offices of directors for an action to be taken. When the directors are not available, it gave 
room for unauthorized users to have access to it. Further, there was a problem of storage space 
due to duplication of documents. When staffs cannot search and retrieve documents, they tend 
to create new ones to replace the missing ones. Update of documents also created physical 
storage space problems since new addition to information required the creation of a new 
document to be added to the existing ones. There was also difficulty in meeting regulatory 
standards since the loss and misplacement of information create a problem for regulators to 
audit the institution’s dealings. 
 
Moreover, the standalone applications before the Oracle EBS could not collaborate with other 
departments. For instance, the system could not send data from the HR department to the 
Account department. Again it was difficult for the staff records to be updated. Even though 
documents were stored electronically, an update required that a previously created data should 
be deleted and new one created to effect the information update. These and other indirect 
challenges slowed down operations and influenced the case institution to implement an Oracle 
EBS with the hope of curbing the challenges they face. 
 
One key challenge with the implementation of the Oracle EBS is network issues. The network 
connectivity which is a key component for the system is the major constraint with the use of the 
system. Since the system has interconnected modules, when one module encounters a problem, 
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it affects the other modules thereby slowing down business processes. The findings revealed 
that whenever there is a network failure, the departments cannot continue to work electronically 
so they rely on the manual approach in performing their activities. Again, the Oracle EBS did 
not ensure a complete digital transformation as the Oracle EBS was restricted to just three 
modules in three departments. The system also did not have the platforms to electronically 
endorse documents without having to print it. There was still much use of paper even after the 
introduction of the Oracle EBS. Another constraint is the cost of acquiring and maintaining the 
system. Comparatively, the cost involved in the implementation of the Oracle EBS was high. 
However, the affordances to be derived from the system compelled the case institution to 
implement the system regardless of the cost. Table 6.1 shows the constraining affordances that 
were experienced in both the pre-digitalization era and the Oracle EBS era. 
Table 6.1: Constraining Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization against Oracle EBS Eras 
Pre-Digitalization Era Oracle EBS Era 
 Difficulty in meeting regulator’s standards   Network challenges and system downtime 
 Issues with security and privacy of contents  Digitalization limited to few departments 
 Poor collaboration among departments  Cost of maintenance is relatively higher 
 Poor retrieval response time 
 Storage space problems due to duplication 
 Difficulty in updating contents 
 
6.7.2 Enabling Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization Era against Oracle EBS Era  
Despite the challenges of the manual approach, some enabling affordances were encountered. 
For instance, the various administrative department in the institution were able to work even 
when there were power outages. They did not need to depend on power always or even internet 
connectivity. Also, the fact that staff were working in the manual approach enabled them to 
work irrespective of the conditions at the other departments since they were not necessarily 
interconnected. Administrative heads had the privilege to fully coordinate and control and 
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overall activities of the department because the manual approach did not rely on a collaborative 
system to operate though they all work together at some level. 
 
The Oracle EBS was implemented to control and reduce the challenges experienced in the pre-
digitalization era. For the first time in the history of the institution, as many as three departments 
were connected electronically. There was a collaboration and integration of activities among 
the three departments. Workflow became efficient, the security of contents was improved, 
document is easily updated and changes are automatically reflected in the system. There was 
also improvement in the management of accounting and payroll processes thereby enabling the 
institution to meet the standards of their regulators. Again, performing update was easier since 
the developers sends notifications to all customers of their products to perform systems update.  
 
From the case findings, the Oracle EBS brought more benefits as compared to the pre-
digitalization era. The table 6.2 shows the enabling affordances in both eras. 
Table 6.2: Enabling Affordances of the Pre-Digitalization Era against Oracle EBS Era 
Pre-Digitalization Era Oracle EBS Era 
 Ability to work with or without power  Collaboration and integration of activities 
 Ability to work irrespective of what goes among departments 
on in other departments  Meeting regulatory requirements and 
standards 
 Performing document updates with ease 
 Effective data backup to prevent data loss 
 Improved system and document security 
 
 
6.7.3 Constraining affordances of the Oracle EBS Era against the ECM system Era 
It has already been indicated that the case institution decided to implement the Oracle EBS in 
order to curb some challenges encountered in the pre-digitalization era. The findings reveal that 
the implementation of the Oracle EBS mainly had network issues. Whenever there is a network 
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failure, the departments could not continue to work electronically so they rely on the manual 
approach to perform their activities. Also, the Oracle EBS was limited to only three departments 
with three modules while the remaining departments were still working using the manual 
approach. The institution therefore experienced digital innovation with the Oracle EBS but a 
complete digital transformation in all departments was not achieved. Again, because the system 
focuses mainly on business processes and document management, the issue of records 
management was a challenge. The institution’s plan of turning its working environment into a 
digital workplace was not realized with the Oracle EBS. 
 
Similar to the Oracle EBS, the ECM system also has network failure as its challenge. This issue 
is mainly due to the institution’s decision to opt for an on-premise server at the expense of the 
cloud services that comes with the system. When the server fails, users are unable to work 
digitally leading to delays in performing routine tasks. The network connectivity which is a key 
component for the system is the major constraint with the use of the system. Since the system 
is interconnected with all the departments in the system, when the system encounters a problem, 
it affects the all departments including the office of the Chief Executive thereby slowing down 
business processes. Another challenge is the reduction in departmental control of activities. The 
ECM system has eliminated departmental control by improving the level of collaboration since 
the system is interconnected with all departments in the institution. Managers using the system 
are monitored through the system’s tracking facility so there is that feeling of loss of control 
among managers. The ECM system has therefore reduced departmental control and has 
increased the entire institution’s control. 
 
Though the Oracle EBS and the ECM system have similar challenges, the findings reveal that 
the ECM system was not implemented to eliminate the Oracle EBS but to make the institutions 
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a digital workplace by transforming and streamlining the activities of every single department 
in the institution. The table 6.3 shows the constraining affordances that were experienced with 
the Oracle EBS and the ECM system. 
Table 6.3 Constraining affordances of the Oracle EBS Era against the ECM system Era 
Oracle e-Business ECM system 
 Network and Systems Failure  Network and Systems Failure 
 System used in few departments  Reduction in departmental control 
 Supports digital innovation but not digital 
transformation 
 Supports document management but not 
records management. 
 
6.7.4 Enabling Affordances of Oracle EBS against the ECM System 
For the first time in the digital history of the institution, three departments started to operate in 
a digital interconnected environment. There was collaboration and integration of activities 
among the three departments in the case institution. Workflow become efficient, the security of 
content is improved, data could easily be updated and changes were automatically reflected in 
the system. The system also brought about an improvement in the management of the 
accounting and payroll processes thereby enabling the institution to meet the financial standards 
of their regulators. Again, performing systems update was easier since the developers sends 
notifications to all customers to perform systems update. 
 
Despite the implementation and use of the Oracle EBS which brought about digital innovation 
in the institution, the ECM system was later implemented. From the findings, the Oracle EBS 
was not eliminated, rather, the system was integrated with the ECM system. Management were 
looking for an ECM system that would provide a platform for an easy integration with their 
already existing system and the ECM system perfectly provided just that. The ECM system 
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therefore gave the case institution an opportunity to prevent total collaboration of their contents 
from the already existing system onto the ECM system thereby saving cost. Further, since the 
system is tailored to accept institutional requirements, the developer’s team and the case 
institution’s technical team collaborated to implement the system in a manner that ensures 
digital transformation to fulfil government directive and the institution’s expectations. For 
instance, they needed the system to change its retention schedule to one that fits the legal 
requirements of the country and such changes were done with ease. They also needed 
documents to be stored in an on-premise site and that was also done easily. Moreover, the 
findings reveal that the ECM system has a user friendly interface so using it did not require any 
advanced technical skills after training. Managers and Directors can create and capture their 
own contents into the system and at the same time initial a digital workflow process on their 
own thereby speeding up workflow in all the functional departments. 
 
