METHODIST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY VOCATIONAL LIFE CONFLICT AND COPING STRATEGIES OF THE ANGLICAN CLERGY IN ACCRA EBENEZER NII ADDY LARYEA 10544155 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS IN PHILOSOPHY IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING DEGREE SEPTEMBER 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, EBENEZER NII ADDY LARYEA, do hereby declare that I produced this thesis from original research undertaken as a student of the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College Ghana, and that this work has never been submitted in whole or in part for any purpose in this university. All references to the works of other people as well as of organization(s) have been duly acknowledged. Ebenezer Nii Addy Laryea (Student) Rev. Dr. Daniel Bruce Mr. Gladstone F Agbakpe (Principal Supervisor) (Co-Supervisor) Date: Date: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii CERTIFICATION The undersigned do hereby certify that he has read and recommended to the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College Ghana, this thesis entitled: VOCATIONAL LIFE CONFLICTS AND COPING STRATEGIES OF THE ANGLICAN CLERGY IN ACCRA Written and presented by Ebenezer Nii Addy Laryea. Principal Supervisor: Rev. Dr Daniel Bruce Signature:…………………………………….. Date:…………………………………………… Co-Supervisor: Mr. Gladstone F Agbakpe Signature:………………………………… Date:……………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty who has been my source of strength, wisdom and enablement and to my dear, Liam Nii Odai-Dromo Nii-Okle, in whom I find one of the loveliest gifts my God in His Son, Jesus Christ, has ever given to me so far. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to Almighty God for giving me the desired strength, enablement and inspiration to finish this course successfully. I appreciate very much the support rendered by my academic supervisors, Rev Dr Daniel Bruce for his immense persevering with me and suggestions to polish up this study and my co- supervisor Mr. Gladstone F Agbakpe for his encouragements, coordinating and supervising the statistical concerns that made it possible for me to complete this thesis. Also, am I grateful to all the lecturers in the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College Ghana for their suggestions and comments which made my study tour a great success. I must acknowledge as well the Most Rev’d Dr. Robert GA Okine – retired Archbishop of the Church of the Province of West Africa and Anglican Bishop Koforidua/Ho Diocese, Lt Gen Emmanuel A Erskine – retired Senior Officer of the Ghana Army, Churchman and Statesman and Bright Oblitei Akwetey esq – Barrister-at-law, Churchman and Statesman for their wonderful interest expressed in my academic developments. I also acknowledge the Rt. Rev’d Dr. Daniel SM Torto – Anglican Bishop of Accra for granting me permission to finish this programme of studies uninterrupted. Their friendship, hospitality and wisdom have supported, enlightened me and have consistently helped keep me in perspective on what is important in life and shown me how to deal with reality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v My sincere thanks also go to Mr. Jacob Quaye who contributed immensely to enhance the completion of this thesis and did a lot of the typing for me. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my wife – Priscilla Prudence and our children for their wonderful support throughout my studies. Finally, I am also indebted to all respondents who voluntarily contributed to the study, without them, the study would not have been possible; specially the Very Rev’d SJA Sackey, the Dean of the Cathedral Church of the Most Holy Trinity and Chairman of the Diocesan House of Clergy and the Rev’d Canon EK Jones-Okai, the Diocesan Secretary. Thanks so much and may God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi ABSTRACT This study investigated the relationship between Vocational Life Conflict and Coping Strategies among the Anglican Clergy in the Accra Diocese in Ghana. Sixty (60) participants were sampled among a population of One Hundred and Ten (110) across the Anglican Diocese of Accra, to participate in this cross-sectional survey. Participants completed self administered questionnaires comprising the Stress Diagnostic Survey (SDS), and the Coping Strategy Indicator (CSI). Various analytical tools were used including Pearson Correlation Coefficient, One-Way ANOVA, Independent T test and Regression Analysis were used in analyzing the data. Results indicated that Vocational Life Conflict significantly influenced clergy stress. The study further reported a significant negative relationship between clergy stress and coping among the Anglican Clergy in Accra. Age of the respondents in the study did not have any significant effect on their overall stress levels. There was statistically no significant difference between priests who handle parishes (larger membership size) and priests who handle congregations (smaller membership size) in their level of total stress. Use of social support as a coping strategy reduced clergy stress significantly. Priests did not use more of Problem Solving coping than Social Support and Avoidance coping. These findings were explained based on the Lazarus Theory on Stress, Role Theory and Burnout. In conclusion, training in handling intra and interpersonal conflict, needs to be taken seriously in developing strategies to help priests in the Anglican Church in the Accra Diocese and the clergy in general to cope with the healthy expression of emotions, since the sources of stress to priests may be inevitable. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………i CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………………………..ii DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………iv ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………vi TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………...vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………..1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM………………………………………………….4 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS……………………………………………………………5 1.4 AIM…………………………………………………………………………………….5 1.5 OBJECTIVES………………………………………………………………………….5 1.6 RELEVANCE OF STUDY……………………………………………………………6 1.7 SCOPE OF STUDY……………………………………………………………………7 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY………………………………………………………….8 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..9 2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK…………………………………………………….10 2.1.1 ROLE THEORY…………………………………………………………………….10 2.1.2 BURNOUT…………………………………………………………………………..12 2.1.3 LAZARUS STRESS THEORY……………………………………………………..13 2.2 REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES…………………………………………………..17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.2.1 Vocational Life Conflicts And Clergy Stress…………………….…………………..17 2.2.2 Clergy Stress And Coping………..…………………………………………………40 2.2.3 Age And Clergy Stress………………………………………………………………48 2.2.4 Congregation Size And Clergy Stress……………..………………………………..52 2.2.5 Coping With Clergy Stress…………………………………………………………………57 2.2.6 Social Support As Predictor Of Clergy Stress….…………………….…………….52 2.2.7 Problem Solving As Most Used Coping Strategy…..………………….……………67 2.3 STATEMENT OF HYPOTHESES…………………………………………………..71 2.4 PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK………………………………………71 2.5 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS…………………………………………72 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..73 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………………………………………73 3.1 POPULATION…………………………………………………………………………73 3.2 SAMPLING AND SAMPLYING TECHNIQUE……………………………………..74 3.4 MEASURES AND INSTRUMENTS…………………………………………………75 3.4.1 Demographic Variables………..……………………………………………………76 3.4.2 Stress Diagnostic Survey………..……………………………………………………76 3.4.3 Coping Strategy Indicator…………..……………………………………………….78 3.5 PROCEDURE FOR THE STUDY…………………………………………………….78 3.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION………………………………………………………..80 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 4.0 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………82 4.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS…………………………………………………………..82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix Table 1: Summary of Demographic Characteristics of Respondents in the Study……………83 4.2 HYPOTHESES TESTING………………………………………………………………84 Table 2: Summary of Pearson Correlation between Coping and Stress among Clergy……..84 Table 3: Summary of One-Way ANOVA of Age Differences in Clergy Stress…………………86 Table 4: Summary of Independent t-test of Effects of Congregation Size on Clergy Stress….88 Table 5: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis of Coping Strategies & Clergy Stress…89 Table 6: Summary of Means & Standard Deviations of Coping Strategies used by Clergy…90 4.4 ADDITIONAL FINDINGS………………………………………………………………91 4.5 SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS…………………………………………………….. 92 Table 7: Summary of Descriptive Statistics of Sources of Stress among Clergy………………92 Table 8: Revised Conceptual Framework…………………………………………………………..93 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 5.0 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….94 5.1 VOCATIONAL LIFE CONFLICT AND CLERGY STRESS………………………….94 5.2 CLERGY STRESS AND COPING………………………………………………………95 5.3 AGE AND CLERGY STRESS………………………………………………………….100 5.4 CONGREGATION SIZE AND CLERGY STRESS…………………………………….103 5.5 SOCIAL SUPPORT AS PREDICTOR OF CLERGY STRESS…………………………104 5.6 PROBLEM SOLVING AS MOST USED COPING STRATEGY………………………106 5.7 RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………………………106 5.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………..107 5.9 FUTURE RESEARCH………………………………………………………………….. 107 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x APPENDICES Appendix I: Consent Form………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendix II: Data Collection Questionnaire……………………………………………….. 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE- INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study From the moment an individual takes his sacramental oath to serve as a priest, he is expected to live as an example to all and to be a role model and mentor to his congregation, community, family and from recent observation, the country at large. This benchmark can be attributed to the sayings of Apostle Paul who gave the criteria for selecting or becoming a Deacon or Church leader in the Bible (1 Timothy 3: 1- 13). These verses say that a church leader should be of good character, must be without fault, self controlled, help others, and invite strangers into his house, gentle and peaceful, amongst others. This text implies that irrespective of what behaviours you exhibited before you take the sacramental oath should end, and should now be “a father for all” figure, rather than caring only for your family. This role, which forms part of the Priest’s vocation, is shown to cause stress among clergymen (Croucher, 2014). It is generally acknowledged that the ministry as a vocation i s inherently s t ressful given t h e intensive people-helping component of the w o r k . The majority of studies in the field of clergy stress outline its adverse implication on the clergy, families and congregational systems. There is little doubt that clergy stress and burnout can be detrimental to the mental health and wellbeing of the minister and other related social systems (Arumugam, 2003). It appears from anecdotal studies and observations that the minister of the Gospel has responded to one of the most exacting and stressful vocations open to human beings (Rassieur, 1982). Other researchers in the field of clergy stress and burnout also support these findings suggesting that clergy are vulnerable to the debilitating effects of stress and burnout (Daniel & Rogers, 1981; Rediger, 1982; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Sanford, 1982). According to Gill (1980), the intensive helping activities of ministers of religion could be detrimental to their physical and mental health. Several studies suggest that ministers experience high levels of stress that could be detrimental to both their physical and mental health. Mills and Koval (1971) note that of 4,908 ministers in 27 Protestant denominations, 75 percent reported one or more periods of major stress in their careers. In two-thirds of this group, the stress arose from the pastoral work associated with the local church. Other studies have suggested that a large number of ministers are responding to these high levels of stress by leaving the ministry. MacDonald (1980) r e p o r t e d that one-third o f ministers surveyed i n a Gallup Poll seriously considered leaving the m i n i s t r y . Several South African studies also s u p p o r t this c o n c l u s i o n that clergy are experiencing high levels of stress, which could lead t o burnout (Odendal, 1984; Raath, 1987; Arumugam, 1992; Swart, 2002). A number of writers have reported that clergy spend up to 100 hours per week in church work (e.g., Rolfe, 1984), and others have presented convincing subjective reports of role conflicts and marital dissatisfaction among the clergy (e.g., Houts, 1982; Oswald, Gutierrez, & Dean, 1980). Although little has been done to quantify the problems which are bound to exist, the assumptions of the worst have profound and far-reaching effects. For example, the Roman Catholic Church has used, as part of its continuing debate on the issue of clergy celibacy, "studies of clergy spouses" indicating that they often suffer from stress and difficulties with the lifestyle (Carrel, 1985). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 If more is known, substantive steps could be taken toward understanding the conditions under which the Clergy live and work, improving the theology of ordination and marriage which clergy are taught in seminaries and continuing education programmes, strengthening the marriage preparation offered to clergy or seminarians and their future spouses, increasing the support and enrichment provided to the Clergy by their parishes and dioceses, and providing the help needed for marital and family problems among the clergy (Mace & Mace, 1980; Rolfe, 1984). The training offered in the Anglican Church has been described as "quasi-Roman Catholic," teaching an ideal of total loyalty and commitment to the vocation of priesthood appropriate for a celibate clergy, but full of ambiguities for the married priest (Michaeletto, 1983). Few, if any of the seminaries provide courses or training to prepare future priests for the stress that come with the vocation of priesthood and how to deal with such issues (Rolfe, 1984). Once out of seminary, clergy are perceived as caretaker-persons to whom the community turns for support and solace (Bradshaw, 1977). Clergy are expected to help others, not to need help themselves; as a result, such help is too often not made available to them, not utilized or sought too late (Rolfe, 198A). If more facts were known about clergy marriage, seminaries and dioceses might provide or improve courses and programmes for sustaining clergy marriage. Dioceses might set up counselling centers or establish procedures to make professional therapeutic services available to the Clergy in distress. Further, bishops might encourage, support, and provide incentives to the Clergy to utilize prevention and enrichment programs, realizing that the benefits thereof would be felt throughout the entire church (Mace & Mace, 1980). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 1.2 Statement of the Problem Clergymen view their role as a vocation (calling) rather than as a job. The word “vocation” is derived from the Latin word “vocare”, which means ‘to call’ (Peck, 1993). In modern times the word “vocation” has been used to explain any career path that a person might choose to follow, but originally it referred specifically to a path chosen in response to a call by someone or something beyond the self (Cochran, 1990). Cochran points out that it is possible for a person to be in a career, without that career being perceived by the person as their vocation. He cited the example of John Stuart Mill who for thirty-five years, worked as a Clerk and Secretary in the East India Company, preparing correspondence for outlets abroad. The only importance this occupation had for Mill was that it supported and did not interfere with his vocation (Cochran, 1990:5). In contrast to his paid work, Mill understood his vocation to be that of a reformer (Arumugam, 1992). Clergy in the Anglican Church are usually people who leave their childhood dream occupation to enter ministry. This choice means at least three years of significant financial hardship whilst attending theological college, and the giving up of a clear career path for the remainder of life (Pryor, 1986:59). Pryor (1986) believes that the individual experience of call is a potential contributor to the stress experienced in ministry, especially if it is seen to compensate the person for some perceived deficit. Thus, so much goes on among the clergy, including resolving in some cases life treating issues and stress related events, but does not consider the conflicts the clergy also encounter as a result of spending their entire lifetime listening to issues. They have to resolve, life they have to live even though they may not agree with such doctrines, the financial constraints and the other hazards that they endure in their line of work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1.3 Research Questions 1. What are the various vocational life conflicts encountered by the Anglican priests in their line of duty as Clergy? 2. What is the relationship between vocational life conflicts and the general wellbeing of Anglican clergy? 3. How do idiosyncrasies influence the stress and coping strategies of the clergy? 4. What are the coping strategies adopted by the Anglican clergymen in dealing with these conflicts? 1.4 Aim The aim of study is to examine how the coping strategies adopted by the Anglican Clergy to resolving/combating vocational conflicts impact on their wellbeing. 1.5 Objectives 1. To identify the various vocational life conflicts encountered by the Anglican priests in their line of duty as Clergy. 2. To ascertain the relationship between vocational life conflicts and the stress encountered by the Anglican clergy. 3. To identify how their idiosyncrasies influence their stress and coping strategies. 4. To harness the coping strategies adopted by the Anglican clergy in dealing with these conflicts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.6 Relevance of the Study This study is an extension of earlier studies including that conducted on 'Stress and Burnout amongst Indian Pentecostal Ministers' (Arumugam, 1992). The findings of the study indicated that although ministers were experiencing high levels of work stress, the incidence of burnout was low. In understanding this situation the researcher will unearth the coping strategies which are inherent in and out of the ministry which are used by the clergy in resolving their life conflicts. From personal discussions with the clergy sample using a phenomenological approach, it was found that there are significant spiritual resources and disciplines that ensure the wellbeing of clergy despite the stressful demands of the ministry, which cause them not to leave the ministry as other studies seem to suggest. The sense of calling to the ministry often provides the mental fortitude to continue with the work despite the reality of stressful experiences. At the same time though, many pastors realized that the sacrifices they make for their calling are unnecessary and the demands made upon themselves and their families have little to do with furthering God's kingdom, which is their primary calling. There is also a recognition that the church and ministers themselves need to find ways to cope more effectively with stress so that they not only serve others with greater joy, but also find genuine personal rewards through their calling (Rassieur, 1984). In response to a question in the earlier study which asked what strategies the church should provide in assisting the clergy in dealing with stress, a significant need was expressed by the study sample for practical, skills based interventions that would assist them [the clergy] to cope better with stress University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 and avoid burnout (Arumugam, 1992). Many of the interventions indicated are typical stress management strategies such as time management, conflict handling, leadership and counselling skills. Other strategies related to better organisational support. Smith and Cooper (1994) have shown a link between stress in leaders and stress within organizations. A 1995 study conducted by Greenberg and Baron found that high stress levels can lead to a lack of concern for the organization and the people within it (Greenberg & Baron, 1995). Thus, in understanding the stress experience of those who are leaders within the Anglican Church, there is the potential for a better understanding of how to assist whole church communities. 1.7 Scope of the Study The scope of the current study cuts across various religions in Ghana and the world at large. Although the study can easily be generalised to most Christian denominations, it may have some bearing on the clergy in other forms of worship including the Islamic and African Traditional religions, to mention but a few. Findings from this study can be readily generalised to the Anglican Church, and most orthodox churches including the Catholic, Presbyterian and Methodist churches. Though they may be seen as operating under different dogma and denomination, the clergy in the Pentecostal and Charismatic churches, findings of the study could also be generalised to them, since most of these denominations are becoming more and more administrative in their operation, have regular day-to-day consultation with their church members and sometimes have to go to individual church members homes to resolve conflicts, in addition to those they have to attend to at the church and in the mission houses. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.8 Significance of the Study Previous studies have examined the attitudes of the clergy toward their life and work, but they have lacked objective data by which to interpret these attitudes. For example, Mace and Mace (1980) reported that among pastors studied, over half considered time pressures due to the husband's heavy schedule to be a disadvantage of clergy marriage. In previous studies clergy wife roles have been defined either by asking wives to assess their level of involvement in their husbands' ministry and thus formulating role definitions (Douglas, 1965), by asking wives to identify themselves subjectively with a choice of previously defined roles (Hartley, 1978; Piatt & Moss, 1976), or by observation and description (Sinclair, 1981). The purpose of this study was first to establish baseline data on time allocated to various activities and social contexts by priests and clergy spouses, and then to examine the roles of clergy spouses based on time allocation, and finally to examine the relationships of both time allocation and clergy spouses’ role to marital satisfaction. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction The literature review seeks to examine what vocational life conflict is, the constructs that make up vocational life conflict, how vocational life conflict influences clergy stress among the Anglican priests in the Accra Diocese. The review of related studies and the theories that underlie these observations will aim at achieving the stated objective (1) in the introductory section of the research. The second, third and fourth objectives will be achieved with the help of data collection and analysis: 5. To identify the various vocational life conflicts encountered by the Anglican priests in their line of duty as clergymen. 