Journal of Global Marketing
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/wglo20
Pathways to Global versus Local Brand
Preferences: The Roles of Cultural Identity and
Brand Perceptions in Emerging African Markets
Abena A. Yeboah-Banin & Emmanuel Silva Quaye
To cite this article: Abena A. Yeboah-Banin & Emmanuel Silva Quaye (2021) Pathways
to Global versus Local Brand Preferences: The Roles of Cultural Identity and Brand
Perceptions in Emerging African Markets, Journal of Global Marketing, 34:5, 372-391, DOI:
10.1080/08911762.2021.1886385
To link to this article:  https://doi.org/10.1080/08911762.2021.1886385
Published online: 26 Feb 2021.
Submit your article to this journal 
Article views: 251
View related articles 
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=wglo20
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING
2021, VOL. 34, NO. 5, 372–391
https://doi.org/10.1080/08911762.2021.1886385
Pathways to Global versus Local Brand Preferences: The Roles of Cultural
Identity and Brand Perceptions in Emerging African Markets
Abena A. Yeboah-Banina and Emmanuel Silva Quayeb
aDepartment of Communication Studies, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana; bWits Business School, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, South Africa
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
The effects of cultural identity on perceptions about and preference for global and local Global identity; local
brands remain less understood. Using consumer cultural identity theory, this study tests identity; perceived brand
assumptions that cultural identity drives perceived brand globalness and localness. It also globalness; perceived brand
examines how such perceptions shape brand value assessments and preference formation. localness; consumerperceived value; brand
The study draws on consumer data from two prominent emerging African markets, South positioning; global vs. local
Africa and Ghana, to test the hypothesized relations through structural equation modelling. brand preference
The findings support predictions that individuals’ cultural identity drives their perceptions of
brands as local/global. Specifically, global identity drives global brand preference in both
countries, but local identity was a weak driver of local brand preference in Ghana. The per-
ceived value of local brands impacts local brand preference more than foreign brand prefer-
ence. The study highlights several contributions on the pathways to global or local brand
preferences that should benefit international marketing scholars and branding professionals.
Introduction higher prestige and global citizenship leading to
The homogenization of consumer needs and aspi- favoritism for global brands (Alden et al., 1999;
rations around the world due to the rapid pace of Steenkamp, 2019). However, Batra et al. (2000)
globalization (Riefler, 2012) has led many inter- posit that the factors underlying emerging market
national firms to pursue global consumer seg- consumers’ attitude and preference for global
ments (Strizhakova et al., 2008; Westjohn et al., brands go beyond established quality/prestige
2012). In recent decades, emerging markets, espe- associations. Consequently, divergent views have
cially Africa, have become high growth markets emerged to challenge the notion of the exclusivity
for many global brands (e.g. Samsung, Coca Cola, of favorable global brand associations (Holt et al.,
Unilever, Toyota, and Apple) (McKinsey Global 2004). Thus, a vital question is how and why
Institute, 2016; Sinha & Sheth, 2017). Current esti- these brands also benefit from consumer percep-
mates suggest that more than half of the top 50 tions of their “globalness”? (Steenkamp et al.,
packaged goods companies in the world benefit 2003; Xie et al., 2015).
from the rapidly growing consumers in these Prior research suggests that local brands can
markets (Sign
e, 2020), with some earning as much counter the threat posed by global brands
as 14% of their global sales in Africa (Sign
e & through effective exploitation of their cultural
Johnson, 2018). However, local brands in such capital (O€zsomer, 2012; Steenkamp, 2019;
markets are not taking this challenge lying down. Steenkamp et al., 2003; Strizhakova et al., 2015).
Increasingly, global brands face intense competi- Nevertheless, insights into how brands may
tion from local contemporaries, such as is the case exploit cultural capital and resources to shape
between Steer’s vs. McDonald’s and DSTV vs. attitudes toward them are scant making our
Netflix in South Africa. understanding of how consumers evaluate global
Initially, the extant literature maintained that and local brand cues toward preference formation
brand globality evoked perceptions of quality, unclear. Furthermore, perceived brand globalness
CONTACT Emmanuel Silva Quaye Emmanuel.quaye@wits.ac.za Wits Business School, University of the Witwatersrand, 2nd St David’s Place,
Johannesburg 2050, South Africa.

 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 373
(PBG) and perceived brand localness (PBL) are global brands (see Balabanis et al., 2019;
assets to their respective firms. Yet, our under- Diamantopoulos et al., 2019; Halkias et al., 2016;
standing of how these brand perceptions influ- Swoboda et al., 2012 ). Second, we integrate key
ence consumer value perceptions, especially of consumer culture factors in a holistic sequence of
local brands as a mechanism through which pref- relations to explain consumers preference forma-
erence toward global or local brands occur also tion in a globalized world, from an emerging
remain underexplored (Swoboda et al., 2012). African markets context, which is less represented
Drawing on Cultural Identity Theory (Arnett, in the global marketing research agenda (Burgess
2002; Zhang & Khare, 2009) and Consumer & Steenkamp, 2013). From a managerial perspec-
Culture Theory (Steenkamp, 2019; Steenkamp tive, this study reveals that consumers’ global-
et al., 2003), we propose that the desire for con- local identity constructions are vital to brand’s
sistency between one’s identity and marketplace globalness/localness perceptions and global vs.
stimuli is crucial for understanding consumer local brand preferences. Further, local brand
evaluations and preference for local versus global owners may benefit from consumers’ perceived
brands (Guo & Hong, 2018; Westjohn et al., value of local brands through the route of PBL.
2012). This observation is in response to calls
that suggest that “increased attention to the
dynamics of the global, and local beliefs will pro- Theoretical background and
vide additional insights not available by examin- research hypotheses
ing only global or local beliefs” (Strizhakova & Consumers’ cultural identity theory
Coulter, 2019, p. 622). Notably, although local
Antecedents to global/local brand perceptions
and global identities can coexist, when consum-
and preference
ers’ global identities become salient or accessible,
Cultural Identity Theory describes the extent to
they tend to be attuned to the global brand cues
which individuals internalize the values, beliefs
more favorably than when their local identities
and attitudes of cultural groups with which they
become salient or accessible (Guo & Hong,
self-associate voluntarily or by endowment
2018). Consumers become more sensitive and
pay attention to cues or imagery that make the (Jensen, 2003). Jensen (2003, p. 190) defined cul-
brands’ globalness or localness more attractive, tural identity as “a broad range of beliefs and
depending on which identities are salient based behaviors that one shares with members of one’s
on domain-specific factors. For example, a salient community.” The theory proposes that individu-
local identity evokes feelings of positive associa- als adopt either local or global identities or both
tions with local cultural values, heritage, tradi- in their construction of personal identity
tions, and national identity that enhances (Balabanis et al., 2019), which then informs their
perceptions of brand localness, and higher pur- adaptation to a globalized marketplace.
chase likelihood. Global brand associations are As globalization intensifies, it is crucial to
better activated through global identity salience understand how consumers’ local and global
route. Notwithstanding, research documents that identity enactment influences their brand choices
modern consumers tend to seek out both global (Tu et al., 2012). The cultural identity model sug-
and local identities concurrently (Steenkamp, gests that (1) cultural identity is a crucial aspect
2019; Zhang & Khare, 2009); thus, this study of one’s self-concept, (2) cultural identity
models consumers’ global-local identities and becomes salient when one must adapt to different
their attendant influence on PBG and PBL and cultures, (3) cultural identity is dynamic and can
global-local brand preference simultaneously (Xie shift in response to situational factors, and (4)
et al., 2015). shifts in cultural identity can mediate market-
The study affords several contributions to place adaptations and experiences (Sussman,
scholarship and practice. First, we bring a new 2002). Cultural identities are not automatically
perspective on the influence of consumers’ local- activated. Instead, numerous social, context-spe-
global identities on the preferences for local or cific and individual factors can differentially
374 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
invoke particular cultural identities in a person’s exploitation of global symbols and imagery (i.e.,
varied identities (Forehand et al., 2002). Thus, a brand name, symbols, themes, brand logo, and
consumer can have distinct local and global cul- spokesperson) in marketing communications and
tural framework and move between them, given the belief that the brand is available in several
the situation or context (Steenkamp, 2019). countries are the main channels through which
While consumers may enact local and global brands can achieve higher perceived brand glob-
identities simultaneously, the salient identity alness (Swoboda et al., 2012). Thus, PBG refers
becomes more accessible in the face of particular to the extent to which a brand is regarded as a
consumption goals. Tu et al. (2012, p. 35) suggest global player in the minds of the target consum-
that, “a local identity means that consumers feel ers; being an essential aspect of global consumer
they belong to their local community and identify culture positioning (Alden et al., 2006; Swoboda
with local ways of life, while a global identity et al., 2012).
means that consumers feel they belong to the glo- Conversely, local brands have strong aware-
bal community and identify with a global life- ness of the domestic business environment, local
style.” The self-identity, so constructed, creates a consumer needs, and enjoy strong cultural brand
“readiness to engage in identity-congruent action image as a symbol of local traditions and cul-
and to use identity-congruent mindset in making ture (Ger, 1999; Steenkamp et al., 2003;
sense of the world” (Oyserman, 2009, p. 250). Swoboda et al., 2012). Local brands deliver
Research focusing on the implications of con- greater benefits when they exploit cultural
sumers’ perception of brands as global or local is resources and achieve the position as local cul-
still growing (Alden et al., 2006; Swoboda et al., tural icons (Steenkamp et al., 2003). Effectively
2012). Drawing on consumer sources, extant lit- exploiting their perceived value, cultural resour-
erature show that global brands deliver excep- ces and local symbolism, local brands derive
tional value through the promise of higher competitive advantages. Resources such as local
prestige, perceived quality, global identity, myths identity and local culture are two important fea-
of foreign cultural origin (Batra et al., 2000; tures that local brands can benefit from. While
Steenkamp, 2019), brand esteem, and brand cred- studies into anteceding perceptions about brand
ibility (Holt et al., 2004), and higher consumer globalness and localness are minimal, evidence
preference due to perceived globalness (Swoboda from other research domains suggest that cul-
et al., 2012). Global brands may, thus, derive tural beliefs and orientations may be implicated
advantages from their perceived brand globalness (Liang et al., 2011). We consider cultural iden-
(PBG) (i.e., highly recognizable brand and avail- tity beliefs to influence consumer’s response to
able in multiple world regions). Effective global (vs. local) brand positioning.