The ECM system has also improve document security and privacy issues in all the departments 
in the case institution. The findings reveal that the ECM system has access control mechanisms 
for authenticating and authorizing users to have access to sensitize contents thereby restricting 
unauthorized users. Again, the system has also ensured non-repudiation of activities and 
workflows. Due to the control mechanisms, systems administrators and top management are 
able to track the activities of all users of the system to ensure easy IS auditing. From the 
findings, top management also indicated they are able to monitor workflows so when there is 
delay in the process, the can easy detect the user causing such delay. The system therefore 
ensures there is an effective level of supervision and monitoring for top management. 
 
The ECM system has both a document management and records management features. The 
system manages the institution’s information from its current stage through to its semi-current 
to the non-current stage. At the same time, it provides a retention schedule that helps to destroy 
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unwanted documents and keep important documents permanently in the electronic repository. 
The flexible nature of managing records in the system ensures easy update of data, elimination 
of lost and misplaced files and speedy retrieval response time. Consequently, this enables the 
case institution to meet all the legal requirements needed to manage and keep government 
contents safely. Also, since greater percent of activities is performed digitally, there is reduced 
amount of physical storage space and reduction in operational costs associated with printing. 
From the findings, the system has also given the case institution some unintended benefits such 
as motivation of managers and instilling discipline in the staff. This is because, every 
information and metadata on a business process is provided in the systems. Because of the non-
repudiation nature of the system, any changes made in a business process can be traced. 
Managers are also motivated to workplace in a digital workplace due to how easy it is for them 
to perform their task in such environment. With the ECM system is place, the institution enjoys 
business efficiency through efficient workflows, compliance and secured contents. 
The table 6.4 shows the enabling affordances of the Oracle EBS against the ECM system era. 
Table 6.4: Enabling Affordances of Oracle EBS against ECM system 
Oracle EBS ECM system 
 Meeting Regulatory Standards  Meeting government directives for 
 Electronic Collaboration among few digital transformation 
departments  Effective electronic workflow and 
 Easier Monitoring of System Updates collaboration in all departments. 
 Performing document updates with ease  Improved system and document security 
 Effective data backup to prevent data loss in all departments 
 Improved system and data security  Improved storage facility and effective 
data backup in all departments 
 Easily performing of document updates 
 Speedy retrieval response time 
 Reduction in operational cost 
 Non-repudiation of business activities 
 Effective monitoring and control of 
workflow 
 Ensures both documents and records 
management 
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It is evident that the implementation of the ECM system has brought more benefits to the 
institution. The analysis of the findings indicates that the most of the issues faced by the case 
institution throughout its digital transformation journey have been addressed by the ECM 
system. Table 6.5 illustrates the issues faced from the pre-digitalization era through to the 
Oracle EBS and finally to the ECM. It shows all the issues that have been addressed by the 
ECM system. 
Table 6.5: Issues Raised Against Affordances of the Implemented ECM 
Issues and Challenges Enabling Affordances of the ECM system 
Security and privacy  of content Improved document security with access control mechanism 
challenges 
Issues with limited storage Provision of electronic repository 
Poor retrieval response time Electronic searching makes retrieval easy 
Regular cases of misplaced files Proper management of contents throughout their life cycle 
Difficulty in Updating data  Contents are updated in just a matter of few minutes 
Issues with communication and Easy connectivity for collaboration in all departments 
collaboration challenges 
Delay in workflow Automation of business processes and workflows 
Monitoring issues Non-repudiation of processes and effective monitoring 
Management of documents issues Provision of both documents and records management 
Duplication of data Duplication is checked using the metadata available 
 
6.8 Chapter Summary  
This chapter presented the analysis of the findings of the case study. Using the affordance 
theory, the affordance perception, actualization effects of the ECM system were analysed. The 
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chapter also provided details of how the institution carried out its implementation strategy to 
actualize the affordances of the ECM system. The affordances of the pre-digitalization era, 
Oracle EBS era and the ECM era were provided in this chapter. A cross case analysis was 
further presented to compare the enabling and constraining affordances of the various eras. The 
various challenges that were addressed by the ECM have also been indicated as well in this 
chapter. The next chapter discusses the themes and concepts that were used in this chapter 
relating it to the relevant literature. 
  
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CHAPTER SEVEN 
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
7.1 Chapter Overview 
The purpose of this research has been to understand how and why a PSI would implement an 
ECM system and the consequences encountered. In order to get answers to the research 
questions, the previous chapter made an analysis of the data collected in Chapter five. The 
preceding chapter presented some sub cases namely the pre-digitalization era, the Oracle EBS 
era and the ECM system era in the same case institution. The Affordance Theory was used as a 
theoretical lens to understand the affordance perception, affordance actualization and 
affordance effect of the ECM system. In addition, a cross case analysis of the enabling and 
constraining affordances of the various periods was presented to better understand the 
consequences of implementing the ECM system. This chapter therefore presents a discussion 
of the findings making references to relevant reviewed literature in the second chapter. 
Moreover, the chapter further explains in detail why and how the case institution implemented 
an ECM system while comparing the findings to existing literature. The chapter ends by 
presenting the consequences of implementing the ECM system. 
 
7.2 Basis for the Implementation of an ECM System.  
The evolution of Information Systems has provided a means for institutions to successfully 
digitalize their operations with real-time IS tools to enhance operational efficiency and 
effectiveness (Matt, Hess, & Benlian, 2015). In order to digitally manage institutions’ contents 
and workflows, ECM system implementation and use has become a critical project for 
institutions today (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018). The findings reveal that the principal factors that 
triggered the implementation of the ECM system were trying to meet digital transformation 
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directives of government, mitigating paper-based problems and making the institution a digital 
workplace. The ECM system was implemented to provide a paperless environment by enabling 
an integration with existing systems. The implementation was also done to prevent the regular 
cases of misplaced institutional contents, to have an effective records management to ensure 
effective monitoring, and to enhance timely workflows. With the ECM system in place, it was 
expected to enhance the security of documents, provide real time backup data, prevent the 
duplication of documents as well as create a digital workplace for business efficiency and 
effectiveness. But in all this, the findings reveal that top management had to own the idea to 
implement the ECM system as though it originated from them before the implementation was 
carried out. Once management is in the position of owning the idea as if it was their thoughts, 
implementing the system becomes fast and stress free. Owning the idea gives management some 
affordance perception about the ECM system which speeds up its implementation. This sub-
section provides a detailed explanation of the factors that led to the implementation of the ECM 
system relating it to relevant literature. 
 
7.2.1 Public Sector Institutions Implement ECM Systems to Meet Government Directives 
for Digital Transformation 
Digitalization in the information age is key for the survival of both private and government 
businesses (Lederer et al., 2017). In order not to be left behind, governments are putting the 
necessary measures in place for their agencies, departments, ministries and key institutions to 
transform and innovate their contents and business processes digitally (Ndemo & Weiss, 2017). 
The findings revealed that the government of the day, spearheaded by the Vice President of the 
country believes in digital transformation and is providing the necessary support to help 
transform PSIs digitally. Government want its key institutions to enjoy the benefits of digital 
transformation so there was the need for the case institution to secure an IS that would ensure 
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digitalization. The ECM system was therefore seen as being capable of achieving this goal. The 
findings reveal that government had given directives for its keys to transform their operations 
digitally. In this regard, government provided the necessary support for the PSI to digitally 
transform its operations. The ECM system was therefore implemented as it was perceived by 
both the government and the institution to be the appropriate IS tool that has the requisite 
features to make the PSI a digital workplace. In order to successfully implement the IS, 
government collaborated with the case institution and provide the needed support, resources 
and budget for the implementation of the ECM system. This is in consistency with the studies 
by Janowski (2015) and Sarker et al., (2018) which reveal government support for digital 
transformation projects in its institutions. 
 