6. To ascertain the relationship between vocational life conflicts and the stress encountered by the Anglican clergymen 7. To identify how their idiosyncrasies influence their stress and coping strategies 8. To harness the coping strategies adopted by the Anglican clergymen in dealing with these conflicts. With a careful review of studies related to this area, we hope to advance the current research in a progressive manner. The constructs that define vocational life conflict will be reviewed including Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict, Role Overload, Loneliness, Time Management, Lack of opportunities to 'de-role' and be yourself. We will further identify the nature of vocational life conflicts encountered by the Anglican Clergymen, how such conflicts impact on their stress levels and the coping strategies they adopt in resolving such conflicts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Thus, the purpose of the literature review is to aid a purposeful discussion on vocational life conflict, in a much organized way, which can assist in a better comprehension of issues related to psychological wellbeing and coping strategies among the Anglican Clergymen. By the end of the review, there should be a clearer focus and a further justification for the need to conduct data collection on vocational life conflict among the Anglican Clergymen. We will then offer a theoretical rationale to why vocational life conflict triggers stress among the Anglican Clergymen. Finally, we will propose hypotheses regarding the relationship between vocational life conflicts, stress and coping strategies. 2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.1.1 Role Theory To a large extent literature on vocational life and stress draws on some variant of role theory, with the management of multiple roles in the vocational life context as the core of examination in its relation to individual outcomes. The work on the effects of multiple roles can be broadly classified by those emphasizing positive outcomes of role expansion, and those emphasizing negative effects of role stress. Proponents of the role expansion theory hypothesize that occupying multiple roles foster engagement in both vocation and family life, with some studies including Barnett and Hyde (2001) & Barnett and Baruch (1985) finding a positive effect of multiple roles on self-esteem and life satisfaction among multiple role occupants. An empirical examination of the role stress and role expansion theories found greater support for role expansion, in that, the number of social roles a person occupies is negatively associated with insomnia and lingering illness (Nordenmark, 2004). The author University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 suggested that multiple roles may expand a person’s access to resources, thus increasing the support of various kinds. Nonetheless, the benefits accrued from multiple roles may be limited, so long as the roles are not experienced as demands. Some researchers propose that the positive effect of multiple roles is greatest when the workload, as measured by the number of hours of paid work (Aryee, 1992; Scharlach, 2001) and responsibility for small children (Moen and Yu, 1999; Scharlach, 2001) is not too intense. Consequently, while multiple roles may sound beneficial, if those roles began to impinge upon each other, then role overload and/or role conflict is experienced and causes stress to the individual. Role stress theory, as postulated by classical role theory (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964), stated that “the experience of ambiguity of role will result in an undesirable state”. A central assumption of role stress theory is that soaring demand leads to stress, and the stress generated by demand from each of multiple roles increases the stress with each demanding role one occupies. An alternative of role stress theory is the scarcity perspective, which provides a predetermined amount of psychological and physiological resources available to them to respond to the role obligation. Multiple roles increase the demand on resources and a person risks depletion and exhaustion of resources. As such, people must make substitutions to reduce role strain (Aryee, Srinivas, & Tan, 2005). Underlying the substitution of finite resources, particularly in the vocational life context, is the notion that work and family roles have diverse responsibilities and obligations in which the satisfaction of those connected with one role leads to the sacrifice of another (Zedeck & Mosier, 1990). This leads to role conflict, due to incompatibility between roles (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1986), and this is central to the focus of much of the vocational life literature. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 2.1.2 Burnout Burnout is known to be a type of psychological stress condition characterized by “emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and diminished personal accomplishment” (Cordes and Dougherty, 1993) as a result of extended exposure and response to chronic workplace stress (Maslach, 2003). The research by Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton (2000) examining the relationship between work-family conflict and burnout repeatedly found that the higher the work-family conflict, the greater the possibility of burnout. Although work-to-family spillovers are more highly associated with burnout than family-to-work spillover, Lambert, Hogan, and Altheimer (2010) found that higher levels of strain-based, behavior-based, and family-to-work conflict are related with higher levels of job burnout among correctional staff. Using the four-fold classification of work-family to measure directionality (work-to-family; family to-work) and type of mediation (conflict or facilitation), a longitudinal study by Innstrand, Langballe, Espnes, Falkum, and Aasland (2008), found the association between work-family and job burnout to be reciprocal, in that work-to-family conflict leads to job burnout, and job burnout leads to work-to-family conflict. However, work-family facilitation was found to have a restructuring effect on this relationship. These results strongly suggest that preventive practices might profit both the organization as well as the employee in order to foster work-family facilitation and curtail the negative spiral of work-to-family conflict and burnout. Grzywacz, Carlson, and Shulkin (2008) found that employees engaged in formal flexible work schedules, particularly those engaged in an arrangement that allows University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 them to change their work schedules around a set number of hours experienced lower levels of job stress and burnout, as measured by a 7-item scale. Grzywacz Carlson & Shulkin (2008) concluded that it is the perception of flexibility that promotes a sense of individual control or autonomy over when work is done that alleviates job stress and burnout. This was similar to the work of Thomas & Ganster (1995) that found the perception of schedule control to be associated with lower levels of stress and strain, reduced work-family conflict, increased job satisfaction. Job burnout in turn, affects a variety of job outcomes related with withdrawal from work such as turnover, absenteeism, and productivity (Lee and Ashforth, 1996). 2.1.3 The Lazarus Stress Theory There are two concepts central to any psychological stress theory: appraisal, i.e., individuals' evaluation of the significance of what is happening for their well-being, and coping, i.e., individuals' efforts in thought and action to manage specific demands (Lazarus, 1993). Since its first presentation as a comprehensive theory (Lazarus 1966), the Lazarus stress theory has undergone a number of critical revisions (Lazarus 1991, Lazarus and Folkman 1984, Lazarus and Launier 1978). In the latest version (Lazarus 1991), stress is portrayed as a relational concept, i.e., stress is not defined as a precise kind of external stimulation nor exact pattern of physiological, behavioral, or subjective reactions. Instead, stress is seen as an association (`transaction') formed between persons and their environment. `Psychological stress refers to a relationship with the environment that the person appraises as important for his or her well University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 being and in which the demands strain or exceed his or her available coping resources' (Lazarus and Folkman 1986). This description points to two processes as central intermediaries within the person– environment transaction: cognitive appraisal and coping. The idea of appraisal, introduced into emotion research by Arnold (1960) and elaborated further with respect to stress processes by Lazarus (1966, Lazarus and Launier 1978), is a key factor for perceiving stress- relevant transactions. This concept is based on the idea that emotional processes (including stress) are reliant on actual expectancies that individuals express with regard to the significance and outcome of a specific experience. This concept is essential to explain personal differences in quality, intensity, and duration of an elicited emotion in surroundings that are objectively equal for different persons. It is generally assumed that the resulting state is generated, maintained, and eventually altered by a specific prototype of appraisals. These appraisals, in turn, are determined by a number of individual and situational factors. The most essential factors on the Individual side are motivational dispositions, goals, values, and generalized expectancies. Notable situational parameters are predictability, controllability, and proximity of a potentially stressful event. Lazarus (1991) in his monograph on emotion and adaptation developed a comprehensive emotion theory which included a stress theory (Lazarus 1993). This theory distinguished two basic types of appraisal, primary and secondary appraisal (Lazarus 1966). These types rely on varied sources of information. Primary appraisal concerns whether something of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 significance to the person’s well being occurs, whereas secondary appraisal concerns coping options. Within primary appraisal, three components were identified. Goal relevance described the degree at which an encounter refers to issues about which the person cares. Goal congruence described the extent to which an episode proceeds in relation to personal goals. Type of ego- involvement which is the third, described aspects of personal commitment such as self- esteem, moral values, ego-ideal, or ego-identity. Similarly, three secondary appraisal components are identified in the monograph. Blame or credit results from a person’s appraisal of whom is responsible for a certain action. By coping potential, Lazarus meant a person's evaluation of the possibility for generating certain behavioural or cognitive operations that will positively influence a specifically relevant encounter. Future expectations according to Lazarus refer to the appraisal of the supplementary course of an experience with respect to goal congruence or incongruence. Coping is closely related to the concept of cognitive appraisal and, consequently, to the stress relevant person-environment transactions. Most approaches in coping research pursued Folkman and Lazarus (1980), who defined coping as `the cognitive and behavioural efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and conflicts among them.' This definition implies the following. (a) Coping behaviours are not classified according to their effects (e.g., as reality-distorting), but according to certain characteristics of the coping process. (b) This process involves behavioural as well as cognitive interactions in the individual. (c) In nearly all cases, coping consists of different single acts and is organized successively, to produce a coping episode. In this sense, coping is often characterized by the concurrent incidents of different action sequences and, hence, an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 interconnection of coping episodes. (d) Coping actions can be differentiated by their focus on different components of a stressful encounter (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). They can endeavour to change the person–environment realities behind negative emotions or stress (problem-focused coping). They can also rely on internal elements and seek to reduce a negative emotional state, or adjust the appraisal of the demanding situation (emotion-focused coping). The Lazarus model outlined above on coping represents a specific type of coping theory. These theories are classified according to two autonomous parameters. They are (a) trait- oriented versus state oriented, and (b) micro analytic versus macro analytic approaches (Krohne 1996). Trait oriented and state-oriented research strategies have different foci. The trait-oriented (or dispositional) strategy aims at early identification of persons whose coping resources and abilities are inadequate for the demands of a specific stressful experience. An early identification of these individuals will proffer the opportunity for establishing a selection procedure or a successful early prevention program. Research that is state oriented, centres around actual coping, has a more general objective. This research investigated the associations between coping strategies used by individuals and outcome variables such as self-reported or objectively coded coping efficiency, emotional reactions associated and following certain coping efforts, or variables of adaptation outcome (e.g., health status or test performance). This research strategy intends to lay the foundation for a review program to improve coping efficacy adopted by the Anglican clergy in dealing with vocational stress. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 Freud's (1926) characteristic defense mechanisms conception is an example of a state- oriented, macro analytic approach. Although Freud distinguished a myriad of defense mechanisms he, related these mechanisms to two basic forms: repression and intellectualization (Freud 1936). The trait-oriented connection of these basic defenses is the personality dimension repression–sensitization (Byrne 1964, Eriksen 1966). The separation of the two basic functions of emotion-focused and problem- focused coping proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) represents another macro analytic state approach. In its main research strategy, Lazarus and his team extended this macro analytic approach to a micro analytic strategy. In their `Ways of Coping Questionnaire' (WOCQ; Folkman and Lazarus 1988, Lazarus 1991), Lazarus and co-workers distinguish eight groups of coping strategies: confrontative coping, distancing, self-controlling, seeking social support, accepting responsibility, escape-avoidance, painful problem-solving, and positive reappraisal. The problem with this conception and, as a consequence, the measurement of coping is that these categories are only loosely related to the two basic coping functions. However, the theory is known to be widely used in explaining coping and will be a very useful explanation for coping among the clergy. 2.2 Review of Related Studies 2.2.1 Vocational Life conflict and Clergy stress Fewer studies have reported depression incidence rates for clergymen with the use of a validated measure. Researchers using the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression (CES-D) scale (Radloff, 1977) reported depression rates ranging from 17% for 30 Church of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Nazarene priests in New Mexico (Proulx, 2008), to 18% and 20% for Roman Catholic clergy (Knox et al., 2002; Knox, Virginia, Thull, & Lombardo 2005). Knox et al. (2007) used the Symptom Checklist-90-Revised found that 41% of 44 Roman Catholic clergy showed depressive symptoms. Rates of clergy depression appear high from these studies, but they suffer from small sample sizes and possible response biases. The current research therefore seeks to increase the sample size by more than double the sample size used by these researchers to obtain a more representative sample size on how clergymen respond to stress which comes with their profession as priests. It is commonly acknowledged that traditional Christian churches are struggling to survive in Western societies. Miley (2002) stated that, the most optimistic and institutional of Christians in the Western societies today, hardly deny that there is a problem in the church. The breakdown of missions (evangelism), with its subsequent falloff in devotion, ageing congregations, clergy stress, church closures and inadequate funds for everything including missions; all testify to the existence of some sort of the problem. Though it is a fact that Christianity in Africa and Ghana to be specific is growing by the day, same cannot be said about the Orthodox or early missionary churches including the Roman Catholic, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches. These churches may be going through what the western societies are experiencing including the “stealing” of congregation by some charismatic churches. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 Miley referred to clergy stress in the above statement. In a study conducted in America by Mills and Koval (1971 as cited in Lee & Iverson-Gilbert, 2003), emotional stress amongst Protestant clergy was found to be severe and lifelong throughout the careers of some clergy. Lee and Iverson-Gilbert referred to the unrealistic and invasive expectations pushed on the clergy by their congregations. (Blackbird & Wright, 1985 as cited in Lee & Iverson-Gilbert, 2003). There have been attempts to understand the factors that contribute to vocational stress amongst the clergy. Rediger (1994) believed that the increasing gap between the theoretical world of the Seminary and the work of the priest in the local church setting has resulted in inadequate training. McHugh and Scanlon (2001) conducted a study amongst Roman Catholic Priests in the United Kingdom using semi-structured interviews, diaries and questionnaire. Their research found 15 contributors to clergy stress. These were, work overload, attendance at meetings, uncertainty about role, lack of defined and achievable objectives, difficulty of arranging for days off, conflicting job tasks and role demands, inadequate or poor quality training/development, trying to live out Gospel values in today’s world, lack of visible results, managerial responsibilities, administration, inability to say no, relocation, living with another priest and dealing with troubled people who need constant help. Uncertainty about role, lack of defined and achievable objectives, conflicting job tasks and role demands are stress factors which have been identified in many other studies. These University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 studies, listed by Abraham (1997), have been across different occupational groups (Beehr et al.1976; Brief & Aldag, 1976; House & Rizzo, 1972; Johnson & Stinson, 1975; Oliver & Brief, 1978; Paul, 1974). Another study focused on Roman Catholic clergy, was conducted by Virginia (1998). In a quantitative study, Virginia investigated burnout and depression amongst religious order priests (Benedictine, Franciscan or Dominican), secular priests, and Trappist monastic priests. The study indicated statistically relevant differences of emotional exhaustion between the three groups, with the secular priests experiencing higher emotional exhaustion. Virginia justified that this is linked to the multiple demands that are placed on secular priests who are on call at all hours (Virginia, 1998). The study raised the issue of work context and boundaries as contributors to stress. Anglican priests like other priests in Ghana are housed in mission houses and in some cases given technological assistance (phone, computers, internet access, etc) to create easy and readily available access for congregation to interact with them and to share their concerns with, for solutions. This will mean that the study by Virginia may provide a different conclusion in the Anglican Church and Ghanaian priests in general. The Lutheran Disaster Response (Sevig, 2002) reported that amongst congregations affected by disasters, the priests are likely to depart because of stress. In a study examining the response of priests to the West Virginia floods of 1985, 50% of those sample reported feeling drained and burnt out. These priests also reported struggling with guilt feelings for not having done more (Bradfield, Wylie & Ecterling, 1989). Though such stress may differ from University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 daily stress, the clergy are often involved in the crisis experiences of the lives of their congregation. Priest response to disaster is therefore an aspect of a priest’s brief. Inasmuch as disasters may not happen daily, different individuals interpret situations differently. Whiles one person may interpret divorce as a relief; another may see it as the worst disaster to ever happen and will fall on the priest for a resolution. Rediger (1994) suggested that another contributor to the stress of ministry is an identity crisis that emerges from the de-humanizing of the priest. He points to the air of mystery surrounding the priest role. Rediger suggests that this may lead to an unrealistic expectation of the priest. He wonders if priests sometimes experience stress for simply being human. Support the claim that there is pressure for clergy to be more than human, is also seen in the work of Richmond, Rayburn and Rogers (1985 as cited in Birk, Rayburn & Richmond, 2001), Malony (1988 as cited in Birk, Rayburn & Richmond, 2001), Rayburn (1991 as cited in Birk, Rayburn & Richmond, 2001), and Birk, Rayburn and Richmond (2001). Harbaugh (1984) mentioned briefly that, Priests are persons. Most of the problems priests experience in the parish are not caused by the priests forgetting he or she is a priest. Most difficulties priests face in the parish arise when the priests forgets that he is a person/human. Irvine (1997) postulated that the historical account and tradition of the church have contributed to the denial of the humanity of the priest or priest. Irvine (1997) further noted that priests must bridge two worlds. The first world is the tradition of ecclesiastical authority, a world which gives importance and credence to the office of priesthood. The other world is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 an increasingly secularized Western society that sees little relevance in the role of clergy or priesthood. Such perplexity can easily lead to a crisis of identity. The confused priest cannot take solace in the comforting arms of the congregation as the clash of these two worlds is often evident in the congregation itself. The elder generation of worshipers still embraces the authority based view of the clergy while the younger congregation are likely to demonstrate a post modern view in which authority is questioned (Irvine, 1997). Contrary to this observation, Africans are believed to be very religious irrespective of the age range. Even students, the youth and the elderly still seek some sort of spiritual assistance in any adventure they take, and also exist in the Anglican Church. Mead (1991), Easeum (1993) and Bandy (2001) have mentioned in their works that, churches need to make extensive changes in order to gain significance in the new century. Change creates a unique challenge for a priest whose role is becoming increasingly unclear and ambiguous. Harris (1977) examined the impact of the changing nature of church life on leaders and congregations. He adopted a case study approach which highlighted the change of the locus of power in church life. Harris found that a shift in locus of power from clergy to the laity is a stressor for clergy. He concluded that lack of clarity in understanding one’s role contributes to clergy stress. Harris (1977) study also proposed that the changing perception of the role of the priest in society as a whole is a potential stressor for the clergy. In Ghana, clergymen are seen as the custodian of our moral fibre, peacemakers, and advocates for both political and apolitical issues that involve the populace. In certain political issues, a clergyman is thorn between speaking on an issue since it may have a political undertone and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 may sound like being for or against the ruling government, especially when his congregation is made up congregation of the ruling and opposition parties and keeping quiet on the issue. Western clergy find themselves working in an environment where there is pressure to reverse a societal trend away from church attendance (Hall, 2003). Possibly, this development in society is connected with the growing separation of religion from spirituality. Woodhead and Heelas (1977, as cited in Miller, 1977) suggested that religion is seen as institutional and has to do with the human rather than divinity. Based on this, it is of marginal interest to those who are seeking to connect with the larger mysteries of the universe. (Woodhead & Heelas, 1977 as cited in Miller, 1977). Jamieson (2000) conducted a study in New Zealand, and