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 375
Cultural identity antecedents to global/local brand more local consumers identify themselves, the
perceptions and preference more sensitive they would be in recognizing local
Identity is key to brand perceptions because con- branding cues (Westjohn et al., 2012). Such pos-
sumers typically maintain attitudes and actions sibility is signaled by previous research which
that reinforce their identity (Westjohn et al., demonstrates that when a consumer’s ethnic
2012). When a person’s local or global identity is identity is accessible, they prefer advertisements
activated or accessible in a consumption context, with a spokesperson whose ethnicity is consistent
this produces identity salience – a state of readi- with their own ethnic identity (Appiah, 2001; He
ness that creates heightened sensitivity to iden- & Wang, 2015). Accordingly, we expect that the
tity-relevant stimuli (Forehand et al., 2002). accessibility of consumers’ global or local identi-
People strive to maintain consistency and coher- ties will predispose them to respond easily to
ence of the self, so they acquire signs and sym- cognate global or local brand positioning cues as
bols, develop attitudes and maintain behaviors a way of maintaining self-consistency:
that help them to confirm that self-identification
H1a: Consumers’ global identity will lead to positive
(Strizhakova et al., 2013; Strizhakova & Coulter, evaluations of a brand’s perceived globalness.
2019; Westjohn et al., 2012). Consumers express
favorable response to brand stimuli consistent H1b: Consumers’ local identity will lead to positive
evaluations of a brand’s perceived localness.
with their accessible identities (Guo & Hong,
2018), suggesting that their global/local identities Similar logic explains how consumers’ cultural
can shape how they evaluate brands as global orientations shape their preference for local ver-
or local. sus foreign products (Westjohn et al., 2012).
The activation of a global identity may be Extant scholarship shows that consumers favors
characterized by increased sensitivity to global stimuli that are consistent with their accessible
brand positioning and vice versa (Forehand et al., cultural identities (Reed et al., 2012; Zhang &
2002). As shown by Aaker et al. (2001), accessible Khare, 2009). It is conceivable, therefore, that
consumer traits shape attitudes to products with individuals’ sense of themselves and the ’cultural’
comparable traits or positioning. Diamantopoulos group they associate with leads them to respond
et al. (2019) suggest that consumers’ dispositions favorably to brands perceived to have analogous
such as global-cultural identity may drive brand identities. Individuals with a more open cultural
perceptions, stressing that “who you are affects orientation either because of meaningful exposure
how you perceive marketplace stimuli” (p. 43). to the external world or aspiration for such
This is not to suggest that whether a brand is would view foreign brands favorably. They view
global or local depends entirely on individual the world rather than their local culture as home
perception. Brands attempt to construct bonafide and enact this identity through global consumer-
personalities and identities over years of branding ism (Strizhakova et al., 2008). According to
effort. However, the resulting notions formed Zhang and Khare (2009), consumers who readily
from brands’ positioning cues are at the mercy, to access a global identity exhibit a stronger prefer-
some extent, of individual idiosyncracies. That is ence for foreign products.
why different marketing communication artifacts The global branding literature aptly recognizes
are subject to varying interpretations by different the positive relationship between consumer cul-
consumers. Factors such as sex, geographical loca- tural identity and identity-related objects, sug-
tion and national identity have all been identified gesting that consumer global identity beliefs
as shaping how people make sense of products influence preference for global brands (Alden
(Aaker et al., 2001; Guo & Hong, 2018). et al., 2006; Guo & Hong, 2018; Zhang & Khare,
In the context of the current study, the expect- 2009). Likewise, consumer local identity beliefs as
ation is that the more global consumers identify construed in national identity are noted to influ-
themselves, the more alert they will be to cues ence preference for local brands (Strizhakova &
that infuse brands with global imagery and pos- Coulter, 2019; Zhang & Khare, 2009). Such con-
ition them as global brands. In contrast, the sumers tend to hold ethnocentric consumption
376 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
beliefs and evaluate the merits of products based & Thompson, 2005) and orient their lives in a
on cultural coherence between the product and certain direction (Tomlinson, 1999). The theory
themselves (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Westjohn suggests that people’s core identities are defined
et al., 2012). by their unique consumption practices.
Such identity-infused consumption may be Historically, consumer culture was conceived
subject to other variables, e.g. product category. to be mainly local in expression. Later conceptu-
For instance, Cleveland et al. (2009) show that alizations recognized the place of the forces of
consumers with strong cosmopolitan values and globalization (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).
open cultural identities place more value on own- Thus, in the present globalized world, two main
ing consumer electronics, luxury products and consumer culture groups – a local and a global
globally popular apparel (which tend to originate culture group – represent abstract and yet mean-
from industrialized countries). On the reverse are ingful groupings with which people identify and
people with more ethnocentric values who place which subsequently informs their consumption
more importance on local food and traditional behaviors. Steenkamp (2019, p. 3) defines global
fashion styles. Sex, age, income and education (local) consumer culture as “a social arrangement
also seem to matter as shown by Steenkamp and in which the relations between lived culture and
de Jong (2010) who report that younger, well- social resources, and between meaningful ways of
educated female elite with high income and social life and the symbolic and material resources on
status are likely to buy global brands. Beyond the which they depend, are globally (locally) con-
roles of product type and demographic factors, ceived and are mediated through deterritorialized,
however, lie the underlying identity drivers of global (geographically anchored, local) markets.”
local or global brands’ positive evaluations. Global and local consumer culture may serve
According to Micevski et al. (2019), European as foundational theory that underlie the concep-
consumers high on global identity showed a tualization of PBG and PBL. The key premise of
strong preference for foreign products, whereas global and local consumer culture is that cultural
those consumers high on national identity associations are vital sources of brand equity,
showed a strong preference for domestic prod- especially when brands are able to effectively
ucts, with EU identity showing a cross effect on align their positioning with consumers’ cultural
both global and domestic products. Thus, con- attitudes and expectations (Alden et al., 1999;
sumers tend to prefer brands that help them to Steenkamp et al., 2003 ). Consumer culture the-
ory suggests that individuals who self-identify as
verify and reinforce their self-concept, leading to
belonging to a global culture due to the aspired
the hypotheses that:
to global ideals embrace similarities (instead of
H2a: The more a consumer maintains a global differences) with people around the world, and
identity, the greater the likelihood of global are concerned about global events (De Meulenaer
brand preference.
et al., 2015; Steenkamp & de Jong, 2010;
H2b: The more a consumer maintains a local identity, Strizhakova & Coulter, 2013). They hold positive
the greater the likelihood of local brand preference. attitudes toward global brands as these are
viewed as a means to enacting their belonging-
ness to the globalized culture (Strizhakova &
Consumer culture theory
Coulter, 2019), thus ushering them into a mod-
Drivers of the perceived value of local brands ern global lifestyles (O€zsomer, 2012; Strizhakova
In this section, we explore insights from con- et al., 2008). For such people, global products
sumer culture theory to explain how the con- also represent symbols of achievement and are
sumer culture groups to which individuals belong low-risk due to high-quality and consistent stand-
orients their attitudes toward products. ards (O€zsomer, 2012; Strizhakova et al., 2011).
Consumer culture theory argues that consump- We expect that consumers who perceive a
tion patterns coalesce into meaningful thought brand to be a global player associates the brand
elements that shape peoples’ identities (Arnould with higher quality, prestige and myths of global
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 377
cultural origin. Such perceptions can have nega- local brands, we believe, can have cascading effects
tive implications for the value perceived in com- of the value perceptions of other local brands.
peting local brands (Steenkamp, 2019; Swoboda Given the seeming advantageous associations of
et al., 2012; Xie at al., 2015). Previous studies global brands, local brand icons’ rise to high value
confirm that global brands enjoy many benefits status may signal to consumers that local brands
over competing local brands due to their high can deliver too. This should generate positive
PBG because they offer meaningful value beyond associations for local brands generally. As shown
functionality; a passport to a desired membership by O€zsomer (2012), local cultural cues engender
of a global lifestyle (O€zsomer, 2012; Strizhakova & cultural proximity and enhance the attractiveness
Coulter, 2008; Westjohn et al., 2012). Swoboda of local products to such consumer segments.
et al. (2012) have, for instance, reported that glo- By being strongly connected to the local cul-
bal retailer brands in China were associated with ture, local brands benefit from the effective use
both functional and psychological value compared of cultural resources and having unique under-
to competing local brands who were associated standing of local needs, tastes and preferences
with functional value to influence store patronage. (O€zsomer, 2012; Swoboda et al., 2012; Xie et al.,
Therefore, being perceived as global per se 2015). Consumers who subscribe to the local cul-
uplifts the value perceived in a brand which pla- ture may see these brands as giving them a
ces it above local offerings since they do not meaningful cultural experience (Schuiling &
command a similar capacity to provide consum- Kapferer, 2004). Besides, the ethnocentric tenden-
ers the opportunity to participate in an aspired-to cies of such individuals should unleash value per-
global consumer culture (Alden et al., 1999; ceptions in local products by engendering a sense
Steenkamp et al., 2003). Accordingly, greater per- of support to the local economy (Shimp &
cieved globalness of a brand should boost its Sharma, 1987). We predict that brands with high
attractiveness while diminishing that of compet- PBL will engender positive attitudes toward other
ing brands deemed local. This may be particu- local offerings. Sinha and Sheth (2017) explain
larly true for durable, technology-intensive and that consumers in emerging markets make their
high-involvement products and for consumers purchase decisions based on the perceived value
with strong global consumption orientation of brands. As indicated earlier, the degree to
(O€zsomer, 2012; Steenkamp, 2014; Strizhakova & which a brand is perceived as an icon of the local
Coulter, 2015). Therefore, we conclude that: culture enhances the perceived value the brand
H3a: Greater perceived brand globalness is negatively delivers (O€zsomer, 2012).Thus:
related to consumers’ perceptions of value in competing H3b: Greater perceived brand localness is positively
local brands. related to consumers’ perceptions of value in other
Despite the strong influence of globalism, local local brands.
consumer culture remains a pervasive force in
consumer behavior and identity construction.