7.2.2 Public Sector Institutions Implement ECM Systems to Mitigate Problems Associated 
with the Paper-based System 
Every organization needs information to make decision but the lack of available and timely 
information influence their decision making capacities negatively. As a result, the speed at 
which decision makers get relevant and accurate information go a long way to affect 
productivity (Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016). The findings reveal that the institution faced a 
number of challenges emanating from the paper-based system. These include regular cases of 
misplaced files, document security issues, poor retrieval response time, monitoring of workflow 
issues, inadequate storage space and records management issues. This created a relatively high 
cost of operation and delay in decision making processes. The PSI implemented an ECM system 
to ensure that all institutional contents are secured and made available at the right place, right 
time and right quantity for effective decision making (Alalwan et al., 2014; Alalwan, 2013). 
The ECM system was therefore implemented to mitigate all these problems so as to improve 
the decision making process. This is possible because the ECM system has a repository that 
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store documents thereby preventing regular cases of lost and misplaced files as well as 
preventing high retrieval response time. Decision making rely on timely, reliable and accurate 
information for better results and the ECM system is designed to make that happen (Alalwan et 
al., 2014). 
 
Information and for that matter document is essential to the existence of an institution and as 
such, it needs to be effectively managed and well protected (Laumer et al., 2017). One of the 
constraints of the manual approach of storing information was that sometimes sensitive 
documents were accessed by unauthorized users which was not appropriate (Leyer & Hollmann, 
2014; Hwang et al., 2013). The findings from this current study reveal that, even though 
management had instituted some policies sensitizing staff to keep sensitive information safe in 
their cabinets, it was still not enough to properly secure such information from unauthorized 
staff. The institution therefore needed a system that would prevent unauthorized access and 
secure information so it opted for an ECM system. A good ECM system has access control 
mechanisms like firewalls, user accounts, passwords to check and prevent unauthorized access 
to institutional data thereby ensuring document security and privacy in institutions (Jaakonmäki 
et al., 2018; Laumer et al., 2017; Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016). The institution needed a system 
that would ensure a secured and effective information management to meet the institution’s 
administrative and legal obligations. The institution also needed a system that ensured non-
repudiation of activities and workflows. The findings reveal that due to the access control 
mechanisms, systems administrators and top management are able to track the activities of all 
users of the system to ensure effective IS auditing and accountability (Alalwan et al., 2014). 
With the ECM system, they are able to monitor every workflow so when there is delay in the 
process, the user causing such delays can easily be detected. The system therefore ensures there 
is effective level of supervision and monitoring for top management. 
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The institution also implemented an ECM system to improve its records management. The 
institution needed a system that can manage information from its current stage through to its 
semi-current to the non-current stage. At the same time, the system should be able to provide a 
retention schedule that will help to destroy unwanted documents and keep important documents 
permanently in an electronic repository. The flexible nature of managing records in the ECM 
system ensures easy update of data, prevention of lost and misplaced files and speedy retrieval 
response time (Jaakonmäki et al., 2018; Alalwan et al., 2014). Consequently, this influenced 
the case institution to opt for the implementation of the ECM system 
 
Institutional periodic goals are best achieved when there is a timely workflow of business 
processes and tasks (Abollado et al., 2017; Dowdy & Raeford, 2014). Though workflows were 
performed by various departments manually, sometimes, they slowed down because some 
managers or directors allowed files to sit in their offices for long periods of time before they are 
transferred to another department for actions to be taken. This, first delays workflow and 
decision making processes and secondly, endangers sensitive files to be accessed by 
unauthorized users. The institution therefore needed a system that would ensure easy 
collaboration among departments in the institutions speeding up the decision making processes. 
This is consistent with a study by Alalwan, (2013) which reveals that ECM systems enhance 
decision making process. The findings reveal that managers from the various departments can 
initiate their own workflows targeted at various departments and with this, managers do not 
need to physically send files to offices to be worked on. The institution therefore needed a 
system that can help reduce the physical movement of contents, reduce document loss, secure 
sensitive documents and streamline workflows. For the PSI to benefit from the system, the 
findings also reveal that the institution implemented the ECM system in a manner that fit into 
institutional policies and standards. Such policies include data protection policies and IS 
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implementation policies. This is consistent with previous studies that indicate that a proper IS 
implementation plan that takes into consideration the culture, standards and policies of 
institutions to produce a successful outcome (Ilvonen et al., 2018; Ndemo & Weiss, 2017). 
 
7.2.3 Public Sector Institutions implement ECM systems to transform into a Digital 
Workplace 
Most institutions implement ECM systems to digitally transform their content and go paperless 
(Laumer et al., 2017; Escalona, 2015; Zhao et al., 2015) and this is consistent with this study. 
The institution wanted a seamless collaboration and transfer of documents and workflows 
without using paper documents. This implied that they needed an electronic environment where 
every administrative activity would be conducted digitally in a system. This necessitated the 
implementation of the ECM system by the institution. The findings reveal that in an attempt to 
obtain the paperless system, certain factors were taken into consideration by the institution. 
These include top management support, staff support and compatibility with existing systems 
to ensure the paperless environment. In order to acquire, implement and use an IT artefact, most 
of the time, the request or idea come from the technical team with support from the top 
management (Hinings et al., 2018; Loonam et al., 2018; Reis et al., 2018). The findings reveal 
that though the idea to implement the ECM system originated from the in-house technical team, 
management had to buy into the idea and own it as if it was their idea. This idea was then 
communicated to government and the staff of the institution before the implementation begun. 
 
The benefits that digital transformation will give to an institution is somehow dependent on the 
attitude and the willingness of staffs who are going use the digital technologies to work (Achatz, 
2017; Laumer et al., 2017; Heinze et al., 2018). Staffs readiness is key when implementing a 
system to be used in an institution. This is because in the digital environment, it is this same 
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staff that will be working with the system. In effect, when the staff are not ready, the full benefits 
that the technology brings will not be actualized since the interaction between the technology 
and the staff results in the affordances that the technology provide (Wang, Wang, & Tang, 
2018). However, the findings of this current study reveal that the staff were ready to accept the 
ECM system since it was going to help them in the performance of their tasks as indicated in a 
previous study (Laumer et al., 2017). This study therefore supports the above studies which 
show that staff commitment and attitude influence the use of an IS in a digital workplace. The 
findings also indicate that staffs wanted to have a feel of working in an entirely digital 
workplace because they were motivated by the rate of digital transformation across the globe. 
Yeh & Xing (2016) are of the view that staff who are yet to have a feel of digital technologies 
find it difficult to accept new technologies in institutions due to lack of experience. On the 
contrary, the views of Li (2018) and Sousa & Rocha (2019) are consistent with the findings of 
this study which explains the willingness of staff to appreciate technologies in this age of 
information. 
 