found that there are lots of Christians who have left institutionalized religion who still maintain an active spiritual dimension to their lives. Such trends rather complicate the work of priests who often feel the weight of helping the church remain an attractive spiritual decision. An additional stressor for clergymen is the difficulty of establishing boundaries between their work and home life. Morris & Blanton (1994) built on the works of Presnell (1977), Hulme (1985) and Lee & Balswick (1989), and argued that clergy are continually dealing with ambiguous separation between their professional and private lives. Deluca (1980 as cited in Morris & Blanton, 1994) described this aspect of ministry as a “holy crossfire” a priest has to deal with on the daily basis. Morris & Blanton’s (1994) concluded that the lack of a comprehensive boundary leads to an intrusiveness from congregation which can in turn University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 negatively affect the level of marital satisfaction amongst the clergy couple. St. Romain (1991) suggested that there are many “co-dependent” priests in the church today and the Anglican clergy are no exception. St. Romain used this terminology to refer to people who carry along a “Messiah Complex”. These people obtain a sense of happiness and self-esteem from taking responsibility for the lives of others. It is known that within the co-dependence is an unconscious drive to control the relationship (Abi-Hashem, 1999). St. Romain (1991) further suggests that co-dependent priests often become burnt out. Another source of stress is that the tasks of ministry are often difficult to evaluate and quantify. This aspect of ministry may add to the difficulty of placing clear boundaries around work. McHugh & Scanlon (2001) suggested that a lack of defined and achievable objectives make it difficult for clergy to have any definite way of knowing whether what they are doing is making a difference. In a critical review focusing on a number of quantitative studies, Shreve-Neiger and Edelstein (2004) examined the link between anxiety and religion. They encountered contradictor findings. While some have proposed that the religious person is more susceptible to anxiety, others claim the opposite. Shreve-Neiger and Edelstein (2004:15) stated that the contradictory results in studies may be attributed to a lack of standardized measures, poor sampling procedures, and failure to control for threats to validity, limited assessment of anxiety, experimenter bias and poor operationalization of religious constructs. They also raise the possibility that some aspects of the religious life may be anxiety producing whilst other aspects may protect from anxiety. Their review offers the possibility of a spectrum of religious experience ranging from healthy to unhealthy (Shreve- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Neiger & Edelstein, 2004:15). The study suggests a possible correlation between anxiety and religion and calls for further research in this area. Hulme (1985) outlined a number of factors which contribute to clergy vocational stress. The first one according to him is that, priests are crisis people who involve themselves in the pains of life. In addition, religious professionals are the only known professionals whose jobs include a built-in society (Hulme, 1985). Given that societies are places where conflicts occur and clergy are the ones that have to deal with such conflicts, stress is never far away. A classical example of this phenomenon is the tension that occurred at Hohoe, a city in the Volta Region in Ghana. When the Gbi Traditional Council and the Zongo Youth had a clash, the National Chief Imam had to travel from Accra to Hohoe to resolve the clashes from escalating and leading to the evacuation of all Muslims from the traditional Area. Hulme (1985) mentioned frustration over living out convictions about ministry, stress resulting from administrative demands, and deadline stress in relation to sermons that need to be delivered with weekly repetitiveness as other contributors of clergy stress. Based on observations from his work with clergy and seminarians, Rassieur (1982), an American priest counsellor, came out with a particular characteristic amongst those who cope with the stress of ministry. He identified this characteristic as a strong and firm sense of self and personal identity: This is a characteristic of priests who bite more than they can chew, but it does not choke them. He further described these priests as risk takers, particularly in their relationships with other persons. They risk nearness to people, they risk being loving, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 and they risk telling the truth. Rassieur’s statement throws more light on the importance of clergy being relationally professional and experienced. In his research on male clergy in Australia, Whetham’s (2000) reported issues of blurred boundaries between work and private lives and the lack of clarity in the work place as sources of stress. Four (4) out of every 5 church leaders within his sample was unable to mention any meaningful relationship in their lives. Though these studies were conducted in Australia, the perception that this finding may relate to the clergy in Ghana and the Anglican clergy cannot be over emphasized. Irvine (1997) alluded to the fact that priests often struggle with isolation and loneliness. Although the congregation and other community congregation can disclose intimate details of their lives with clergy, clergy are not at liberty to disclose intimate private details to those to whom they shepherd. Irvine (1997) speaks of 7 levels of relationships. These according to him are; the passing nod, the courteous exchange, the neighbourly chatter, the working relationship, the social connection, the depth interaction and the intimate encounter. Irvine (1997) further mentioned that although priests provide a forum for others at the level of the intimate encounter, they are only able to communicate at the level of the working relationship when it comes to self-disclosure (Irvine, 1997) i.e. they create a favourable condition for their counselling patients to voice out all their concerns and yet, pretend all is well with them before their congregation. Irvine believes that this leaves clergy drained and unfulfilled as relational beings. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 In his book, The Plight of the Australian Clergy, Blaikie (1979) presented a research that was based on a sample of over 900 Australian priests. Blaikie identified a number of problems faced by male priests in Australian. These were; inadequate training, lack of time to complete tasks, excessive time required for organising, the expectations of others, little appreciation from others, minimal leisure time, financial strain and strain on family life (Blaikie, 1979). Blaikie further established a relationship between a priest’s theological worldview and his ability to cope with stress. Blaikie distinguished between those who held a liberal (secularist) view and those who held to a super-naturalist (Evangelical) view. Blaikie concluded that those who held to a liberal view experienced more stress. Liberals had a propensity to be tolerant of other points of view and were more likely to associate with stress inducing experiences in the community. A more liberal perspective also made it difficult to achieve an internally reliable system of meaning due to openness to other perspectives. Liberal priests were also found to hold significantly different points of view to that of the congregation in which they presided. This contributed to isolation and thus reduced scores associated with social support and legitimation. Many years have passed since Blaikie’s research was conducted and there are new labels that have sprung up as part of Church Culture. Further to liberal and evangelical, there are new terms such as post- evangelical, exclusivist, pluralist and particularist. (Okholm & Phillips, 1995; Phipps, 2003 & Tomlinson, 1995). It is more agreeable to think in terms of a continuum rather than a dichotomy. Many would find it difficult to know where to identify themselves with on this continuum. In contrast to Blaikie’s findings, Miner (1996) argued that conservative theology can be associated with stress. Miner (1996), speaking of Australian Presbyterian clergy, said University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 that the priests’ conservative Calvinistic theology can lead to the development of perfectionist and isolated personality types due to an emphasis on self-examination and a determination to become Christ-like (Miner, 1996). Pryor’s (1986) study of United Church of Australia (UCA) priests in Australia identified vocational stress as a real in the lives of a third of the sample (84% male, 16% female). The major stressors identified were; perceived workload, unsatisfactory conflict management, the still developing structures and procedures of the UCA, the varied and often unrealistic expectations of congregation, and an infrequent feeling that to improve the parish seems a hopeless task (Pryor, 1986). In 1987 the UCA Queensland Synod conducted a church leaders’ stress survey (UCA, Queensland Synod Stress Committee, 1987 as cited in Whetham, 2000). The participants were divided into subgroups of Church leaders (Clergy) and lay leaders. The sample of 376 included both gender and all subgroups reported their church work as highly stressful. An Australian Anglican Church survey (Hay, 1995 as cited in Whetham, 2000) found that most priests were near burnout. Immediate remedial attention was required for 5% of the sample. Loneliness, isolation and tiredness were found to be common across the subgroups. The National Church Life Survey (NCLS) conducted in 1996 indicated that church leaders under the age of fifty showed burnout scores above the national average (Kaldor & Bullpitt, 2001). The NCLS used the Alban Institute’s Burnout Inventory (AIBI) as its research tool. This inventory conceptualised burnout in a similar way to the Maslach Burnout Inventory. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Maslach (1982) perceived burnout as a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced individual accomplishment that can occur among individuals who do the same kind of work. The NCLS indicated that 4% of clergy suffered extreme burnout, 19% described burnout as a major issue in their lives and 56% said they are borderline and on the boundary of burnout. Only 21% perceived burnout as non issue (Kaldor & Bullpitt, 2001). The NCLS also used a survey that was conducted by staff from NCLS and Edith Cowan University. This survey was designed to evaluate health levels in church leaders with those of the general population. Church leaders reported lower levels of health than the Australian population in general. This was also the case when contrasted with other white-collar professions (Kaldor & Bullpit, 2001). These findings seem to contradict each other in that while church leaders above age 50 had higher scores than the national average, church leaders reported lower levels of health than the Australian population in general. This contradiction will encourage our study to measure the effect of age on stress among the clergy in the Anglican Church in the Accra Diocese. Based on the model of Balanced Affect proposed by Bradburn (1969), Charlton, Rolph, Francis, Rolph and Robbins (2009) conceptualised a poor work-related psychological health in terms of high levels of negative emotions in the absence of acceptable levels of positive emotions. In order to enlighten self-perceptions of work-related psychological health among a well-defined group of priests, they randomly sampled 58 priests of word and sacrament serving within the west midlands synod of the United Reformed Church in England. The participants completed an open-ended questionnaire concerned with the following six guiding questions including: Do you enjoy your work? How would you define stress? How University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 would you define burnout? What stresses are there in your ministry? What do you do to keep healthy? What can the church do to enhance the work-related psychological health of priests? Content analysis was done on the data collected. This highlighted the main themes recurring through these open-ended responses. They concluded that priests of word and sacrament within the United Reformed Church in England are exposed to a number of recurrent recognizable sources of stress. Charlton et al. (2009) advocated the need for future more detailed research and for the development of more effective priest strategies. Based on their conclusion, this research is conducting a survey among Anglican priests in the Accra diocese in Ghana to test if their qualitative study was robust and the findings reliable In another study of Anglican priests in the United Kingdom, Jones et al. (2004) compared clergy rates of anxiety to those of the national population with the aid of the Eysenck Personality Profiler. The results showed that male priests significantly scored higher on the anxiety sub-scale than men in the national population, and female priests had significantly lower scores on the anxiety sub-scale than women in the general population. Ironically, the study also reported that there were no significant differences in anxiety scores between male and female priests. In a rather quick contrast, Musson (1998) found that male priests had lower rates of anxiety than the national population. Other studies support this conclusion but have either a small sample size or are of seminary students who do not have the same vocational responsibilities as clergy (Musson, 1998; Pallone and Banks, 1968). These findings emphasize the contradictions that exist in the literature on clergy stress. Several researches have reported on how stressed the clergy are and are not. As motioned by Musson (1998), most of these studies used very small sample sizes and others included priests who University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 are still in the seminary or are under mentorship. This research seeks to get a more definite result since this current research is using a sample size of 100 priests who are in active service and will exclude priest trainees and priests on retirement. Studies indicate that the symptoms of burnout extend well beyond the individual priests to that of his family both nuclear and extended (especially in the African setting). Poor marital adjustment appears to be the most common symptom of burnout in this regard. Warner and Carter (1984) found that wives of clergymen experienced significantly more loneliness and diminished marital adjustment in comparison to females in non-priest roles. Considering the emotional and physical demands of their profession, priests often do not give quality time to their family which often manifests itself in increasing family conflicts (Faulkner, 1981). This is often characterized by the wife and children's complaints that they have to compete for the priest's time. McBurney (1977) also noted that there is a high incidence of marital discord among priestly couples. This current research therefore seeks to investigate if vocational life conflict exists among the clergymen in the Anglican Church in Ghana and possibly investigate how this affects the family of these clergymen. Mastin (1980) researched into the responses of 112 full-time ministry personnel associated with the Southwest Baptist Conference. The principal motivation for his study was the lack of explanation and agreement of published information regarding the excessive stress experienced among priests of religion. Mastin's (1980) purpose in his study was to delineate and describe specific stress factors, with a specific focus on the expectational and inherent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 quality of indispensability linked to the role of the priest. His findings did not give any further clarity on the issue of stress and burnout among priests than that available in the literature prior to the study. The only significant finding reported was the correlations between stress levels and specific stress-related symptoms. This study hopes to discover more relationships than was outlined in this study. Organisational and individual work level stressors are known to be main contributors to the stress and burnout experience encountered by priests. French and Caplan (1980) noted that some of the occupational stresses a person might be experiencing including but not limited to role ambiguity, role conflict or responsibility for others, may lead the person into experiencing either psychological or physiological strain such as job dissatisfaction, low self actualization or cardiovascular disease. This section therefore seeks to look at some of these organisational and individual work level stressors. i) Organizational factors Ratliff (1988) reported that the following are organizational factors found to be causing stress in human service environments: role overload with little structured "time-lines", without recognition for the needs of clients in favour of administrative, financial, and bureaucratic needs, inadequate leadership and supervision, insufficient sense of impact on and control over one's work situation. Other organizational factors include lack of social interaction and support from colleagues, caseloads consisting predominantly of extremely difficult clients (church congregation in this case), and majority of time spent on paperwork and administration tasks. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Pfifferling and Eckel (1982) also outlined a list of environmental factors which make the individual working in such an environment prone to burnout. Some of these factors include, continuously high stress levels, enforcement of hierarchical staff interaction, minimal receptivity for sharing employee grievances, expectations for extra effort with inadequate rewards, lack of encouragement for professional self care, arbitrary change of rules and policy, and little emphasis on positive feedback. ii) Individual level stressors Stressors at the individual level are known to be the most widely studied in comparison with other categories of stressors. There also appears to be a huge compromise as to what constitutes a stressor at this level than at any other level. It may also be true, according to Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) that individual level stressors account for majority of the stress in organizations than at any other level. We will consider the five major individual stressors of role ambiguity, role ambiguity, work overload, responsibility for people and career development stressors. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) note that these stressors represent stressors upon which there is general agreement and which account for the bulk of the available research evidence. This category of stressors will also form part of our research as the sub constructs that make up vocational life conflict among the clergy. a) Role conflict An individual is faced constantly with varied role pressures, which is a combination of expectations and demands placed upon him/her by himself/herself and those of other University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 congregation in the institution. When a situation arises in which there are two or more role pressures which needs to be satisfied at the same time, a condition of role conflict arises. Role conflict is present whenever compliance with one set of pressures makes compliance with another set difficult, objectionable or impossible (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980). Role conflict in this case can arise in a priest’s life if he has to choose between a family responsibility and counselling a member of his congregation at the same time. Role conflict has also been found to be associated with other physiological and cardiovascular problems such as heart disease, high blood pressure, elevated cholesterol levels and obesity (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980). Role conflict appears to be a problem more especially among the younger congregation of the clergy, who are faced with adjusting their idealism with the reality of the demands that face them. Daniel and Rogers (1981) spoke of the feeling of being all things to all people. This is a typical example of role conflict in the ministry. The priest cannot possibly satisfy all persons in the church as well as fulfil his family obligations without making adjustments in certain areas. This role conflict was found to be a major source of stress among priests (Daniel & Rogers, 1981). b) Role ambiguity Role ambiguity is a lack of clarity of one's job. In order for an individual to be able to perform a job well, it is necessary for him to have a certain amount of information regarding what is expected of him, his rights and privileges and also the consequences of his actions in the work place (French & Caplan, 1980). It is worth noting that almost everyone experiences University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 some degree of role ambiguity. In other words role ambiguity is effectively a state in which a person has inadequate information to perform his job. More recent studies have linked role ambiguity with depressed moods, lowered self esteem, lower levels of work motivation, anxiety, depression, feelings of resentment (Ivancevich & Matteson, 1980). Daniel and Rogers (1981) note that common sources of stress among priests relating to role ambiguity are, duties that have not being clearly defined and that the criteria for knowing when they have done their duty is not clearly defined. Hart (1984) supported these findings in his observation of a lack of boundaries making the priest's work a formidable one. No priest can ever visit enough, pray enough, study enough, prepare sermons enough, or be involved in social issues. He may not be in an office eight hours a day, but he is always "on call" - and he never has weekends off. It is easy, therefore, for the priest to continually feel that his work is never finished, that he can barely cope with the demands on his time, let alone catch up on the backlog. It is hard for him to feel a sense of "closure" or completeness. Hart (1984) described the other related problem which is that the priest lacks the criteria for measuring work accomplishment. When does a priest feel successful? When large numbers of people come to church? When the church budget reaches a certain enormous figure? When a predetermined number of new church member join in a given period of time? When an extra worship service must be added? Every experienced priest knows how elusive and misleading such criteria can be. c) Work overload University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Like role ambiguity work overload is a state that results from a chronic overload of work over a period of time. Overload may be experienced in two different ways. They are, quantitative and qualitative overloads: Quantitative overload refers to the sum total of the work that must be done irrespective its difficulty. When the work is overloading because it requires skill, abilities, and knowledge beyond what the person has, it results in a state of qualitative overload (French and Caplan, 1980). Quantitative overload appears to be one of the major stressors among priests. A Bishops' Committee on Priestly Life and Ministry (Boyd, 1982) reported that the sheer increase in demands on a priest's time, many of which need his immediate attention, has produced a new dimension of immediacy in his work. The lives of priests appear to be characterized by constant timelines. Rassieur (1982) reported that dealing with over-extension, is a significant problem among priests seeking assistance at the Menninger Foundation. These priests reported a feeling of having too many commitments that vied for their time and energy. Daniel (1981) discovered that the number of hours a priest spent in contact with his congregation served to discriminate between high and low levels of burnout. Contrary to what one would expect, those with low burnout levels were those priests that spent the most number of hours in contact with their congregation. Daniel (1981) explained this finding by suggesting that the low burnout levels could be due to the depersonalization of the congregation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Qualitative Overload appears to be another key problem among priests occurring when the demands they are met with daily exceed their capabilities to deal with it. Boyd (1982) mentions that when high expectations are not matched by high achievement, stress is inevitable. Often the priest takes full responsibility for failure in any of the several areas that his job may involve, even when he cannot do it successfully with the resources available to him. d) Responsibility for people Responsibility for people constitutes another recurrent stress in organizations (French & Caplan, 1980). Responsibility for people involves a responsibility for the actions of people while responsibility for things would include concerns as budgets, equipment and the like (Ivancevich and Malteson, 1980). French and Caplan (1980) established in their Goddard Space Centre study that responsibility for people could barely be considered to be conducive to good health or a low risk of coronary heart disease. Studies previously cited list the responsibility for another's well being as a prime source of strain leading to burnout (Daniel & Rogers, 1982). If that is without doubt, how much greater is the strain when one "feels" responsible for the entire congregation? In addition, while many protestant church administrations are democratic, the priest is blamed for the stagnation and failure of the church. The priest has the responsibility for the well being of the flock, but in practice does not have the freedom to make the often required changes. It has been shown that these feelings of an almost devastating responsibility arise out of distorted ideas of the ministry. Hart (1984) observed that there is an overwhelming responsibility University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 attached to the care of souls, but he mentioned that those priests who are especially effective both vocationally and spiritually do not dwell on their belief that the ministry is the greatest of all vocations. e) Career development stress Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) referred to career development as the individual's interaction with the organizational environment which influences his perception of the quality of his career progress. Career variables may become of concern when there is a lack of job security, or that promotional progress is inadequate, and or dissatisfaction with the match between career aspirations and the current level of attainment. Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) pointed out that this category of stressors often manifests itself in the form of job dissatisfaction which in turn leads to a number of negative consequences such as; reduction in the quantity and the quality of work produced, alcoholism and drug abuse, declining interpersonal relationships in the job, unwillingness on the part of the individual to perform certain tasks, coupled with an increasing tendency to question or challenge previously accepted management decisions. Rayburn, Richmond, and Rogers (1983) surveyed 15 nuns, 14 female seminarians, 28 priests and Brothers, and 12 male seminarians on their perceptions of the occupational environment in which they worked, the kinds of personal strain they experienced, and the resources they felt they possessed. On scales designed to measure these dimensions, future and present clergy reported less than average stress. Although the ratio was not significantly different, they were slightly higher on perceived role overload, but significantly lower in stresses University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 caused by perceived role insufficiency, role ambiguity, role boundary questions, and problems brought on by their physical environment. In addition, they reported less overall personal strain in not only the vocational but the psychological, interpersonal, and physical areas as well. Daniel (1981) researched on stress and burnout in the ministry providing a new theoretical contribution in the examination of burnout using the self actualization theory. This study generally supports the findings of previous research on burnout in which variables other than those related to personality defects were found to be highly correlated with burnout. Another importance of this study was that it extended previous theoretical arguments to include the three additional areas of psychosomatic involvement, behavioural isolation, and self- actualization. In addition to validating the hypotheses with regard to these three areas, the study was extended at the time to a new population of helping professionals, i.e., priests. Finally the study was useful in pointing out several warning signals that could alert the priest to possible burnout. A valuable recommendation was the training of priests in interpersonal relationships and self-awareness. Taylor (1982) studied burnout among Southern Baptist, United Methodist Priests and Professional Religious Education Workers in Dallas and Tarrant Counties, Texas. The purpose of this study was to establish the frequency and intensity of self reported burnout among active, full-time Southern Baptist, United Methodist priests and professional and religious education workers in Dallas and Tarrant counties. These were compared to a wide range of human service occupations as reported by Maslach and Jackson (1981). The study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 also sought to determine if significant burnout differences existed within the demographic variables of age, gender, education, tenure, average attendance, number of paid professionals, average total hours worked per week, and self reported stress among the populations studied. Taylor (1982) concluded from his study that Southern Baptist priests were more similar to professional religious education workers than to United Methodist priests when viewed strictly on the basis of the MBI scores. However, when compared on demographic variables, Southern Baptist and United Methodist priests reported similar score patterns in several areas: Sunday Attendance, number of paid, professional staff congregation supervised, average number of hours worked per week and participation in continuing professional education. Each of the three study populations reported significant relationships between burnout and stress. This finding is in agreement with the body of literature regarding the relationship of stress and burnout. Taylors (1982) study is significant in that it provided basic research information regarding the burnout syndrome among priests and professional religious education workers. The findings are useful in helping priests and religious education workers develop more effective and efficient coping skills. However specific use of information is limited to the research sample referred to in this study. 2.2.2 Clergy Stress and Coping Newton and Keenan (1985) proposed a model in which both situational and individual characteristics predict coping options when confronting a stressful incident at work. Coping University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 was categorized into five higher-order classes based on stress incidents recorded resulting from a content analysis, and as indicated from original reported. With the help of frequency analyses, cross tabulations, and breakdowns they generated a 15-category set of coping methods. Also, analysis of variance was used to explore relationships between individual dimensions, situational aspects and stress appraisal variables. Analyses indicated that all 3 predictor groups (stress appraisal, individual, and environmental characteristics) were important in relation to the coping behaviour reported. The findings supported the modelled proposal that stress appraisal, individual, and environmental characteristics were relevant in relation to the coping behaviour reported. Some evidence suggested that coping responses were related to both particular individual characteristics and to environmental context. Although this study can be criticized for its methodological simplicity and cross-sectional approach, it can be considered as an early effort to empirically comprehend the contextual and individual nature of coping. Shinn et al. (1984) conducted a cross-sectional research to link the burnout syndrome to job stress, strain and coping process. They investigated the effects of coping on psychological strain and burnout produced by job stress in 141 human service workers. They were interested on group coping (social support) and on coping strategies initiated by agencies, because there was empirical evidence suggesting that individual coping responses do not alleviate strain produced by job stress. Findings revealed that group coping were related to low levels of strain, whereas individual strategies had little effect. In addition, no gender differences were identified as well as no moderating effect of stress and coping on strain. A closer look at this work permitted me to understand, that Shinn and her colleagues were more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 meticulous regarding the study of coping. First, they divided coping into two categories, namely, individual coping (emotion focused and problem focused) and group coping (social support from workers). Second, they evaluated buffering-effect of coping vs. main-effect. Third, they were concerned about gender differences in coping process. Menaghan and Merves (1984) introduced a new analytic model to conduct research on work stress and coping as well as new methodological approach, that is, the study of coping over time, the use of LISREL (structural equation model) to generate Barlet’s factor weights which could be used to assign factor scores, and the use of panel with regression analyses to evaluate the impact of situational context and initial occupational problems on specific occupational coping efforts over time, namely, direct action, optimistic comparisons, selective ignoring, and restricted expectations. Data were obtained from 2 waves of interviews with a municipal sample of 1,106 adults conducted in 1972 and 1976. The results revealed that higher levels of initial problems were significantly related to the use of two coping efforts, namely, selective ignoring and restriction of expectations. A lesser use of optimistic comparisons was related to more problems, and only direct action efforts were independent of level of problems. In sum, it was found that coping efforts varied by the level of problems and by the situational context. Brenner et al. (1985) represented a supplementary example of methodological refinement in the 1980’s, because they used structural equation modelling to evaluate changes in coping over time. This study developed a LISREL model of the teacher stress process in a sample of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 63 teachers. LISREL analysis revealed that model fitted well with data. Findings revealed that when students’ relations and perceptions were a source of stress for teachers, then some stress reactions were produced as a consequence. An additional interesting finding revealed that those teachers, who perceived students as stressors at the middle of the first term, have then reported higher indicators of somatic and mental health impairment as well as generalized strain. A valuable conclusion of this study was that the major part of successful coping seemed to take place during the 1st half of the school year; on the contrary, in the 2nd half only minor changes were observed. Ilfeld (1980) evaluated some coping styles used to manage stress in the social roles of marriage, parenting, finances, and work in a sample of 2,299 Chicago adults. While factor analyses developed three key patterns of coping (taking direct action, rationalization avoidance of the stressor, and acceptance of the stressful situation without attempting alteration), subjects did not consistently make use of one coping style across all role areas, but rather employed a repertoire of coping responses. This research evaluated coping styles, but contradictorily, it found evidence in favour of context-specific coping. In a similar research, Defares et al. (1984) have empirically evaluated the role played by gender differences in coping styles of 102 male and 65 female workers in child guidance centres. The study aimed to give support to the person-environment fit model for organizational setting. The outcome showed that women were more vulnerable in coping with negative life events, and men presented a tendency to use active cognitive coping more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 than women. On the contrary, social support in seeking solutions for their problems was used to a greater extent by women. In a more refined study, Kirmeyer (1988) predicted appraised overload and coping from Type A behaviour pattern and tenure in a sample of 72 police radio dispatchers. Path analyses revealed that type A had a direct effect on coping as well as an indirect effect through appraisal. In addition, she found an objective environment effect on subject’s appraisal of overload and coping actions. In sum, empirical evidence was given that supported the fact that subjective appraisal of overload is determined by both objective events and personal dispositions. On the other hand, Manzi (1986) evaluated cognitive appraisal and coping in 20 teenagers (aged 15-28) within the context of the Lazarus’ transactional model. The Ways of Coping Checklist questionnaire (WCCL) was completed for three stressful work situations that subjects experienced within a period of three months. Results generally supported the Lazarus model in the context of teenage employment. Larsson et al. (1988) used stepwise regression analyses to predict appraisal and coping process in acute, time-limited stressful situations in 54 Swedish police officers. Findings suggested that police officers perceived considerably more challenge than threat in the situations and they appraised these kinds of situations as solvable. The coping strategies use by police officers differed in several respects from ordinary people in everyday life situations. The cognitive coping strategy of the police officers was summed up as “keep your mind on the task-avoid thinking about other things”. In addition, despite the tendency for coping aimed at immediate instrumental efficiency, it was remarked that both problem- and emotion-focused coping were used in virtually all episodes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 Brody (1988) conducted a more sophisticated and detailed study regarding work stress and coping from a transactional perspective. She developed three path models, namely, path model for system-oriented coping, path model for problem focused coping, and path model for emotion-focused coping. Data were collected from 670 steelworkers (aged 19-68). Her results have indicated that Lazarus’ model was also useful in understanding responses to collective risk of exposure to health hazards in industry. The study is valuable because it goes beyond earlier research by including primary and secondary appraisal and reappraisal in a single statistical model. Results also supported Lazarus’ emphasis on cognitions as the key to Mathew (2005) examined the sources, effects, and the coping strategies of occupational stress among special educators in India. The Government policies are tailored to enhance the education of children with disabilities, but very few of these policies focus the special educators who take care of students with disabilities. These educators have largely been clubbed together with teachers of regular schools. Therefore, the issues of special educators have always been a neglected field in India. Of the 21 million disabled population of the country, 12 million are children with various disabilities, according to Census of India 2001. To meet the educational requirements of these children the country has round about 3200 registered special schools. The number of special educators in each school varies according to the student strength. And the level and nature of stress experienced by this population have hardly been the focus of study. Hence, here an attempt is made to study the nature and levels of occupational stress experienced by teachers of special schools. The geographical area of the study was two districts, Calicut and Malappuram, of the state of Kerala, South India. 35 special educators, who had more than two years of teaching experience, were randomly selected for the study from the schools in this geographical area. The methodology used was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 both quantitative and qualitative. To collect the quantitative data, the occupational Stress Indicator, developed by Cooper, et. al., (1988) was used. The Indicator evaluates occupational stress by analyzing five key factors: i) Sources of stress, ii) Individual characteristics, iii) Locus of control, iv) Coping strategies, and v) Effects of stress. To collect qualitative data an unstructured personal interview was used. The quantitative results revealed that the sources of stress spread from: i) school structure and climate, ii) home/work interface, iii) relationship with other people, iv) intrinsic job factors. The common effect of stress on special educators was found to be health related problems - both physical and mental - and job dissatisfaction. There was no organised method to redress the problem rising from occupational stress. As a result, the most commonly used coping strategy were social support, task strategies, and home/school relationship. While the qualitative data confirmed the findings of the quantitative data, it pointed out some other issues, which the quantitative indicators did not cover. The sources of stress as repeatedly reported in the qualitative interviews were that of low salary - due to the subcontracting by the Government to Non-Governmental Organization's, job insecurity, work overload, and high teacher-student ratio. The results point to the need of Government policies targeting specifically to the special educators if there has to be tangible improvements in the quality of life of the children with disabilities. Using a descriptive cross-sectional design, Wang and Yeh (2005) examined the following among nursing students in vocational high schools: (1) perception and sources of entrance exam stress and use of coping behaviours; (2) the effect of difference in entrance exam stress University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 levels on coping behaviours used, and (3) measurement of coping function to determine which coping behaviour works best for buffering the impact of stress on psychological health during a preparatory stage of a college and university entrance exam. The subjects were 441 third-year nursing students of vocational high schools in northern Taiwan, recruited by convenience sampling. Three measurements were adopted: Stress perceived scale, Coping behaviour inventory, and a Chinese health questionnaire. Results showed that the five main stressors of entrance exam stress, in descending order, were taking tests, the student's own aspirations, learning tasks, teacher's aspirations and parent's aspirations. Students generally used problem-focused coping strategies including optimistic action and social support to deal with the entrance exam stress, but use of emotion-focused coping strategies including avoidance and emotional disturbance was significantly increased as perceived level of stress rose. Two-way analyses of variance (2-way ANOVA) revealed that problem-focused coping had a positive main effect of alleviating psychological distress. A significant interaction was observed between stress perceived and problem-focused coping used for psychological health. Further examination of the interaction effect showed that problem-focused coping behaviours were potentially more adaptive in relation to psychological health at the lower and moderate stress levels (25-75%T) than that at the extreme stress level (> 75%T). Conversely, emotion-focused coping had a negative main effect or impairing psychological health. No interaction effect was found between stress perceived and emotion-focused coping used, suggesting that the relationship between emotion-focused coping and psychological distress was consistent across various stress levels. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 2.2.3 Age and Clergy Stress According to Woolston (2015), at any age, stress is a part of life. Young and old alike have to face difficult situations and overcome obstacles. While young adults struggle to establish a career, achieve financial security, or juggle work and family demands, older people may face failing health or dwindling finances or simply the challenges of retaining their independence. Unfortunately, the body's natural defenses against stress gradually break down with age. But you don't have to give in to stress just because you're no longer young. Further to this, Aldwin, Sutton, Chiara & Spiro (1996) conducted a study and state that controversies exist concerning the influence of age on the stress and coping process, partly due to differences in methods across studies. They examined age differences in stress, appraisal, and coping, using both semi structured interview questions and a coping checklist in middle-aged, young-old, and old-old men. Despite extensive probing, nearly a quarter of the old-old reported having had no problems and they expended less coping effort even when they did have problems. The types of problems reported varied systematically with age. Middle-aged men were more likely to appraise their problems both as challenges and as annoyances than the older men. Different age patterns emerged from the coping interviews vs the checklists, but controlling for type of problem significantly attenuated age differences. However, there were no age differences in perceived stressfulness of the problem, appraisals of harm/loss, or helpless appraisals, number of emotions reported, or coping efficacy. One interpretation of these results is that the nature of stress changes with age, from episodic to chronic, which in turn affects appraisal and coping processes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 Antoniou, Polychroni, & Vlachakis, (2006) in an attempt to identify the specific sources of occupational stress and the professional burnout experienced by teachers working in Greek primary and secondary schools. A special emphasis is given to gender and age differences. Two self‐report measures were administered to a sample of 493 primary and secondary school teachers, and self‐report rating scale of specific occupational stressors with the Maslach Burnout Inventory (education version). They found that the most highly rated sources of stress referred to problems in interaction with students, lack of interest, low attainment and handling students with “difficult” behaviour. Female teachers experienced significantly higher levels of occupational stress, specifically with regard to interaction with students and colleagues, workload, students' progress and emotional exhaustion. Younger teachers experienced higher levels of burnout, specifically in terms of emotional exhaustion and disengagement from the profession, while older teachers experienced higher levels of stress in terms of the support they feel they receive from the government. Langosch W. · Brodner G. and Borcherding (1983) 70 male post infarction patients, who were under 40 years of age at the time of trans-mural myocardial infarction, participated in an inpatient control examination 3.8 years following first hospitalization (mean age: 40 years, SD = 3.5 years). A multi-vessel disease occurred in 52% of the patients, in 80% a multi- locular disease was diagnosed and in 25 % coronary angiography indicated a progression in coronary sclerosis. Coronary risk factors had been considerably reduced. 78% were capable of working. Job-related stress factors of at least moderate intensity were present in about 30% of the jobs now held by the patients. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 Progressive morphological change occurred in patients who are older, have a multi-locular disease, are subjected to more frequent and more intensive job-related stress factors, show less concern for their health and tend to leave their old living habits unchanged. In patients with multi-vessel disease, time pressure elicited more psychophysiological activation; furthermore, doing too many tasks at the same time and a reduced control over vocational success, together with sufficient self-confidence and an exaggerated job devotion are found in these patients. Retired patients differ from those who went back to work in cardiological, psychological and psychophysiological aspects. The importance of psychological and psychophysiological findings for a successful vocational reintegration is emphasized by these results. Three hundred and ten (310) employed adult males and females were studied by Osipow, Doty & Spokane (1985), with respect to their report of occupational stresses, strains, and coping behaviours. Using the Occupational Environment Scales older respondents generally reported more overload and responsibility and fewer insufficiencies, boundary role, and physical environment stresses than did younger respondents. Older respondents also displayed a trend toward decreasing vocational, psychological, physical, and interpersonal strain than younger respondents, and greater recreational, self-care, and rational-cognitive coping resources than younger respondents. No differences by age group were seen in the use of social supports as coping devices. The findings for sources of stress by age were as expected based on life span career development roles. It is postulated that older workers learn to use coping resources, thus enhancing their ability to experience reduced strain given equal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 amounts of stress. However, some workers who do not cope well may leave the labour force as they age as a result of illness, death, unsuitability for employment, or early retirement. An explanation for age differences in the amount of reported stress may be that older individuals cope in a different way than their younger counterparts. Various theorists have posited changes in coping with age. For instance, Gutmann (1974) suggested that mastery styles shift from active to passive from youth to midlife, then to "magical" mastery in late life. In contrast, Vaillant (1977) believed that a positive change occurred in the use of defense mechanisms. He proposed that an incremental developmental process occurs across the life span, characterized by a decrease in the use of neurotic or immature defensive styles coupled with an increase in more mature defensive styles in midlife. Alternatively, others (Folkman et al., 1987; McCrae, 1982, 1989) have suggested an absence of systematic change in coping strategies with age except those due to situational demands. Empirical evidence for these positions appears to be mixed. McCrae (1982) found that older adults used fewer escapist and hostile strategies when coping with problems. Yet, few differences in problem- focused strategies emerged once he controlled for the type of problem. Indeed, most studies which examine age differences in coping focus on specific stressful episodes, due to the strong evidence of situational effects on individual coping. Studies using the Ways of Coping Scale (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980, 1985) and its derivatives have generally confirmed McCrae's (1982) findings. Indeed, several researchers have shown that older adults use less escapism or avoidant coping but a similar or higher level of problem- focused coping as do younger adults (Blanchard-Fields, Sulsky, & Robinson-Whelen, 1991; Felton & Revenson, 1987; Irion & Blanchard-Fields, 1987). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 An exception to this trend is a study by Folkman et al. (1987) which found that older people used less painful problem solving and more escape avoidance. However, in their study they examined the relative use of coping strategies, or the ratio of these strategies to overall strategies used, although Aldwin (1991) was unable to replicate age differences in these coping ratios. Finally, regardless of the overall pattern of strategies used, older individuals do seem to use fewer strategies, while remaining as effective as the young in their ability to cope (Aldwin, 1991; Meeks, Carstensen, Tamsky, Wright, & Pellegrini, 1989) 2.2.4 Congregation Size and Clergy Stress Reviewing the first two decades of the United Reformed Church, Cornick (1998) drew attention to significant changes in the statistical profile. Between 1972 and 1995 there was a reduction in congregation of 49% from 200,000 to 102,000 and a reduction in priests of 56% from 1841 to 813. However, the reduction in the number of buildings over the same period was much less severe; here there was a reduction of 15% from 2080 to 1784. According to Brierley (2005) these trends continued to follow the same pattern over the next five year period. In 2000, congregation had declined further to 92,787, 46% of the number recorded in 1972. In 2000 there were 750 priests, 41% of the number recorded in 1972. In 2000 there were 1,753 churches, 84% of the number recorded in 1972. Commenting on ways in which these statistics could be interpreted, Cornick (1998) suggested that: Maintaining the front-line of mission with a falling ratio of congregation to churches has caused difficulties in providing ministry for all churches, and the denomination University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 still struggles to find an appropriate pattern of ministry which is both responsive to its own needs yet also ecumenically responsible. Here, from within the United Reformed Church, is a gentle hint that highly visible changes within the profile of the denomination may be contributing to the uncertainties and to the pressures experienced by local leaders. As yet, however, no published research has reported on the work-related psychological health of priests of word and sacrament within the United Reformed Church in England. Miles & ProescholdBell, (2012) Despite the fact that nearly one third of all congregations in the United States are rural, little work has examined how occupational conditions and clergy experiences might vary systematically by geographical context. This study uses recent data from United Methodist Church clergy in North Carolina to test extant depictions of rural ministry, which typically portray rural churches as challenging occupational settings. It finds that although rural clergy face several unique challenges (such as multi-church ministry and lower salaries), they report lower levels of several stressors and more positive experiences. These differences disappear once controls are added, suggesting that rural ministry per se is neither particularly harmful nor beneficial when compared to ministry in other settings. Several studies support the idea that rural churches are declining. Using data from the Church of England, Lankshear (2004) found that in rural churches the number of candidates presented for confirmation (per thousand who attend services at Easter) between the 1950s and 1990s declined 60% compared to a decline of 47% in urban areas. Roberts (2005) and Roberts and Francis (2006) also document Anglican Church closures and loss of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 congregation in rural England, and Burton (2007) discovered the same pattern in one Methodist district. Although Roberts (2005), Roberts and Francis (2006), and Burton (2007) did not control for possible changes in the overall rural population that may confound their results, Lankshear (2004) notes that from the 1950s through the 1990s both rural and mixed rural/urban dioceses throughout England have grown, suggesting that loss of congregation and churches is not due to a declining population base. The evidence is sparser with regard to the United States, but a recent study of rural churches in Missouri suggests a more complicated picture. Researchers note that while some Missouri churches are dying, others are adapting to changes and thriving, thereby making it difficult to speak of rural decline in any general sense (Farley et al. 2005; Neitz 2009). Unfortunately, the Missouri project focuses exclusively on rural churches, making comparisons to non-rural growth and decline impossible. Taken together, these studies support the idea that many rural congregations are disappearing, though perhaps to a lesser extent in the United States. Such decline could influence the ability of church congregation to maintain hope as suggested in priest accounts, and influence clergy perceptions of their own occupational competency. Research also lends support to depictions of rural congregations as community-minded places inclined toward traditional forms of church life. A study of clergy in the Church of Wales reveals that rural clergy report more inclusive (i.e. community-minded) attitudes toward baptism and confirmation practices than priests in other areas (Littler 2006). With regard to the traditional bent of rural congregations, the most direct evidence comes from the Missouri Rural Churches Study, in which interviews with clergy and church leaders indicated that 5 traditional mindsets that resist change are one of the ten major challenges of rural University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 ministry (Farley et al. 2005). Two studies offer indirect evidence, finding that rural Anglican clergy are higher in social conformity: the authors suggest that this is consistent with the idea that rural congregations are more traditional, and their clergy must therefore be more willing to adapt to established customs than might be the case in an urban setting (Francis and Lankshear 1998; Francis and Rutledge 2004). Adherence to traditional mindsets is not unfailingly negative, however, for it can also prompt the higher levels of member involvement found among rural congregation. Davies and colleagues (1991), for instance, find that a greater proportion of a church's congregation attend services in rural versus non- rural congregations. Another study finds that rural congregation of one Church of England diocese participate in the church more than their non-rural counterparts, but that in exchange they seem to expect a higher level of personal service (in the forms of private baptisms and other such rites) from their priests (Francis and Lankshear 1992). The traditional bent of rural congregations might therefore act as both a resource and a stressor, leading to member involvement and support as well as increased member demands. Limited support is also found for the idea that rural ministry might lead to social isolation for clergy. Based on data gathered from rural clergy throughout England, Davies and colleagues (1991) reported that many rural clergy avoid forming close friendships with their congregants. At times they feel conflicting loyalties between parish work and their home life, suggesting that rural occupational demands can also interfere with family relationships. Empirical findings about the workload of rural clergy are inconclusive. Davies and colleagues (1991) found that rural clergy, even those serving multiple churches, work hours that are comparable to those of clergy in other areas, and Francis and Lankshear (1992) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 report that rural clergy in one diocese have less work to do, with fewer parishioners to care for and fewer mid-week meetings to hold. Davies and colleagues, however, suggest that rural clergy might still experience greater pressure due to both a lack of lay assistance and the gruelling pace those performing services in multiple churches can require. They further indicate that rural clergy generally do not take sufficient time off. Thus, working limited hours each week might not translate into less stress if the stressors are more intense, and if rural clergy are less likely to take a break from them. Although much of the priest and empirical literature suggests that rural churches might be particularly challenging occupational environments, few studies explicitly examine the effects of rural ministry on clergy wellbeing. One study indicates that rural clergy suffer from burnout- a stress related syndrome (see Maslach, Schaufeli, and Leiter 2001)- and suggested that this leads to lower levels of personal prayer and worse performance in the roles of priest, counsellor, church administrator, and educator (Rutledge 2006). Only one study that we are aware of, however, explicitly looks for differences in stress effects between rural and non- rural churches. Francis and Rutledge (2000) assessed burnout in a random sample of Anglican full-time stipendiary male parochial clergy. They find that although rural clergy score slightly lower in feelings of personal accomplishment, they are no different than non- rural clergy in levels of emotional exhaustion or depersonalization. Although no comparable work on American clergy exists, one study indicates that rural clergy in Minnesota report being satisfied with their congregations and with rural ministry more generally, though it does not draw any comparisons with non-rural clergy (Barker 1991). Still, there seems to be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 little indication that the well-being of priests suffers as a result of service in a rural church, despite the empirical evidence that rural ministry is unique. 2.2.5 Coping with Clergy Stress As well as being interested in the experience of stress amongst UCA clergy, this research is concerned with the ways in which clergy deal with stress. I will therefore explore literature related to stress management, gender differences in dealing with stress and how clergy deal with stress. Today, there are many stress management techniques available (Schiraldi & Kerr, 2002; Edelman, 2002). A number of stress management techniques tap into the mind body connection. Slowing one’s breathing (Schiraldi & Kerr, 2002; Edelman, 2002) is a recognized and proven way of calming oneself when stressed. Schiraldi and Kerr (2002) and Edelman (2002) also highlighted the importance of Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) involving the progressive tensing and relaxing of the major muscle groups of the body. Recognition of the link between perception and stress has led to the development of cognitive strategies that seek to deal with stress. Cognitive therapists such as Aaron Beck, Albert Ellis and Donald Meichenbaum have argued that thoughts determine feelings (Epstein, 1998). Epstein (1998) said: ‘feelings cannot arise until the mind takes in what has happened’. The work of cognitive therapists has led to an emphasis on the importance of assisting people to counteract the negative thinking that leads to stress and anxiety. Cognitive therapists train people to change their patterns of thinking through the use of cognitive restructuring techniques (Beck, 1976; Edelman, 2002; Epstein & Brodsky, 1993; Epstein, 1998; Hart, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 1996; Padesky & Greenberger, 1995; Rupke, Blecke, & Renfrow, 2006; Schiraldi & Kerr, 2002). One such technique is that of reframing (Rupke, Blecke, & Renfrow, 2006:83) that encourages people to look at difficult situations in a different way. McEwen (2002) pays attention to combating the physical effects of stress. He recommends that attention be given to exercise (walking) (McEwen, 2002), diet (McEwen, 2002) and social support (McEwen, 2002). Just as there are gender differences in the experiencing of stress, there is research suggesting the existence of gender differences relating to dealing with stress. Research conducted by Watson and Sinha (1998:72) suggests that ‘gender may be a possible moderating variable in the relationship between stress and coping behaviour’. The results of the study point to males tending toward isolation and suppression as coping mechanisms and females toward altruism. In commenting on these results, Watson and Sinha (1998) say that the differences may reflect cultural expectations that males will withdraw and that females will act in a helpful and nurturing way. Although Watson and Sinha point to culture as a mediating influence on the behaviour of males and females in the face of stress, the earlier mentioned research by Taylor et al. (2000) and Heinrichs, Baumgartner, Kirschbaum and Ehlert (2003) suggesting “tend and befriend”, raises the possibility that culture is not the only factor in the manifestation of such gender difference. Lim and Teo (1996) found that female IT personnel were more likely to use social support as a coping mechanism than males. Males were more likely to use logic as a coping strategy than were the female sample. Lindquist, Beilin and Knuiman’s (1997) indicated that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 men are more likely to use maladaptive coping behaviours. Male participants in their study reported a greater dependence on alcohol and unhealthy eating than did the females. A number of writers have written on the subject of stress management for clergy. Irvine (1997) argued for a two-tiered approach to dealing with clergy stress. He suggests that both system support and personal support is needed to address specific needs. System support is that which is provided structurally by the denomination and personal support is that which the individual clergy member tailors for himself or herself. Irvine suggests that it has been difficult in the past for denominations to set up adequate system support models as ministry is seen as a calling, rather than a profession. Professions tend to have well developed codes of ethics that provide parameters within which practitioners agree to work. Ministry often has a fragmented nature. (Irvine, 1997), that makes it difficult to have agreed upon codes. However, it should be noted that the UCA in which this study has its locus, has a very clear set of priestly ethics in place (UCA, 2000). There is another difficulty in a church denomination being a source of support for stressed priests. The denomination wields power over the lives of the clergy. Priests are often reluctant to utilize the support networks provided by the denomination for fear of the influence this may have on their future in ministry (Irvine, 1997). Irvine (1997) made special mention of the role of clergywomen. He argues that denominations need heightened awareness of the unique stresses that relate to gender and take seriously the support of women in ministry. Spiritual practice has been suggested as a source of comfort and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 assistance for clergy in dealing with stress. Charles Rassieur (1982) promoted the idea that the spiritual resources that can be used to combat stress need to reflect the individuality of the person. He links this to authenticity, noting that every priest needs to discover an authentic style of piety that is congruent with his or her own unique spiritual journey. (Rassieur, 1982). Although many clergy are unmarried, Rassieur (1982) argued that for those who are married, marriage and family life can be a rich resource for coping with stress. Rassieur concludes from his experiences of working with clergy of all denominations, that a strong marital relationship helps the priest cope with the daily stresses of ministry. He (1982) also emphasises the importance of priests focusing on their areas of interest. He argues that if a priest focuses on those things that he or she is passionate about, ministry itself has the capacity to be a form of creative self-care. Hughes (1989) study of Australian Clergy identified the support gained from meeting with other clergy as significant for a majority of the informants (68%). The same study identified that the area for further training that clergy are most likely to name as important is the area of people skills. This included counselling, psychology, priest care, marriage counselling and youth work. Australian NCLS research in 1996 suggested that the most common method for clergy dealing with stress was speaking to someone (Kaldor & Bullpitt, 2001). The two most University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 significant categories for such conversation were spouse and priestly colleagues. In Pryor’s (1986) Victorian study amongst UCA clergy, 57% of informants named their spouse as the most significant source of support. The value of interacting with others is evident in research conducted by Paul & Libby Whetham (2000). The research concluded that meaningful interaction is an antidote to loneliness and that interactive clergy who are intentional about connecting with colleagues and others have greater levels of enjoyment and job satisfaction. A surprising aspect of the NCLS research was that few clergy chose proactive strategic options for dealing with stress. The researchers state many leaders are not used to thinking about ways to change their environment, but accept it as a given and try and work out how to survive within it. (Kaldor & Bullpit, 2001). A significant proportion of informants named recreational leave and getting away from the area as a means of coping. However, it appeared that recreational leave was ineffective in lowering burnout scores. Kaldor and Bullpit (2001) postulated that, this may be because the stresses remain in the workplace after the holiday. Although the NCLS study provided insight into how clergy choose to deal with stress, its methodology did not allow it to shed light on the efficacy of these selections. Another limitation of the study was its inability to provide knowledge of gender differences amongst Australian clergy experience. This limitation was due to the study being conducted across all denominations and therefore based predominantly on information supplied by male informants. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 On the website of John Mark Ministries (www.priestnet.net.au), Rowland Croucher (2003) suggested prevention and cure strategies such as fresh spiritual disciplines, taking regular time off, proper exercise and sleep, relaxation, joining a small support/prayer group, cognitive restructuring and building fun times into life. These suggestions seem to be based largely on anecdotal evidence. The emphasis on rest and relaxation mentioned by Croucher, is echoed by Bradfield, Echterling and Wylie (1989). This emphasis emerges from their interviewing of clergy following the 1985 floods in West Virginia. Pryor (1986) emphasizes similar self-care techniques, citing eleven care strategies named by Oswald (1982). These strategies cater for a range of physical, spiritual, emotional and social needs. Hulme (1985) highlighted four areas to which clergy need to pay attention in order to ensure a balanced life. These are spiritual development, hobbies, physical exercise and social development. 