Consumer perceived value of local products and
Some consumers prefer local consumption
global/local brand preference
imagery because they associate easily with the
local lifestyles, beliefs, values and attitudes, and A major concern to marketers is how to convert
behaviors (Alden et al., 1999; Steenkamp, 2019). brand perceptions into favorable choices. Extant
Many local iconic firms benefit from their high knowledge suggests a strong relationship between
PBL since they imbue their brands with local sym- value perceptions and preference (Sweeney &
bols and traditional imagery. We expect consum- Soutar, 2001; Wang, 2013). Accordingly, we expect
ers who recognize the PBL of local icon brands the value perceptions formed by consumers from
would perceive greater value in them as such indi- emerging countries about local and foreign brands
viduals embrace local traditions, cultural imagery will shape their preference for local brands. Given
and strong ethnocentric beliefs (O€zsomer (2012; the duality of foreign-local brand propositions
Xie et al., 2015). The perception of value in such competing for the attention of such consumers,
378 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
choice in such environments is inherently subject to favor brands from the more industrialized
to pro-cons evaluations, thus value assessments. In countries, leading to a general bias among emerg-
choosing, such consumers must often both con- ing market consumers toward global brands as
sider and question their national loyalties (Ang offering better value (Steenkamp et al., 2003;
et al., 2000). Where the ensuing evaluation posi- Strizhakova et al., 2013). Once a local brand
tions local brands as comparable, social and emo- assumes the position of high value, that percep-
tional benefits of global brands (e.g. prestige and tion can challenge the erstwhile general low
access to globalized lifestyle) may be eroded, lead- regard for local brands. This should make the
ing to a reduction in their appeal. This is because consumer more receptive to the possibility of
the perception of high value in local brands serves “good” local offerings.
as conduits for self-expression and emotional and For example, Golden tree chocolate is an
social benefits that may not be delivered by global iconic local chocolate brand in Ghana that prides
brands (He & Wang, 2015) which are instruments itself in representing Ghana’s global leadership as
for expressing global citizenship (e.g., Strizhakova a Cocoa producer as well as the cultural tradi-
et al., 2008). tions of the Ghanaian people. It also emphasizes
In addition, once that baseline is established its local production and ownership. Given the
(that local offerings are just as good), individuals high regard the brand represents for Ghanaians,
may allow themselves to entertain the notion of it can re-orient local consumers’ disposition
using their consumption to support their local toward local brands as inferior. Extant branding
economy (Guijun et al., 2006; Saffu & Walker, scholarship suggests that brand concepts serve as
2006), leading to a reduction in preference for “hostages” in the marketplace where they facili-
global brands. In other words, local brands begin tate the identification of who to reward or punish
to engender a sense of “us” while global brands for brand performance (Rao & Ruekert, 1994). By
activate a sense of “them” which should favor the this, brands in alliance or even of shared heritage
“former.” This logic is validated by findings from (e.g. family or parentage) are able to leverage vic-
Swoboda et al. (2012) who show that local arious benefits from each other. We extend this
retailers in China benefited from the psycho- logic to argue that when brands are identified as
logical value they offer consumers to influence “local,” their localness becomes a shared point of
store patronage.The more favorable the consum- reference that then can enable vicarious associa-
ers’ perceptions of local brand value, the lower tions and benefits from each other. According to
their likelihood of global brand preferences, espe- Merchant and Rose (2013), a brand’s heritage is a
cially in non-durable, less technology-intensive critical tool that can engender nostalgic and vic-
and low-involvement product categories that are arious effects. The more favorable the consumers’
imbibed with local cultural meanings. However, perceptions of local brand value, the greater the
global brands with their high quality, prestige and likelihood of local brand purchases (O€zsomer,
global myth may counter this effect. Thus; 2012; Strizhakova & Coulter, 2015; Swoboda
et al., 2012).
H4a: Perceived value of a local brand is negatively
related to preference for a competing global brand. H4b: Perceived value of a local brand is positively
related to preference for other local brands.
The benefits of high value perception in a local
brand are not limited to the focal brand as there
can be cascading benefits for other local brands Methodology
too. Because a key pathway to a local brands’
value is its cultural currency and shared heritage Data collection and sample
(He & Wang, 2015; O€zsomer, 2012), the percep- To test the conceptual model, a survey-based
tion of value in it should enhance the pro-con research design was used to obtain data from
analysis that other local brands in general, face in respondents. Data was collected in South Africa
their competition with global brands. Historically, and Ghana which were chosen for a number of
brand value and quality assessments have tended reasons. The two countries represent some of the
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 379
most progressive markets in sub-Saharan Africa. Table 1. Respondents profile.
South Africa is the second-largest market in Factors South Africa Ghana
Frequency (%) Frequency (%)
Africa, and the dominant market leader in the
Gender
global south, with a population of over 50 million Male 149 (41.97%) 177 (53.8%)
people. Ghana, on the other hand, is a crucial Female 206 (58.03%) 152 (46.2%)Age
market in the West African region, with a popu- 18 24 99 (27.97%) 84 (25.38%)
25 34 132 (37.29%) 165 (49.85%)
lation of about 30 million people. Both countries, 35 44 85 (24.01%) 52 (15.71%)
therefore, are attracting the attention of many 45 54 25 (7.06%) 15 (4.53%)
55 and above 13 (3.67%) 15 (4.53%)
global brands (Leke & Sign
e, 2018) as they are Education
among the 11 countries that account for about Some primary school 11(3.15%) 4 (1.22%)
Senior high school/matric 127 (36.39%) 21 (6.4%)
80% of the total wealth and consumer expend- Professional/technical diploma 69 (19.77%) 106 (32.32%)
iture in Africa (Sign
e & Johnson, 2018). Bachelor’s degree/honours 115 (32.95%) 165 (50.3%)Postgraduate degree 27 (7.74%) 32 (9.76%)
However, both countries have made strides in Income
local production with South Africa having a Below R4,999/Below GHS999 74 (22.09%) 101 (35.31%)R5000–R15,999/GHS1,000–GHS2,999 103 (30.75%) 107 (37.41%)
more robust local manufacturing sector. R16,000–R29,000/GHS3000–GHS4,999 73 (21.79%) 38 (13.27%)
R30,000–R59,999/GH5,000–GHS8,999 58 (17.31%) 22 (7.7%)
Both countries also have a robust and growing R60,000–R89,000/GHS9,000–GHS12,999 14 (4.18%) 10 (3.5%)
middle class pursuing a globalized lifestyle that is R90,000 and over/GHS13,000 and over 13 (3.88%) 8 (2.81%)
comparable to lifestyles in more industrialized NB: Disparities with overall sample sizes are due to missing cases on
each variable.
countries (Burgess, 2003). However, being collect-
ivistic in cultural orientation, emphasis is typic- South Africa and 331 for Ghana. The effective
ally placed on group rather than individual sample sex distribution was 42% male from
interests (Darley et al., 2013; Gyekye, 1992; South Africa and 54% male from Ghana. The
Schwartz, 2006), creating room for some default sample was generally young, with the majority
attention for local brands. In addition, consumers falling in the 18–34 age bracket (South Africa ¼
in both countries are targets of frequent and 65%; Ghana ¼ 75%). In terms of education, as
ongoing campaigns and conversations on high as 89% of respondents had completed senior
national platforms about consuming local brands high school or higher for both South African and
to give boost to their economies. Together, these Ghanaian respondents. About 70% of South
make South Africa and Ghana unique and African respondents earn between R5000 ($335)
dynamic markets to investigate our issues of inter- to R59, 999 ($4,079.93), whereas roughly 58% of
est and test our conceptual model. Ghanaian respondents earned between GHS
Data collection was done using the mall inter- 1,000 ($185) to GHS 8,999 ($1,665) as monthly
cept approach. Trained field workers with experi- income. Income levels are comparatively higher
ence in survey administration recruited respondents in South Africa than Ghana, hence the disparities.
in five shopping malls in Johannesburg, South Table 1 provides the full details of the sample
Africa, and four shopping malls in Accra, Ghana. characteristics.