The findings also reveal top management support for the implementation of the ECM system. 
and this is consistent with that of other studies (Abollado et al., 2017). Top management support 
and staff of the case institution were commitment to ensure the ECM system is well 
implemented and used. However, the findings of this study contradict the findings of  other 
studies (Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Jaakonmäki et al., 2018; Maican & Lixandroiu, 2016) which 
indicate that ECM system implementation mostly fail in institutions because its implementation 
lacks user readiness and management support. Further, institutions implement IS taking into 
consideration the implementation plan of the software vendor and the ability of the software to 
integrate with other systems (Sakowska et al., 2017). To ensure paperless processes and a digital 
workplace, the ECM like any other IS was selected based on its capacity to integrate with other 
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existing IS to ensure a paperless environment (Deelman et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2013). The 
ability of the software to integrate and collaborate seamlessly with existing IS tools in an 
institution makes it easy to realize the benefits that comes with digital transformation and is 
relatively cheaper since the existing systems are not ignored and replaced (Escalona et al., 
2015). Institutions are therefore very keen in making sure that, before the introduction of a 
completely new system, an assessment is made to ensure that there is a high possibility of 
integration with the institutions’ current systems (Hullavarad et al., 2015; Escalona et al., 2015). 
 
7.3 ECM System Implementation in the Public Sector Institution 
As earlier indicated in the findings, the activities that occurred and the sequential processes the 
case institution went through to implement the ECM system need to be mentioned. These 
activities include planning, training of the in-house technical team, initial installation of the 
ECM software and integration with existing systems, full ECM software installation in all 
departments, use of the system and finally, software maintenance and support. 
 
7.3.1 Planning the ECM System Implementation 
This phase of the implementation process consists of maiden meetings with stakeholders, 
forming the implementation team and performing information gathering and specifications. The 
findings of this study show that the challenges that originated from the pre-digitalization era 
and influence from government, management and the in-house technical staff made the case 
institution opt for the ECM system. Though the original idea emanated from the technical team 
in the institution, top management bought into the idea and they were allowed to own it and 
push the agenda for digital transformation backed with government support. The choice of the 
ECM system was therefore based on the directives, demands and expectation from government, 
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management and the institution as a whole. The whole implementation process began with 
having a number of meetings between the G-Consult and the management and technical team 
of G-PSI. After coming to a consensus, contracts were signed for the commencement of the 
ECM system implementation. 
 
Though the cost of an IS such as the ECM system and the usefulness of an ECM software 
influences its selection (Haug, 2012; Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Laumer et al., 2017; Cho, 2018), 
this is contrary to the findings of this study. The findings of this study reveal that cost was not 
a major criterion for the selection of the ECM system. Rather, the decision to implement it was 
based on the usefulness of the system and its ability to meet government directive for 
digitalization and to mitigate the challenges of the paper-based system. A conclusion was made 
by the various stakeholders on the implementation of the ECM software regarding EULA, 
institutional policies, implementation plan, systems support, and the integration procedures. A 
final decision was made and the software installation processes commenced. Prior to the actual 
implementation, a team was formed to spearhead the implementation process. The 
implementation team comprised of technical members from both the vendors (G-Consult) and 
the case institution (G-PSI). There was a ten-member implementation team which consisted of 
six (6) technical people from the software vendor and four (4) technical people from the case 
institution. The software was an outsourced proprietary software so the representatives from G-
PSI played a role of aiding the implementers in terms implementing the system to meet the 
needs, demands and policies of the institution. This implementation team were tasked to ensure 
that the whole implementation process was carried out successfully. 
 
A good information and requirement gathering ensures that the needed inputs that make a 
system meet users’ needs is determined (Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Oliveira & Martins, 2011). 
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Requirements and information gathering is key for a system to be implemented with less hassle 
and frustration. This is because, not gathering the right amount of information and specification 
requirements creates a chaotic environment in which stakeholders may be disappointed with 
the system (Matt et al., 2015), creating a loss in the end.  With good requirements gathering and 
specification, developers and vendors are able to implement systems that suit institutions’ needs 
by adding or taking away unused features, reducing project chaos and reducing the defects in 
delivering the system (Bakunzibake et al., 2016). This will therefore result in a faster and better 
delivery of the software and increase the levels of satisfaction from both the institutional 
stakeholders and the developers or vendors (Kaur & Aggrawal, 2013; Sarker, Wu & Hossin, 
2018). The findings of this current study reveal that all the departments in the institution were 
consulted individually to know their workflows and activities as well as the types of systems 
used in order to agree on a standardized corporate implementation plan. The involvement of all 
stakeholders in the implementation process put users in a position to properly interact with the 
ECM system after its implementation to help the institution actualize the enabling affordances. 
 
7.3.2 Training and Sensitization of the In-house Technical Team by Vendors.  
In order to carry out a successful implement the ECM system implementation, an initial training 
was done for the in-house technical team for four days before the actual installation began. The 
training was necessary because the vendors needed the in-house technical team to provide the 
needed support to effectively implement the ECM software to fit the institution’s standards and 
policies. The training was also to enable the in-house technical to be familiar with the software 
before the installation process began. This is consistent with a study which states that training 
of technical members before a software installation is necessary for a smooth implementation 
process (Majchrzak & Markus, 2016). 
 
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7.3.3 Initial Installation and Integration with Existing Systems 
In this phase of the project, the ECM software was installed by the implementers with support 
from the in-house technical team in five functional departments of the case institution. Before 
the installation, the team prepared the servers, data centre, networks, desktops and all the needed 
IT infrastructure to ensure that the installation was successful. The ECM software was therefore 
installed on the institution’s hardware infrastructure, integrated with the Oracle EBS and linked 
to the institution’s on-premise data centre. To make the process smooth, the findings showed 
that the technical team of the case institution enthusiastically supported the vendors to make 
this digital transformation project a success. 
 
The findings of this study reveal that, the ECM system was implemented to integrate with 
existing IS (Oracle EBS) and make the institution a digital workplace by digitally transforming 
the operations of all the departments. The ECM system was integrated with the modules of the 
Oracle EBS to ensure easy collaboration and transfer of contents across selected departments. 
The implementation approach employed was first a parallel method. With the parallel approach, 
new content was created using the new system and old paper contents were migrated unto the 
system by digitizing them, a process known as digitization (Abu-Shanab et al., 2015). The 
departments selected for the initial installation were chosen based on the fact that they receive 
and process most of the institutions information and processes. Installation of the ECM system 
in the five departments was done to monitor and study the ECM system on how effective it can 
operate in the institution and also to deal with frequent errors that occurred. Various types of 
system testing were carried out during the process to make sure the system is operational before 
the full implementation. Deploying an IS in all departments at once is challenging and costly, 
as there is a colossal number of factors that can influence the implementation so it therefore 
critical to implement IS in phases (Abollado et al., 2017; Ardolino et al., 2017). They indicated 
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that it is recommended to start with just a few users and a limited number of activities, and then 
expand the project to reach the defined scope. The findings reveal that the institution needed to 
seek a scalable solution, so it had to start small but then be capable of expanding the ECM 
system to the rest of the departments. 
 
7.3.4 Full installation of the ECM system in all Departments and Units 
For an institution to become a digital workplace, it should be capable of operating in a paperless 
or a nearly paperless environment (Hess, Benlian, Matt, & Wiesböck, 2016; Hinings et al., 
2018). The findings reveal that the initial installation and use of the system existed for close to 
one year as the institution was testing its readiness and the system’s usability. The institution 
was ready to be turned into a digital workplace after a year. To achieve this, they needed to 
make the system operational in all the departments and units in the institution. This meant that 
electronic workflow was not only limited to a few departments but managers from every 
department could initiate their own workflows and electronic collaborations. Each user of the 
ECM system had authentication and authorization credentials and this served as a means to 
ensure contents and systems security. Digital transformation in the case institution therefore 
started when the ECM system was fully implemented in all departments. 
 