2.2.6 Social Support as Predictor of Clergy Stress Published results concerning clergy peer groups are few, although they have increased in recent years. Drawing on a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data, these studies indicate that peer group participation is associated with higher priest effectiveness, and a variety of other positive outcomes. Studies have found that participants in peer groups reported higher motivation and energy in their ministry, as well as greater creativity, increased intimacy with God, and positive impacts on family and close friends (Miller 2011; D. B. Roberts 2010a, 2010b; Austin Study 2010; Maykus 2006). Another study noted that of the 23% of Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) clergy who participated in a support group, almost all found the experience helpful to some degree (Findings: Presbyterian Priests, 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 Extant studies also have found connections between peer group participation and congregations, noting that clergy in peer groups serve in congregations that are growing, and that promote a culture of involvement (Austin Study 2010). Positive group effects seem most likely for groups that are ethnically and denominationally diverse, that are led by a trained facilitator, and that promote confidentiality and accountability (Austin Study 2010; Dolan 2010; Marler 2010; D. B. Roberts 2010a). Unfortunately, the bright picture painted by current work on clergy peer groups is clouded by two major shortcomings. First, current work has generally treated peer groups as a means of continuing education for priests rather than a tool for promoting clergy health. The focus has therefore been on group influences on priest effectiveness rather than health outcomes, although current findings suggest that peer groups might provide health benefits. For instance, the higher motivation and energy found in clergy peer group studies may suggest higher mental health, and group-prompted priest effectiveness could reduce occupational stressors or promote feelings of self-efficacy (Bandura et al. 1999; A. Miles & Proeschold-Bell 2011). Current findings therefore indicate the need for further work to concretely establish the effects of clergy peer groups on mental health. Second, extant studies suffer from methodological shortcomings that limit the inferences that can be made from them. Most work on clergy peer groups is cross-sectional (c.f., Dolan 2010), and therefore cannot distinguish between group and self-selection effects (e.g., Marler 2010; Findings: Presbyterian Priests 2008). Studies have also sampled peer group congregation exclusively, making it difficult to determine the advantages of peer group involvement over non-participation (e.g., Austin Study 2010; D. B. Roberts 2010a). Addressing these two shortcomings is essential to obtaining valid estimates of peer group effects, which in turn will enable denominational leaders to form policy based on reliable University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 data. Fortunately, scholars have studied support groups among non-clergy populations, and their work can inform theorizing on clergy peer group effects. The majority of this non- clergy work has been conducted with healthcare recipients or others exposed to challenging situations such as HIV-positive status, military deployment, or being orphaned (Dunbar et al. 2009; Faber et al. 2008; Kumakech et al. 2009; Percy et al. 2009; Oosterhoff et al. 2008; Ussher et al. 2006), although studies of professionals who are more similar to clergy have also been performed (Peterson, Bergström, et al., 2008; Yilmaz et al., 2009). Evidence suggests that support groups can decrease depression, anxiety, and improve general health (Kumakech et al. 2009; Dunbar et al. 2009; Peterson et al. 2008). This is likely because support groups can provide various types of social support (Percy et al. 2009; Peterson et al. 2008; Ussher et al. 2006; S. Roberts 2008), which has been tied to lower occupation related distress, anxiety, and depression (Maslach and Goldberg 1998; Yildirim 2008; Dunbar et al. 2009; Ethgen et al. 2004; Ostberg and Lennartsson 2007). Support groups have also been shown to provide psychological resources such as self-esteem and mastery which, in turn, can have positive impacts on mental health (Pearlin et al. 1981; Ussher et al. 2006; Percy et al. 2009; Oosterhoff et al. 2008; Peterson et al. 2008). Finally, peer support groups might also provide opportunities for beneficial social comparisons that reduce psychological distress. These can take the form of downward comparisons- where group congregation find relief by comparing themselves to those more troubled than themselves- or upward comparisons- where group congregation adaptively imitate those who model effective coping strategies (Carmack Taylor et al. 2007). Research therefore suggests that support groups can bolster mental health through a variety of pathways. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 Morris & Blanton (1998) in their attempt to identify predictors of family functioning from models including perceptions of stresses associated with mobility, financial compensation, intrusiveness to family boundaries, expectations on time demands, and the lack of social support. Data were collected from 136 randomly selected couples from six denominations in which husbands were clergy. Participants completed a survey that included the Clergy Family Life Inventory which assessed perceptions of five work-related stressors and the Self Report Measure of Family Functioning scale which measured 12 dimensions of family functioning. Separate regression models were tested for husbands and wives and these analyses indicated that no single stressor seemed influential for all 12 dimensions of family functioning. However, for both husbands and wives, family boundary intrusiveness, lack of social support, and mobility stresses influenced their competence in numerous areas of family functioning. In addition, husbands and wives experienced similar effects of stress among several dimensions of family functioning (e.g. enmeshment, family organization, democratic family atmosphere expressiveness). Clergy families, like other professional family types are subject to occupationally related stressors that place heavy strains and demands on their resources, which can inhibit the growth of congregation and satisfaction with intra-family relationships (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983). Presnell (1977), Hulme (1985), and Lee and Balswick (1989) contended that the priestly family functioned in an ambiguous context, blurring the lines between professional and private lives. Deluca (1980) labelled the clergy profession a “holy crossfire,” as the clergy person and his/her family attempt to juggle the expectations of self, family, congregation, denomination, and God. McMinn, et al. (2005) believed the parsonage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 is symbolic of boundary confusion – it is on the church property, it is owned by the church, and at times is even utilized for church functions. McMinn and colleagues drew upon the work of Morris and Blanton (1994) that these boundary intrusions are themselves a predictor of reduced marital satisfaction, parental satisfaction, and life satisfaction in general. Miles & Proeschold-Bell (2011) explored the utility of peer support groups for reducing mental distress among priests. They analyzed data from two waves of an ongoing study of United Methodist Church (UMC) clergy in North Carolina, as well as focus group data from the same population. The findings indicate that participation in peer support groups had inconsistent direct and indirect relationships to mental distress (measured as mentally unhealthy days, anxiety, and depression). Focus group data indicated that the mixed results may be due to individual differences among group participants, which in turn lead to a mix of positive and negative group experiences. Oswald (1991) believed that over-functioning in the parish and under-functioning in the home or marriage could lead to conflict points. Ostrander and Henry (1990) reported a lack of time with family and a lack of privacy as stressors. They based a study upon the Double ABCX model (McCubbin & Patterson, 1983) of family stress. This same model was used by Frame and Sheehan (1994) to measure the relocation effects on a priest’s family. Families differ from one another in terms of the intensity and kind of stressors or trigger event (the A- factor) and the level of practical and emotional resources (the B-factor) at their disposal to meet demands. Families differ in terms of their perceptions (the C-factor) of both stressors University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 and resources which jointly determine adaptation (the X-factor). Ostrander and Henry (1990) found particular priests’ families will vary in their ability to adapt to stressors based upon a variety of factors including: the particular stressor event; the family resources; the family definition of the stressor; the amount of family crisis resulting from the event, the resources, and the definition; the pile-up of prior strains and current hardships; the resources and support; redefinition of the situation; and coping skills. Jud, Mills, and Burch (1970) indicated that one-third of those clergy leaving the ministry reported some form of family problem. Carroll (2006) revealed that the ministry having a negative effect on the family was a related factor for doubting a priestly call. McMinn et al. (2005) discovered that clergy with healthy marriages tend to handle the pressure of time and implement effective boundaries, prioritize time with their families, not move frequently, have spouses who are also employed, avoid the “fishbowl” experience by refusing to accept expectations of a perfect family, manage stress well, and have a strong social support network (Hall, 1997). 2.2.6 Problem Solving as Most Used Coping Strategy D'Zurilla and Chang (1995) examined the convergent and divergent relations between the five problem-solving dimensions measured by the Social Problem-Solving Inventory— Revised (positive problem orientation, negative problem orientation, rational problem solving, impulsivity/carelessness style, and avoidance style; D'Zurilla, Nezu, & Maydeu- Olivares, 1995) and the automatic/experiential coping activities assessed by the Constructive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 Thinking Inventory (Epstein & Meier, 1989), as well as the functional coping strategies assessed by the Coping Strategies Inventory (Tobin, Holroyd, Reynolds, & Wigal, 1989). As predicted, experiential activities were found to be mostly independent of rational problem solving, but more highly and consistently associated with positive and negative problem orientation, impulsivity/carelessness style, and avoidance style. Support was also found for the hypotheses that positive problem orientation and rational problem solving would be associated with the use of adaptive problem-engagement coping strategies, whereas the three dysfunctional problem-solving dimensions would be related to the use of disengagement (avoidant) coping strategies. The hypothesis that problem-solving ability would also be related to the use of adaptive emotion-focused coping was not supported. Maghan (2009) examined the relationship between coping style and problem solving style in this study. Maghan hypothesized that individuals' self-reported coping style would be congruent with their generalized problem solving style and that when responding to a problem situation, people will prefer coping strategies consistent with their preferred style. One hundred and seven (107) community college students completed VIEW: An Assessment of Problem Solving Style and the COPE Inventory. Participants were then randomly assigned to one of three vignettes, describing a problem situation of high stress, low stress, and a non- stress, neutral situation. Seven dependent variables were collected: participants ratings of the degree of stress they perceived in the problem situation, and six ratings of their perceptions of the usefulness of particular problem solving strategies for the problem situation described in the vignette that were keyed to VIEW problem solving styles (Explorer, Developer, External, Internal, Person-oriented, Task-oriented strategies). The problem solving strategies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 were categorized by the VIEW senior author as representative of VIEW styles. Multivariate analyses of covariance using participant-reported grade-point-averages revealed significant main effects for experimental group (stress-level of vignettes) but no main effect was due to VIEW style of participants. Participants clearly perceived differences in stress levels of vignettes. As for rating the usefulness of problem solving strategies, generally, higher ratings were given to Explorer, Developer, Person-oriented and Task-oriented strategies in the Low Stress condition. A few significant correlation were observed between VIEW and COPE, suggesting a commonality of a "conservative" problem-solving approach Another research conducted by Chinaveh (2013) examined the effects of the problem-solving to enhance effective coping skills and psychological adjustment among Iranian college students. The predictions of the present study were as follows: (a) Participants in a problem- solving program may perceive their problems to be resolved; (b) problem-solving training may increase active coping strategies; (c) after problem-solving training, scores on a psychological adjustment scale of participants in a problem-solving program may be increased. Eighty college students who reported low levels of approach coping responses and psychological adjustment were randomly allocated to either a problem-solving training group, or a non-training control group. Students in a problem-solving training group received problem-solving training for eight weeks. Their coping skills (approach and avoidance responses) and psychological adjustment evaluated on the first day and thirty days later in the program, were compared with those of a control group. The results showed that approach coping responses and psychological adjustment had increased after program for the training group. The results of this study suggest that self-appraised social problem solving ability is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 concerned with the way in which individuals perceive and cope with problems encountered in everyday life. Bardwell, Berry, Ancoli-Israel & Dimsdale (1999) also reported that some, but not all, Obstructive Sleep Apnea (OSA) patients experience increased depressive symptoms. Many psychological symptoms of OSA are explained in part by other OSA comorbidities (age, hypertension, body mass). People who use more passive and less active coping report more depressive symptoms. We examined relationships between coping and depressive symptoms in OSA. 64 OSA (respiratory disturbance index (RDI) ≥15) patients were studied with polysomnography and completed Ways of Coping (WC), Profile of Mood States (POMS), Centre for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CESD) scales. WC was consolidated into Approach (active) and Avoidance (passive) factors. Data were analyzed using SPSS 9.0 regression with CESD as the dependent variable and WC Approach and Avoidance as the independent variables: More passive and less active coping was associated with more depressive symptoms in OSA patients. The extent of depression experienced by OSA patients may not be due solely to effects of OSA itself. Choice of coping strategies may help determine who will experience more depressive symptoms. Three stages of factor-analytic investigation aimed at uncovering general strategies that underlie the myriad specific coping responses to stress. Each stage utilized a separate, large, heterogeneous sample, yet analyses consistently revealed three fundamental strategies: Problem Solving, Seeking Social Support, and Avoidance. Over the course of studies, a short, self-report questionnaire evolved that indicates the extent to which each of the strategies has been employed in a recent stressful event. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 2.3 Statement of Hypotheses H1: Vocational Life conflict will significantly influence Clergy stress H2: There will be a significant negative relationship between Clergy Stress and coping. H3: Younger priests will experience higher levels of clergy stress than older priests. H4: Priests overseeing larger congregation will experience higher stress than priests with smaller congregation size H5: The use of social support will significantly predict the level of Clergy stress than other coping strategies. H6: Priests will use more Problem Solving coping than Social Support and Avoidance coping. 2.4 Proposed Conceptual Framework 2.5 2.6 Vocational life conflicts  Role Ambiguity  Role Conflict  Work Overload (Quantitative)  Work Overload (Qualitative)  Responsibility for People  Career Development Clergy Stress Coping Strategies  Problem Solving coping  Social Support  Avoidance coping University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 2.5 Operational Definition of Terms Role Ambiguity: a lack of clearly defined and mutually-agreed ministry functions Role conflict: between church expectations and personal or family needs Work Overload: too many real or imagined expectations Older priest: priests up to age 35 and above. Younger Priest: Priests below age 35 Priests with More years: 5 years of service and above Priests with Fewer years: below 5 years Larger congregation: parishes with membership up to 30 and above Fewer Congregation: parishes with membership below 30. Single priests: single, divorced, widower priests University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter explains the research design and the methods used in the study. These include the target population, sample, sampling technique, design, procedures for data collection, a description of the measures used in the data collection and the ethical considerations employed in the study. 3.1 Research Design The research adopted a cross- sectional design in collecting the data. This is because the data was collected only once from the same participants. The cross- sectional design was most appropriate for this study because the period for the research would not have been adequate enough to carry a longitudinal study, and priest attrition would not have favoured a pre- test. Furthermore the instruments used for the study (Stress Diagnostic Survey and Coping Strategies Inventory) were self- administered. Hence, were the most appropriate instruments to be used for the participants to take the test just once either at the parish or at home, and for us to track the questionnaire. 3.2 Population The population for this study was made of all priests in the Anglican Church (Accra Diocese). This comprises of priests in active service with the church, with membership of 110. Priests of this organization fall within the age range of 25-69 years. It is also made of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 gender imbalance which is bias toward the males due to the nature, doctrine and history of the church. In all, the church has 6 female priests who are serving among the 104 male priests. The population is also made of Worker Priests (part-time Priest/non-stipendry) and Full Time Priests (Stipendry). On the average, there are about 2 priests serving in each of the 60 parishes in the Accra Diocese. Due to the nature, doctrine and history of the Church, there seems to be an imbalance in the gender of the population which bias towards the male while the Church has only 6 female priests for now. 3.3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques According to Babbie (2004), a Purposive Sampling Technique overrides all other sampling methods. Based on this assertion, the research adopted the purposive sampling technique in selecting the organisation which was used for the study. Per this approach we were able to identify the Anglican Church and the Diocese of Accra to be precise, as the subject of study. It also gave us the opportunity to choose a religious organisation that has existed in Ghana for over 100 years and has a long history in the propagation of the Gospel and mentoring large congregations for the purpose of salvation. The sample was also chosen using Stratified Proportional Random Sampling in order to obtain a quota from each Archdeaconry so that the entire church was represented in the study. Archdeaconries that had more congregations were given more questionnaire to complete as against those with fewer congregations. The questionnaire were also distributed to the parishes based on the number of priests in that parish. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 The sample for the current study was drawn from all the Parishes in the Accra Diocese of the Anglican Church in order for the research to obtain a fairly representative view of the entire priests on stress. The sample size for the study was estimated at 100 participants with an ideal representation of each parish. Out of the 100 questionnaire distributed, the researcher successfully collected 60 well completed questionnaire for analysis. This sums up to 60% of the total questionnaire distributed. This can be justified as an adequate sample for this research using the Tabachnick and Fidell (2007) formula n>50+ 8m, where n is the sample size and m is the number of independent variables (IV‟s). Per this formula, our sample size had to exceed 58 participants. Therefore, since the completed questionnaire collected summed up to 60, a figure higher than 58, the sample size can be declared as adequate and valid for this research. Of the 60 participants who completed the questionnaire, majority of the respondents (51.7%) were between the ages of 25 and 69 years. It was also observed that majority of the respondents (98.3%) were males. Most of the respondents (90%) had Tertiary education. It was also observed that majority of the respondents (66.7%) have been in priesthood between 1 and 15years. All the respondents in the study were married. It was further observed that majority of the respondents (76.7%) were in charge of parishes whiles 23.3 % of the respondents were in charge of congregations and majority of the priests (73.3%) were Parish Priests as against the minority of Priest Assisting (11.7%). 3.4 Measures and Instruments The study used a questionnaire as the main instrument to collect data. The questionnaire University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 was divided into 3 sections n a m e l y sections A, B, and C. Whiles section A measured the demographic variables, sections B, and C measured Clergy Stress and Coping Strategies respectively. Though the scales used were scales that had been used in other studies, their reliabilities and validities were discussed in the data analysis, since an entirely different set of participants were used. It is worth noting that before administering the questionnaire to the participants, a Dean of the Anglican Diocese of Accra reviewed it to ascertain its face and content validity. The sections of the questionnaire with their descriptions and reliability are as follows; 3.4.1 Section A: Demographic Variables This part of the questionnaire measured the participants’ demographics and background data including age, gender, and appointment status, duration of priesthood, marital status, education and church status. The Participants were asked to tick or write about themselves (where applicable). This section was required to enable us identify and better understand the sample we were working with and possibly how these variables can influence clergy stress and the coping strategies they adopt when they are stressed. 3.4.2 Stress Diagnostic Survey The Stress Diagnostic Survey (SDS) was developed by the Stress Research Systems with the intent of measuring the theoretical concept of job related stress. The SDS is a questionnaire, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 consisting of 30 items rated on a 7 point scale. A score of 1 described a work condition never being a source of stress while a score of 7 describes a work condition always being a source of stress. The questionnaire measured 5 individual level stressor sub constructs. It has an overall cronbach alpha of .90. The sub constructs and their respective cronbach alpha are shown below; • Role conflict was present whenever compliance with one set of demands makes compliance with another set of demands difficult, objectionable or impossible. After the study, Role conflict was identified to have a cronbach alpha of .81 as its reliability. • Role ambiguity produced a reliability of .72. Role Ambiguity is a lack of clarity about one’s role, job objectives, the scope of responsibilities, or one’s duties. • Work overload was divided into two categories: quantitative overload and qualitative overload. Quantitative overload produced a reliability of .76 whiles Qualitative Overload had a cronbach alpha of .80. Quantitative overload occurs when there is too much to do in too limited a period and qualitative overload refers to a state of being in which work demands exceed capability. • Responsibility for parishioners produced a cronbach alpha of .73. • Career development stress includes those aspects which influence the individual’s interaction with the organisational environment, which, in turn, influences that person’s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 perception of the quality of his or her career progress. Career development produced a reliability of .73 after the study. 3.4.3 Coping Strategy Indicator The Coping Strategy Indicator (CSI), as developed by Amirkhan (1990), is intended as a widely applicable self-report measure of situational coping encompassing the strategies of avoidance, problem solving and seeking social support. However, the instrument’s initial development phase was exclusively premised on Californian samples, prompting Parker and Endler (1992) to highlight the need for cross-validation with other populations. This research, therefore, seeks to validate the CSI in an African setting like Ghana. The 33- items scale as shown on a 3 point scale of “A lot (3), A Little (2) or Not at All (1)” contained 11 items for each subscale. When summed together, the responses will fall within the ranges of 0-33, where higher scores indicated greater use of the coping strategy. In all, the CSI recorded a cronbach alpha of .78. Some of the items in the scale are “Described your feelings to a friend” (Problem Solving), Rearranged things so your problem could be solved (Seeking Social Support), Tried to distract yourself from the problem (Avoidance). 