The target malls were spread across the capital cit- We used low involvement products as the focal
ies to enhance representativeness. The selected product category in both countries (Riefler,
malls stock both local and global brands and are 2012). In South Africa we used laundry deter-
frequented largely by middle class individuals. gents – Maq detergent as the local and Ariel as
Research assistants approached people as they the global brand. For Ghana, we used soft drink
entered or exited the mall to introduce the study brands (hedonic product) – Special Cola (local
and solicit voluntary participation. Upon consent, brand) and Coca-Cola (global brand). Different
respondents were handed the questionnaire to com- product categories were used in the two countries
plete (Xie et al., 2015; Zolfagharian et al., 2014). because these brands reflect two competing local
A total of 385 surveys were completed in and global brand offerings in each country. Low
South Africa and 347 in Ghana. Missing involvement product categories are common in
responses led to the exclusion of some question- international marketing research (Ozsomer, 2012;
naires leaving a final usable sample of 360 for Riefler, 2012).
380 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
Measures The measures for consumer perceived value
Measures used in this study were drawn from tapped respondents’ evaluations of how well a
extant literature and anchored on seven-point given brand meets their value tradeoff expecta-
Likert-type scales: 1¼ strongly disagree to tions in terms of functional and psychological
7¼ strongly agree. Following Strizhakova and value. Items were derived from Walsh et al.
Coulter (2015, p. 1), we operationalize local brands (2014) and Swoboda and Hirschmann (2016).
as those brands “sold under a given name in one Finally, a measure for globalization attitudes was
country or local region” while global brands are adopted from Spears et al. (2004) and used as a
those brands “sold under the same name in mul- covariate. Table 2 shows the measurement items.
tiple countries around the world.” The dependent
variables, local brand preference and global brand Analysis and results
preference, were measured as a consumer’s readi- Measurement model validation
ness to choose a local versus global brand
(O€zsomer, 2012; Zeugner-Roth et al., 2015). To validate the measurement model, and follow-
Cultural identity refers to a broad range of ing Anderson and Gerbing (1988), we conducted
beliefs about one’s self-perceptions based on a series of confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) for
membership in a symbolic group or community. South Africa and Ghana independently, including
Cultural identity can be construed as global (i.e. a multi-group CFA, followed by structural path
worldwide, universal) community, or local (i.e., analysis with Mplus 8.3. The overall measurement
national, traditional) community and as the mix- model showed a good fit of the models for the
2
ing of both global and local identities two countries (South Africa: v ¼ 604.67, df ¼
2
(Strizhakova & Coulter, 2019; Westjohn et al., 373, p ¼ .00, v /df ¼ 1.62, Root Mean Squared
2012). As such, we define cultural identity as Error of Approximation [RMSEA] ¼ .04,
consumers’ local and global identification. Thus, Comparative Fit Index [CFI] ¼ .95, and Tucker-
local identity was measured with five items, while Lewis Index [TLI] ¼ .94, and Standardized Root
global identity was measured with three items Mean Square Residual [SRMR] ¼ .05); Ghana:
2
from Zhang and Khare (2009). v ¼ 551.53, df ¼ 372, p ¼ .00, v2/df ¼ 1.48,
PBG and PBL were measured with three items RMSEA ¼ .04; CFI ¼ .96; TLI ¼ .95; SRMR ¼
each from Steenkamp et al. (2003) by which .05 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Table 2 highlights the
respondents indicated whether they viewed psychometric properties of all the scale items
selected brands as either local or global. The with their standardized loadings, composite reli-
brands were selected after consulting with some abilities, Cronbach’s Alpha’s and average variance
consumers in the local market to ascertain their extracted estimates for both countries.
judgment of whether the focal local brand was We employed standard procedures to determine
believed to be unique to and symbolic of the convergent and discriminant validity of the con-
domestic country. In contrast, the focal global structs (see Table 2). First, the standardized load-
brand was assessed to determine whether con- ings for each item was strong (k > .60) and
sumers believed that the brand was global and loaded their respective constructs for both South
available in multiple countries. We follow the Africa and Ghana. Composite reliability (CR)
approach by Ozsomer (2012), where separate scores for the measures in both countries ranged
brands were used to tap into brand globalness from .75 to .96, thereby exceeding the minimum
and localness. Steenkamp et al. (2003) opine that recommended boundary of .70. Also, the average
consumers perception of a product’s globalness variance extracted (.51.85) for the measures were
or localness per se offer added value and benefits higher than the minimum recommended bound-
different from associations the brand may have ary of .50, thus confirming convergent validity
such as higher quality and prestige for global (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Second, Tables 3 and 4
brands, and deeper awareness of local needs and show that the square root of the average variance
authenticity for local brands. extracted for each construct is higher than the
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 381
Table 2. Measurement items.
South Africa (N¼ 360) Ghana (N¼ 331)
Constructs and measurement items k CR AVE CA k CR AVE CA
Global identity (Zhang & Khare, 2009)
I care about knowing about global events. 0.62 0.74 0.49 0.82 0.62 0.72 0.46 0.77
I identify that I am a global citizen. 0.60 0.76
I believe people should be made more aware of how connected 0.85 0.64
we are to the rest of the world.
Local identity (Zhang & Khare, 2009)
I feel very proud to associate with South African /Ghanaian culture 0.71 0.80 0.44 0.87 0.65 0.80 0.45 0.84
I get together with other South Africans/Ghanaians very often. 0.57 0.75
I have many South Africans/Ghanaians with whom I am very close. 0.74 0.66
I respect my local traditions 0.53 0.66
I care about knowing local events. 0.74 0.63
Perceived Brand Globalness (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Swoboda et al., 2012)
To me, Ariel/Coca-Cola is a global brand. 0.82 0.84 0.64 0.93 0.77 0.81 0.59 0.91
I do think consumers in other parts of the world buy Ariel/Coca-Cola. 0.76 0.74
Ariel/Coca-Cola is sold all over the world. 0.82 0.80
Perceived Brand Localness (Steenkamp et al., 2003; Swoboda et al., 2012)
I associate Maq detergent/Special cola with things that are South African/Ghanaian. 0.69 0.86 0.67 0.85 0.78 0.85 0.65 0.94
To me, Maq detergent/Special cola represents what South Africa/Ghana is about 0.92 0.81
To me, Maq detergent/Special cola is a good symbol of South Africa/Ghana. 0.82 0.82
Consumer perceived value (Swoboda et al., 2012; Walsh et al., 2014)
Maq detergent/Special Cola has consistent quality 0.75 0.88 0.55 0.89 0.76 0.90 0.60 0.92
Maq detergent/Special Cola is well made. 0.78 0.84
Maq detergent/Special Cola is a brand that I would enjoy eating. 0.82 0.89
Maq detergent/Special Cola makes me feel good. 0.78 0.82
Maq detergent/Special Cola offers value for money. 0.72 0.74
Maq detergent/Special Cola is a good product for the price. 0.57 0.55
Globalization attitude (Spears et al., 2004)
Increased economic globalization …
… encourages a high level of personal freedom and choice. 0.81 0.84 0.57 0.90 0.64 0.85 0.59 0.80
… leads to quality and technical advances. 0.82 0.74
… provides consumers with the goods and services they want. 0.73 0.89
… maximizes consumer choice for products and services. 0.63 0.78
Global brand preference (O€zsomer, 2012)
I am willing to buy products made by Ariel/Coca-Cola. 0.86 0.93 0.81 0.87 0.66 0.86 0.68 0.84
It is very likely that I would buy Ariel/Coca-Cola the next me I buy soft drink/detergent. 0.91 0.92
I would certainly buy Ariel/Coca-Cola if it was available. 0.92 0.87
Local brand preference (O€zsomer, 2012)
The next time that I buy soft drink/detergent, I would choose Special Cola/Maq. 0.93 0.94 0.85 0.92 0.93 0.93 0.82 0.84
It is very likely that I would buy Special Cola/Maq in the future. 0.89 0.88
I will consider Special Cola/Maq for my next purchase. 0.94 0.90
CFA Model fit indicators: South Africa v2 (d.f.) ¼ 604.670 (373); RMSEA ¼ 0.04; CFI ¼ 0.95; TLI ¼ 0.94; SRMR ¼ 0.05; Ghana v2 (d.f.) ¼ 551.526 (372);
RMSEA ¼ 0.04; CFI ¼ 0.96; TLI ¼ 0.95; SRMR ¼ 0.05; k ¼ standardized factor loading, CR¼ composite reliability, AVE¼ average variance extracted,
CA¼ Cronbach’s alpha. South Africa: product category – detergent; global brand – Ariel; local brand: Maq; Ghana: product category – soft drink; global
brand – Coca-Cola; local brand: special Cola.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics and inter-construct correlations – South Africa.
# Constructs Mean SD CR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Global identity 5.34 0.24 0.74 (0.70)
2 Local identity 5.65 0.75 0.80 0.50 (0.66)
3 Perceived brand globalness 4.64 1.62 0.84 0.13 –0.00 (0.80)
4 Perceived brand localness 4.40 1.61 0.86 0.20 0.31 0.15 (0.82)
5 Consumer perceived value 4.43 1.03 0.88 0.12 0.17 0.00 0.45 (0.74)
6 Global brand preference 4.67 1.86 0.93 0.17 0.05 0.28 –0.04 –0.12 (0.90)
7 Local brand preference 4.08 2.87 0.94 0.13 0.13 –0.09 0.39 0.67 –0.12 (0.92)
8 Globalization attitudes 5.39 1.16 0.84 0.38 0.40 0.03 0.21 0.10 0.13 –0.01 (0.75)
Note. N¼ 360; SD¼ Standard Deviation; CR¼ composite reliability; square root of AVEs are on the diagonal.
inter-construct correlations (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012; Podsakoff et al. (2003), we adopted both proced-
Fornell & Larcker, 1981), thus confirming discrim- ural and statistical remedies to address CMV.
inant validity in South Africa and Ghana. The procedural remedies included the adoption
Common method variance (CMV) poses a of previously validated scales to measure con-
considerable threat to studies undertaken through structs. Instructions were included in the survey
cross-sectional research because they can bias the instrument that encouraged respondents to
results (Podsakoff et al., 2003). Following respond honestly and assured anonymity.
382 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
Table 4. Descriptive statistics and inter-construct correlations – Ghana.
# Constructs Mean SD CR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 Global identity 5.43 0.72 0.72 (0.68)
2 Local identity 5.66 0.80 0.80 0.77 (0.67)
3 Perceived brand globalness 5.13 1.60 0.81 0.34 0.28 (0.77)
4 Perceived brand localness 5.33 1.98 0.85 0.42 0.60 0.43 (0.81)
5 Consumer perceived value 5.27 1.05 0.90 0.40 0.60 0.25 0.39 (0.77)
6 Global brand preference 4.42 1.11 0.86 0.22 0.06 0.17 0.02 –0.16 (0.82)
7 Local brand preference 5.54 2.43 0.93 0.28 0.54 0.10 0.32 0.75 –0.28 (0.91)
8 Globalization attitudes 5.53 0.91 0.85 0.67 0.65 0.43 0.41 0.47 0.14 0.33 (0.77)
Note. N¼ 331; SD¼ Standard Deviation; CR¼ composite reliability; square root of AVEs are on the diagonal.
Table 5. Measurement invariance testing. measurement intercepts are made invariant,
RMSEA allowing factor mean and factor intercept com-
Model X2 df P value (Prob  .05) CFI parisons across groups (Muth
en & Asparouhov,
Configural 1432.433 746 .000 .056(.048) .94 2018). Table 6 presents a summary of
Metric 1490.297 768 .000 .056(.048) .94
Scalar 1688.565 790 .000 .061(.054) .92 MGCFA results.
Metric vs configural 57.865 22 .000 Overall, the configural invariance of the two-
Scalar vs configural 256.132 44 .000
2
Scalar vs metric 198.267 22 .000 group CFA produces a reasonable model fit: v ¼
1432.433, d.f. ¼ 746, p ¼ .00, RMSEA ¼ .05; CFI
The statistical remedy used a confirmatory fac- ¼ .94; TLI ¼ .93. Thus, the findings support the
tor analysis based on Harman’s single factor. partial invariance of the factor pattern (configural
The CFA was used to ascertain whether a single invariance), the partial invariance of the factor
latent factor could fit the data better than a mul- loadings (invariance), and the partial invariance
tifactor model (Malhotra, Kim, & Patil, 2006). of the error terms (scalar invariance) of all the
Exceptionally poor fit was observed for the single model constructs. Hence, the measurement mod-
factor in both countries. These results was com- els for South Africa and Ghana are acceptable.
pared with the multifactor model, providing con-
firmation that the latter is better and that CMV Hypothesis testing
does not seem to pose any problem in
both countries. The results from the structural model are pre-
sented in Table 6 and Figure 2, which show the
Cross-national measurement validation parameters for the hypothesized paths, covariates
Since two countries were involved in this study, and the goodness-of-fit scores for each sample
we performed measurement invariance testing and aggregate sample. The model fit estimates
using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis were satisfactory (South Africa: v2 ¼ 634.42, d.f.
(MGCFA). Measurement invariance was per- ¼ 386, p ¼ .00, RMSEA ¼ .04, CFI ¼ .94, TLI ¼
formed to confirm that the questionnaire does .93, SRMR ¼ .06; Ghana: v2 ¼ 589.44, d.f. ¼
reasonably measure the same construct in the 385, p ¼ .00, RMSEA ¼ .04, CFI ¼ .95, TLI ¼
same way between the South African and .94, SRMR ¼ .06).
Ghanaian samples (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). As predicted, consumer global identity is posi-
Configural, metric (i.e., weak factorial invariance) tively related to PBG (South Africa: b ¼ .13,
and scalar (i.e., strong factorial invariance) assess- t¼ 1.78, p < .10; Ghana: b ¼ .46, t¼ 6.39, p <
ments of the eight-factor model were performed. .01). This supports H1a, although the effect is
With the configural invariance estimation, no greater in the Ghanaian sample. Also, consistent
equality restrictions across groups are imposed with our prediction in H1b, consumer local iden-
for the parameters. On the other hand, metric tity is positively related to PBL. This finding is
invariance imposes equality on the values of the consistent across the two countries (South Africa:
factor loadings across the groups. This allows a b ¼ .33, t¼ 6.43, p < .01; Ghana: b ¼ .61,
cross-group comparison of factor invariances and t¼ 10.13, p < .01).
structural associations in SEM. The scalar invari- The results also show that global identity pre-
ance indicates that both factor loadings and dicts global brand preference in both countries
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 383
Table 6. Structural parameter estimates and goodness-of-fit indices.
South Africa Ghana Total sample
Hypothesized path b t-values b T-values b T-values
H1a: Global identity ! Perceived brand globalness 0.13 1.78† 0.46 6.39 0.29 5.18
H1b: Local identity ! Perceived brand localness 0.33 6.43 0.61 10.13 0.46 11.00
H2a: Global identity ! Global brand preference 0.16 2.18 0.31 2.06 0.59 9.48
H2b: Local identity ! Local brand preference 0.07 1.18 0.17 1.80† 0.10 1.98
H3a: Perceived brand globalness !Consumer perceived value –0.09 –1.35 0.03 0.33 0.04 0.91
H3b: Perceived brand localness ! Consumer perceived value 0.48 7.72 0.94 7.30 0.51 11.87
H4a: Consumer perceived value ! Global brand preference –0.15 –2.23 –0.34 4.47 –0.24 –4.86
H4b: Consumer perceived value ! Local brand preference 0.68 17.13 0.69 –9.75 0.76 29.41
Covariates
Globalization attitudes ! Global brand preference 0.08 1.14 0.07 0.51 0.04 0.62
Globalization attitudes ! Local brand preference –0.11 –2.11 –0.11 –1.54 –0.12 –3.04
SEM goodness of fit measures
v2 634.423 589.444 730.843
d.f. 386 385 383
RMSEA 0.04 0.04 0.04
CFI 0.94 0.95 0.96
TLI 0.93 0.94 0.95
SRMR 0.06 0.06 0.06
Figure 2. SEM path model with coefficients.
(South Africa: b ¼ .16, t¼ 2.18, p < . 05; Ghana: relationship between the PBG and CPV of the
b ¼ .31, t¼ 2.06, p < .05), supporting H2a. local brand is negative (as expected) but non-sig-
However, while local identity marginally influen- nificant for South African consumers (b ¼ .09,
ces local brand preference in Ghana (b ¼ .17, t ¼ 1.35, p > .05), and positive and non-sig-
t¼ 1.80, p < .10), the relationship is not signifi- nificant for Ghanaian consumers b ¼ .03, t ¼
cant among the South African sample (b ¼ .07, .33, p > .05). However, H3b, which argued that
t¼ 1.18, p > .05). Accordingly, H2b is par- perceived localness of a brand should relate posi-
tially supported. tively to consumer perception of value in other
Moreover, we hypothesized that the ways con- local brands found support in the data. As pre-
sumers perceive brands, either as global or local, dicted, the relationship between the PBL and
will influence their perception of value in local CPV of local brands is significant and positive in
brands. Specifically, we expected, in H3a, that a both countries (South Africa: b ¼ .48, t¼ 7.72, p
brand’s perceived globalness will reduce the per- < .01; Ghana: b ¼ .94, t¼ 7.30, p < .01). Lastly,
ceived value of a competing local brand. The H4 hypothesized the effects of consumers’ per-
findings do not fully support H3a as the ceived value of local brands on preference for
384 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
foreign (H4a) versus local brands (H4b). As pre- with a more global lens and vice versa corroborat-
dicted, the CPV of a local brand is negatively ing findings by Balabanis et al. (2019). Cultural
related to preference for a competing global identity offers a frame from which consumers
brand (South Africa: b ¼ .15, t ¼ 2.23, p < assess and form impressions about brands, and
.05; Ghana: b ¼ .34, t ¼ 4.47, p < .01), lend- also how they respond to global and local posi-
ing support to H4a. The study also found support tioning cues in brands’ communication efforts.
for H4b which argued that the CPV of a local Clearly, and as argued by Diamantopoulos et al.
brand engenders preference for other local brands (2019), “who you are affects how you perceive
(South Africa: b ¼ .68, t¼ 17.13, p < .01; Ghana: marketplace stimuli” (p. 43).
b ¼ .69, t¼ 9.75, p < .01). The results also show that individuals’ cultural
identities predict their preference for local and
Discussion and conclusions global brands, albeit with some cross-country
nuances. In both samples, individuals who self-
In many emerging markets, consumers must fre- define as global citizens show a preference for
quently choose between global and local prod- global products. However, when it comes to the
ucts. The former often ride on their longevity link between local identity and local brand prefer-
and associations with quality and proven stand- ence, it is only marginally active among the
ards while the latter enjoy notional proximity to Ghanaian sample and not at all among the SA
the consumers. On the downside, local brands suf- sample. Similar indications of differences have pre-
fer associations with poor quality while foreign viously been reported. For instance, Strizhakova
products suffer from perceptions that they et al. (2008) reported that countries differ in how
threaten the viability of local economies. These consumers use signals of self-identity in choosing
(dis)advantages have been well documented in the global versus local brands.
literature (see O€zsomer, 2012; Strizhakova et al., We reason that historical advantages may have
2011; Swoboda et al., 2012; Xie et al., 2015). something to do with the difference observed.
Clearly, perceptions held about brands, Historically, African markets have been export
whether as global or local, matter in how emerg- destinations for products from industrialized
ing economy consumers make choices (Batra countries, thereby nurturing local tastes for
et al., 2000; Morgeson et al., 2015). This study imports (Agyenim-Boateng et al., 2015). It
argued that not only do such perceptions matter appears that this may have so conditioned local
but that their formation is preceded by factors citizens that even their imbibing a local identity
pertaining to how individual consumers view and may not have strongly eroded the love for
define themselves. Using two established IM the- imported goods of which global brands are part.
ories – cultural identity and consumer culture Further explanation (in this case of the cross-
theories – the study tested the veracity of a country difference) may lie with the extent of
model proposing links from individual identity economic integration of the two countries. South
through brand localness/globalness and value per- Africa being a larger and more globally integrated
ceptions to preference formation. Data from two market than Ghana (African Development Bank,
emerging African countries, South Africa and 2014), it is possible that her citizens may have
Ghana, were used to test the links. imbibed a more global lifestyle than in Ghana,
The findings validated the expectation that leading to their lower preference for local brands.
individuals’ cultural identities are strongly welded An additional explanation may come from the
to how they form perceptions about brand local- heavy hegemonic culture transfers into emerging
ness/globalness giving credence to the cultural markets which may have rendered even local
identity theory logic which shows that the identi- identity individuals to be so closely in contact
ties individuals construct of themselves shape with foreign lifestyles that it re-orients how their
how they interpret the world (Balabanis et al., identity cues impact their market behaviors.
2019; Oyserman, 2009). Per our findings, individ- The study also found partial support for the
uals with a global identity tend to view brands argument that consumers’ perception of brands,
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 385
as either global or local, informs their value per- advantage they can leverage provided their offer-
ceptions of local brands. On the one hand, we ings meet baseline value assessments.
find that the relationship between the PBG and
CPV of the local brand is weak and varies across Practical implications
countries (negative in South Africa and positive
in Ghana). In other words, where consumers The findings of this study portend a number of
interpret brands through a global lens, it does guidelines for brand managers and communica-
not necessarily temper with their value percep- tors. Given the finding that consumers’ self-defin-
tions of competing local offerings. This contrasts ition shapes their perceptions about products and
current theorizing that the value of local brands brands, and subsequently their preferences, brand
can be susceptible to perceptions held about glo- managers need to pay more attention to their
bal ones (O€zsomer, 2012; Strizhakova et al., 2008; segmentation practices. Particularly for local
Swoboda et al., 2012). While the quality associa- brands seeking a bite of the advantage long
tions global brands enjoy are known to present a acquired by their foreign rivals, the findings place
corresponding challenge to local brands value on emphasizing cues of cultural proximity
(Steenkamp et al., 2003), the effect may be sub- and shared fortunes in promotional activities and
ject to contextual differences. In addition, the targeting these to consumers with a local identity.
cultural currency and shared fortunes that local These individuals are more sensitive to such cues
brands represent may activate strong value in and also more amenable to the value they prom-
local brands to give them stability in their com- ise. Accordingly, promotional efforts should
petition against a global brand. As O€zsomer deploy emotional appeals that emphasize local
(2012) argues, local cultural cues engender cul- symbols and cultural values to create connections
tural proximity that enhance the attractiveness of with consumers (Steenkamp et al., 2003;
local products. Steenkamp, 2019; Swoboda et al., 2012). Brand
In contrast, the relationship between PBL and managers who can invoke cultural meanings,
CPV of local brands is significant and positive in authenticity and a sense of traditional affinity will
both countries, giving further impetus to our rea- enjoy the psychological benefits of their high
soning in the preceding paragraph. The thinking localness (He & Wang, 2015; Ozsomer, 2012; Xie
that brands viewed with a local lens benefit from et al., 2015). While global consumer culture
ethnocentric associations is widely accepted exerts a significant impact on most domestic
(O€zsomer, 2012; Steenkamp, 2019). This is markets, local consumer culture still remains a
because the cultural roots local brands share with strong cultural force in today’s marketplace
consumers facilitate value perceptions via func- (Steenkamp, 2019). Marketers in emerging
tional and emotional considerations (O€zsomer, African markets should capitalize on their unique
2012; Steenkamp, 2019). awareness of their local communities and their
Lastly, the study found support for the flexibility to adapt to changing consumer needs
hypothesized links between the perceived value of to achieve strong competitive advantage. The
local brands and preference. Specifically, the find- local identity effects of local brands should be
ings show that when consumers perceive local emphasized as part of the local consumer culture
brands to be of high value, their preference leans positioning (Guo & Hong; 2018; Ozsomer, 2012;
toward them and away from foreign products. Westjohn et al., 2012)
This consolidates the established links between However, this by itself will not necessarily
CPV and preference (Wang, 2013) to show that deliver a higher preference for local brands. The
where product evaluations position local offerings litmus test for this, it appears, is for such brands
as comparable to global ones, the former gains in to emphasize their comparability with foreign
competitive advantage (Guijun et al., 2006; Saffu brands in terms of the value they offer. As the
& Walker, 2006). We reckon, therefore, that the findings show, the perception of value in local
cultural roots local brands share with consumers brands is positively related to preference for such
(O€zsomer, 2012; Steenkamp et al., 2003) are an brands and inversely related to preference for
386 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
competing global ones. Extant studies show that expanding urban populations who pursue life-
consumer perception of brand localness works styles similar to those in Western societies
effectively through psychological value mechan- (Strizhakova et al., 2008). The ability to encour-
ism to influence purchase likelihood (Swoboda age global brand preferences to global identity
et al., 2012). Consistent with findings in this further encourages segmentation strategies that
study, local brand managers should capitalize on focus on global consumer culture norms.
the psychological value route to local brand pref- However, as local brands gain comparability in
erence (Sign
e & Johnson, 2018). The psycho- terms of the value offered, this will erode the
logical benefit of being symbolic of local country preference such brands command among global
delivers value that only local brands can appro- identity consumers. To that extent, such brands
priate (Alden et al., 1999; Ozsomer, 2012; may consider alternative positioning strategies
Steenkamp et al., 2003). Thus, once local brands beyond their globalness. Glocal or hybridized
are effectively positioned as offering psychological positioning may be effective, allowing them to
and functional value that is unique to competing leverage their globalness while grounding them in
global brands, the cultural group allegiances of the unique cultural context (Steenkamp, 2019;
such consumers will be activated to shape prefer- Strizhakova & Coulter, 2019; Xie et al., 2015),
ence. Such strategy improves the attractiveness of reducing the emotional advantages local brands
local brands so that consumers with salient local unleash by establishing baseline comparability. If
identity would see value in them. Accordingly, having favorable local attributes work to the
local brands seeking to compete against foreign benefit of established local brands, then it appears
brands may need to pay closer attention to their that global brands in emerging markets may need
positioning cues and emphasize their localness. to build local ties and invoke them in promo-
For global brands in emerging markets, the tional messages. For instance, instead of entry
findings suggest that emphasizing globalness cues strategies emphasizing exports (Nemkova et al.,
in their positioning strategies are very effective as 2012), setting up local factories to produce locally
it attracts the attention of those individuals with branded offerings may facilitate semblance of the
a global identity and subsequently shapes their shared heritage with consumers (Ang
preference (Swoboda et al., 2012; Westjohn et al., et al., 2000).
2012). Global brand managers stand to benefit in The study samples in both countries are mil-
Africa if they position their brands to appeal to lenials. Africa’s young populations are increas-
global identity consumers since they appreciate ingly urban and affluent compared to populations
the opportunity to become global citizens in other developing and developed regions (Sign
e
through global brand consumption (Halkias & Johnson, 2018). Analysts observe that Africa’s
et al., 2016; Strizhakova et al., 2008; Strizhakova population is increasing at an average of 2.2%,
& Coulter, 2019). The myth of global brand ori- greater than twice that of Asia, and approxi-
gins and membership to an aspired-to global mately two-thirds of its residents are below
community are attractive psychological benefits 25 years (Sign
e, 2020). These forecasts bolster
in emerging markets due to the allure of global- Africa’s positive demographic outlook. Hence,
ization (Alden et al., 1999; Batra et al., 2000; with globalized millenial consumers, global and
Steenkamp, 2019). Steenkamp (2019) notes that local brands can benefit greatly from these unique
as globalization processes stalls due to recent consumer groups (Strizhakova et al., 2012).
trends, global brands should emphasize the local
relevance to remain attractive. Global consumer
culture is active in emerging African markets. Limitations and directions for future research
Hence, brand positioning that emphasizes global The findings outlined here are by no means a
identity will make the brand attractive for being complete account of global and local brand pref-
global per se. Global consumer culture appeals erence, especially in emerging African markets.
will still work in emerging African markets where They are constrained by some limitations that
income levels are growing among a vibrant and also point to directions for future research. First,
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 387
although the study attempts to draw responses Experimental designs that manipulate relevant
from two emerging African countries, this is not factors would be essential to advance our under-
adequate to account for varying consumer global standing and validate our research findings
and local cultural orientations that may explain (Davvetas & Diamantopoulos, 2016).
behavior across Africa. Future research may Third, the paper highlights the need to
benefit from drawing insights from several advance research relating to the idea of the per-
African countries in a large-scale study. African ceived value of local brands. The international
countries are poorly represented in the inter- marketing literature focuses disproportionately on
national marketing research literature (Leonidou the perceived value of global brands. However, we
et al., 2018). Hence, such efforts would provide a show that consumers’ perceived value of local
much-needed enrichment of our understanding brands seems to shed light on their attitudes and
of global-local brand preferences in Africa. Also, preference for global relative to local brands.
replicating this study in other African countries Researchers are therefore encouraged to investigate
or emerging markets is crucial to demonstrate further the underlying mechanisms that promote
the generalizability of our findings. At the same appreciation of value in local brands beyond per-
time, a comparative study of emerging African ceived brand localness as established in this study
and advanced Western markets would make for (O€zsomer, 2012; Swoboda et al., 2012).
an equally important research avenue. Finally, future researchers are encouraged to
Second, the research is based on two (global test the relational effects of cultural identity and
and local) brands in each country. Broadening brand globalness and localness on one hand, and
the product categories to include high involve-
the impact of cultural variables on the other.
ment vs. low involvement and experiential/
Schwartz (2006) cultural value orientation offers
hedonic, symbolic and utilitarian products would
exciting avenues for exploring the role of the pre-
potentially show differences in consumer con-
vailing values in emerging markets in condition-
sumption orientations and choice patterns. The
study could also benefit from using a paired ing the effects of global and local identity on the
choice approach where respondents would evalu- established outcomes. For example, consumers
ate competing pairs of local and global brands in who place high emphasis on embeddedness ver-
different product categories (Ozsomer, 2012; sus autonomy may express a stronger local than
Swoboda et al., 2012). We recognize that this global identity to influence local relative to global
study is constrained by the varied conditions brand preferences. Alternatively, high autonomy
under which all the hypotheses may be tenable. individuals are more likely to emphasize their
Hence, future replication studies that occur in global than local identity to influence global rela-
different contexts with different products catego- tive to global brand preferences. The relational
ries and under unique study conditions are rec- influence of cultural value orientation on the per-
ommended to enrich our understanding. ceived globalness and localness of brands holds
Future research should also use actual prefer- strong promise for international marketing
ence data to ascertain whether globalness or research in accounting for contextual predictors
localness of brands exerts the greatest effect. of global versus local brand preferences in emerg-
Moreover, while the study sought to determine ing and advanced markets.
the extent to which PBL and PBG influenced
perceived value of local brands, it would be ORCID
beneficial for future studies to evaluate similar
mechanism for perceived value for global Abena A. Yeboah-Banin http://orcid.org/0000-0002-
6947-0452
brands. In that way, the best route for explaining
consumer perceived value of local relative to glo-
bal brands will be ascertained. Relatedly, this References
study was based on a correlational design, limit- Aaker, J. L., Benet-Martinez, V., & Garolera, J. (2001).
ing the opportunity to make causal inferences. Consumption symbols as carriers of culture: A study of
388 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
Japanese and Spanish brand personality constructs. Journal nonlocal origin on consumer attitudes in developing
of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(3), 492–508. countries. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(2), 83–95.
African Development Bank. (2014). Comparing the real size Burgess, S. M. (2003). Within-country diversity: Is it the
of African economies: Highlights of the main findings of key to South Africa’s prosperity in a changing world?
the 2011 Round of the International Comparison Program International Journal of Advertising, 22(2), 157–182.
in Africa. Retrieved May 29, 2020, from https://www.afdb. https://doi.org/10.1080/02650487.2003.11072847
org/sites/default/files/2019/08/27/highlights_-_comparing_ Burgess, S. M., & Steenkamp, J.-B E. (2013). Editorial:
the_real_size_of_africa_economies_-_main_results_of_the_ Introduction to the special issue on marketing in emerg-
2011_round_of_the_international_comparison_program_ ing markets. International Journal of Research in
icp_.pdf Marketing, 30(1), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.
Agyenim-Boateng, Y., Benson-Armer, R., & Russo, B. 2013.01.001
(2015). Winning in Africa’s consumer market. Retrieved Cleveland, M., Laroche, M., & Papadopoulos, N. (2009).
June 2, 2017, from http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/ Cosmopolitanism, consumer ethnocentrism, and materi-
consumer-packaged-goods/our-insights/winning-in-africas- alism: An eight-country study of antecedents and out-
consumer-market comes. Journal of International Marketing, 17(1),
Alden, D. L., Steenkamp, J.-B. E., & Batra, R. (1999). Brand 116–146. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.17.1.116
positioning through advertising in Asia, North America, Darley, W. K., Luethge, D. J., & Blankson, C. (2013).
and Europe: The role of global consumer culture. Journal Culture and international marketing: A sub-Saharan
of Marketing, 63(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1177/ African context. Journal of Global Marketing, 26(4),
002224299906300106 188–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/08911762.2013.814819
Alden, D. L., Steenkamp, J.-B. E., & Batra, R. (2006). Davvetas, V., & Diamantopoulos, A. (2016). How product
Consumer attitudes toward marketplace globalization: category shapes preferences toward global and local
Structure, antecedents and consequences. International brands: A schema theory perspective. Journal of
International Marketing, 24(4), 61–81. https://doi.org/10.
Journal of Research in Marketing, 23(3), 227–239. https://
1509/jim.15.0110
doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2006.01.010
De Meulenaer, S., Dens, N., & De Pelsmacker, P. (2015).
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equa-
Which cues cause consumers to perceive brands as more
tion modeling in practice: A review and recommended
global? A conjoint analysis. International Marketing
two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3),
Review, 32(6), 606–626. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-04-
411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
2014-0144
Ang, S. H., Leong, S. M., & Kotler, P. (2000). The Asian
Diamantopoulos, A., Davvetas, V., Bartsch, F., Mandler, T.,
apocalypse: Crisis marketing for consumers and busi-
Arslanagic-Kalajdzic, M., & Eisend, M. (2019). On the
nesses. Long Range Planning, 33(1), 97–119. https://doi. interplay between consumer dispositions and perceived
org/10.1016/S0024-6301(99)00100-4 brand globalness: Alternative theoretical perspectives and
Appiah, O. (2001). Ethnic identification on adolescents’ eval- empirical assessment. Journal of International Marketing,
uations of advertisements. Journal of Advertising Research, 27(4), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069031X19865527
41(5), 7–22. https://doi.org/10.2501/JAR-41-5-7-22 Forehand, M. R., Deshpand
e, R., & Reed, A. II. (2002).
Arnould, E. J., & Thompson, C. J. (2005). Consumer Identity salience and the influence of differential activa-
Culture Theory (CCT): Twenty years of research. Journal tion of the social self-schema on advertising response.
of Consumer Research, 31(4), 868–880. https://doi.org/10. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(6), 1086–1099. https://
1086/426626 doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1086
Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (2012). Specification, evaluation, Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural
and interpretation of structural equation models. Journal equation models with unobservable variables and meas-
of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 8–34. https:// urement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1),
doi.org/10.1007/s11747-011-0278-x 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
Balabanis, G., Stathopoulou, A., & Qiao, J. (2019). Ger, G. (1999). Localizing in the global village: Local firms
Favoritism toward foreign and domestic brands: A com- competing in global markets. California Management
parison of different theoretical explanations. Journal of Review, 41(4), 64–83. https://doi.org/10.2307/41166010
International Marketing, 27(2), 38–55. https://doi.org/10. Gerth, K. (2003). China made: Consumer culture and the
1177/1069031X19837945 creation of the nation. Harvard Univ Asia Center, 224.
Bartsch, F., Riefler, P., & Diamantopoulos, A. (2016). A tax- Guijun, Z., Nan, Z., & Lianxi, Z. (2006). National-brand
onomy and review of positive consumer dispositions consciousness, brand characteristics, and consumers’ pref-
toward foreign countries and globalization. Journal of erence for indigenous brands. Management World, 7(7),
International Marketing, 24(1), 82–110. https://doi.org/10. 85–114.
1509/jim.15.0021 Guo, X., & Hong, Y. Y. (2018). How do consumers from
Batra, R., Ramaswamy, V., Alden, D. L., Steenkamp, J.-B. developed regions evaluate global brands from emerging
E., & Ramachander, S. (2000). Effects of brand local and countries? An investigation from the perspective of
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 389
global–local identity. Journal of Contemporary Marketing Micevski, M., Halkias, G. & Herz, M. (2019). Multiple con-
Science, 1(1), 2–21. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCMARS-08- sumer identities and the crossover effect of the EU iden-
2018-0008 tity in predicting domestic and foreign product
Gyekye, K. (1992). African cultural values: An introduction. preferences. Journal of Business Research, 104, 622–631.
Sankofa Publishing Company. Morgeson, III, F. V., Sharma, P. N., & Hult, G. T. M.
Halkias, G., Davvetas, V., & Diamantopoulos, A. (2016). (2015). Cross-national differences in consumer satisfac-
The interplay between country stereotypes and perceived tion: Mobile services in emerging and developed markets.
brand globalness/localness as drivers of brand preference. Journal of International Marketing, 23(2), 1–24. https://
Journal of Business Research, 69(9), 3621–3628. https:// doi.org/10.1509/jim.14.0127
doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2016.03.022 Muth
en, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2018). Recent methods for the
He, J., & Wang, C. L. (2015). Cultural identity and con- study of measurement invariance with many groups: align-
sumer ethnocentrism impacts on preference and purchase ment and random effects. Sociological Methods & Research,
of domestic versus import brands: An empirical study in 47(4), 637–664. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124117701488
China. Journal of Business Research, 68(6), 1225–1233. Nemkova, E., Souchon, A. L., & Hughes, P. (2012). Export
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.11.017 decision-making orientation: an exploratory study.
Holt, D. B., Quelch, J. A., & Taylor, E. L. (2004). How con- International Marketing Review, 29(4), 349–378. https://
sumers value global brands. Harvard Business Review, doi.org/10.1108/02651331211242610
82(9), 68–75. Oyserman, D. (2009). Identity-based motivation and con-
Holt, D. B., Quelch, J. A., & Taylor, E. L. (2004). How glo- sumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(3),
bal brands compete. Harvard Business Review, 1–10. 276–279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2009.06.001
€
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit Ozsomer, A. (2012). The interplay between global and local
indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional brands: A closer look at perceived brand globalness and
criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation local iconness. Journal of International Marketing, 20(2),
Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. 72–95. https://doi.org/10.1509/jim.11.0105
€
[Database] https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 Ozsomer, A., & Altaras, S. (2008). Global brand purchase
Jensen, A. L. (2003). Coming of age in a multicultural likelihood: A critical synthesis and an integrated concep-
tual framework. Journal of International Marketing, 16(4),
world: Globalization and adolescent cultural identity for-
1–28. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.16.4.1
mation. Applied Developmental Science, 7(3), 189–196.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff,
Leke, A., & Sign
e, L. (2018). Africa’s untapped business
N. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research:
potential: countries, sectors, and strategies. Retrieved
A critical review of the literature and recommended rem-
August 3, 2020, from https://sites.psu.edu/global/files/
edies. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903.
2019/11/Africas-potential-2019.pdf
https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Leonidou, L. C., Katsikeas, C. S., Samiee, S., & Aykol, B.
Rao, A., & Ruekert, R. W. (1994). Brand alliances as signals
(2018). International marketing research: A state-of-the-art of product quality. Sloan Management Review, 36(1),
review and the way forward. In L. C. Leonidou et al. (Ed.), 87–97.
Advances in global marketing. Springer International Reed, A., Forehand, M. R., Puntoni, S., & Warlop, L.
Publishing. (2012). Identity-based consumer behaviour. International
Liang, B., Runyan, R. C., & Fu, W. (2011). The effect of cul- Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(4), 310–321. https://
ture on the context of ad pictures and ad persuasion: The doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.08.002
role of context-dependent and context-independent Riefler, P. (2012). Why consumers do (not) like global
thinking. International Marketing Review, 28(4), 412–434. brands: The role of globalization attitude, GCO and glo-
https://doi.org/10.1108/02651331111149958 bal brand origin. International Journal of Research in
Malhotra, N., Kim, S. S., & Patil, A. (2006). Common Marketing, 29(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijres-
method variance in IS research: A comparison of alterna- mar.2011.11.001
tive approaches and a reanalysis of past research. Saffu, K., & Walker, J. (2006). The country-of-origin effect
Management Science, 52(12), 1865–1883. https://doi.org/ and consumer attitudes to “buy local” campaign: The
10.1287/mnsc.1060.0597 Ghanaian case. Journal of African Business, 7(1–2),
McKinsey Global Institute. 2016. Lions on the Move II: 183–199. https://doi.org/10.1300/J156v07n01_09
Realizing the Potential of Africa’s Economies. McKinsey & Schuiling, I., & Kapferer, J.-N. (2004). Real differences
Company. Accessed 25 July 2020 from https://www.mckin- between local and international brands: Strategic implica-
sey.com/featured-insights/middle-east-and-africa/lions-on- tions for international marketers. Journal of International
the-move-realizing-the-potential-of-africas-economies. Marketing, 12(4), 97–112. https://doi.org/10.1509/jimk.12.
Merchant, A., & Rose, G. M. (2013). Effects of advertising- 4.97.53217
evoked vicarious nostalgia on brand heritage. Journal of Schwartz, S. H. (2006). A theory of cultural value orientations:
Business Research, 66(12), 2619–2625. https://doi.org/10. Explication and applications. Comparative Sociology, 5(2–3),
1016/j.jbusres.2012.05.021 137–182. https://doi.org/10.1163/156913306778667357
390 A. A. YEBOAH-BANIN AND E. S. QUAYE
Shimp, T. A., & Sharma, S. (1987). Consumer ethnocen- Strizhakova, Y., Coulter, R. A., & Price, L. L. (2011).
trism: Construction and validation of the CETSCALE. Branding in a global marketplace: The mediating effects
Journal of Marketing Research, 24(3), 280–289. https:// of quality and self-identity brand signals. International
doi.org/10.1177/002224378702400304 Journal of Research in Marketing, 28(4), 342–351. https://
Sign
e, L. (2020). Unlocking Africa’s business potential: doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.05.007
Trends, opportunities, risks, and strategies. The Brookings Strizhakova, Y., Coulter, R. A., & Price, L. L. (2012). The
Institution. young adult cohort in emerging markets: Assessing their
Sign
e, L., & Johnson, C. (2018). Africa’s consumer market glocal cultural identity in a global marketplace.
potential: Trends, drivers, opportunities, and strategies. International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(1),
https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ 43–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.08.002
Africas-consumer-market-potential.pdf Sussman, N. M. (2002). Testing the cultural identity model
Sinha, M., & Sheth, J. (2017). Growing the pie in emerging of the cultural transition cycle: Sojourners return home.
markets: Marketing strategies for increasing the ratio of International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 26(4),
non-users to users. Journal of Business Research, 1–8. 391–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(02)00013-5
Spears, M. C., Parker, D. F., & McDonald, M. (2004). Sweeney, J. C., & Soutar, G. N. (2001). Consumer perceived
Globalization attitudes and locus of control. Journal of value: The development of a multiple item scale. Journal
Global Business, 15(29), 57–66. of Retailing, 77(2), 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Steenkamp, J.-B. E. (2017). Global brand strategy: World-wise S0022-4359(01)00041-0
marketing in the age of branding. Palgrave Macmillan. Swoboda, B., & Hirschmann, J. (2016). Does being per-
Steenkamp, J.-B. E. (2019). Global versus local consumer ceived as global pay off? An analysis of leading foreign
culture: Theory, measurement, and future research direc- and domestic multinational corporations in India, Japan,
tions. Journal of International Marketing, 27(1), 1–19. and the United States. Journal of International Marketing,
https://doi.org/10.1177/1069031X18811289 24(3), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1509/jim.15.0088
Steenkamp, J.-B E., Batra, R., & Alden, D. L. (2003). How Swoboda, B., Pennemann, K., & Taube, M. (2012). The
perceived brand globalness creates brand value. Journal of effects of perceived brand globalness and perceived brand
International Business Studies, 34(1), 53–65. https://doi. localness in China: Empirical evidence on Western,
org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400002 Asian, and domestic retailers. Journal of International
Steenkamp, J.-B. E., & de Jong, M. G. (2010). A global Marketing, 20(4), 72–95. https://doi.org/10.1509/jim.12.
investigation into the constellation of consumer attitudes 0105
toward global and local products. Journal of Marketing, Tomlinson, J. (1999). Globalization and culture. University
74(6), 18–40. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkg.74.6.18 of Chicago Press.
Steenkamp, J.-B. E., & Van Trijp, H. C. (1991). The use of Tu, L., Khare, A., & Zhang, Y. (2012). A short 8-item scale
LISREL in validating marketing constructs. International for measuring consumers’ local–global identity.
Journal of Research in Marketing, 8(4), 283–299. https:// International Journal of Research in Marketing, 29(1),
doi.org/10.1016/0167-8116(91)90027-5 35–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.07.003
Steenkamp, J.-B. E. M. (2014). How global brands create firm Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and syn-
value: The 4V model. International Marketing Review, thesis of the measurement invariance literature: sugges-
31(1), 5–29. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-10-2013-0233 tions, practices, recommendations for organizational
Strizhakova, Y., & Coulter, R. A. (2013). The “green” side research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4–69.
of materialism in emerging BRIC and developed markets: https://doi.org/10.1177/109442810031002
The moderating role of global cultural identity. Walsh, G., Shiu, E., & Hassan, L. M. (2014). Replicating,
International Journal of Research in Marketing, 30(1), validating, and reducing the length of the consumer per-
69–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.08.003 ceived value scale. Journal of Business Research, 67(3),
Strizhakova, Y., & Coulter, R. A. (2015). Drivers of local 260–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2013.05.012
relative to global brand purchases: A contingency Wang, E. (2013). The influence of visual packaging design
approach. Journal of International Marketing, 23(1), 1–22. on perceived food product quality, value, and brand pref-
https://doi.org/10.1509/jim.14.0037 erence. International Journal of Retail & Distribution
Strizhakova, Y., & Coulter, R. (2019). Consumer cultural Management, 41(10), 805–816.
identity: Local and global cultural identities and measure- Westjohn, S. A., Singh, N., & Magnusson, P. (2012).
ment implications. International Marketing Review, 36(5), Responsiveness to global and local consumer culture
610–627. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-11-2018-0320 positioning: A personality and collective identity perspec-
Strizhakova, Y., Coulter, R. A., & Price, L. L. (2008). tive. Journal of International Marketing, 20(1), 58–73.
Branded products as a passport to global citizenship: https://doi.org/10.1509/jim.10.0154
Perspectives from developed and developing countries. Xie, Y., Batra, R., & Peng, S. (2015). An extended model of
Journal of International Marketing, 16(4), 57–85. https:// preference formation between global and local brands:
doi.org/10.1509/jimk.16.4.57 The roles of identity expressiveness, trust, and affect.
JOURNAL OF GLOBAL MARKETING 391
Journal of International Marketing, 23(1), 50–71. https:// Zhang, Y., & Khare, A. (2009). The impact of accessible
doi.org/10.1509/jim.14.0009 identities on the evaluation of global versus local prod-
Zeugner-Roth, K. P., Zabkar, V., & Diamantopoulos, A. ucts. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(3), 524–537.
(2015). Consumer ethnocentrism, national identity, and https://doi.org/10.1086/598794
consumer cosmopolitanism as drivers of consumer Zolfagharian, M., Saldivar, R., & Sun, Q. (2014).
behavior: A social identity theory perspective. Journal of Ethnocentrism and country of origin effects among
International Marketing, 23(2), 25–54. https://doi.org/10. immigrant consumers. Journal of Consumer Marketing,
1509/jim.14.0038 31(1), 68–84. https://doi.org/10.1108/JCM-06-2013-0620