7.3.5 Providing Training and Support for the ECM Software 
The implementers and the in-house technical team provided a suitable training and education 
for the users of the system for three weeks. This was to certify that they understand how the 
system operates and how it can assist them in performing their administrative tasks digitally.  
User manuals and documentations were given to users, a number of training seminars were 
organized and online tutorials and support were made available for users to ensure the 
appropriate understanding of the ECM system’s functionalities. The training and education was 
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done because, failure to deliver substantial education and training for users creates end-user 
ignorance which may lead to a system failure (Ali et al., 2016). On this basis, support and 
training were provided to the users of the system both remotely and on sight to make sure users 
understand the system comprehensively. G-PSI opted for an outsourced system because of the 
nature of system needed, the usefulness of the system, the expectations of management and 
government and the availability of vendor support. Since the ECM software was outsourced, 
the implementers are always consulted whenever there are problems with the system. This study 
confirms the study by Effah and Abbeyquaye (2013) which states that the in-house technical 
team usually seek for the assistance of consultants to obtain successful results in the 
implementation of an IS. 
 
7.3.6 Use of the ECM System 
The findings reveal that the implementation was successful because the staff, top management, 
the in-house technical team, the implementers and government were all ready for a digital 
transformation change to make the PSI a digital workplace. Intrinsically, they all pulled their 
efforts together in order to make the ECM implementation a success. Users had a feeling that 
they were not being forced and pressured to use the system because they also needed the system 
to help them perform their task efficiently. However, the findings support that of Effah and 
Abbeyquaye (2013) which revealed that when top management supports the implementation of 
an IS, it does not automatically mean that users support the initiative. The findings of this study 
reveal that users were not forced to use the ECM system; hence the use the ECM system was 
not as a result of apathy staff had for its usage. Since staff and top management were in full 
support of the ECM system, and adequate training were given to users of the system, its use has 
been very successful. 
 
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7.3.7 Maintenance, Update and Upgrade of the ECM Software 
The changing nature of IS usage as a result of innovation in technology calls for a regular 
maintenance, update, upgrade and support for an implemented system (Heavin & Power, 2018). 
The findings reveal that the readily availability of support for the ECM software was one of the 
reasons the case institution selected that particular ECM system. The software implementers 
perform updates, maintenance and provide support for the ECM system when the need be. The 
findings from this study also showed that even though the maintenance cost is expensive, it was 
factored in the initial cost and an agreement was made to maintain the system after its 
implementation without paying for exorbitant maintenance fees. Therefore, when there is an 
upgrade on the system, the institution incurs a little cost to cater for such upgrade. Although the 
cost of maintenance is little due to the initial agreement, management are prepared to provide 
the necessary financial support for the system to be properly maintained, upgraded and updated. 
 
The figure below gives a pictorial representation of the process flow of the implementation of 
the ECM system as analyzed from the case description. 
Figure 6.1: Process Flow of ECM Software Implementation 
 
Source: Author’s Construct 
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7.4 Consequences of Implementing the ECM System 
The implementation of the ECM system in the PSI triggered some consequences which are 
either enabling or constraining consequences (positive and negative effects) The consequences 
that the case institution prepared for, perceived, predicted and anticipated it to happen are seen 
as the intended consequences while the unintended consequences were the ones that had not 
been anticipated for and the case institution had not prepared for it occurrence. This section 
presents the enabling and constraining consequences as well as the intended and unintended 
consequences that the case institution experienced after the implementation of the ECM system. 
Also, the findings of the study show that the success obtained from the ECM implementation 
was not automatic. Rather a conscious effort was made to see to it that the ECM system was 
implemented to fit the necessary institutional requirements and policies. The appropriate checks 
and balances were put in place to ensure that the case institution experience the full benefits of 
the ECM system so as to overshadow the negative effects. 
 
7.4.1 Intended Consequences  
The findings of the study reveal that some consequences were expected and anticipated; hence 
it occurrence was not a surprise to the case institution. One of the ultimate expected 
consequence was to make the case institution a digital workplace. Though a complete digital 
workplace was not achieved, the ECM system has enabled the case institution to operate in a 
nearly paperless environment since most of its operations have been digitally transformed. The 
findings reveal that certain contents are still kept manually due to challenges with the 
admissibility of electronic contents in the country’s legal system. However, the aspect of digital 
transformation has increased the decision making rate as timely information is made available 
to carry out the process without unnecessary delays. This is because, the retrieval response time 
to search for an information has been reduced and the problem of regular cases of lost and 
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misplaced files has been curbed. Further the ECM system has provided a secured system that 
suits the PSI’s administrative work environment and satisfies its policies in terms of document 
security (Laumer et al., 2017; Singh & Hess, 2017). The findings of this study reveal that the 
ECM system was implemented not only to satisfy the needs and expectations of management 
and staff but also to fulfil the directives of government. 
 
The findings reveal that the ECM system has enabled the integrity, confidentiality and privacy 
of the activities and contents through access control mechanisms. This has reduced intervention 
of sensitive documents by unauthorized users. From the findings, sensitive contents available 
to unauthorized users posed security threats. The security of contents is therefore ensured with 
the ECM system. Also, since the institution needed to provide reports to their regulators, there 
was the need to lessen human intervention to reduce the severity of document loss and produce 
timely accurate contents to meet regulators’ standards. With the ECM having security features 
like authentication, authorization and trackable features that allows for non-repudiation of 
activities, sensitive contents and workflows are secured. 
 
Unlike the Oracle EBS that enhances business operations and manages documents, the ECM 
system goes beyond just document management (Katuu, 2012). The institution wanted a system 
that can ensure effective records management from its current stage through to the semi-current 
stage to the non-current stage digitally. Based on this, the ECM system was selected and this is 
giving the institution the opportunity to customize a retention schedule that fit the institution’s 
and government requirements to determine content retention and destruction. Through this, 
there is always be adequate storage space for the institution to store all institutional contents in 
the ECM system repository. 
 
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From the findings, current records sometimes get stacked in offices of managers and this slows 
down decision making. The implementation of the ECM system ensures electronic workflow 
and help track and monitor which office a document is in the entire workflow process. Also, 
approval and endorsement of documents in the system is done electronically using a digital 
signature accompanied by an approval message. However, documents to be sent externally and 
huge contracts needs physical approval. With the system in place, the case institution is able to 
create and capture day to day records electronically, manage workflow electronically and the 
resulting records are kept electronically in an archival repository (Laumer et at., 2017; Escalona, 
2015). The findings of this study reveal that, with the exception of some significant contracts, 
receipts involving huge money, land titles and some external documents, all other documents 
and administrative activities internally are digitally transformed. 
 
One question that need to be asked is if the ECM system has digitally transformed or digitally 
innovated the institution’s operations. While digital transformation means digitalization of the 
entire internal documents and processes of an institution (Demirkan et al., 2016), digital 
innovation means digitalization of an aspect of the business processes or a department of in an 
institution (Hinings et al., 2018; Solis & Littleton, 2017). The findings of this study reveals that 
the case institution is experiencing digital transformation. This because the ECM system allows 
all its branches and departments to digitize their records and digitalize their workflow processes 
and store all contents from the ECM system electronically in its repository. This is consistent 
with the above studies (Hinings et al., 2018; Solis & Littleton, 2017). This study is also 
consistent with Hinings et al., (2018) which noted that one of the key reasons for digital 
transformation is to give businesses competitive edge for efficient and effective management 
of contents processes and performance. The ongoing discussion therefore indicates that the 
intended consequences were all anticipated by the case institution, hence all stakeholders 
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prepared well for the implementation of the ECM system to achieve the maximum benefits. 
These benefits have therefore enable the institution to meet its demands of mitigating the 
problems of the paper-based system ensuring efficiency and effectiveness. (Alalwan, 2013; 
Demirkan et al., 2016; Jaakonmäki et al., 2018) 
 
7.4.2 Unintended Consequences 
The case institution had some expectations from implementing the ECM system and a greater 
percentage of these anticipated expectations have been met as indicated above. However, the 
ECM system has also given the institution some unintended consequences that were not 
anticipated prior to the implementation of the project. The implementation of the ECM system 
has transform the working environment of the case institution into a smarter environment. Due 
to this, staff of the case institution are motivated to work in this newly created environment. 
The findings reveal that managers from the various departments can digitize contents and 
initiate their own workflow processes due to the ease of use of the system. Also workflow and 
activities that happen in the institution is easily traced by top management using the system. 
This new manner of operation has positively change the attitude of staff towards work as staff 
are regular and punctual at work. Again, the retrieval response time taken to get access to 
information has been reduced drastically since search and retrieval is now digital. This has also 
reduced the efforts and time used to search for contents by staff and has provided the avenue 
for a relatively faster decision making process. The staff attitude towards work has been 
transformed positively due to the usefulness the ECM system provide in performing their task. 
In effect, the findings reveal that the staff are ready to work with the system effectively to ensure 
that the institution meets it goals and objectives. 
 
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7.4.3 Enablers of the Consequences 
The interaction between the users of a system and the system itself results in some affordance 
effects (Bygstad et al., 2016). However, the interaction between the users and the system 
depends on certain factors known as enablers. First, the usefulness and ease of use of the system 
triggered the effective use of the system, hence the consequences. This supports the studies by 
Ardolino et al., (2017) and Laumer et al., (2017) which reveal that users benefits from IS that 
are useful and easy to use. The findings of the study reveal that the system helps the users in 
performing their functions effectively, hence the need to use it. For instance, in the manual 
system, staff were stressed up when searching for contents for managers to take actions. Since 
staff get little or no stress in performing their functions using the system, it influences them to 
interact with the system more. Again, the findings reveal that the system has a user friendly 
interface which influences users to interact with the system easily. As indicated by Abollado et 
al. (2017), digital transformation technologies with complex user interfaces influences the 
usability of an IS. However, this study reveals that the ECM system has a flexible easy to use 
interface that enables managers to create and initiate workflows on their own without any 
advance technical skills. The ease of use of the system is also due to adequate training and 
education on the effective use of the ECM system. So managers can create contents 
electronically and initiate an electronic workflow on their own which makes the ECM system 
implementation resulted-oriented. 
 
Further, the users always interact with the system because of the rate at which the institution 
gets assistance from the implementers (vendors). This study supports the study by Effah and 
Abbeyquaye, (2013) which indicated that in-house technical team usually seek for assistance 
from consultants for a successful IS implementation. The findings reveal that anytime there is 
a system problem, the implementers give them a quick response to solve the problem remotely 
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and when it involves physically visiting the institution, they come promptly. The timeliness of 
implementers to solve systems issues put users of the system in a position to interact with the 
system since any errors caused will be promptly attended to and solved. 
 
As indicated already, the findings of the study reveal that the implementation of the ECM 
system was influenced by the in-house technical team, management of the case institution and 
government. This meant that staff and users of the system had no option to opt out since the 
decision to use the system was backed by government. However, the findings of the study show 
that staff were ready and had interest in using the system so they are not using the system out 
of apathy. This therefore makes it easier to comply with government and top management 
directives to interact with the system to achieve the benefits that come with digital 
transformation. 
 
7.4.4 Constraints of the ECM System for Digital Transformation 
The implementation of an IS for the purpose of digital transformation can bring operational 
modifications in an institution and these changes provide some benefits as well as drawbacks 
(Abollado et al., 2017). Since the implementation of the ECM system resulted in some enabling 
affordances that were planned for and those that were not planned for, the constraining 
affordances of the system are also worth mentioning. From the findings of the study, the case 
institution faced a few challenges. 
 
Like most networked IS, two challenge that is being faced is network failure and power failure. 
Network connectivity, a key component of digital transformation, is the major constraint in the 
institution. The findings of the study reveal that users are unable to work digitally when there 
is network problem leading to delays in performing routine tasks. This is partly as a result of 
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the implementation plan by the case institution. The case institution opted for an on-premise 
server at the expense of the cloud service to fulfil the institution’s data protection policy. Issues 
such as where its contents were going to be stored, who have access to the content and who 
manages the content were discussed and analyzed before the option of an on-premise content 
storage was determined. The ECM system is interconnected in all departments so when the 
system encounters a problem, it affects all departments including the office of the Chief 
Executive thereby slowing down administrative processes and workflows. The findings of this 
study is consistent with other studies (Lederer et al., 2017; Loonam et al., 2018) which also 
indicated network problems as a challenge in digital transformation. Nonetheless, the ECM 
system provides cloud services. Using the hybrid cloud architecture comparatively reduces the 
frequency of server failures and is reliable for business continuity. This is something the case 
institution can consider moving forward. 
 
7.5 Future Implications and Expectations  
There are some future expectations regarding the use of the ECM system. These are 
expectations that management, the technical team and users of the system want to see to make 
the institution utilize the ECM system effectively and efficiently to produce better outcomes. 
On the part of management, the findings clearly reveal they support the implementation of the 
system and are willing to provide the needed support to make the institution a perfect digital 
workplace. Despite the content security issues raised, management are putting measures in place 
to ensure that users can interact with the system on other computing devices such as personal 
phones and tablets. This will enable users of the system to interact with the system not only in 
their offices but at any location within the institution. Also, management together with 
government and the implementers, are having long term plans to sign up for the system’s cloud 
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storage services. Signing up to the ECM system’s cloud services will enable users interact with 
the system with a very minimal server failure possibility to ensure business continuity. 
 
In order to survive and work effectively in a digital environment, an effective use of the system 
for digital transformation is key. On the part of the users, the findings clearly reveal that the 
effective use of the system is highly reliant on adequate training and the user friendly interface 
of the system. The users therefore hope that future systems maintenance, update and upgrade 
would make the user friendliness nature of the system even much better. This, in effect is going 
to improve the rate at which users interact with the system and influence will them to work 
effectively and efficiently in the digital environment.  
 
7.6 Chapter Overview  
This chapter gave a detailed discussion of the analysis of findings from the sixth chapter. As 
such, the literature reviewed in the second chapter was used to enable the researcher to detect 
contemporary themes and concepts and the findings were discussed in relation to reviewed 
literature. The discussion concentrated on themes that led to how and why the case institution 
implemented the ECM system. The chapter additionally presented the enabling and 
constraining consequences encountered as a result of using the ECM system to digitally 
transform operations in the PSI. The enabling consequences were further broken down into 
intended and unintended consequences. The chapter ended by presenting future expectations 
and implications on the part of the stakeholders of the ECM system. 
 
  
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CHAPTER EIGHT 
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH 
DIRECTIONS 
8.1 Chapter Overview  
The preceding chapter presented a discussion based on the analysis in chapter six and provided 
answers to this study’s research questions in relation to existing literature. This current chapter 
presents a summary and the conclusion of this study by revisiting the research questions in 
chapter one and showing how these questions have been addressed in this study. Additionally, 
the chapter presents an assessment of how the study was done and its’ contribution to literature, 
knowledge and theory. Further, this chapter presents the implications of this study for research, 
policy and practice. Finally, the limitations and recommendations for future studies and the 
overall conclusion of the study is provided in this chapter. 
 
8.2 A Review of Research Questions  
The purpose of this study is to understand ECM implementation and use in a developing 
country’s PSI. ECM systems implementation enable institutions to obtain valuable digital 
transformation benefits such as content security since data is a vital resource in this age of 
information. Institutional and national growth in this current age of information thrives on 
timely, accurate and reliable data so information security has become an important 
phenomenon. Reviewed literature indicates that most studies on ECM systems focused on the 
adoption of the ECM system (Herbst et al., 2014; Bakunzibake et al., 2016; Hullavarad et al., 
2015; Laumer et al., 2017). The ECM implementation procedure to digitally transform an 
institution’s content and workflow remains under researched in developing countries. Also the 
implementation and use of ECM systems in the public sector remains under researched as well. 
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Since the values, culture, user awareness, technology adoption and other internal and external 
factors of the private sector differ from the public sector’s perspective, there was the need to 
conduct a more current research on the implementation of ECM system in a developing 
country’s PSI. 
 
In a quest to fill the gaps identified in the relevant reviewed literature, the first chapter presented 
the following research questions so as to address the research purpose. The questions are 
therefore presented again here as:  
i. Why would a public sector institution in a developing country opt for an ECM system? 
ii. How can a public sector institution in a developing country implement an ECM system? 
iii. What are the consequences of implementing an ECM system in a public sector 
institution? 
 
This sub section gives a description of how the research questions in chapter one were 
addressed. 
i. A literature review of relevant studies has been done on the concepts paper-based 
system, digital transformation and ECM systems. The relevant literature was reviewed 
to find the needed gaps that this study intends to address. It was revealed in the reviewed 
literature that studies on ECM mainly focused on its adoption and also the document 
management aspect of the ECM system. This calls for more studies to be conducted on 
the how ECM systems are used for digital transformation and the consequences 
encountered. Moreover, the reviewed literature also discovered that most of these 
studies originated from the developed countries and also in the private sector with a 
limited focus on public institutions and developing countries such as Ghana. Since the 
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culture, technology adoption, user perceptions and other internal and external factors 
differ geographically, this study focuses on a PSI in a developing country. 
ii. The third chapter presented the theoretical foundation for this study. The chapter 
discussed the basic principles of the affordance theory and provided reasons for the 
choice of this theory. The affordance theory was selected due to its applicability in 
studying the affordance perception actors have about an IT artefact and how the IT 
artefact is implemented so as create an enabling condition to actualize the affordances. 
The premise of affordance theory is that affordance are perceived and the interaction 
between users of a technology and the technology results in affordance actualization. 
The interaction can bring enabling affordances as well as constraining affordances 
which may hinder the system’s performance and affect output.  
iii. Additionally, the methodology used in this study was presented in the fourth chapter. 
The paradigms used in IS research were described, the interpretive paradigm was 
selected and a justification was made for its applicability in this study. The chapter 
further described the research approach, research method and the strategy used for this 
study. The chapter concluded by indicating the data collection tools and techniques that 
were used to collect and analyze the data of this study.  
iv. An overview of the case institution was presented in chapter five as a case study, 
premised on the findings from the data gathered. Chapter five begun by presenting the 
background of the case institution, stating its history, mission and mandate, the various 
departments and the activities of the various departments. The chapter further traced the 
history of the various systems and the current system used in the case institution. The 
rationale behind the case institution’s decision to implement an ECM system was also 
clarified. The chapter then explained the implementation procedure and the 
consequences encountered after the implementation.  
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v. Chapter six used the case description from chapter five to present the analysis of the 
study. It provided adequate insights on the findings and produced interpretation for the 
findings. The chapter addressed why and how the PSI implemented an ECM system. 
Again, the affordance theory was used as a theoretical lens to identify the affordances 
and constraints of the already existing system and the ECM system. The chapter ended 
by providing explanations on the consequences of implementing the ECM system. 
vi. The seventh chapter presented the discussion of the findings relating it to the relevant 
existing literature in chapter two. The chapter addressed the research questions asked in 
the first chapter in relation to the relevant reviewed literature in the second chapter and 
the research findings in the fifth and sixth chapters. This chapter argued that government 
directive for digitalization, making the institution a digital workplace and mitigating the 
challenges of the paper-based system influenced the PSI to implement the ECM system. 
The chapter further revealed that, though the idea to implement the ECM system to fulfil 
government directive originated from the in-house technical team, management had to 
own the idea before the implementation became possible. The chapter finally presented 
a discussion on the enabling and constraining consequences of implementing ECM 
system. From the findings, the plan to make the institution a complete paperless 
workplace was not achieved due to difficulty in admissibility of digital content as 
evidence in the country’s legal system. 
 
8.3 Contribution to knowledge  
Interpretive case study research in IS can contribute to the body of knowledge in four main 
ways (Walsham, 1995). The author explained that these four main areas consist of concepts 
development, theory generation, provision of rich insight, and provision of specific 
implications. Conversely, although the aspects of theory generation and the development of 
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new concepts were not achieved in this study, rich insight, and specific implications can be 
drawn in this study when it comes to the aspect of research, policy and practice. 
 
8.3.1 Contribution to Theory  
As already stated, a new theory was not formulated in this study, nonetheless, the study provides 
a contribution to knowledge in IS discipline by applying the affordance theory to generalize the 
reason behind the basis for ECM implementation in a PSI. Further, the study generalized the 
implementation procedure and the consequences that accompanies the ECM systems 
implementation in the PSI. Studies in ECM systems adoption and implementation mostly use 
factor-based theory like the Technology Acceptance Theory (TAM), Delone and McLean IS 
Success Model, Technology, Organization and Environment (TOE) framework among others. 
These theories treat the process part of an IS phenomenon as a black box and do not explain 
how and why the predictors and outcomes are related and therefore offer partial understanding 
of the ECM phenomenon. While the use of affordance theory in ECM research remains under 
researched, this study however used the affordance theory to understand how and why a PSI 
implements an ECM system and the consequence encountered. Using this interpretive theory is 
useful and has enabled this study to provide deep insight into the implementation and use of the 
ECM system in a PSI. 
 
8.3.2 Providing Rich Insights  
As explained in the research findings and analysis this study provides rich insight into the 
implementation of an ECM system and the consequences encountered. The study revealed that 
since the case institution is a PSI, government played a role in the ECM implementation. As 
such, the study further revealed that PSIs implemented the ECM system to meet government 
directive for digital transformation. Further, the findings also show that though the idea to opt 
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for the ECM system originated from the in-house technical team, management had to buy into 
the idea and own it before the system was implemented. Also, to ensure digital transformation, 
ECM systems are selected based on their compatibility capacity with existing IS. Moreover, the 
findings of the study reveal that since decision to implement the ECM system was supported 
by both government and management, cost of acquiring, installing, training and maintaining the 
system was not a major challenge provided the ECM systems fit their expectations. As such, 
cost is not a major criterion for the implementation of the ECM system in a PSI, but rather the 
usefulness of the system and how best the system suits the expectations of government, 
management and the institution as a whole. 
 
Moreover, the study provided a deeper understanding on how an ECM system is successfully 
implemented in a PSI. This is because the whole implementation process from start to finish 
was spelt out in this study. Periodic meetings were scheduled among stakeholders of the system 
and the exact terms and conditions and needs of the case institution were ascertained. Also 
requirements were gathered from the in-house technical team and users of the system from all 
the departments by the vendors. Most of the digital transformation projects performed by the 
vendor happen to be in the private sector so there was the need for the implementers to 
understand the organizational culture and the environmental factors that are likely to influence 
the implementation of the system. The implementation of the ECM system started with a few 
departments for close to a year before the entire institution was digitally transformed. This was 
to perform real time monitoring and testing to know the strengths and weaknesses of the system 
and the readiness of the institution. During the implementation process, the ECM system was 
integrated with the institutions Oracle EBS for the purpose of seamless collaboration. The 
implementation plan gave the PSI the chance to opt for an on-premise data centre and this 
decision was based on the data protection policy of the institution. 
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8.4 Implication for Research, Practice and Policy  
With regard to the research, policy and practice aspect, the study has made significant 
contributions. This has been explained in detail in this sub-section. 
 
8.4.1 Implications for Research  
The findings of this study has provided the need for researchers in IS discipline to extend their 
studies in ECM systems beyond its adoption and implementation which focuses more on the 
private sector working environment and the document management aspect of the system. The 
implication for research is that though ECM systems work effectively in the private sector, it 
works better in a PSI when it is implemented in a manner that meets the needs, demands and 
expectation of government, management and staff of the institution. These expectations include 
compatibility with existing system, conforming to institutional policies, and provision of readily 
available support from the implementers. This is to ensure that the ECM system effectively 
serve the purpose for which it was implemented. As such, researchers ought not to make a 
generalization that the implementation of an IS is influenced mainly by management and staff. 
Instead, government in developing countries also play a role in the implementation of IS in a 
PSI regardless of the cost. The reason is that the case institution is a PSI and is therefore 
influenced by government policies and directives. 
 
In addition, the affordance theory also revealed that inasmuch as there may be an affordance 
with an IS, there are also constraints that users encounter. As such technology use can constrain 
users of the technology from performing their activities to achieve their objectives. The 
affordance theory enabled the researcher to understand why G-PSI opted for an ECM system 
and explained what they can do with the system to achieve its benefits. However, though the 
study tried to capture how the implementation was done, that aspect of the study was not 
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adequately analyzed with the affordance theory and this is because it is not a process-based 
theory. There is therefore the need for researchers studying a process-based approach to be 
cautious in the selecting of the affordance theory as a theoretical lens. It is however very 
important to have an aspect of the theory that will enable researchers to study a process-based 
phenomenon in addition to understanding the consequences of an IS implementation. 
 
8.4.2 Implications for Practice  
In terms of the research’s implication to practice, this study provides directions for other 
institutions, especially other PSIs in a developing country that would want to implement an 
ECM system. The study showed that the various stakeholders who play a significant role in the 
implementation of the ECM system comprise government, management, the in-house technical 
team, users and the vendors. This sub-section details how the implication of this study is crucial 
for institutions in developing countries that would want to opt for ECM systems. 
 
Practitioners should note that the decision to implement a digital transformation tool in a 
developing country is not only influenced by the PSI’s management team. Instead, government 
and the in-house technical team play a key role in the decision. Moreover, it should be noted 
that, though most ECM systems implementation are web-based or network based, it is not 
automatic that this feature would be implemented in a PSI despite its usefulness. This is because 
of issues relating to data security and data protection policies. As such, when it comes to data 
storage, PSIs opt for an on-premise data centre so they can protect their contents. More so, there 
is a restriction on the type of device such as personal computers to access the ECM system since 
the security of staff personal devices is delicate. Therefore, it is important for researchers not to 
generalize and create the assumption that all ECM system are cloud-based so users can have 
access irrespective of their location and access device. 
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Further, this study acknowledged the need for institutions to develop competences and skills 
needed by users to interact with the digital technologies used for the digital transformation 
effectively. This is achieved through requisite training and education so as to make it easy for 
them to upgrade themselves for the development, implementation and use of ECM systems. In 
the process of training, the expectations and anticipation of the users in terms of what can be 
done with the system must be communicated to them such that aspects of the training are geared 
towards users’ expectations. 
 
8.4.3 Implications for Policy  
Finally, with respect to policy, the findings of this study is going to help institutions in 
understanding how and why PSIs implement ECM systems. The study revealed that there were 
some institutional policies that influenced the institution’s decision to implement the ECM 
system in a manner that fit its expectations and demands. Nonetheless, these policies should be 
flexible for other PSIs so as to enjoy the full benefits of digital transformation. 
 
8.5 Limitations of the Study  
Despite the fact that the study offered some rich insights and provided implications for research, 
policy and practice, the study however has some limitations. These limitations can be a guidance 
for further studies by researchers and practitioners in the IS discipline and other related fields. 
In this study, the case institution was a PSI with some level of autonomy so the findings cannot 
be generalized to other institutions because of the differences in structure and business models. 
Also, the contextual diversities may restrict researchers to generalize the findings to other 
settings. 
 
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Further, in terms of resources, time and scope, the study is restricted in these aspects. Since data 
collection was done in a limited time, out of two PSIs that have implemented ECM systems, 
only a single case institution has effectively implemented the system fully to ensure digital 
transformation. In this sense, further studies should do a multiple case study to include all the 
two institutions and possibly a third one that is surely yet to start its implementation process. 
This will help in comparing the ECM system’s performance and will assist in determining the 
main factors that are causing the differences. 
 
Debatably, theories give researchers direction, but the affordance theory limited the study 
because it restricted the researcher to pay attention to only the aspects that are applicable to the 
theory. However, since the interpretive research paradigm is evolving, the selection of theories 
is based on beliefs and assumptions and not based on the fact that the theory is the most 
appropriate to study a particular phenomenon. Therefore, in the quest to find an answer to one 
of the research questions identified in the first chapter, the theory restricted the researcher in 
responding adequately to how the PSI implemented the ECM system. 
 
Moreover, in terms of methodologies, they are being applied to find answers to the research 
questions. Since the study sought to get deeper insights and understanding of the phenomenon, 
the qualitative method was used. Nonetheless, using the qualitative method limited the 
researcher in terms of extensiveness. 
 
8.6 Future Research Directions  
This study presents some important, notable and vital dimensions that can contribute to 
knowledge in the field of IS which future researchers can explore. 
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i. Further research can conduct a multiple case study to include the other PSIs in Ghana 
that have implemented ECM systems. This will offer more generalizations on the 
implementation and use of ECM systems in a developing economy’s perspective. 
ii. Since the structure, business model and stakeholders in PSIs differ from other industry, 
this study can be extended beyond the scope of PSIs by exploring how institutions in 
different industries implement ECM systems. 
iii. In terms of data storage, the implementation was restricted to an on-premise data centre 
due to data security policies. This study can be extended by future researchers to 
investigate the security of web-based and cloud networked based ECM systems. 
 
8.7 Conclusion  
The purpose of this study was to understand why and how a PSI in a developing country 
implements an ECM system and the consequences encountered. Previous studies on ECM 
systems focused on the adoption and the document management aspect of the system paying 
less attention to the features that aid digital transformation. Also, though ECM implementation 
exists in practitioners’ viewpoint, there is negligible ECM system implementation firstly in the 
public sector, and secondly, in a developing country like Ghana. The research sought to address 
such gaps identified. 
 
The study revealed that when the government and management of a PSI, express interest and 
support in an IT artefact due to its usefulness, cost is not a major benchmark for the technology 
to be selected. This opposes the findings of other studies which revealed that cost is a major 
criterion for the choice of a technology (Haug, 2012) especially in a developing economy. In 
effect, the major criteria for the selection of the ECM system in the PSI is its ability to meet 
government directive, integrate with already existing system, make the institution a digital 
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workplace and mitigate the challenges of the paper-based system. The study also revealed that 
not all ECM systems implementation are web or cloud based providing remote accessibility. 
The fear of data security implications restricts PSIs in developing countries to implement an 
on-premise data centre access to manage their contents at the expense of the web-based services. 
 
Finally, the interpretive case study approach and the affordance theory as a theoretical lens were 
used to study why and how a PSI implemented the ECM system and the consequences 
encountered. The researcher was able to find answers to the research questions in responding 
to the identified gaps in the literature. Moreover, the findings enabled the researcher to gain a 
deeper understanding and insight in justifying digital transformation in a PSI, how it was done 
and the consequences that were encountered. 
  
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