3.5 Procedure for the Study A research proposal was submitted to the Head of the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College Ghana, and an approval was given for the research to be conducted in the organisation proposed based on the topic presented. An introduction letter was sought from the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 Ghana, introducing the researcher and the research being carried out, to the management of the Anglican Diocese of Accra. To avoid confidentiality breaches and issues that may contradict their Priesthood Oath, the Dean of the Anglican Diocese of Accra was in charge of the collecting the questionnaire from the researcher and shared it across all the priests as indicated by the researcher. A brief discussion was held between the researcher and the Dean who is the Chairman for the Diocesan House of Clergy, to serve as the liaison for the collection of the questionnaire. This was done, to allow for the Dean to explain the questionnaire to the respondents should they have any difficulty comprehending the questionnaire. This offered the researcher the opportunity to answer any question which was raised by the Dean, and an assurance was given that the researcher was on standby for any issue which would be raised by the participants. A Consent Form was part of the questionnaire, which requested them to indicate their approval to partake in the study. Those who consented to be participants were however informed of their right to withdraw from the research at any point and to refuse to answer any question they did not want to answer. In all, a total of 100 questionnaire were distributed to the priest respondents, and out of that, 60 completed questionnaire were collected making a 60% retrieval rate. Though the questionnaire were distributed at a regular Diocesan Clergy Meeting, respondents were asked to submit the questionnaire into a box at the office of the Dean, so that no priest felt intimidated by the Dean. For confidentiality purposes, respondents were also asked to do an independent work and also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 not to write any form of identity (name, location, contact number, etc) on the questionnaire. 3.6 Ethical Consideration As researchers, we need to be guided by ethics that will ensure that subjects and participants are not put through either psychological or physical harm, especially when it will be difficult to correct such traumas. Even in situations where harm could be caused, the benefits of such a research should convincingly overweigh the harm to be caused and such harm should be the last resort and should be minimised as much as possible (Coon, 2000). Brewerton & Millward (2001) believed that ethical considerations should always be at the core of any scientific research to guide the researcher to maintain the research standards. All ethical considerations enumerated in the American Psychological Association (APA) (2011) code of conducting a research was strictly complied with in this study. Permission was sought from the Management of the Anglican Diocese of Accra, who happens to be the custodian of Priests. Per the APA Code of Ethics Standard 3.10, participants/subjects in a particular research should consent to be a part of the study. Also, APA requires permission to be sought from authorised persons for those who were legally incapable of giving their consent. To fulfil this portion of the code of ethics, a Consent Form was placed on the questionnaire requiring the respondents to append their approval, before they started answering the questionnaire. To ensure that the participants know that they will not be victimised and for them to feel comfortable in participating in the research, participants were assured of confidentiality and anonymity of the information they will provide on the questionnaire. They were also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 informed that the study was solely for academic purposes in assessing how they perceived the stress they encountered as Clergy and the Coping Strategies they adopted in such situations, and that the data will not be handed over to the Management of the Anglican Diocese of Accra or any other third party for any purpose. They were further assured that the code of conduct governing data privacy according to Ghanaian law will be applied to ensure that the information they provided will be kept with strictest confidentially. The right to voluntarily partake in the research was clearly stated in the Consent Form issued to the participants. They were informed of their right to pull out of the research at any given time of the study (before, during or after), and also not to answer certain questions they felt uncomfortable about. To authenticate the identity of the researcher and the research entirely, participants were asked to contact the Department of Psychology at the Methodist University College. After collecting the questionnaire, the researcher thanked the Management of the Anglican Church, foremen and the participants for availing themselves for the research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the result from the analysis of the data using the SPSS 22.00. Specifically, both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to summarize the data and test the stated hypothesis. Thus, the chapter has four sections which include the introduction, descriptive statistics, hypotheses testing and summary of the findings. The details of the results are presented in the subsections below. 4.2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS The descriptive statistics section presents the summary of the frequencies and percentages of the demographic characteristics of the respondents in the study. From Table 1 below, the results showed that majority of the respondents (51.7%) were between the ages of 18 and 54years. It was also observed that majority of the respondents (98.3%) were males. Most of the respondents (90%) had Tertiary education. It was also realized that 66.7% of the respondents have in priesthood between 1 and 15years. All the respondents in the study were married. It was further observed that majority of the respondents (76.7%) were in charge of parishes and majority of the priests (73.3%) were Parish Priests. The details of the percentages are summarized in Table 1. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 Table 1: Summary of the Demographic Characteristics the Respondents in the Study Variables Frequency Percentage AGE CATRGORY 25-34years 35-54years 55-69years 10 21 29 16.7 35 48.3 GENDER Male Female 59 1 98.3 1.7 EDUCATION Secondary Tertiary Others 2 54 4 3.3 90 6.7 DURATION OF PRIESTHOOD 1-5years 6-15years 16years and above 12 28 20 20 46.7 33.3 MARITAL STATUS Married 60 100 CHURCH STATUS Parish Congregation 46 14 76.7 23.3 APPOINTMENT STATUS Dean/Archdeacon Parish Priest Priest Assisting 9 44 7 15 73.3 11.7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 4.3 HYPOTHESES TESTING Hypothesis One: Vocational Life conflict will significantly influence Clergy stress Hypothesis Two: There will be a significant negative relationship between Clergy Stress and coping. To test the first and the second hypotheses, the Pearson Correlation was used as two variables were assumed to be linearly related and measured on an interval scale. The results of the correlation coefficients are summarized in the Table 2; Table 2: Summary of Pearson Correlation between Coping and Stress among the Clergy Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Coping(1) Stress (2) -.25* RC(3) -.10 .80** RA(4) -.26* .83** .72** WOT(5) -.20 .83** .68** .67** WOL(6) -.21 .89** .72** .67** .67** CD(7) -.24* .78** .84** .71** .57** .73** RFP(8) -.12 .34** -.18 .08 .143 .22* -.15 - RC=Role Conflict, RA=Role Ambiguity, WOT= Work Overload Quantitative, WOL= Work Overload Qualitative, CD= Career Development, RFP= Responsibility for People. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 Results from Table 2 show that there is a significant positive relationship between respondents’ Vocational Life conflict and Clergy stress at the .05 level of significance, r(58) = .80, ρ < .05. Therefore, the first hypothesis that Vocational Life conflict will significantly influence Clergy stress is supported. This shows that the more vocational life conflict experienced by the clergy the higher their stress levels. An examination of Table 2 above also showed that there is a significant negative relationship between clergy stress and coping at the .05 level of significance, r(58) = -.25, ρ < .05. This shows that the better the clergy coped with their challenges, the less stress they experienced. Therefore, the second hypothesis that there will be a significant negative relationship between Clergy Stress and coping is also supported. Further analysis of the sub-components of the stress inventory showed that coping was significantly and negatively related with only two of the sub-domains of stress at the .05 levels of significance, Role Ambiguity, r(58) = -.26, ρ < .05 and Career Development, r(58) = -.24, ρ < .05. However, there was no statistically significant relationship between coping and the four subdomains of stress. At the .05 level of significance, Role Conflict, r(58) = -.10, ρ > .05, Work Overload Quantitative, r(58) = -.20, ρ > .05, Work Overload Qualitative, r(58) = - .21, ρ > .05 and Responsibility for People, r(58) = -.12, ρ > .05. Hypothesis Three: Younger priests will experience higher levels of clergy stress than older priests. The third hypothesis was tested using One-Way ANOVA as the age categories/groups were more than two and the dependent variable (Stress) is measured on an interval scale. The summary of the results are presented in Table 3; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 86 Table 3: Summary of One-Way ANOVA of Age Differences in Clergy Stress Variables 18-34yrs-A 35-54yrs-B 55-70yrs-C F ρ Post-Hoc Stress 74.80 (SD=7.87) 71.90 (SD=1.78) 85.44 (SD=30.25) 2.22 .12 - RC 8.5 (SD=4.25) 7.95 (SD=2.69) 9.41 (SD=6.530 .51 .60 - RA 8.90 (SD=2.47) 10.38 (SD=1.94) 13.34 (SD=5.73) 5.23 .01 C>A WOT 16.10 (SD=1.91) 11.57 (SD=4.07) 14.24 (SD=6.76) 2.79 .07 - WOL 9.90 (SD=4.61) 10.76 (SD=3.33) 12.03 (SD=7.08) .64 .53 - CD 7.60 (SD=2.99) 9.04 (SD=2.92) 11.03 (SD=6.44) 2.11 .13 - RFP 23.80 (SD=8.95) 22.19 (SD=8.26) 5.37 (SD=5.80) 1.17 .32 - RC=Role Conflict, RA=Role Ambiguity, WOT= Work Overload Quantitative, WOL= Work Overload Qualitative, CD= Career Development, RFP= Responsibility for People. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 Results from Table 3 show that ages of the respondents in the study did not have any significant effect on their overall stress levels at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 57) = 2.22, ρ = .12. This means that no statistically significant differences exist among the three age categories in their stress level. Therefore, the third hypothesis that younger priests will experience higher levels of clergy stress than older priests is not supported. Further analysis of the age differences in the domains of stress showed that age did not have any statistically significant effect on the stress from Role Confusion among the respondents at the .05 level of significance, F(2, 57) = .51, ρ = .60. It was also found that age of the respondents did not have any statistically significant effect on respondents’ stress Work Overload Quantitative, F(2, 57) = 2.79, ρ = .07, Work Overload Qualitative, F(2, 57) = .64, ρ = .53, Career Development, F(2, 57) = 2.1, ρ = .13, and Responsibility for People, F(2, 57) = 1.17, ρ = .32. However, significant age differences exist in the level of stress experienced from Role Ambiguity, F(2, 57) = 5.23, ρ = .01, with respondents between the ages of 55 and 70years reporting more stress from role ambiguity than respondents between the ages of 18 and 34years. Hypothesis Four: Priests overseeing larger congregation will experience higher stress than priests with smaller congregation size. To test the fourth hypothesis which compares two groups (Parish:- of a larger membership and at times having responsibility over other smaller one and Congregation:- of a smaller membership) on their stress levels, the independent t-test was used to analyze the data and the results are summarized in Table 4; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 88 Table 4: Summary of Independent t-test of the Effect of Congregation Size on Clergy Stress VARIABLE Parish (n=46) Cong. (n =14) t(df=58) ρ STRESS 79.79(SD=26.91) 75.50 (SD=8.37) .61 .54 Role Conflict 8.76(SD=5.70) 8.71 (SD=2.23) .03 .98 Role Ambiguity 11.63(SD=5.07) 11.36 (SD=2.50) .19 .85 Work Overload Quantitative 13.76(SD=5.89) 13.14(SD=4.28) .36 .72 Work Overload Qualitative 11.65(SD=6.23) 9.86(SD=2.45) 1.05 .30 Career Development 9.78(SD=5.58) 9.71(SD=3.00) .04 .97 Responsibility for People 24.39(SD=7.61) 22.71(SD=6.28) .75 .46 An examination of the Table 4 shows that the congregation sizes of the respondents did not have any statistically significant effect on their overall stress levels at the .05 level of significance, t(58) = .61, ρ = .54. This shows that there is no statistically significant difference between priests who handle congregations and priests who handle parishes and their level of total stress. Therefore, the fourth hypothesis that priests overseeing larger congregation will experience higher stress than priests with smaller congregation size is not supported. Further analysis of the stress domains showed that the congregation sizes of the priests did not have any statistically significant effect on all the domains, Role Confusion, t(58) = .03, ρ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 89 = .98, Role Ambiguity, t(58) = .19, ρ = .85, Work Overload Quantitative, t(58) = .36, ρ = .72, Work Overload Qualitative, t(58) = 1.05, ρ = .30, Career Development, t(58) = .04, ρ = .97, and Responsibility for People, t(58) = .75, ρ = .46. Hypothesis Five: The use of social support will significantly predict the level of Clergy stress than other coping strategies. To determine whether the three subscales of coping strategies significantly predict the stress levels of the clergy, the multiple regression analysis was used and the results are summarized in Table 5; Table 5: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis of Coping Strategies and Clergy Stress Model B SEB β t ρ Constant Social Support Problem Solving Avoidance Coping 144.49 -2.53 1.37 -1.38 24.29 1.01 .83 .93 -.34 .21 -.20 -2.50 1.65 -1.49 .02 .11 .14 Results from the multiple regression table which examine the contribution of each of the three coping strategies have shown that only the use of social support by clergy significantly predicted their stress level, β = -.34, t = -2.50, ρ = .02. Thus, social support explained 34% of the variance accounted for by the entire model. Hence, use of social support as a coping University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 strategy reduces clergy stress significantly. However, the use of problem solving (β = .21, t = 1.65, ρ = .11) and the use of avoidance coping did not contribute significantly in predicting the level of clergy stress. Therefore, the hypothesis the use of social support will significantly predict the level of Clergy stress than other coping strategies is supported. Hypothesis Six: Priests will use more Problem Solving coping than Social Support and Avoidance coping. To determine which coping strategy is commonly used by the clergy, the means and standard deviations were computed and the summary of the results are presented in Table 6; Table 6: Summary of Means and Standard Deviations of Coping Strategies Used by Clergy COPING STRATEGIES MEAN STANDARD DEVIATION Ranking Avoidance 24.33 3.40 1st Social support 20.85 3.19 2nd Problem Solving 15.15 3.62 3rd Results from Table 6 above shows that the clergy in this study used more avoidance coping (Mean = 24.33, SD = 3.40) followed by the use of social support (Mean = 20.85, SD = 3.19) and the least used coping strategy was the problem solving (Mean = 15.15, SD = 3.62). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 91 Therefore, the sixth hypothesis that priests will use more Problem Solving coping than Social Support and Avoidance coping is not supported. 4.4 ADDITIONAL FINDINGS To determine the main sources of stress among the clergy, the means were computed and the summary of the results are presented in Table 7: 4.5 Summary of Main Findings 1. There is a significant positive relationship between respondents’ Vocational Life conflict and Clergy stress. 2. There is a significant negative relationship between clergy stress and coping. 3. Age of the respondents in the study did not have any significant effect on their overall stress levels. 4. There is no statistically significant difference between priests who handle congregations and priests who handle parishes and their level of total stress. 5. Use of social support as a coping strategy reduced clergy stress significantly. 6. Priests did not use more of Problem Solving coping than Social Support and Avoidance coping. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 92 Table 7: Summary of Descriptive statistics of the Sources of Stress among the Clergy SOURCES OF STRESS MEAN SD RANKING Responsibility for Parishioners 24.00 7.31 1st Work Overload Quantitative 13.62 5.53 2nd Role Ambiguity 11.57 4.59 3rd Work Overload Qualitative 11.23 5.61 4th Career Development 9.77 5.07 5th Role Conflict 8.75 5.09 6th An examination of Table 7 shows that the clergy experienced their most stress from Responsibility for Parishioners (Mean = 24.00, SD = 7.31), followed by Work Overload Quantitative (Mean = 13. 62, SD = 5.53), Role Ambiguity (Mean = 11.57, SD = 4.59), Work Load Qualitative (Mean = 11.23, SD = 5.61), Career Development (Mean = 9.77, SD = 5.07) and the least source of stress to the clergy is Role Conflict (Mean = 8.75, SD = 5.09). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 Table 8: Revised Conceptual Framework Vocational Life Conflicts  Role Ambiguity  Role Conflict  Work Overload (Quantitative)  Work Overload (Qualitative)  Responsibility for Parishioners  Career Development Clergy Stress Coping Strategies  Problem Solving Coping  Social Support  Avoidance Coping Social Support University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction This chapter seeks to discuss our findings in relation to the stated hypotheses and the theories on which the hypotheses were formulated. It also seeks to recommend possible strategies that can aid in improving the stress encountered by the clergy addressing the most efficient coping strategies to deal with such stress. We will also confirm or reject some of the hypotheses depending on what the findings are, and in relation to other studies understand why we obtained such a finding. This chapter will finally attempt to offer implications, recommendations, and proposals for future research and relationships that need to be bridged in the industrial setting due to the limitations in practice at the workplace. 5.2 Vocational Life Conflict and Clergy Stress The data collected and analyzed on the first hypothesis which stated that “Vocational Life conflict will significantly influence Clergy stress” showed that there was a significant positive relationship between respondents’ Vocational Life conflict and stress. This shows that, the more vocational life conflict experienced by the clergy the higher their stress levels. This finding is similar to the work of Bradburn (1969) who researched on 58 Ministers of Word and Sacrament serving within the West Midlands Synod of the United Reformed Church in England. He concluded that Ministers of Word and Sacrament within the United Reformed Church in England are exposed to a number of recurrent recognizable sources of stress as a result of their vocation. It appears from perceptions and observations of people University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 95 that, the Minister of the Gospel has responded to one of the most demanding and stressful vocations open to human beings (Rassieur, 1982). Researchers in the field of clergy stress also support these findings suggesting that clergy are vulnerable to the devastating effects of stress and burnout (Daniel & Rogers, 1981; Rediger, 1982; Sanford, 1982). This finding can be explained by Burnout Theory which proposes that people become emotionally diminished as a result of extended exposure and response to chronic workplace stress (Maslach, 2003). The vocation of priesthood is a profession that requires that irrespective of how long you stay on the job, you repeatedly perform the same task over and over again and in situations where the priest does not get a transfer to another parish, has to meet and deal with the same people on daily or weekly basis and sometimes over issues he has dealt with repeatedly. Per this theory, and the working conditions experienced by the clergy, one can explain why the clergy vocation is stressful for its practitioners. This is further strengthened by the work of Allen, Herst, Bruck, & Sutton (2000) when they examined the relationship between work-family conflict and burnout repeatedly. They found that the higher the work-family conflict, the greater the possibility of burnout. 5.3 Clergy Stress and Coping The second hypothesis that there will be a significant negative relationship between Clergy Stress and coping is supported by the analysis. Finding from the analyses also showed that there is a significant negative relationship between clergy stress and coping. This shows that the better the clergy cope with their challenges, the less stress they experience. This finding University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 96 is synonymous with the work of Menaghan and Merves (1984) found that coping efforts varied by the level of problems and by the situational context. In their work among 1,106 adults conducted in 1972 and 1976, it was revealed that higher levels of initial problems were significantly related to the use of two coping efforts, namely, selective ignoring and restriction of expectations. This explains that whenever a person goes through a problematic situation, the individual explores the coping strategies available in order to deal with the particular stressor for survival and the clergy also adopts the coping strategies they can utilize in stressful situations. The Lazarus Stress Theory attempted to explain this phenomenon by defining coping as “the cognitive and behavioural efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and conflicts among them”. Folkman and Lazarus (1980) definition makes us understand that when an individual encounter’s a stressful situation, he/she appraises the situation and makes both cognitive and behavioural efforts to deal with the situation in order to avoid him/her being stressed. In this case, if the person succeeds in dealing with the situation effectively, then, stress does not occur. One can say at this point that an effective coping strategy has been activated. This phenomenon can then be translated unto a semantic differential scale so that we can allude to the fact that a stressful situation is on one side of the scale and coping is on the other side of the scale, and that in most cases, there are degrees of coping with the situation. The more one copes with the situation, the less stressful the situation becomes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 97 Further analysis of the sub-components of the stress inventory showed that coping was significantly and negatively related with only two of the sub-domains of stress; Role Ambiguity and Career Development. This implies that role ambiguity and career development were the main contributors to the inverse relationship between vocational stress and coping. Role Ambiguity feeding heavily into vocational stress among the clergy is supported by the work of Daniel and Rogers (1981) who posited that common sources of stress among ministers relating to role ambiguity are, duties that have not being clearly defined and that the criteria for measuring their duty is not clearly defined. Daniel and Rogers (1981) observation is very noticeable across all fields of employment. Most employees are given job description with a last clause reading “Any other duties as may be assigned from time to time”. This makes it difficult for one to decline certain jobs assigned them and therefore cannot define their specific roles at work. This is even more stressful for the priest whose family life is also seen as part of his vocation. Hart (1984) supported these findings in his observation of a lack of boundaries making the minister's work a formidable one. No priest can visit enough, pray enough, study enough, prepare sermons enough, or be involved in social issues. It is again unclear why Career Development contributed as a sub-domain for Vocational stress. However, Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) identified that Career variables may become of concern when there is a lack of job security, or that promotional progress is inadequate, and or dissatisfaction with the match between career aspirations and the current level of attainment. With the nature of materialism creeping into the church, it can be argued that some priests in the Anglican Church wish they developed their career much further in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 98 order to improve their standard of living or attain a certain level in life as stated by Abraham Maslow. One can again say that the priest have been doing the same thing over and over again hence the feeling that they are stuck in the same vocation for too long a time and feel they are not developing themselves. This could even be worse for a priest who did not choose Priesthood as a vocation but had to do it to satisfy his family or respected other. This is because such a priest will be comparing himself to friends who are living a life he once dreamt of but could never achieve it because of family pressure. Though vocational stress was made up of 6 sub-domains, there was no statistically significant relationship between coping and the four other sub-domains of stress; Role Conflict, Work Overload (quantitative), Work Overload (Qualitative) and Responsibility for People. According to Ivancevich & Matteson (1980) an individual is faced persistently with varied role pressures, which is a combination of expectations and demands put on him by himself and those of other members in the organization. In situations where there are two or more role pressures, a condition of role conflict is bound to arise. It is however unclear why this sub domain did not contribute significantly to Vocational Life Conflict leading to Clergy Stress, we can however conclude that the Anglican priests have inculcated their family life into their priesthood vocation and after years of practice managed the role pressures and therefore did not consider it as a contributing factor. With reference to how the clergy vocation is structured, it is difficult to streamline the working hours at which the congregation and members in need of a particular assistance can call on the priest. The priest is sometimes called at odd hours in the day to either pray with a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 99 church member, or go to the member’s house to resolve conflict, render counselling, and send a member to the hospital in the situation where he could not heal the person by divine miracle and related matters. This condition should have constituted enough Work Overload either quantitatively or qualitatively for the Anglican Priests but that was not statistically significant in influencing the stress of the Anglican Clergy. Daniel (1981) found that the number of hours a minister spent in contact with his members served to discriminate between high and low levels of burnout. Contrary to what one would expect, those with low burnout levels were those ministers that spent the most number of hours in contact with their members, a possible explanation as to why quantitative overload did not stress the Anglican clergy. Boyd (1982) further noted that when high aspirations are not matched with high accomplishments, stress is unavoidable. In most cases, the priest takes full responsibility for failure in any of the many areas that his job may involve, even when he cannot do it successfully with the resources available to him. This usually arise because priests are seen as Authority figures in our communities and are expected to possess solutions to all problems just like their Saviour Jesus Christ, an ability they do not have. Responsibility for people is characterized by an accountability for the activities of people as stated in the Bible (Ezekiel 33: 8 NIV) which says “when I say to the wicked, ‘You wicked person, you will surely die’ and you do not speak out to dissuade them from their ways, that wicked person will die for their sin, and I will hold you accountable for their blood”. This Bible quotation is likely to impose stress on the clergy but that was not supported. The pastor has the responsibility for the wellbeing of the congregation, but in practice does not have the required authority and power to make the often needed changes On the other hand, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 responsibility for things would refer to such concerns as budgets, equipment and related items (Ivancevich and Malteson, 1980). French and Caplan (1980) found in their Goddard Space Centre research that responsibility for people is not conducive for good health or a low risk of coronary heart disease. The Anglican Clergy in the Accra Diocese did not see this responsibility for people and items as a contributor to their stress, possibly because they take solace in the believe that their labour on earth will not go in vain and that they will receive crowns when they go to heaven as stated in the Bible ( James 1: 12 NIV) “Blessed is the one who perseveres under trial because, having stood the test, that person will receive the crown of life that the Lord has promised to those who love him”. 5.4 Age and Clergy Stress Age of the respondents in the study did not have any significant effect on their overall stress levels. This means that no statistically significant differences exist among the three age categories in their stress level. Further analysis of the age differences in the domains of stress showed that age did not have any statistically significant effect on the stress from Role Confusion among the respondents, It was also found that age of the respondents did not have any statistically significant effect on respondents’ stress, Work Overload (Quantitative), Work Overload (Qualitative), Career Development, and Responsibility for People. According to Woolston (2015), at any age, stress is a part of life the body's natural defenses against stress gradually break down with age. Further to this, Aldwin, Sutton, Chiara & Spiro (1996) conducted a study and state that controversies exist concerning the influence of age on the stress and coping process, partly due to differences in methods used across the studies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 101 The finding on age and coping in our study contradicted the work of Aldwin, Sutton, Chiara & Spiro (1996). They conducted a study on age differences in stress, appraisal, and coping in middle-aged, young-old, and old-old men and reported nearly a quarter of the old-old reported having had no problems and they expended less coping effort even when they did have problems. However, there were no age differences in perceived stressfulness of the problem, appraisals of harm/loss, or helpless appraisals, number of emotions reported, or coping efficacy. This contradiction may have existed because the types of problems reported in Aldwin et al. study varied systematically with age. Despite their ages, the clergy in this study performed similar functions including conducting mass, researching and preaching sermons, perform quasi administrative functions, and conduct counselling sessions for the church members among others. It is worth noting at this point that some of these tasks are assigned to you based on your rank in the parish. This means that the higher your rank, the more complex task you are allowed to perform. Though not synonymous, ranks increase with educational status and length of service (which is correlated with age). When one begins to age, or nearing weakness, a less tedious role is assigned you as a priest. These factors may have accounted for the insignificance of age in predicting coping among the clergy. One interpretation Aldwin et al. gave to their results is that the nature of stress changes with age, from episodic to chronic, which in turn affects appraisal and coping processes. However, significant age differences exist in the level of stress experienced from Role Ambiguity with respondents between the ages of 55 and 69 years reporting more stress from role ambiguity than respondents between the ages of 18 and 34years. This observation is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 102 buttressed by the work of Aldwin, Sutton, Chiara & Spiro (1996). They reported nearly a quarter of the old-old reported having had no problems and they expended less coping effort even when they did have problems in their story stated above. Osipow, Doty & Spokane (1985) in their study on 310 employees with respect to their report of occupational stresses, strains, and coping behaviours supported this finding. Using the Occupational Environment Scales, older respondents reported more work overload, responsibility but fewer insufficiencies, boundary role, and physical environment stresses than did younger respondents. Older respondents in their study also displayed a trend toward decreasing vocational, psychological, physical, and interpersonal strain than younger respondents, and greater recreational, self-care, and rational-cognitive coping resources than younger respondents. The findings for sources of stress by age were, as expected, were based on the life span career development roles. It is postulated that older workers learn to use coping resources, thus enhancing their ability to experience reduced strain given equal amounts of stress. An explanation for age differences in the amount of reported stress may be that older individuals cope in a different way than their younger counterparts. Various theorists have posited changes in coping with age. For example, Gutmann (1974) suggested that mastery styles change from active to passive from youth to midlife, then to "magical" mastery in old age. In contrast, Vaillant (1977) believed that a positive change occurred in the use of defense mechanisms. He proposed that an incremental developmental process occurs across the life span, characterized by a decrease in the use of neurotic or immature defensive styles coupled with an increase in more mature defensive styles in midlife. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 103 5.5 Congregation Size and Clergy Stress Congregation sizes of the respondents did not have any statistically significant effect on their overall stress levels. This shows that there is no statistically significant difference between priests who handle congregations and priests who handle parishes in their level of total stress. Further analysis of the stress domains showed that the congregation sizes of the priests did not have any statistically significant effect on all the domains, Role Confusion, Role Ambiguity, Work Overload Quantitative, Work Overload Qualitative, Career Development, and Responsibility for People. This hypothesis was formulated on the basis that if the priest has to deal with more members on the daily and weekly basis, he is likely to encounter more stress based on work overload. However, this hypothesis was rejected in our study. This finding is corroborated by the study of Miles & Proeschold Bell, (2012) who researched on clergy of United Methodist Church clergy in North Carolina in the United States to test extant depictions of rural ministry. In their study, they found that although rural clergy face several unique challenges (such as multi-church ministry and lower salaries), they report lower levels of several stressors and more positive experiences. These differences disappear once controls are added; suggesting that rural ministry in itself is neither particularly harmful nor beneficial when compared to ministry in other settings. It is worth noting at this point that priests with larger congregations are given Priest Assisting/Curate to assist in the daily delivery of duty. On the other hand priests with fewer congregations oversee their parish alone and sometimes assist churches without a substantive priest. This may have accounted University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 104 for the insignificance in the stress levels of priests manning larger and fewer congregations. Davies et al. (1991) to buttress this point suggests that, rural clergy might still experience greater pressure due to both a lack of lay assistance and the gruelling pace that conducting church services in multiple churches can require. Proponents of the role expansion theory, a theory derived from the Role Theory hypothesized that occupying multiple roles boost engagement in both vocation and family life, with some studies including Barnett and Hyde (2001) finding a positive effect of multiple roles on self- esteem and life satisfaction among multiple role occupants. This theory and finding seem to support the finding we obtained from this hypothesis by giving an insight to the fact that the large size of the congregation and its accompanying roles does not stress the priests but rather has a positive effect on them. An empirical examination of the role stress and role expansion theories found greater support for role expansion, in that, the number of social roles a person occupies is negatively linked with insomnia and lingering illness (Nordenmark, 2004). 5.6 Social Support as Predictor of Clergy Stress The use of social support by clergy significantly predicted their stress level. Thus, social support explained 34% of the variance accounted for by the entire model. Thus, use of social support as a coping strategy reduces clergy stress significantly. Priests like every other human being turn to their confidants be it family, friends revered personality in society and their colleague priests for a solution, assistance or simply to vent out their worries, they feel University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 105 stressed. This is known to be one of the most efficient ways of dealing with such stressors and not complicating the issue. This is supported by Miller (2011) who found that participants in peer groups reported higher motivation and energy in their ministry, as well as greater creativity, increased intimacy with God, and positive impacts on family and close friends. The more social support was used, the less clergy stress was predicted in the clergy. This negative relationship between social support and clergy stress is supported by Morris and Blanton (1998). In their attempt to identify predictors of family functioning among the clergy, from models including perceptions of stresses associated with mobility, financial compensation, intrusiveness to family boundaries, expectations on time demands, and the lack of social support. Their analyses indicated that no single stressor seemed influential for the 12 dimensions of family functioning they measured. However, family boundary intrusiveness, lack of social support, and mobility stresses influenced their competence in numerous areas of family functioning. Their study gives implies that amongst others, lack of social support from the family influenced their family functioning. Social support is therefore an integral coping strategy which the clergy should be using in combating vocational stress, because in practice, the family of the clergy is larger than just himself and his immediate family. Due to the difficulty in streamlining the priests’ family from their congregation, social support can be received from the family, colleague priests’ and even the congregation. Jud, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 106 Mills, and Burch (1970) indicated that one-third of those clergy leaving the ministry reported some form of family problem. Some priest decided to take this vocation against the will of their spouses. As a result, some clergy find it difficult to get support from them. In certain cases, priests get difficult children who will not want to conform to the expectations of a “Preacher’s Kid”, a condition that can stress a priest. In times like these, some clergymen seek social support from some church members. Carroll (2006) revealed that the ministry having a negative effect on the family was a related factor for doubting a ministerial call. McMinn et al. (2005) discovered that clergy with healthy marriages tend to handle the pressure of time and implement effective boundaries, prioritize time with their families, not move habitually, have spouses who are also employed, avoid the “fishbowl” experience by refusing to accept expectations of an ideal family, manage stress well, and have a strong social support network (Hall, 1997). 5.7 Problem Solving as Most Used Coping Strategy The clergy in this study used more avoidance coping followed by the use of social support and the least used coping strategy was the problem solving. 5.8 Recommendations Perhaps Hart's (1984) observation that one of the major causes of burnout among ministers is the lack of training in handling intra and interpersonal conflict, needs to be taken seriously in developing strategies to help ministers cope with the healthy expression of emotions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 107 5.9 Limitations of the Study This study gave us the opportunity to get a deep insight into the stress levels of the Anglican Church and the Accra Diocese to be precise, and the coping strategies they most effectively used when they are stressed. However, this study may be limited to the clergy in the Anglican Church in the Accra Diocese since the participants sampled were from this population alone. It is worth noting at this point that the Anglican clergy in Ghana are forming associations including the Archdeaconry Clergy Union, Diocesan House of Clergy, Ghana Anglican Clergy Association, Christian Council of Ghana, to list but a few. One benefit of joining such associations is to address the myriad challenges that come with the profession of priesthood. If these associations believe they have shared challenges including imposters (false prophets), unfavourable state policies and secularism, among the lot, then this findings may be generalized to them. However, to be precise and accurate in predicting, further studies need to be conducted among the clergy in other denominations including the orthodox churches (Roman Catholic Church, Presbyterian Church), Pentecostal churches, the Charismatic churches and the spiritual churches to compare and contrast their reaction to the vocational life conflict and the coping strategies they adopt in such situations. 5.10 Future Research Future research should also consider the factors underlying why priests are not stressed by the size of the congregation. 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The purpose of this questionnaire is to get your views on Vocational Life Conflicts and Coping Strategies of the Anglican Clergy in Accra. Be sure to read the instructions for each of the separate questionnaire carefully. Please be sure to respond to all statements and respond as accurately and honestly as possible. Your views will be handled confidentially. No individual’s questionnaire or results will be presented in any way. Although the researcher wants you to respond to all questions, you have the right to refrain from answering any one particular question. Thank you. I have read the above introduction to the questionnaire and agree to complete the questionnaire under the stated conditions (TICK IF YOU AGREE) Yes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 130 APPENDIX 2 DATA COLLECTION QUESTIONNAIRE SECTION A DEMOGRAPHICS Please provide the following information about you by ticking or writing where applicable. 1. AGE RANGE: 18 – 34 years_______ 35 – 54 years ______ 55 – 70 years_________ 2. GENDER: Male _______ Female _______ 3. LEVEL OF EDUCATION: Primary _____Secondary____ Tertiary ____ Other________ 4. YOUR DURATION AS PRIEST: 1 – 5 years_____ 6 – 15 years _____ 16 + years_____ 5. MARITAL STATUS: Single_____ Married____ Divorced ____Widowed ___Other____ 6. CHURCH STATUS: Parish______ Congregation______ 7. APPOINTMENT: Dean/Archdeacon _______Parish Priest ______Priest Assisting_____ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 131 SECTION B: STRESS DIAGNOSTIC SURVEY Next to each of the following items, tick appropriately which best describes how frequently the condition described is a source of stress. ITEM Never Rarely Occasionally Sometimes Often Usually Always 1. My job and work duties are unclear to me. 2. I work on unnecessary tasks and projects. 3. I have to work in the evenings, over weekends and holidays. 4. The demands for work quality made on me are unreasonable. 5. I lack the proper opportunities to advance within this church. 6. I am held accountable for the development of my members. 7. I am unclear about whom I am accountable to and who is accountable to me. 8. I get caught in the middle between my church council and my members. 9. I spend too much time in unimportant meetings that take me away from my work. 10. My assigned tasks are sometimes too difficult and/or complex. 11. If I want to progress in my career then I have to look for a job with another church. 12. I am responsible for counselling my church members and/or helping them solve their problems. 13. I lack the authority to carry out my responsibilities. 14. The formal structure of authority is not adhered to. 15. I am responsible for almost an unmanageable number of projects at the same time. 16. Tasks seem to be getting more and more complex. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 132 17. I am hurting my career progress by staying in this church. 18. I take action or make decisions that affect the well-being of others. 19. I do not fully understand what is expected of me. 20. I do things in my job that are accepted by one person and not by others. 21. I simply have more work to do than can be done in an ordinary day. 22. The church expects more of me than my skills and/or abilities provide. 23. I have few opportunities to grow and learn new knowledge and skills in my job. 24. My responsibilities in this organization are more for people than for things. 25. I do not understand the part my job plays in meeting overall church objectives. 26. I receive conflicting requests from two or more people. 27. I feel that I just don't have time to take an occasional break. 28. I have insufficient training and/or experience to carry out my duties properly. 29. I feel that I am at a standstill in my career. 30. I have responsibility for the future of others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 133 SECTION C: COPING STRATEGIES The following are ways you have dealt with worries over the past 6 months. Next to each of the following items, tick appropriately which best describes how frequently the condition described is a source of stress. CSI item (subscale) A lot A little Not at all 1. Described your feelings to a friend 2. Rearranged things so your problem could be solved 3. Thought of many ideas before deciding what to do 4. Tried to distract yourself from the problem 5. Accepted sympathy and understanding from someone 6. Did all you could to keep others from seeing how bad things really were 7. Talked to people about the situation because talking about it made you feel better 8. Set some goals for yourself to deal with the situation 9. Weighed up your options carefully 10. Daydreamed about better times 11. Tried different ways to solve the problem until you found one that worked 12. Talked about fears and worries to a relative or friend 13. Spent more time than usual alone 14. Told people about the situation because talking about it helped you come up with solutions 15. Thought about what need to be done to straighten things up 16. Turned your full attention to solving the problem 17. Formed a plan in your mind University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 134 18. Watched television more than usual 19. Went to someone friend or professional to help you feel better 20. Stood firm and fought for what you wanted in the situation 21. Avoided being with people in general 22. Buried yourself in a hobby or sports activity to avoid the problem 23. Went to a friend to help you feel better about the problem 24. Went to a friend for advice about how to change the situation 25. Accepted sympathy and understanding from friends who had the same problem 26. Slept more than usual 27. Fantasized about how things could have been different 28. Identified with characters in movies or novels 29. Tried to solve the problem 30. Wished that people would just leave you alone 31. Accepted help from a friend or relative 32. Sought reassurance from those who know you best 33. Tried to carefully plan a course of action rather than acting on impulse University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh