University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PERCEPTION OF PERSONAL SECURITY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TOURISM: THE CASE OF GHANA BY ANNABELLE PWALIA (10241097) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS DEGREE JULY, 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my original research which I undertook with the exception of quoted references and sources under the supervision of Dr. Amanda Coffie and that no part of it has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. …………………………… …………………………… Annabelle Pwalia Dr. Amanda Coffie (Student) (Supervisor) Date:..................................... Date:................................. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my Parents and Siblings for their love, encouragement and support. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I would like to express my sincerest gratitude to the Almighty God for how far He has brought me and for His unfailing love and faithfulness. I would also like to express my deepest gratitude to my Parents, Siblings, my best friend Philip E. Neizer for their prayers and support throughout my study at LECIAD. Many thanks to my Supervisor, Dr. Amanda Coffie for her guidance and supervision towards a successful completion of this dissertation and to all lecturers, Staff, Librarian of LECIAD. Additionally, I would like to thank the Director and Staff of the Ghana Tourism Authority, the Chief Director (Nana Oduro Kwarteng) and the Project Manager (Dr. Sonne), Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Mr. Kofi Yankah (Executive Director, Tourism Safety and Security Initiative), for making time out of their busy schedules to share insights they have gathered. Finally, to my all friends especially my Gender course mates and the LECIAD Class of 2016, for the support and good times we shared together. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CGC - Consumer Generated Content EVD - Ebola Viral Disease GDP - Gross Domestic Product GHATOF - Ghana Tourism Federation GTA - Ghana Tourism Authority GTC - Ghana Tourist Corporation GTCB - Ghana Tourist Control Board GTDC - Ghana Tourist Development Corporation HOTCATT - Hotel, Catering and Tourism Training Centre ITB - International Tourism Exchange KIA - Kotoka International Airport MDA'S - Ministries, Departments and Agencies NCAR - The National Centre for Atmospheric Research NGO - Non Governmental Organisation NRCD - National Redemption Council Decree SARS - Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome SMCD - Supreme Military Council Decree SSA - Sub-Saharan Africa STHC - State Hotel and Tourist Corporation TDI - Tourism Destination Image TOSS - Tourism Safety and Security Initiative TSMTDP - Tourism Sector Medium Term Development Plan UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organisation iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNWTO - United Nations World Tourism Organisation USAID - United States Agency for International Development WHO - World Health Organisation v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................ iii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................ 1 1.0 Background to the Study ........................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 3 1.2 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................. 4 1.4 Hypothesis ................................................................................................................. 5 1.5 The Scope of Study ................................................................................................... 5 1.6 Rational/Justification for the Study ........................................................................... 6 1.7 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 6 1.8 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 10 1.8.1 Security and Safety in the Tourism Industry .................................................... 10 1.8.2 The Influence of Perception on the Tourism Industry ..................................... 12 1.8.3. The Image of a Destination ............................................................................. 15 1.9 Operational Definitions ........................................................................................... 16 1.10 Sources of Data and Methodology ........................................................................ 17 1.11 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 20 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.12 Arrangement of Chapters ...................................................................................... 21 ENDNOTES .................................................................................................................. 23 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 26 AN OVERVIEW OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY AND LINKS ................................. 26 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 26 2.1 Global Overview of Tourism .................................................................................. 28 2.2 Overview of Tourism in Africa ............................................................................... 34 2.3 Overview of Tourism in Ghana .............................................................................. 40 2.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 45 ENDNOTE .................................................................................................................... 46 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 49 PERCEPTION OF PERSONAL SECURITY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TOURISM IN GHANA ....................................................................................................................... 49 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 49 3.1 Factors Influencing Tourist Decision ...................................................................... 50 3.2 Analysis and Discussion of Data ............................................................................ 51 3.3 Perception of Ghana as Safe/ Unsafe Destination .................................................. 59 3.4 The role of the State in mitigating Security threats in Ghana ................................. 62 3.6 The Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in mitigating the effects of ........... 63 3.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 65 ENDNOTES .................................................................................................................. 66 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................ 68 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............. 68 4. 0. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 68 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1. Summary of Findings of Research ......................................................................... 68 4.2. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 71 4.3. Recommendations .................................................................................................. 72 4.3.1. Partnership with the Private Sector ................................................................. 72 4.3.2. Branding Ghana as a Safe Destination ............................................................ 73 4.3.3. Effective use of Social Media ......................................................................... 74 4.3.4. Areas for further Research .............................................................................. 75 BIBLIOGRAHPY ............................................................................................................. 76 APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................... 82 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Bar graph showing Nationality of respondents ................................................. 53 Figure 2: Attraction to Ghana (What attracted you to Ghana) ......................................... 53 Figure 3: Cross Tabulation of Nationality of Respondent and the Source of Attraction to Ghana ............................................................................................................... 54 Figure 4: Bar Graph showing the Cross Tabulation of Sex and Age of Respondents ...... 55 Figure 5: Bar Graph illustrating Cross Tabulation of Sex and Personal Security ............ 56 Figure 6: Bar graph illustrating Security Threats ............................................................. 57 Figure 7: Cross Tabulation of Nationality and Security Threats ...................................... 58 Figure 8: Respondents sources of information on security in Ghana ............................... 60 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Tourism over the years has played a major role in many developing economies including Ghana. It competes with gold, cocoa and remittances as a key source of revenue for the state. For a successful and thriving tourism industry in any country, it there is the need to uphold tourists’ the safety and security as well as convince potential tourists of their safety and security at a destination. Thus, the state and other private tourist institutions have the responsibility to safeguard the perception of security through conventional and in contemporary times, through digital means so as to sustain and ameliorate tourist arrivals at a destination. However, in the last two decades, there has been a rise in global security threats especially in this era of sporadic terror attacks directed at tourists, pandemics, crime etc. The study sought to investigate the perception of personal security in Ghana by tourists as well as gather data on factors which influence their perception. Additionally, the study investigated measures put in place by the state and other private tourism organisations in mitigating the effects of security threats in Ghana. The mixed research method was put to use to gather empirical data to undertake the study. Structured questionnaires, comprising of open-ended and closed-ended questions were used as survey instruments to gather data. Interviews and observation techniques were employed to gain insight into the area of study. Findings suggested that generally, Ghana is perceived as a safe tourist destination, on the other hand, emphasis should be placed on improving the perception of Ghana as a safe destination within the West African Sub- region and for that matter Africa. This is due to the negative perception of Africa as a continent of insecurity and poverty. The study recommends increased private public partnership in order to overcome challenges crippling the industry and develop a booming tourism industry in Ghana. Finally, nation branding is crucial in boosting the image of a state. Ensuring nation branding is important since it can engender competitive advantage and several opportunities for that country especially in the area of effective tourism. x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE RESEARCH DESIGN 1.0 Background to the Study Tourism as an industry can be described as any activity which involves the movement of people from their permanent places of residence to other locations primarily for pleasure, leisure, recreation etc.1 Asiedu (1997), in his article Prospects for an emerging tourism industry in Ghana, adopts the United Nation World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO) definition of tourism which refers to the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes.2 There must usually be a dislocation of a person from his or her place of abode to another place. The movement is usually through diverse means such as by air, road, and in recent times by foot. The latter, is very common in developed countries usually in the form of hikers, pilgrims etc.3 that is to say that though tourism involves displacement from one location to another, not all displacement can be referred to as tourism. In tourism research, images of a destination are essential than physical resources because in effect, perception and not reality are what motivate consumers or tourists to travel to a destination.4 Tourists often anticipate the attributes of a destination image such as natural attractions, landscape, costs of living, cleanliness, personal safety, economic development and many more which in the long run influences them to take a decision.5 These attributes of a destination have been classified into several dimensions by various scholars. According to Rajesh (2013:67), ''attributes can be categorized into natural resources and the natural environment, leisure and recreation, political, social and economic factors. Under natural environment he sub classifies attributes into cleanliness, beauty and attractiveness of scenery. Also under political factors he made mention of attributes such as security and 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh safety, political stability, crime rates etc.''.6 Surveys over the years have consistently noted that among the many other factors, the most outstanding ones include security and safety among tourists and people travelling away from home. The concept of security is pivotal not only for a thriving tourism industry but also to the world at large. This is because it does not only influence the decision of tourists but also influences the economic and political confidence people have concerning a destination, consecutively, it affects the entire space in which the tourism industry works.7 After the demise of the Cold War in the 1990's, there was a shift in the notion of security, previously perceived as threats generated from military actions to include threats from global issues such as environmental and climate change, resource scarcity, international crime and terrorism, health, bio-security and challenges to sustainable development etc.8 Yet, in spite of these changes in the global system, there is little academic research exploring this field of international tourism have been carried out particularly in the developing world. This brings to the fore important questions such as what factors influences this perception of tourists about their destination area. The Ebola epidemic in West Africa, hit the tourism industry of many economies as travellers reconsidered trips to countries particularly within Africa for the fear of the virus by would-be tourists. This situation was threatening to the continent and was underlined as a major risk some associated with travels to Africa.9 Government tourist boards and trade associations had to issue statements trying to allay these fears of potential tourists.10 The importance of tourism in many economies is very significant particularly its contribution towards GDP, employment etc. cannot be undervalued. Although, it is a notable source of revenue in many countries, it is susceptible to internal and external downturns including natural catastrophes, epidemics, and armed conflicts.11 These perceived risks drive tourists to avoid risky situations or destinations. The media 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh continually portray, after a disaster, images of death, pain and torment, destruction of properties, disorder, etc. ''This pessimistic publicity usually depict the stage immediately after a disaster has taken place, till full recovery and pre-disaster conditions resume''.12 This critical period of a destination usually regarded as a crisis situation can ''threaten the normal operation and conduct of tourism-related businesses, a destination’s overall reputation for safety, attractiveness, and comfort.13 The study seeks to measure tourists perception of security in Ghana based on four main factor which are; infectious diseases, crime, terror attacks, cultural barriers. 1.1 Statement of the Problem The success in tourism has been as a result of its rise to be the most sustainable lucrative ventures globally as it is one of the fastest and dynamic sectors of external economic activities. ''It is noted for high growth rates, foreign currency inflows, infrastructure development contributing significantly to the development of the country as a whole''.14 In the light of these immense benefits, the industry is threatened particularly in contemporary times. This study seeks to investigate how global security threats influence tourists’ decisions to travel to Ghana as a destination. In addition, the study investigates how effective measures put in place by state and private tourism organisations have influenced the industry in Ghana. Ghana is well endowed with natural and historical attractions such as beaches, the Canopy walk way, waterfalls, highlands, groundwater, National Parks and Game Reserve, the three UNESCO designated World Heritage Monuments of Fort Jago and the Elmina and Cape Coast Castle. These are some of the most outstanding historical heritage sites in Ghana. Ghana is considered to be the country with the highest number of concentration of European forts and castles15 , thus, Ghana has a comparative advantage 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh within the West African Sub-region with regards to tourist arrivals.16 Moreover, Ghana, dissimilar to other countries in West African namely Nigeria, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone etc. has not been affected by security threats such as terrorism, diseases such as Ebola, armed conflicts, these security threats may have an impact on tourist intention to travel to the country. The study seeks to investigate the perception of personal security in Ghana by tourists as well as gather data on factors which influence their perception. Additionally, the study investigates measures put in place by the state and other private tourism organisations in mitigating the effects of security threats in Ghana. Finally, due to the paucity of literature in Ghana in this area of tourism specifically on perceptions and security in Ghana, this study aims to make a contribution towards an enhanced insight into the role external and internal factors play in shaping the perception of tourists about Ghana as a destination. 1.2 Research Questions The study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What are the major perceived threats to the personal security of tourists in Ghana? 2. Although perceived threats may deter tourists from travelling to Ghana, does attractions serve as incentives which overcome these threats? 3. What efforts have the state and private tourism firms taken to mitigate the effects of these perceived threats on the tourism industry in Ghana? 1.3 Research Objectives 1. To ascertain the major threats affecting the personal security of tourists in Ghana. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. To investigate how perceived threats may deter tourists from travelling to Ghana, although attractions may serve as incentives which overcome these threats. 3. To find out efforts the state and private tourism firms have taken to mitigate the effect of these perceived threats on tourism in Ghana. 1.4 Hypothesis The hypothesis guiding this study is tourists’ perception of threat to personal security has a negative impact on tourism in Ghana. 1.5 The Scope of Study The study focuses on the period after the September 11, 2001 terror attack in the United States till present. The period after this event, witnessed an upsurge in global insecurity as the perception of insecurity among many travellers increased as well. The possibility of another attack in the United States or any other country as perceived by travellers in turn impacted the tourism industry in many states. Not counting sporadic terror attacks targeting tourists, threats such as the Ebola pandemic in West Africa, natural disasters such as floods, to mention but a few are clear indications of this situation of insecurity. Although Ghana, unlike many of its neighbours within the West African Sub-region and within Africa, has not witnessed any of these incidents, it is important to investigate and ascertain the impacts of attacks on tourists’ perception. This will help Ghana put in appropriate measures to boost its image internationally. Recent security alerts have been issued in Ghana and countries such as Senegal, as a result of the Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso terror attacks. The study throws more light on how these security threats have influenced the perception of personal security among tourists who visit Ghana and its subsequent influence on the tourism industry. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Rational/Justification for the Study This study is of great significance due to the rise in security threats such as infectious diseases, crime, terror attacks (especially targeted at tourists/holidaymakers), climate change etc. According to a special report of the UNWTO (2001), ''tourism has been negatively affected by catastrophes such as floods earthquakes, conflicts, economic crises and terrorism in the last fifty years''.17 Despite these setbacks, the tourism industry has been resilient and has developed the capacity to adapt and survive. One can infer from this report that tourism has an extraordinary resistance and an ability unmatched by any other industry to overcome crises.18 Although Ghana has had no experience of recent threats such as terror attacks, Ebola pandemic, there still exists some threats to the personal security of tourists such as crime, cultural barriers etc. The study, therefore, adds up to the reservoir of knowledge in the field of security and tourism in Ghana and measures to ameliorate and provide a conducive environment to boost tourism in Ghana. Furthermore, it throws more light on the influence of security threats within the West African Sub-region on tourism in Ghana. Finally, the study seeks to contribute to knowledge on Security and Tourism in Ghana, influence policy and practice in the tourism industry as well possible areas for further research. 1.7 Conceptual Framework This research was conducted using the Concept of Tourism Destination Image (TDI). This concept was employed to explain how tourist behaviour is influenced and shaped by perceptions of destinations. There has been many definitions of destination image in tourism literature. According to Zhang et al (2014:213), ‘‘it is the sum of beliefs, ideas 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and impressions that a person has of a destination''.19 The above statement emphasises on the individual, while others admit images of a destination can be shared by groups of people. According to Bigne et al (2001:608), ''it is the subjective interpretation of reality by the tourist''.20 Therefore, one can posit that tourists’ perception of a destination is subjective and dependent on the perceptions of destinations seen or heard of. ''However, whether an image of a destination is a true representation or not, depends on the existence of the image in the mind of the person''.21 Destination image can be formed from several sources such as reference groups, group membership, past experiences, media, etc. Thus, anyone can form a mental image of a destination without ever having ever visited. That is to say, images of destination will be grounded on historical, political, economic and social evidence which, in turn, will shape the image the person already held.22 Also, the country of origin of a person may have an influence on the image the person creates concerning a tourist destination.23 The World Tourism Organisation some 50 years back, declared the significance of positive images to countries. According to some scholars, at the mention of some countries, a particular event or activity comes into mind. For instance, Paris is noted for romance and style, Japan is associated with technology, Brazil known for its samba, carnival, and football, Africa with poverty and hunger.24 These stereotypes, whether positive or negative, influence tourists’ behaviour in choosing a destination.25 In fact, the presence of outstanding tourist resources is not a necessary conditions to attract visits. However, it is imperative to mention that perception also play a dominant role in tourist behaviour. People form their own image or perception of a destination based on past experiences from friends, relatives, their previous experiences, advertisement etc. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Ispas (2011:6), ''the projected image of a destination, is classified as a component of great significance in promoting a destination, while the perceived image is related to a set of impressions and beliefs with regards to a tourist destination''.26 Thus, the image of a tourism destination becomes one of the principal assets of a booming tourism industry in influencing decisions taken by tourists. Conversely, the concept is often critiqued with regards to its ambiguity and subjectivity. ''It is attributed to the multi-attribute definition that is wiped out from the concept leading to a multicollinear effect which makes the measurement of its contribution less precise than desired''.27 In spite of these criticisms, the Concept of Tourist Destination Image is relevant to this study as it best explains how perceptions of a tourist destination are formed. It takes into account the components of a destination and factors such as the role of past experiences, advertisement and the media, which shape the perception or image of tourists with regards to a destination area. Furthermore, it explains and provides the basis on the issue of perception and how they are formed, as well as factors that influence their formation. It also explains the growing importance of the social media in influencing perceptions with regards to a destination. The concept was applied in generating questionnaires as well as in the analysis of findings. The study was also framed within the context of the Human Security. The concept of security after the end of the Cold War changed focus from that of the state to the individual or the security of the people living within its territory. The earliest statement in relation to Human Security appeared in the United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report of 1994 which is an annual publication of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The report laments the extent to which the concept of security has been construed narrowly to the security of a territory from 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh external hostility, or as protection of national interest in foreign policy to the neglect of genuine concerns of ordinary people who sought security in their daily lives.28 The UNDP report outlines seven dimensions of Human security; they include economic security, food security, community security, health security, personal security, political security and environmental security.29 The study focused on one of the seven threats to Human Security, which is personal security. The UNDP report describes personal security as security from physical violence. Threats could be in the form of physical torture, ethnic tension, crime, street violence, threats directed against women (rape, domestic violence), threats directed at children based on their vulnerability and dependence (child abuse), threats to self (suicide, drug use).30 Threats to personal safety and well-being which maybe direct or indirect, are also threats to basic and civic freedoms. Bajpai (2000), reiterates that many of the indirect threats to personal safety/well-being imply indirect threats also to basic and civic freedom.31 Human security has been criticised by many scholars as a vague and vast concept. According to Paris (2001:93), ‘‘The task of transforming the idea of human security into a useful analytical tool for scholarly research is also problematic. Given the jumble of principles and objectives associated with the concept, it is unclear what academics should even be studying. Human security seems capable of supporting virtually any hypothesis depending on the prejudices and interests of the particular researcher.32 Further, since the concept of human security embraces both physical security and more general notions of social, economic, cultural, and psychological well-being, it is unfeasible to point out some socioeconomic factors as causing an increase or decline in human security.33 According to Paris (2001:93), “the study of causal relationships requires a degree of analytical separation that the notion of human security lacks''.34 King and Murray 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2001:591), posit that ''proponents of the concept describe it as poorly defined, unmeasured and logically incoherent''.35 The seven threats to Human Security as listed in the UNDP report has been reformulated by others scholars such as Jorge Nef. Nef (1999:12), ''proposed a fivefold classification system based on world systems. They include the environment, culture, economy, society, and politics. These systems are linked and interrelated by societal forces, ideologies, and alliances''.36 Moreover, George Maclean, provides a vivid list of approaches to Human Security. He incorporates the security of individuals within their immediate surroundings, communities, and environment. Thus, personal security connotes the absence of violence, protection from crime and terrorism, diseases, corruption etc.37 Albeit these criticism levelled against the concept of Human Security, it remains pertinent to the study, as it provides the basis for understanding security from the individual perspective. It helps in understanding the components of personal security of an individual visiting a new destination, as well as highlights threats which may deprive individuals of their personal security at a destination. 1.8 Literature Review 1.8.1 Security and Safety in the Tourism Industry In considering this subject of safety and security in tourism, Kovari and Zimanye (2011:5),38 examined how safety and security issues gained popularity in the last two decades.39 They reiterated how global changes in the last two decades have influenced tourism. Global events such as terrorist acts, wars, natural disasters, epidemics and pandemics, have significantly reduced global security and the tourism industry has not been left out either. Moreover, it demonstrates the vulnerability of the tourism industry 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh both at the global and regional levels therefore necessitating the research and study of the relationship between security issues and tourism.40 According to Yang & Vikneswaran (2014:240), ''although issues of tourist safety and security gained grounds in the last two decades, there have been an increasing number of tourism studies on risk and safety since 1970s''.41 The terms safety and security have been used interchangeably by some scholars, it is important to clarify these terms in other to proceed. The appraisal of literature generally shows that the concepts of safety and security are different, but some studies have used these two terms interchangeably.42 Hall et al (2004:2), ''posit that tourism security is traditionally linked to issues of national security and political stability, however, for the tourism industry at least, security goes beyond that of the safety of tourists''.43 With the demise of the Cold War, the conception of security has evolved from warfare, state- centred and defence-focused to global- and people-centred concept. They further state that, security in tourism studies is no longer just about the tourists but also includes the longing to be safe anywhere.44 Thus, one can infer that safety and security are two unique but interdependent concepts. The nature of tourism security has changed significantly, new threats such as health, socio-environmental issues have been introduced in the lexicon of tourism security and sustainable development in recent times, in addition to previous threats such as crime, terrorism, and national security.45 A preliminary appraisal of studies suggests that the definitions of security, safety and risk are overlapping and confusing. As stated by Sönmez and Graefe (1998:118), ''a tourist’s safety concern is a parallel concept to risk''.46 Other scholars recognise safety and security as the subcategory of risk. According to some scholars, ''travel-related risk which includes epidemics, crime, catastrophes, hygiene, communication, cultural 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh barriers, uncertainty and regulation can be identified as security-related risk whereas natural disasters and hygiene can be associated with safety threat''.47 Apart from issues of crime, terrorism, and national security, others scholars such as Hall et al. (2004), proposed health, social, and environmental issues in the lexicon of tourism security and sustainable tourism.48 As preventive measures against risks, tourists are usually asked to purchase traveller's checks, guidebooks, and bottled water, as well as take the necessary vaccinations when travelling to a destination. Studies conducted in this area notes that travel safety and security are important concerns among individuals holidaying outside their home countries. However, Lepp and Gibson (2003:606) intimate that ''despite the extensiveness of these security concerns, there is scarce academic research investigating perceived risks linked with international tourism''.49 1.8.2 The Influence of Perception on the Tourism Industry Earlier research carried out identified several factors which influences negatively the tourism industry. They include natural disasters, terrorist attacks, armed conflicts and political instability, health concerns and crime.50 These factors may have an effect on neighbouring countries or the whole region within which that country is located. For instance, Sonmez et al (1999), demonstrates in his article how crisis in Zimbabwe crippled Zambia’s thriving tourism industry particularly after the State Department of the USA issued a travel advisory for Zimbabwe, a neighbour country to Zambia.51 He described this phenomenon as the generalization effect whose reach may sometimes be overwhelming.52 According to Lepp and Gibson (2003:606), in a study of healthcare as a potential perceived risk factor, an entire continent could be generalized as unsafe or safe. He found that Europe and North America are generally considered as safe from infectious diseases, although recent events may have challenged this image.53 According 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to Pizam et al (1997:24), “the perception among tourists is that they are easy prey for criminals as a result of some actions such as the manner in which they dress, language spoken, foreign exchange, staying out late at night and roaming through unfamiliar places etc”.54 According to Sonmez and Graefe (1999), tourists’ perception of security varies with age and sex. The influence of age on tourists risk perception changes with age decrease. Sex on the other hand did not have any influence.55 Other investigations on the contrary such as Enloe (1989), cited in Lepp and Gibson (2003), argued that gender did have an influence on tourists’ choice. ''It is noted that, the consciousness of one's susceptibility as a consequence of being female, nevertheless, does not prevent women from travelling to destinations. On the other hand, they adopted risk reducing measures aimed at instilling a sense of empowerment and adventure''.56 Perception of risk usually tagged with international tourism has also been found to be influenced by one’s nationality as suggested by Seddighi et al (2001).57 They established that some key variables which influences people’s perception of a destination. They reiterated that in other to thoroughly understand the perception of risk among international tourists, variables such as past experience, age, sex, and nationality should be considered.58 In a research carried out by George R. (2003:580), he postulated that tourists’ perception of safety could be negative or positive depending on the experience and source of information about that destination. In a context where a tourist feels unsafe or threatened at a destination, it can be damaging to that destination’s tourism industry, which might lead to a decline in tourist arrivals to the area. He further explained that potential tourists may decide not to visit the destination because it has a reputation for having high crime 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rates. As such, they are not likely to take part in activities outside their accommodation facility; they are not likely to return to the destination or recommend to others.59 The glut of crime related incidents at several international tourist destinations in recent times is very alarming. Tourism in states such as Egypt, Iran, Kenya, Spain, Lebanon etc., have been hit by reports such as tourists being held as hostages, victims or targets of crime or terrorism resulting in injury, rape, torture, and sometimes death. Consequently, George (2003:580) admits that '' media attention has raised tourists’ concerns about safety, and in the long run led to cancellations to these destinations''.60 One can deduce from the aforementioned that the level and arrangement of the tourist market, both domestic and international, is distorted by people's perceptions of safety. George (2003:580), also confirms the assertion made by Lepp and Gibson (2004) that gender influences tourists personal safety. He reiterates that ''women and the elderly are more concerned about their personal safety and therefore restrict their activities to avoid potential encounter with violence''.61 Africa is generally perceived as an unsafe continent in terms of health threats such as HIV/AIDS, Ebola, Malaria, other tropical diseases. In addition, Lepp et al (2003:610), “described the perception of both Africa and Asia as worse than Europe and Australasia due to health risks stemming from the supply of poor food and water quality''.62 It is also necessary for stakeholders within the tourism industry to understand the fundamental human need for safety and security and to put in measures to make potential visitors feel secure prior to, or during their vacations. Unfortunately, safety and security problems are often destination dependent. These safety concerns are central issues of visitors’ evaluations and usually have a devastating effect not only on where they have appeared, but also on visitors who would be interested in touring these places.63 Risky destinations 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are likely to be avoided whereas safe destinations are more likely to receive more visitors. It should be noted that developing countries which are prone to diseases, sanitation and issues of hygiene will continue to be at a disadvantage as compare to developed countries which are more responsive to these problems.64 Thus, ensuring visitor safety at a destination can be critical for the competitiveness of a destination. According to Kozak et al (2007:234), ''the negative image created through the lack of safety and security, damages the tourism and travel industry by negative word-of-mouth, regardless of the provision of high quality visitor attractions''.65 1.8.3. The Image of a Destination The effect of a destinations' image and satisfaction have been popular research topic in tourism research. Some scholars have identified the influence of factors such as perceived quality, satisfaction and the intention to return and recommend to a place to others as factors influencing tourist decisions concerning a destination. Rajesh (2014:72), explores various viewpoints with regards to factors which influence tourists’ perception and satisfaction at a destination. They include factors such as tourist demography indicators, destination’s services, atmosphere, safety, comfort and culture.66 From the above mentioned, the image of a destination can be highlighted as one of the most important variables for interpreting tourists’ choices. Lopes (2011:309), ''warns that it is difficult for tourists to gain a clear image of a destination without having visited and where the tourist has no experience in locum, three main factors can affect their image of a tourist destination: tourism motivations, demographic variables and information about the destination''.67 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.9 Operational Definitions For the purposes of this study, the following concepts have been operationally defined as follows:  Tourism: refers to activities of persons moving to and staying in destinations outside their place of abode usually for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, health and other purposes. These activities should not remunerated from within the places visited.68  Tourist: temporary visitor who spends a minimum of night outside his place of origin or work for purposes such as leisure, business, health, education or any other activities for which he or she does not earn remuneration at that destination.69  Tourist site/Attraction: easily marked out geographical areas based on a key feature element of a non-home place that attracts discretionary travellers away from their homes. 70  Destination: larger areas within a location, region, country etc. that include a number of individual attractions together with the support services required by tourists.71  Excursionism: activities of a temporary visitor who returns back to his/her normal place of residence without passing the night at the destination.72  Visitor-attracting country: special location that has natural or man-made popular attractions or incentives for tourists to visit frequently.  Outbound tourist: residents traveling in another country.73 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Inbound tourist: a non- resident traveling in the given country.74  International student: students who are in transition in another country outside their own country of origin to accomplish an educational goal before returning home.75 1.10 Sources of Data and Methodology The study makes use of the mixed research method which includes quantitative and qualitative research design with the aim of gathering in-depth knowledge and understanding of tourists and stakeholders in the tourism industry. Three primary reasons can be attributed to choosing a mixed research method, they are: 1. The complementarity of both the qualitative and quantitative methods, which will facilitate to achieve the research purpose and answer the research questions mentioned in Chapter 1. 2. Research questions prepared in this study require the exploration and integration of perceptions and understanding of both external and internal factors in relation to choosing a destination. 3. There are gaps in literature regarding the role of perceptions in determining intentions to travel in Ghana. Therefore a detailed understanding of this, requires the mixing of qualitative and quantitative methods. Further, justifying the use of a mixed research method in the study, Denzin and Lincoln (2000:1047), ''indicated that in other to defeat the limitations of a single research design and achieve a more centralized form of targeted research, a mixed method is appropriate especially when the study‘s research questions cannot be completely answered through qualitative or quantitative research alone''.76 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Structured questionnaires were used to conduct the interviews. Selection of respondents was based on purposive method of sampling in which the researcher took into consideration the purpose of the study which was to ascertain the perception of tourists with regards to security in Ghana as a destination. Moreover, the selection was based on the researcher’s judgment about the knowledge and elements of respondents. The study employed the Statistical Package for Social sciences (SPSS) to code and process the collected data. Descriptive and relational statistical techniques involving frequencies, percentages, summations and diagrams were employed in analysing the data. Interviews conducted were recorded on an electronic recorder and later transcribed. At the start of an interview, participants were assured of confidentiality of responses given. They were assured that any information given would not be used to identify them. Furthermore, they were also informed that any information obtained during this study was going to be used solely for academic purposes. These interviews provided key information, as well as confirming the already collected data. Accra was chosen as the sample area on the strength of patronage by tourists. It must be noted however, the existence of tourists in Accra can be attributed to the presence of the Kotoka International Airport (KIA), the main international airport in Ghana. As the capital city of Ghana, Accra boasts of several services and facilities including accommodation, communication, food and beverage etc.77 consequently, it attracts a considerable number of tourists who arrive in the country for various purposes. Furthermore, international students from the University of Ghana were included in the sample population. These category of students do not only come to Ghana for educational purposes but also to visit tourists’ sites for leisure or recreation. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The purposive sampling technique was used to enable the researcher get the required information from specific target population of defined interest, such as tourists visiting Ghana. The survey instruments for the study were questionnaires and interviews. Questions were both open-ended and close-ended, to stimulate the needed information from respondents. It contained key modules which sought information about their socio- demographic characteristics (origin, age, and sex), the tourists’ perception of Ghana as a destination, their perception of security, sources of information about security in Ghana, and finally their loyalty to Ghana as a destination and further recommend to other people. The two part questionnaire was self-administered as well as designed online through Google forms to reach out to other tourists outside the confines of the University. Initially, a total of 80 questionnaires were administered over a period of two months, out of which 70 (87.5%) was valid. Due to time constraints and accessibility, sample size was limited to 80, however, only 70 were valid. The study on perception of security threats was limited to four important destination-based factors, which have recently become the most influential factors on visitors’ decision-making when choosing their final travelling destinations. They are perilous diseases or pandemics, terror attacks, crime and natural disasters. The source of primary data were in-bound tourist. The focus was on inbound tourists for a number of reasons: to begin with they dominate the tourist arrival figures and they are more vulnerable to risks due to their lack of familiarity with the local terrain. Taking into consideration the basis of knowledge of a population, its elements, and the purpose of the study, the purposive sampling and snowball method were employed in selecting tourist respondents.78 It is one of the non-probability sampling methods, in which the units to be 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh observed are selected based on the researcher’s judgment about which unit will be the most useful or representative.79 This method was employed as the study sought to target a particular group of people (tourists) and other stakeholders who are knowledgeable in the field Tourism. Stakeholders from the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Ghana Tourism Authority, Tourism Safety and Security initiative (a non-governmental tourism organisation) were interviewed during the study. Personnel from these organisations were selected for interviews based on their expertise and level of knowledge of the area of study. Also as heads of various departments in these institutions, their role in portraying Ghana as a safe destination and encouraging more tourists to choose Ghana as a destination, it was prudent to conduct these interviews to ascertain measures put in place in their various institutions to influence the perception of Ghana as a tourist destination. They included the Chief Director at the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, the Director and Marketing Manager of the Ghana Tourism Authority, the Executive Director of Tourism Safety and Security Initiative Ghana. Secondary sources of data used were journal articles, reports, documents, websites and blogs. 1.11 Limitations One major limitation of the study was the scarcity of literature on Tourism and security initiatives in Ghana. This area has not received much attention in the country as compared to others areas like Australia, France and South Africa. Thus, the researcher found it difficult using locally published works and empirical data hence reliance on studies done in other countries such as Mauritius, Kenya, and Canary Islands etc. Thus, it was difficult for the researcher to determine the scope and the depth of study to undertake. Data from the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) was conflicting and not up to 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh date but the Researcher had to make do with available data from these institutions. Retrieving information from the websites of the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts as well as the Ghana Tourism Authority proved difficult as these sites were either not updated or on maintenance. The researcher therefore had to rely on materials and documents from the GTA which were outdated and not delivered on time. Scheduling one on one interviews with stakeholders from the various tourism related organisations proved futile due to time constraint. Thus the researcher had to rely on telephone interviews, presentations and emails. 1.12 Arrangement of Chapters The study is structured into chapters, and have been arranged as follows: Chapter One comprises the introduction, research design, literature review and the operational definitions and limitations of the study. Chapter Two presents an overview of tourism and Security in Contemporary times. This chapter provides a global overview of tourism as well as the role online platforms such as social media in influencing the traveller’s perception and decision making concerning a destination. Also in this chapter will be an overview of tourism in Africa as well as Ghana and a seemingly interconnection between tourism and security. Chapter Three discusses the perception of security and how it affects tourists’ decision in Ghana. This chapter analyses and discusses findings from data collected as well as examine how perceived threats affects tourism in Ghana and the measures put in place by private tourism operators and the state to mitigate the effects. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chapter Four summarizes the research findings, states the conclusions and suggests recommendations for stakeholders in tourism industry as well as for future research. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ENDNOTES 1 Asiedu, Alex B,. ''Prospects for An Emerging Tourism Industry In Ghana''. Research Review (Ns) 13(1 & 2). Vol. 13. Accra: Assemblies of God Literature Centre Ltd., (1997): 1-3 Print 1, 2. 2 ibid 3 Safakli, Okan Veli. "Ignored Richness Of Tourism In Northern Cyprus." E-Review of Tourism Research (eRTR) 8.5 (2010): 105. Web. 4 Gallarza, Martina G., Irene Gil Saura, and Haydee Calderon Garcia. ''Destination Image towards a Conceptual Framework." Annals of Tourism Research 29.1 (2002): 56. Web. 5 Rajesh, R. "Impact of Tourist Perceptions, Destination Image and Tourist Satisfaction On Destination Loyalty: A Conceptual Model." Revista De Turismo Y Patrimonio Cultural 11.3 (2013): 67-69. Web. 6 Ibid 7 Hall, Michael C., Timothy J. Dallen, and David Timothy Duval. "C. Security and Tourism." Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing (2, 3). 15 (2004): 2. Web. 8 Ibid 9 ibid 10 (Heidi Vogt (2014) Wall Street Journal). 11 Sonmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of Terrorism Risk on Foreign Tourism Decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 118. Web. 12 ibid 13 ibid 14 Neto, Frederico. ''A new approach to sustainable tourism development: Moving beyond environmental protection.'' Natural Resources Forum. Vol. 27. No.3. Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2003: 12-13 15 ibid 16 ibid 17 World Tourism Organisation. Tourism after 11 September 2001: Analysis, Remedial Actions and Prospects, Special Report. 18, 10. World Tourism Organisation, (2001). Web 18 ibid 19Crompton J. L. ''An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation destination and the, influence of geographical location upon that image Journal of Travel Research, 17.4 (1979): 19 cited in Zhang, Hongmei, et al. "Destination image and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis." Tourism Management 40 (2014): 213-223 20 Bigne, Enrique J., Isabel M. Sanchez, and Javier Saanchez. "Tourism Image, Evaluation Variables and after Purchase Behaviour: inter-relationship." Tourism Management 22 (2001): 608 cited in Zhang, Hongmei, et al. "Destination image and tourist loyalty: A meta-analysis." Tourism Management 40 (2014): 213-223 21ibid 22 ibid 23Lopes, Sergio Dominique Ferreira. "Destination Image: Origins, Developments and Implications." PASOS. Revista De Turismo Y Patrimonio Cultural 9.2 (2011): 309. Web. 24 Ispas, Ana, and Andreea R. Saragea. "Evaluating the Image of Destinations. The Case of the Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands." Journal of Tourism 12 (2011): 6. Web. 25 ibid 26 Ibid 27 Ibid 28 United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report. 23-24. N.p.: Oxford UP, (1999). Web. 29 Ibid 30 Ibid 31 Bajpai, Kanti. Proc. of Human Security: Concept and Measurement. Kroc Institute Occasional Paper. 2000. Web. Retrieved from: http://www.conflictrecovery.org/bin/Kanti_Bajpai- Human_Security_Concept_and_Measurement.pd 32 Paris, Roland. "Human Security: Paradigm Shift or Hot Air?" International Security 26.2 (2001): 93-96. Web. 33 ibid 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 ibid 35 King, G., and C.J.L Murray. "Rethinking Human Security." Political Science Quarterly 116.4 (2001): 591. Web 36Nef, Jorge. Human Security and Mutual Vulnerability: The Global Political Economy of Development and Underdevelopment,. 2nd ed. Ottawa: International Development Centre, (1999): 12. 37 ibid 38 Kovari, Istvan, and Krisztina Zimanya. ''Safety and Security in the Age of Global Tourism (The changing role and conception of Safety and Security in Tourism)''. Abstract: Applied Studies in Agribusiness and Commerce 5 (2011): 5 39 ibid 40 ibid 41Yang E. C, L., and N. Vikneswaran. "Tourism at Risk." Asian Pacific Journal Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism 3.2 (2014): 240. Web. 42 ibid 43 C Hall, Michael C., Timothy J. Dallen, and David Timothy Duval. "C. Security and Tourism." Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing (2, 3), 15 (2004): 2. Web. DOI: 10.1300/J073v15n02_01 44 Hall, Michael C., Timothy J. Dallen, and David Timothy Duval. "C. Security and Tourism." Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 2, 3 15 (2004): 12. 45 ibid 247 46 Sonmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of Terrorism Risk on Foreign Tourism Decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 118. Web. 47 Yang, E.C.L. & Nair, V. (2014). Tourism at risk: A review of risk and perceived risk in tourism. Asia- Pacific Journal of Innovation in Hospitality and Tourism, 3(2), 245. 48 ibid 49 Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 606. Web 50 Sonmez, Sevil F., Yiorgos Apostolopoulos, and Peter Tarlow. ''Tourism in Crisis: Managing the Effects of Terrorism''. Journal of Travel Research 38. 1 (1999): 14 51 ibid 52 ibid 53Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 606. Web 54 Pizam Abraham, Peter E. Tarlow, Jonathan Bloom. ''Making Tourists Feel Safe: Whose Responsibility is it?''. Journal of Travel Research. 36.1, (1997): 24 55 Sönmez, Sevil. ''Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability''. Annals of Tourism Research 25.2 (1998): 118. Web 56 ibid 57 Seddighi, H. R, M.W. Nuttall, A.L. Theocharous . ''Does cultural background of tourists influence the destination choice? An empirical study with special reference to political instability''. Tourism Management 22. (2001):1 58 ibid 59 Richard George. ''Tourist’s perceptions of safety and security while visiting Cape Town''. Tourism Management 2. (2003) :580 60 ibid 61 ibid 62Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 610. Web 63Sonmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of Terrorism Risk On Foreign Tourism Decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 118. Web. 64Kozak, Metin John C. Crotts, and Rob Law. ''The Impact of the Perception of Risk on International Travellers''. International Journal of Tourism Research. 9. (2007):234 65 ibid 66 Rajesh R. ''Impact of Tourist Perceptions, Destination Image and Tourist Satisfaction on Destination Loyalty: A Conceptual Model''. Pasos, 11.3. (2013) Special Issue. 67 Lopes Ferreira D. S. ''Destination image: Origins, Developments and Implications''. Pasos. 9.2 (2011):309 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 Lawton, Glenda R. "Tourist safety and security: Practical measures for destinations: World Tourism Organization World Tourism Organization, Madrid (1996): 403. 69 Asiedu, B. A. Tourism in Ghana: A Modern Synthesis. Assemblies of God Literature Centre Ltd, Accra. (2008) 70 ibid 71 ibid 72 ibid 73 UNSD/UNWTO Workshop, Madrid, 17/20 July 2006 74 ibid 75 Rong Huang. ‘’ Mapping Educational Tourists' Experience in the UK: understanding international students’’, Third World Quarterly, 29.5, (2008) 1003-1020 76 Lincoln, Yvonna S., and Norman K. Denzin. "The seventh moment: Out of the past." Handbook of qualitative research 2 (2000): 1047-1065. 77 Ghana Tourist Board, 2009 78 Babbie, Earl R. ''The Practice of Social Research (13th Ed.) International Edition''. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. (2013): 128-129 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO AN OVERVIEW OF THE TOURISM INDUSTRY AND LINKS WITH SECURITY 2.0 Introduction Tourism consists of travelling for the purposes of leisure, health, family visits, business and religion. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) establishes the contribution of tourism to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which is about 30% of world exports of services, 6% of all exports, and 5% to world GDP.1 Travelling from one place to the other is not a recent phenomenon, it has existed since time in memorial. For centuries the ritual of certain types of mobility have been associated with pilgrimages to Mecca, or the 'Hajj, among Muslims, however this has expanded over the decades to include health tourism, business tourism, educational tourism etc. The advancement in technology and transportation facilities have, however, made possible the compression of space and time such that it is easy for one to move from one region to the other with ease as such more and more people including the youth and students are expanding their horizons outside their countries of origin. The contributions from the tourism industry in many countries such as revenue, employment, foreign and local investment and many others cannot be underestimated. Tourists from all over the world are trooping to destinations to experience and enjoy diverse attractions. One significant trend worth mentioning is the mobility of the youth and students in recent times. The contribution of international students in many destinations over the years is an added advantage to the tourism industry and as such economies. Studies have shown the contribution of tourism activities of international students have grown significantly. According to Michaels (2003:58), “tourism related 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh activities undertaken by international students contributed approximately $8.2m to the economy of the State of Victoria in Australia”.2 Huang (2008:1006), in his article attempted to contextualize international students in the tourism literature. He intimated that international students have not been captured in the definition of who a tourist is, probably due to their period of study abroad which is usually within a year or more. Thus those whose studies fall within a year can be considered as tourists while those who stay for over a year cannot be considered as tourists. Drawing from the Erik Cohen’s typology of the different categories of tourists, students can be placed within the category of explorers.3 Over the last two centuries, security has emerged to be one of many pressing issues affecting the tourism industry worldwide. The heightened global insecurity is having a toll on the tourism industry including the perception of personal security among tourists at destinations. The media, over the years, have played a contributing position in forming and shaping the perception of people about security at destinations. Many states have had to advertise and communicate to potential tourist to allay their fears about insecurity in their various states. The advent of social media is playing a significant role in shaping the perceptions of potential tourists who will want to travel to a destination. This chapter will provide a global overview of tourism as well as how online tourism and social media is influencing traveller’s perception and decision making. Also in this chapter will be an overview of tourism in Africa as well as Ghana and a seemingly interconnection between tourism and security. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1 Global Overview of Tourism Tourism as already reiterated is one of the driving pillars for regional development. A successful tourism industry can boost the economy of a country in the area of employment, revenue generation, local and foreign investments. It is imperative for states to put in place measures to attract tourists as this is essential for tourism development in any state. As the saying goes, ''without attraction there will be no tourism'' and ''without tourism the natural and artificial elements which constitute an attraction will become non-performing assets''.4 From the aforementioned, attractions constitutes the most important element in Tourism development. It is this component of the Tourism industry that draws tourists from all over the globe to these destination areas. This is reiterated by Akyeampong and Asiedu (2008:2), ''attractions form the supply side of tourism, which motivates and providing the pull which when matched to a compatible push bring people into an area''.5 A positive image of a destination will depend on the kind of experience whether positive or negative one has of a place resulting in a positive evaluation of a destination, therefore, the higher the satisfaction, the higher the likelihood for more tourists to return or recommend these destinations to other people. 6 As reiterated above attractions constitutes the most important element of the tourism industry. What then is a tourist attraction? According to Lew (1987:557), '' attractions are usually major centres of tourism and are marked by many tourist activities integrated around a central point''.7 As stated by Akyeampong and Asiedu (2008:2), ''a phenomenon must have a tourist, a site to be viewed, and an image which makes the site significant in order to be considered an attraction''.8 These criteria outlined above distinguishes a tourist site from other sites. In summary, attraction will not only comprise of historic sites, national parks, and beaches but also the services that are rendered at these sites and 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh amenities to meet the needs of tourists.9 In addition, institutions such as public and private tourist institutions, security agencies etc. form part of attractions.10 Studies have shown that, tourists are willing to take risks depending on the general experiences offered at attractions. This is because every environment, including tourist sites, has elements of security and risk. As such, the perception of destinations are influenced primarily by the publicised image, and not the real experience of the site itself. This situation can be attributed to the marker involvement as stated by Hall et al (2004:3), ‘’because the tourist is more interested in the label that is attached to the attraction than the attraction itself''.11 Tourism and security are inevitably interwoven phenomena. Security is a concept which is as much important to the tourism industry as well as the world at large. This is because, it does not only influence tourist decisions but also the economic and political confidence of a state, which tends to affects the entire environment within which the tourism industry thrives. The uncertainties created during the Cold War period, in relation to ideas of who is an ally or an enemy, gave way to the notion of security extending beyond ideas of national security but also issues ranging from the global to the individual.12 Under this new concept of security, threats are engendered not only from military actions but from social issues such as environmental and climate change, international crime and terrorism, pandemics, bio-securityetc. Security is one of the crucial and fundamental situations of development and progress. It is no surprise therefore, that attention has been given to security issues for the existence of society from the individual to global level as a whole. Tourism can be described as one of the highest sources of revenue generation worldwide. The industry has suffered several shocks such as economic recession13, 'swine flu' 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (H1N1), Ebola etc. Despite these setbacks, studies suggests that tourism has proven more resilient than many other sectors. UNWTO’s Tourism Highlights (2009), affirms the growth of international arrivals in the last six decades and the expectation is to reach 1.6 billion by 2020.14 It must be noted that studies concerning security and tourism though existed, gained considerable global interest in the aftermath of the September 11, 2001 attack on the United States by an armed terrorist group known as ‘Al-Qaida’. Since this event, tourism academics and practitioners have warned that security situations no longer negatively affect a specific location. Consequently, the fragile global tourism industry is coerced to operate under high uncertainty and risk levels.15 Current attacks against tourists in states such as Morocco, Tunisia, Kenya, Egypt etc. have raised concerns of risk and security in many countries. States, travel agents, and the media occasionally issue warnings as well as encouraging potential travellers to possess items such as guide books, necessary vaccination documentation and be cautious in purchasing water, preferable bottles water to prevent them against risks. This goes to prove the assertion that security and safety of tourists are important among travellers abroad.16 High security risks have a rippling effect throughout the industry in that, risks at one location may be perceived to influence the wider region or the entire tourism system. The outbreak of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) from Guangzhou, China and Hong Kong is one typical example. The spread of the outbreak to other neighbouring countries was facilitated by modern aviation services, thus travel alerts were issued by several countries to citizens travelling to East Asia as well as health security measures at the borders.17 In West Africa, the Ebola virus affected tourism within the sub region. Countries such as Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Liberia were worse affected. Many countries issued warnings 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to their nationals not to travel to these countries as a result of the contagious nature of the pandemic.18 The relationship between tourism and terrorism according to Sonmez and Graefe (1998:118) ''gained international disrepute in 1972 at the Munich Olympic Games where there was a Palestinian attack on Israeli athletes leaving eleven people dead and introduced a global television audience of nearly 800 million viewers to terrorism''.19 Another of such tragic event against tourists took place in Egypt in the year 1997, where a gunmen murdered 71 tourists outside of Luxor. As tourism now represents capitalism in certain countries, tourists are often the specific targets of terrorist organizations. Tourism in some countries are claimed to be sponsored by their states therefore, an attack on tourists can be interpreted as an attack on the government.20 According to the UNWTO report, there was a 6.8% decline in visits to Northern America due to the September 11 terrorist attack as compared to past.21 Conflicts and political tension may also have an effect on neighbouring countries not directly or actively involved. This phenomenon is regarded as the 'generalization effect' as discussed earlier in the literature. During the Persian Gulf War, for instance, destinations as far removed as Kenya and Tanzania were negatively impacted.22 The generalization effect may also apply to health related risk as discussed earlier. Lepp & Gibson (2003:608), ''noted that although Europe and North America are widely regarded as safe, recent events have challenged this image''23 such as the Zika viral disease. He cited an occurred in 2001, when confusion over the health related effects of mad cow disease and the outbreak of foot and mouth disease in the United Kingdom prevented thousands of potential tourists from visiting the United States of America''.24 The Zika virus, a mosquito born disease has thrown the tourism industry in Latin America into a 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh turmoil. According to reports from the World Health Organisation (WHO) an estimated number of four million people will be infected with the virus by the end of the year 2016.25 As stated by the National Centre for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), ''factors such as weather, travel and poverty could increase outbreaks during summer while specialized computer simulations indicate that summer weather conditions could increase the outbreak throughout the East Coast and southern U.S''.26 According to Irfan Akhtar, a pandemic modelling expert at Aon, the disease will have a great toll on the tourism industry and businesses.27 Other tourism operators such as airlines, hotels and cruise operators etc. serving Latin America and the Caribbean travellers are facing growing concern by the mosquito-borne Zika virus''.28 The outbreak of the virus in Brazil, comes at a time when the 2016 Olympic Games draws closer. Many travellers and tourists might have to reconsider their trip to the games for the fear of contracting the virus. This decision might be aggravated as security alerts have been issued on various platforms including social media platforms such as tweeter for potential tourists to reconsider their trips to these affected areas. The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention is an example of one institution issuing such alerts.29 Per a report from the WHO, ''countries within the Americas considered to be safe from reach of the virus include Canada and Chile''.30 The rapid spread of the Zika virus has raised concerns among the Rio Olympic organising committee, however the committee will continue to follow travel guidelines issued by the WHO to safeguard the interest of visitors to the games and to the Brazilian as well.31 As already stated, Lepp and Gibson (2003:608) tend to describe Europe as a relatively safe destination in terms of health related dangers, whereas tourists generally view Africa and Asia as unsafe destinations and a breeding ground for infection, health risks from bad food and water quality as compared to Europe and Australasia.32 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Advancement in transport and communication technologies have enhanced the growth of tourism as well as investment within the industry. The influence of media communication can bring widespread changes in attitudes and behaviour towards tourism in many countries. The use of the internet is one of the best ways to promote tourism in a globalized world. One can make mention of the manner in which the media instantaneously magnifies issues concerning victimized tourists at destinations. A typical example occurs when there is political conflict between terrorists and their establishment, the situation is transferred to a much wider scale of international attention usually by the media. One can argue that high media attention focused on the terrorists' political views confirms the usefulness of tourists to terrorists as ideal targets (soft targets).33 The use of communication techniques promotes a better use of participatory message design which allows consumers to share their experience with other people online. Advertisers and their clients can easily interact via the internet. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010:61), ''define social media as internet-based applications that contain consumer-generated content to facilitate a higher level of social interaction among travellers''.34 The impact of user generated content by social media on a traveller’s decision making is well recognised in various market research reports. A number of recent studies have examined the effect of social media on travellers’ information search behaviour. According to Xiang et al (2010:179), ''travel reviews on social media sites add fun to the planning process and increase confidence for travellers’ decision by reducing risk''.35 The upsurge in the popularity of social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Snap chat, Twitter etc. serve as an important channel through which messages are disseminated instantly to the public. The digital age as therefore reshaped the manner in which information on destinations reach potential tourists as well as plans and arrangements made before travelling.36 These Social media variables such 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as blogs, virtual communities, wikis, social networks, collaborative tagging, and media files shared on sites like YouTube and Flickr, encourage consumers in posting and sharing their travel-related comments, opinions, and personal experiences, which then serve as information for others.37 The Internet progressively now serves as a medium through which tourism experiences can be portrayed, reconstructed as well as relive trips on these social media sites. Contrariwise, as a result of the colossal volume of information available online, searching has become an increasingly dominant mode in travellers’ use of the Internet. Reports by Internet research firms, ''have documented the importance of search engines in generating upstream traffic to tourism Websites and have become a powerful interface that serves as the ‘‘gateway’’ to travel-related information as well as an important marketing channel through which destinations and tourism enterprises can reach and persuade potential visitors''.38 Tourism consumers are now in direct interaction with industry suppliers such as hospitality agencies, transport agencies, travel agencies etc. This is as a result of the easy access to travel information via the internet. One can argue from the discussions that, online resources have become an important component of the truism industry particularly in circulating information which influences tourists’ perceptions and attitudes towards a destinations. 2.2 Overview of Tourism in Africa Tourism is an element of economic growth strategy for many countries in Africa such as South Africa, Kenya, Senegal, Egypt, Mauritius, Gambia, Cape Verde, Ghana etc. The growth of infrastructure has contributed to the increase in the displacement of people 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from one place to the other. Thus, security and safety concerns have received a wider attention as tourism itself in Africa is transformed into one of the biggest markets in the global economy, particularly its contribution to employment, tourism investment, Gross Domestic Product (GDP).39 According to Erbes (1973:287), ''many developing countries look up to tourism consumption as manna from heaven that can provide a solution to all their foreign settlement difficulties''.40 This description gained support in many countries as these benefits from tourism are advanced as justifications for government support in many developing countries. According to the UNWTO (2005) report, the tourism sector accounted for 3 to 10% of the GDP of developing countries41 as the number of international tourist arrivals in Sub Saharan Africa increased in the 90’s from 6.7 million to 17.6 million in 2000, and to 29.7 million in 2008.42 They revealed that from 2006 to 2007, tourist arrivals increased by 9.1%, one of the highest regional growth rates in the world.43 It is important to note that Africa was the only region to have recorded an increase in tourist arrivals in spite of the economic crisis in 2008 (i.e. an increased rate of 3.4%) while from January to April 2008, arrivals from the Middle East fell by 18% and arrivals to Asia Pacific fell 6%.44 The report also asserts that, Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) tends to attract more tourists in recent times than the Caribbean and Central America.45 The region is noted to have generated approximately US$21.7 billion in tourist receipts in 2007. Even with the global economic slowdown, the region’s travel and tourism industry is expected to achieve an annual growth rate of 5.5% over the next ten years. This compares with the world average of 4.1%.46 According to findings in the Report, SSA over the years has attracted the attention of new market sources such as Spain, China, Australia, India and Russia. New markets sources which are potentials for SSA Brazil, Japan, and Lebanon.47 Many SSA countries are dependent on only one region for the bulk of their intercontinental market 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly the Francophone destinations. As states by the report Twinning (2009) ''there are approximately fifteen countries in Africa which are totally reliant on French visitors''.48 Consequently, this exposes SSA destinations to fluctuations in market demand and to economic downturns. However, some countries such as Nigeria, Cape Verde, Lesotho, and Swaziland attract an equalized mix of intercontinental source markets.49 The report indicates intra-regional movements within the West African Sub region such as Nigerians to Nigeria, Gambians to Senegal, Nigerians to Ghana, Burkinabe's to Côte D’Ivoire, and people from the Congolese go to Benin.50 These intra- regional movements’ patterns in SSA as indicated in the literature, are related to factors including geography, trading partners, population, nearest neighbours, and incomes''.51 Africa is endowed with diverse tourist attractions ranging from cultural, natural and historical sites. Business and educational tourism can be found within the continent. Safari tourism remains a major component of the tourism industry in East and Southern Africa, while Central and West Africa are noted for business tourism.52 The main safari destinations are Kenya and Tanzania while ''Angola, Cameroon, Chad, and Republic of Congo (Central Africa) and Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Côte D’Ivoire (West Africa) are important business destinations in Africa''.53 Resort tourism unlike safari tourism is common to both East and West Africa and, to a lesser extent, in Southern Africa. Mauritius, Seychelles, and Mozambique are some key resort destinations in East Africa.54 Cultural tourism is a key component in West, East and Southern Africa; Ghana, Mali, Ethiopia are particularly noted for their cultural attractions. Nature tourism, nonetheless, is an important component of tourism in SSA as a result of the abundance of natural assets such as protected areas namely deserts, rainforests, savannah, reefs, and wetlands. Destinations that have primarily nature-based products are Uganda, Guinea, Gabon, Central African Republic, Guinea-Bissau, and Niger.55 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As preconditions for a vibrant tourism industry, the state must ensure people feel safe and secured. No one will want to visit a country where lives are risk or where he or she feels unsafe such as war torn countries. Other situations such as high crime rates, diseases, terror attacks, poor roads network, poor airline services, can also be a major constraint to potential travellers and to tourism development in these destinations. Crime is one threat that is crippling the development of tourism in many countries. In their research on tourism development and insecurity, Giacoma & Horsey (2013:16), highlighted similar expressions about the link between security and tourism development. They reiterated a direct link between terrorism and a declining tourists arrivals in countries around the world such as Nigeria, Lebanon, Zambia, Kenya, Tunisia and recently Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire. Reports of tourists being held as hostages, targets of crime or terrorism, rape, torture, and death, has affected the tourism industry.56 Subsequent media attention on global events, has raised concerns about safety and warning precaution which sometimes have led to cancellation of trips to many destinations. In effect, the tourist, both domestic and international, is biased by the public perception of safety.57 If a tourist feels threatened at a destination, he or she can develop a negative impression of the destination. This can be very damaging and may result in the decline of tourism. Twinning (2009:16), outlines some consequences in his report; ‘‘prospective tourists may decide not to visit the destination because it has a reputation for having a high crime rate, they are not likely to take part in activities outside their accommodation facility, return to the destination, and may not recommend the destination to others''.58 Terrorism remains a menace to global peace and security. West Africa, like many parts of Africa, has seen an increase in terrorism especially in the Sahel region. Cases include deadly terrorist attacks in Mali, Nigeria, and recently Burkina Faso and Cote d'Ivoire. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For instance the rise of Boko Haram insurgency in Nigeria. In 2012 and 2013, about 305 and 137 attacks were recorded.59 It is reported that in 2014, about 7,711 people were by the group. They openly laid claim for nearly 90 percent of all terrorist attacks in Nigeria.60 Again, one can recall the case of the over 250 school girls from Chibok who were abducted by Boko Haram on April 15, 2014, in Northern Nigeria. This horrific incident sparked global outrage, thus attracting regional and international condemnation and renewed efforts to curb the growing threats of terrorist and religious extremist groups.61 A healthy environment is another prerequisite for a booming tourism industry. Destinations with health threats such as diseases are unlikely to attract many tourists within that period. This is because, that destination posing serious health risks as well as where the standard of medical care is extremely poor.62 Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Swaziland, Burundi, and Lesotho are examples of countries which have had health threats affecting their tourism industry.63 In Botswana for example, the high rates of HIV/AIDS had an adverse effect on their workforce. Huge investments in healthcare delivery by the government has paid off in Botswana as it has attained a Group One destination status in Africa.64 The recent Ebola outbreak had negative consequences on several countries in Africa and beyond. The effects of the disease spread to other countries with several European countries and the United States experiencing contagions and a potential for a health and economic crisis.65 A public broadcast of the outbreak of the Ebola viral disease, was put on the website of the WHO66 There were reports of 49 official cases and 39 deaths as at time of reporting in 2014. Naila, (2015) states that, the whole world was thrown into fear and panic considering the fact that there was no hope of containing it. There were numerous reports of health personnel and caregivers from affected countries perishing as a result of being infected.67 According to Sifolo and 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sifolo (2015:10), ''there was a total of about 10,141 suspected cases of EVD in six countries namely Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali, Spain and the United states of America as at October, 2014''.68 However, in some countries, such as Nigeria and Senegal in West Africa, fortunately authorities were able to contain the spread of the EVD. Schmid and Malcom, (2014) proposes that effective political leadership, early detection and response, public awareness campaigns as well as strong support from partner organisations were some reasons given for prevention in these countries mentioned above.69 According to Schmid and Malcom (2014:2), ''this situation could be worse in vulnerable economies like tourist dependent countries as distant as the Caribbean countries''70 or other tourist generating countries. The notion of the generalization effect as discussed in the conceptual framework sets in with this argument. They warned that though these countries have succeeded in preventing its spread they would still be vulnerable due to the notion that tourism makes countries vulnerable to pandemics as it involves the movement from one location to the other.71 Thus, perception of security threats such as pandemics, could dissuade tourists from visiting a country. It is argued that, the impact of the EVD was felt by the tourism sector of other African countries mainly due to perceptions and the lack of knowledge about the disease72 mainly international travellers outside the Africa. It was reported that many travellers fearful of the disease avoided Africa or better still cancelled long-planned vacations, creating dire consequences for the economies in Africa.73 Asante (2015), asserts that “the tourism sector is reeling from the epidemic with hotels and tour operating companies across the whole of Africa reporting cancellation of bookings”.74 He emphasises how hotels and other hospitality service providers were affected even here in Ghana. Other reports from stakeholders in the tourism industry including the Ghana Hotels Association lamented about the misfortunes 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the disease had brought to bear in the industry, thus collapsing the tourism business in West Africa.75 Moreover, despite the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) call against any ban on international travel, airline companies’ namely Kenyan airways, Emirates, Korean air and British Airways etc. withdrew flights to affected West African countries, while some neighbouring countries closed their borders.76 From the aforementioned it becomes clear how the EVD had negative repercussions on the tourism sector and slowed down the sector’s contribution to economic growth. It is therefore necessary for countries to develop strategic plans which will take into consideration, the possible impact of pandemics and other threats to the tourism industry. 2.3 Overview of Tourism in Ghana Ghana just like many other countries in Africa such as South Africa, Cape Verde, Mauritius, Kenya, Senegal etc. has a vibrant tourism industry. Asante, (2015) posit that ''a key strength of Ghana‘s tourism attractiveness is the diversity of natural, cultural and historical resources scattered all over the regions''.77 To mention but a few are the forts and castles (UNESCO World Heritage Sites), traditional architecture, protected parks and game reserves within Ghana and the diversity of resources that they contain; the cultural traditions within the country.78 Ghana is also noted worldwide for the friendliness and hospitality of its people, as well as portraying a positive attitude towards tourists. These values together with the resources mentioned above add up to place Ghana as a preferred destination in West Africa. Similar to many African countries, efforts to develop a sustainable tourism industry in Ghana can be traced to the early part of the post-independence period with the construction of a first class hotel with 110 rooms in 1956 in Accra.79 It was to 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accommodate dignitaries and visitors who were to participate in Ghana's Independence celebration which was to take place on March 6, 1957. Prior to this project, it is on record that the hospitality industry by then was predominantly owned by private individuals. It was made up of small to medium sized budget hotels which were mainly concentrated in the major urban centres that is Accra, Kumasi and Sekondi-Takoradi.80 In 1960, the tourism industry was placed under the Ministry responsible for Parks and Gardens. In addition a State Hotel and Tourist Corporation (SHTC) was established in 1962, to develop and manage hotels and other tourist facilities as well as serving as a catalyst for assisting private businessmen to invest in the hotel industry.81 The SHTC was soon replaced by the Ghana Tourist Corporation (GTC) and the State Hotels Corporation (SHC) in 1968. The GTC was transformed into Ghana Tourist Control Board (GTCB) and the Ghana Tourist Development Corporation (GTDC) in 1973. The mandate of the GTCB was to define overall development goals for the industry, while GTDC was charged with the responsibility for providing financing mechanisms for potential developers in the industry. The SHC, though short lived, succeeded in establishing and operating seven major hotels and several catering guest houses in various urban centres of Ghana.82 The Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA), which was established by Tourism Act, 2011 (Act 817), as the main implementing body of the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts. According to Asiedu, (1997:14), “It is a substitute for the Ghana Tourist Board, established by 'NRCD 224' in 1973 and amended by 'SMCD 80' of 1977”.83 Its mission was to ensure an enabling tourism environment through sustainable tourism development as well as provide quality tourism facilities and services with a well-qualified, highly motivated and dedicated work force to promote tourism as the key sector of the economy.84 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Between 1972 and 1978, a number of studies were carried out on various sectors of Ghana's tourism industry. Due to financial and technical setbacks, the studies were funded and conducted by foreign agencies. Asiedu (1997:15) outlines donors and type of research carried out, “the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 1973); they carried out an assessment of tourism planning and development, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID); identification requirements for a comprehensive tourism development strategy, United States International Executive Service Corps- project on effective domestically sponsored projects’’.85 According to Teye (1999:350), ''the first three decades after independence did not witness any meaningful headway in implementing these tourism blueprints. This he attributed to the political and economic instabilities that confronted the nation during and after that time period''.86 Tourism in Ghana in the late 1980s, received considerable attention in the economic development policies of Ghana. It must also be emphasized that there was an expansion in both public and private investment in the various sub-sectors of the tourism industry.87 Likewise, the then government established the Ministry of Tourism in 1993 to further carry out its commitment to promote tourism development in the country. One of the first strategies instituted by the Ministry was to draw a 15 year development plan with assistance from the UNDP and WTO. The plan covered the period from 1996 to 2010.88 The tourism policy detailed in the 15-year Integrated Tourism Development Plan (1996- 2010) was prepared in direct consultation with the public and private sectors in all the ten regions of Ghana.89 This was to ensure the plan was well integrated and comprehensive with all hands on board. According to Teye (1988:350) ''Donors, international and domestic private investors were eager to participate in an industry which was perceived to have the potential of overtaking the mining and agricultural industries in the country, 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thus, the Plan was well received and engendered actions that have developed and progressed the sector over the years''.90 It served as a foundation for subsequent plans such as the 2006-2009 Tourism Sector Medium Term Development Plan (TSMTDP) which was aimed at projecting Ghana as a competitive and quality tourism destination in the world.91 A number of activities were organised to aggressively market tourism in the country. Some of these activities include familiarisation tours (famtour) for international tour operators, hosting of the African Travel Association twice in 1999 and in 2006. It is on record that these initiatives and activities yielded positive results for the industry in Ghana until the events of 9/11 in the United States which slowed tourism around the world.92 Other programmes outlined in the Plan included, the preparation of regional tourism plans for the ten regions, prefeasibility studies for selected tourism projects, a marketing strategy and promotion plan as well as a tourism awareness programmes.93 Additionally, recommendations were proposed for the improvement of technical support and financial assistance for the Hotel, Catering and Tourism Training Centre (HOTCATT). Finally, a tourism management information system was set up to be managed by the Ministry of Tourism.94 Recommendations put forth by this plan though very insightful, were partially implemented in the country. This was attributed to a number of reasons such as the lack of political will, regular reshuffling of leaders at tourism institutions, inadequate funding allocated to tourism development and marketing, etc.95 In 2012, a new National Tourism Development Plan (2013-2027) was introduced to guide and project the sector over the next 15 years. Disparate to previous plans, as stated in the National Tourism Development Plan (2013-2027), emphasis was placed on ''identifying opportunities to enhance and progress tourism in Ghana as well as obstacles and constraints hampering its development while building on the recommendations made 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the 1996-2010 Plan''.96 The focus of the Plan was to ensure tourism achieves its full potential in a sustainable and responsible manner and contribute towards GDP. Other goals stipulated in the plan comprised poverty reduction strategies and ensuring operations in the industry were not detrimental to the environment, culture and traditions of Ghana and attract a wide range of markets.97 At the macro-economic level, the aim was to maintain or push the industry in Ghana as ''the third, highest foreign exchange source in the Ghana after gold and cocoa and remittances from abroad''.98 Recent terror attacks worldwide and within the West African Sub region though did not occur in Ghana, brought global tourism to a standstill. Most source markets consider Africa as one big country, and not as a continent with unique and distinct countries and destinations. As such, many countries which were not directly victims of these terror attacks had to relay messages abroad to assure the public of security and safety in other to erase the perception of insecurity in the Sub region. Mrs. Elizabeth Ofosu-Agyare, the Minister for Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts in Ghana at a UNWTO Executive Council meeting held on May 17, 2016 in Andalusia city of Malaga, Spain, assured the public of the government’s commitment to beef up security in the country to encourage tourism. According to her, ''the growing concerns across the world as terrorism grew, pushed the government to take pragmatic measures to assure Ghanaians and tourists to invest in the tourism sector''.99 The Tourism Minister made these assertions at the just ended 103rd session of the UNWTO. She reiterated that “Ghana has put adequate mechanisms and measures in place to curb the act of terrorism in case it occurs”. She disclosed that an inter-ministerial committee was working effectively with the ministries of interior and defence to make sure that the measures and plans were implemented. She implored member countries of the UNWTO to stand by each other in the case of any 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attack. She stated that as part of Ghana’s move aimed at fighting terrorism, the country stood by Cote d’Ivoire when it was hit by terrorist attack.100 2.4 Conclusion Tourism is an important sector in many economies worldwide, this is evident in its contribution to economic growth and development in many countries. Security is a precondition for a thriving tourism industry especially in contemporary as a result of global insecurity situations such as diseases, armed conflicts, terrorism, crime etc. Several thriving number one tourist destinations such as Egypt, Kenya, Tunisia, Brazil, Nepal etc. have been affected as a result of activities such as terrorism, diseases, natural disasters etc. The role of the media has been significant in forming the perception of people about destinations especially with the dawn of social media. It has proved to be an important channel through which travel-related information on destinations and tourism enterprises can be easily accessed. Internet-based platforms such as social media, have enabled travellers to share and relive their travel experiences with other people. Tourism in Africa over the years has played a huge role in the growth of many African economies including Ghana. Recent global terror attacks, diseases and other vices have had a toll on the tourism industry. From the fore mentioned it is evident that for a successful tourism industry, there is the need for security and a positive perception of a destination area. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ENDNOTE 1 United Nations World Tourism Organisation. ''Tourism Highlights 2009 Edition''. UNWTO. Madrid. 2009 2 Michaels, Ian, Anona Amstrong, and Brian King. ‘’The travel behaviour of International Students: The relationship between studying abroad and their choice of tourist destinations’’. Journal of Vacation Marketing 10. 1, (2003), 57–66 3 Rong Huang. ‘’Mapping Educational Tourists' Experience in the UK: understanding international students’’, Third World Quarterly, 29:5 (2008) 1003-1020 4 Asiedu, Alex B, ''Prospects For an Emerging Tourism Industry in Ghana''. Research Review (Ns) 13(1 & 2) 13. Accra: Assemblies of God Literature Centre Ltd., (1997). 5 Ibid 6 Chen, Ching-Fu, and DungChun, Tsai. "How destination image and evaluative factors affect behavioural intentions?." Tourism management 28.4 (2007): 1115-1122. 7 Lew, Alan A. "A framework of tourist attraction research." Annals of tourism research 14.4 (1987): 554 8 Acheampong, O.A., & Asiedu, A.B. eds. Tourism in Ghana: A modern synthesis. 2008: 3 9 ibid 10Asiedu, Alex B,. ''Prospects for an Emerging Tourism Industry in Ghana''. Research Review (Ns) 13(1& 2) 13. Accra: Assemblies of God Literature Centre Ltd., (1997) 11 Ibid 12 Hall, Michael C., Timothy J. Dallen, and David Timothy Duval. "C. Security and Tourism." Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing (2, 3), 15 (2004): 2. 13 United Nations World Tourism Organisation. ''Tourism Highlights 2009 Edition''. UNWTO. Madrid. 2009 14 ibid 15 Pizam, Abraham, Peter E. Tarlow, Jonathan Bloom. ''Making Tourists Feel Safe: Whose Responsibility is it?''. Journal of Travel Research. 36.1, (1997): 24 16 Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 606-607. 17 Hall, Michael C., Timothy J. Dallen, and David Timothy Duval. "C. Security and Tourism." Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing (2, 3), 15 (2004): 3 18 ''Report on Ebola and tourism in West Africa''. BBC News.org. British Broadcasting Corporation. 17 Oct 2014. 19 Sonmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of Terrorism Risk on Foreign Tourism Decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 118. Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 1 20 Sönmez, Sevil. ''Tourism, Terrorism and Political Instability''. Annals of Tourism Research 25.2 (1998): 8. Web 21 UNWTO: World Tourism in 2002: Better than expected - WTO Reports; 2003 January 28retrieved from:www.hospitalitynet.org/news/4014546.html, accessed on 26/04/2016 22 Sonmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of Terrorism Risk On Foreign Tourism Decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 118s 23 Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 608. 24Lovel, Jeremey. ''British Tourism expects major disease loss''. Reuters. April 11, 2001. Retrieved from: http://www.mad-cow.org/UKCJD/CJD_news54.html (CNN Europe 2001) 25 Johnson B. ''Zika's Impact on Tourism, Health''. Claims International News. March 22, 2016. Retrieved from: http://www.claimsjournal.com/news/international/2016/03/22/269587.htm 26 ibid 27Fares, Melissa and Tennery Amy. ''Travel Industry Faces Growing Concern over Zika Virus''. Reuters. January 27, 2016. Retrieved from : http://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-zika-travel-socialmedia- idUSKCN0V429 28 ibid 29 ibid 30 ibid 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 ''The Threat of the Zika Virus to Tourism in Brazil in Olympic Year''. Euro News. (2016). Retrieved June 11, 2016 from http://www.euronews.com/2016/02/03/the-treat-of-the-zika-virus-to-tourism-in-brazil- in-olympic-year/ 32 Lepp, Andrew, and Heather Gibson. "Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism." Annals of Tourism Research 30.3 (2003): 608. Web 33 ibids 34 Kaplan, Andreas M., and Michael Haenlein. "Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media." Business horizons 53.1 (2010): 61 35 Xiang, Zheng, and Ulrike Gretzel. "Role of social media in online travel information search." Tourism management 31.2 (2010): 179-188 36 ibid 37 ibid 38 ibid 39 Frimpong-Bonsu, William. '' Diagnostic Study of Tourism in Ghana''. African Centre for Economic Transformation. (2015): 5 40 Dieke, Peter UC. "Tourism in Africa's economic development: policy implications." Management Decision 41.3 (2003): 287 41 Twining Ward. L. ''Sub Saharan African Tourism Industry Research''. Final Report. (2009): 16-17. Retrieved from: siteresources.worldbank.org/.../Resources/.../FinalSSATourismRpt1118.p 42 ibid 43 ibid 44 ibid 45 ibid 46 ibid 47 ibid 48 ibid 49 ibid 50 ibid 51 ibid 52 ibid 53 ibid 54 ibid 55 ibid 56 ibid 57 Ibid 58 George, Richard. "Tourist's perceptions of safety and security while visiting Cape Town." Tourism Management 24.5 (2003): 577 59 Sahilu Naila. ''The Centre Can Hold: Towards A Regional Approach to Combating West Africa’s Terrorists''. Policy Brief Kofi Annan International Peace Keeping Training Centre. (2015). Retrieved from: http://www.kaiptc.org/Publications/Policy-Briefs/Policy-Briefs/2015-KAIPTC-Policy-Brief---Naila- Salihu.aspx 60 ibid 61 ibid 62 ibid 63 ibid 64 Twining Ward. L. ''Sub Saharan African Tourism Industry Research''. Final Report. (2009): 16-17. Retrieved from: siteresources.worldbank.org/.../Resources/.../FinalSSATourismRpt1118.p 65 Schmid, Juan Pedro, and Xavier Malcolm. "The Fear Factor: A back of the envelope calculation on economic risk of an Ebola scare in the Caribbean ". Jamaica Inter-American Development Bank. (2014): 2 66 ibid 67 ibid 68 Sifolo Ntandaso., and Sifolo Siyanda. P. ''The tourism inconvenience of the Ebola epidemic: lessons for the South African tourism sector''. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 4 .1. (2015): 10 69 ibid 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 Schmid, Juan Pedro, and Xavier Malcolm. "The Fear Factor: A back of the envelope calculation on economic risk of an Ebola scare in the Caribbean ". Jamaica Inter-American Development Bank. (2014): 3-5 71 ibid 72 ibid 73 Sifolo Ntandaso., and Sifolo Siyanda. P. ''The tourism inconvenience of the Ebola epidemic: lessons for the South African tourism sector''. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 4 .1. (2015): 3-5 74 Asante, A. '' West African Voices on Ebola: can West African economies withstand the Ebola pressure''? . West African Voices. (2015). Retrieved from http://sphcm.med.unsw.edu.au/infectious-diseases- blog/west-african-voices-on-ebola3-can-west-african-economies-withstand-the-ebola) Accessed on 19/06/2016 75 ibid 76 Sifolo N., and Sifolo Siyanda P. P. ''The tourism inconvenience of the Ebola epidemic: lessons for the South African tourism sector''. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 4 .1. (2015): 3-5 77 National Tourism Development Plan. 2013-2027, (2012): 78 ibid 79 Asiedu, Alex Boakye. ''Prospects for an Emerging Tourism Industry In Ghana''. Research Review (Ns) 13(1 & 2).13. Accra: Assemblies of God Literature Centre Ltd.(1997):14-16 80 ibid 81 ibid 82 ibid 83 ibid 84 Teye, Victor B. '' Tourism Development Experience in Ghana.'' DPMN Bulletin 7.1 (2000): 1-2 accessed from citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.579.7833 on 4/20/16 85 ibid 86 Teye, Victor B. "Coups d’état and African tourism: A study of Ghana." Annals of Tourism research 15.3 (1988): 350. 87 ibid 88 ibid 89 National Tourism Development Plan. 2013-2027. (2012): 7-8 90 ibid 91 ibid 92 ibid 93 ibid 94 ibid 95 ibid 96 ibid 97 ibid 98 ibid 99 Anku M. ''Tourism Minister Praises Ghana's Security Credentials''. Ghana News Agency (GNA). Accra. 17 May, 2016, May. Retrieved from http://www.ghananewsagency.org/economics/tourism-minister- praises-ghana-s-security-credentials--103897 100 ibid 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE PERCEPTION OF PERSONAL SECURITY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TOURISM IN GHANA 3.0 Introduction The preceding chapter presented an overview of tourism at the global and regional levels. It also brought to light the interconnection between tourism and security as well as the dynamics in global security particularly after the 9/11 terror attack in the United States and its implications on tourism worldwide. The international community after the demise of the cold war, accompanied by technological advances in aircraft safety and mass tourism, was looking forward to a world of peace and freedom, where tourism could thrive. Unfortunately, this expectation was not realised, instead, there was an upsurge in armed conflicts, terror attacks especially on tourists, virulous diseases, crime as well as natural disasters, thus, the tourism industry has been thrown into pandemonium. As posited in the Concept of Destination Image, many countries who have in no way been affected by security incidents such as terror attacks, diseases etc., have been affected as well due to the negative perception and lack of knowledge about the extent of security risks by tourists. Thus, perception plays a dominant role in the success or otherwise of tourism. The role of the media particularly social media in contemporary times have played a major role and influence in shaping the perception of many tourists with regards to destination areas. As such, this chapter will attempt to analyse and answer how perception is created and factors which contribute to its formation through the analysis of data collected. Further, the chapter will examine how perceived threats affects tourism in Ghana and the measures put in place by private tourism operators and 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the state to mitigate the effects. This chapter presents and discusses data collected via questionnaires and interviews from the field as stated in the objectives and research questions in chapter one. This chapter also summarises the data and attempts to produce statistical meaning out of it. The results of the field data have been presented in charts and tables showing frequencies and percentages of the responses given by respondents. 3.1 Factors Influencing Tourist Decision According to Kozak et al (2007:234), ''the overall perception of visitors depends on external factors that are difficult for destination management or local tourism businesses to influence''.1 These factors, they further explain, which interrupts the flow may be economic, political or temporal features appearing in the visitor-generating countries or the visitor-attracting countries. They include age, sex, occupation, personality, cost, time, motivation, distance, risk, and existence of alternative destinations etc.2 In addition Kozak et al, identifies other irrepressible factors such as terrorism, spread of virulous diseases, crime and natural disasters etc. These factors they emphasise, may have lasting effects on destinations when they happen, therefore, as the number of disasters and crises affecting the tourism and travel industry increases, it becomes important to understand the nature of these disasters and incidents, predict their potential impacts on the industry, and control their consequences.3 Thus, ''high perceived risk and safety concerns have appeared to become a major issue of visitors’ decision-making evaluation''.4 Research indicates that, such incidents may have a devastating effect not only on where they have appeared, but also on the visitors who would be interested in visiting these places.5 External sources provide tourists with the information of risks which they are likely to 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confront when travelling to a destination, while internal factors determine the interpretation and perception of these informed risks.6 Sonmez et al (1998:172), categorizes these internal factors into four; sociocultural, socio- demographic, psychographic, and biological.7 The nationality of a visitor/tourist and past experiences are found to be the most significant factors shaping tourists’ security perception. Also, future travel, they reiterate is influenced not only by the extent but also the nature of past travel experience and even suggested that personal experience may exert more influence on travel decisions than information acquired from external sources.8 Therefore, it can be inferred that personal experience with travel in general can affect risk or safety perceptions which in turn can influence the probability of future travel to, and the desire to avoid, that destination. Consequently, both internal and external factors play a significant role in influencing the decisions of potential tourists to travel to a destination. Thus, these factors impact either positively or negatively the number of tourists arrivals to destination. The upsurge in the use of smart phones and access the internet and social media sites have linked potential tourists directly to the industry through easy access to information. These technological advances can have an impact on perceptions and behaviour of tourists. Further, social media needs to be better understood in order to effectively communicate with individuals at the destination in times of crisis.9 3.2 Analysis and Discussion of Data The sample was, to a large extent, made up of tourists with diverse nationalities; comprising of Americans 47%, Nigerians 27.5%, and Costa Ricans 8.9% and Ivoirians 4.3%. The percentage of tourists from Canada, Benin, Burkina Faso and Germany were 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh proportional 2.9%. The countries contributing the least representation were Niger 1.4% and Sweden 1.4% respectively. The majority of respondents were from the United States and Nigeria (West Africa). This can largely be explained by the fact that samples were taken from the International Student’s hostel of University of Ghana, which houses majority of all the international students on campus. Other sites include the Art Centre in Accra where indigenous artefacts are sold and the Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum where the remains of the first president of Ghana is being kept. These statistics are consistent with statistics from the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). According Altbach et al (2009:7) ''more than 2.5 million students are studying outside of their home countries and it is projected that there will be 8 million international students by 2020''.10 This fact is stated in its report to the UNESCO. This trend is attributed to globalization which has become a force to reckon with in the 21st century, and thus, affecting higher education.11 One of the most visible aspects of globalization identified by the report is the upsurge in student mobility. The flow of international students is a mirror reflection of plans established nationally and institutionally, as well as the decisions of individual students worldwide. Studies again carried by Altbach et al (2009), states that ''international students have become big businesses, generating revenue to host universities through their tuition payments and other expenditures''.12 These students also add international diversity to an academic environment.13 43% of respondents attributed their visit to Ghana to education. This proves the assertion by the UNESCO report with regards to the mobility of international students worldwide. Majority of the students respondents were from the United States and Nigeria. Figure 1 below illustrates with a bar representation of the nationalities of respondents. Students from the United States make up the highest number from the sample 41.7% while Swedish nationals were the lowest 1.4% of the sample. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 1: Bar graph showing Nationality of respondents Source: Author's Field Work, 2016 Per the responses giving, majority of the respondents were in Ghana for educational purposes comprising 42.9% of the sample. This is consistent with literature from UNESCO describing the mobility of international students made possible by globalisation. Figure 2: Attraction to Ghana (What attracted you to Ghana) Source: Compiled from Author’s Fieldwork, 2016 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A total of 61. 4% of the sample were first time visitors, and were attracted to Ghana for various purposes. 25.7% were attracted by the culture, 42.9% educational purposes and 31.4% for other purposes. A cross tabulation of nationality and attraction in Figure 3 below, illustrates that 94.4% of tourists from the United State are in Ghana for cultural purposes while 33.3% for educational purposes. On the contrary, among the Nigerians respondents, 46.7% are in Ghana for educational purposes, 18.2% for other purposes respectively. Among the African respondents (Burkina Faso, Benin, Nigeria, Cote D’Ivoire) none was attracted as a result of the culture as compared to respondents from the United States and Costa Rica. Figure 3: Cross Tabulation of Nationality of Respondent and the Source of Attraction to Ghana Source: Author's Field Work, 2016 Altbach et al (2009), proves that the number of visitor’s previous visits and their demographic profile such as sex, age, marital status, and level of education influence their perceptions.14 George (2002), reiterates this assertion ‘‘that there is a statistical 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relationship between visitors’ perceptions of safety and the socio-demographic factors such as sex, age, number of visits to the destination, purpose of visit, and nationality''.15 Moreover criminology studies have shown that fear for personal safety is found to differ among men and women. According to George (2002:578), ''women and elderly people were more concerned about personal safety and therefore restricted their activities to avoid potential encounters with violence''.16 The sampled population was largely youthful. This can be attributed to the fact that respondents were from the University campus whose population is mainly youthful. Among the female respondents, 82% were between the ages of 18-25 years and 10% between the ages of 26-30 years, respondents above 30 years constituted 8% of the sample. Conversely, among the male respondents 77.8% were between the ages of 26-30 years, 52.6% constituting 18-25 age group while 10.5% constituted above 30 years. These statistics are consistent with the literature that the elderly as compared to the youth are more concerned about personal safety and as such confine their activities to stay safe. Figure 4 below illustrates this trend. Figure 4: Bar Graph showing the Cross Tabulation of Sex and Age of Respondents Source: Author's Field Work, 2016 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As already indicated in the previous chapters, the personal security of a tourist is a major factor taken in to consideration when choosing a destination. A cross tabulation of sex and consideration of security threat before choosing a destination shows that among a total of 39 respondents who chose the option yes i.e. taking into consideration their personal security, 79.5% were females and 20.5% males. Statistics from the sample is consistent with the literature that females and the elderly are more concerned about their personal security than males. Figure 5 illustrates this observation. Figure 5: Bar Graph illustrating Cross Tabulation of Sex and Personal Security Source: Author's Field Work, 2016 Among the four threats to the personal security of tourists, crime and infectious diseases formed the highest threats to the security of respondents 39% respectively. This was followed by other threats which formed 14% and terror attacks 9%. The study's findings 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are consistent with the findings of Lepp & Gibson (2003:620), ''demonstrating how large areas of the developing world are generalized as risky''.17 This assertion is intimated by a respondent: ...the world’s perception of insecurity needs to shift. I know and people who stay in Ghana know it's safe but it is in a region that recently suffered from Ebola, coup d'états, terror attacks. I don't think Ghana can do much about people’s stupid views of the world that put all countries in a region into one box.18 Recent events such as terror attacks in Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Mali as well as the Ebola pandemic within the West African Sub-region should be taking into consideration. The results of this study suggest that the sustainability of development strategies should be questioned. Furthermore, Tourism marketers such as the Ghana Tourism Authority need to learn how to ward off the generalization effect as it has severe economic consequences. Figure 6 is an illustration of a hierarchy of threats perceived by respondents. Figure 6: Bar graph illustrating Security Threats Source: Author's Field Work, 2016 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is interesting to note that a cross tabulation of the nationality of respondents and security threats demonstrates how different nationalities perceive various threats. As reiterated in the previous chapter by Lepp and Gibson (2003:620), ''third World destinations to a large extent are perceived to be less responsive to diseases than their developed counterparts, thus, a competitive disadvantage between developed and undeveloped countries will be maintained as long as health, hygiene and sanitation issues are concerned''.19 Figure 7: Cross Tabulation of Nationality and Security Threats Source: Compiled from data from Author's Field Work, 2016 From Figure 7 above, American respondents’ highest threat to their personal security were terror attacks 66.7%, followed by infectious diseases 59.2%, crime 33.3% and other threat 40%. Among the Nigerian respondents, the greatest threat to their personal security is crime constituting 59.2%. Respondents from Benin, Burkina Faso and 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Germany identified other threats to their personal security 10%, Burkina Faso 20%, Germany 20% respectively. 3.3 Perception of Ghana as Safe/ Unsafe Destination Generally, Ghana is considered as a safe destination by 91.4% respondents. The appeal to return by respondents was very high even among those who were unsure or felt unsafe as upheld in Figure 7. 52.9% will highly recommend Ghana as a destination while 44.3% will recommend. Only 2.9% of the respondents were unsure of recommending Ghana as a destination. 91.4% of respondents will return to Ghana when given the option. Most respondents described Ghana as a beautiful and welcoming Nation with friendly people, a rich history and culture, nice beaches, and great food as their reason to recommend or want to return. Some respondents shared their experiences: ...my experience was a blast and I will want other people to experience it too. Ghana is to a large extent safe as compared to other West African countries like Nigeria. ...Ghana is generally safe but very dirty except few rich areas. ...peoples experience in Ghana will change the negative perception about Africa. ...in terms of security I recommend Ghana but tourism is not well developed.20 As indicated in the literature, the media in contemporary times contributes significantly in shaping the perception of tourists with regards to destinations. In a recent google research, Leung et al (2013:6) states that ''it was discovered that 84% of leisure travellers used the Internet as a planning resource''.21 In examining the possibility that online travellers come across social media content during a web search process, Xiang and Gretzel (2010:180), ''reported that social media constitutes more than one-tenth of such search results''.22 With the increasing popularity of websites which contain content that is generated by travellers, a number of scholars have 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh posited the importance of social media in tourism and travel.23 Respondents’ sources of information about security in Ghana were diverse. 22.9% were informed through the media, 27.1% past experiences. 35.7% former visitors to Ghana, 5.7% Tour companies and 8.6% from other sources. Figure 8: Respondents sources of information on security in Ghana Source: Compiled by Author's Field Work, 2016 These statistics might not be consistent with the literature, out of the sample size only 22.9% of respondents sought for information via the media. This can be interpreted as respondents not finding enough information about security and tourism in Ghana online or per the data provided respondents depended on information from former visitors or past experience. Tour companies were the least sources of destination information by respondents. It appears from findings that respondents did not find enough information from the media. This assertion can be justified by responses from respondents; 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ...maybe advertising in popular tourist magazines and a campaign like the 'incredible India Campaign. ...Sharing accurate information in order not to instil fear into the tourists. ...boosting tourism by using the internet to advertise. ...promotion of tourism through the media. ...actively change media stereotypes that overall generalise Africa as unsafe and impoverished. So put out adverts with beautiful pictures of Ghana to get people interested. ...make documentaries or movies that go to other countries about how safe the country is.24 Finally, respondents were asked to give recommendations on how to improve upon tourism in Ghana as well as portray a positive image among tourists abroad to convince them of their personal security in Ghana. Although respondents to a large extent perceived Ghana as a safe destination, a number of suggestions were proposed to help boost international tourism in Ghana. They include the following; ... More security measures should be put in places where there are threats and also sensitization on peaceful conduct should continue so as to make Ghana more accommodating and tourism friendly. ...also giving the gravity of security issues and threat the government should enhance measures so as to provide maximum protection then Ghana would ensure the flow of tourists in the country. ... I don't think it is necessarily a perception of Ghana but of West Africa as a whole that makes people worried. ..In order to address the perception of insecurity Ghana needs to overhaul its police force so that when crimes happens it can be dealt with in a timely and helpful manner rather than absolutely nothing being done about the crimes. ...as tourism grows in Ghana security will grow. ...Ghana can continue to advertise its peace and low crime levels as large incentives to travel. Produce international news letters that focus solely on security in the country. ...reach out through international student exchange programmes. Focus on young people who are seeking to study or work abroad. ...from people like us who can tell them what great experience we have had here. But it's hard to control what goes on social media but if there is any way I can push down the bad things they say about Ghana I will.25 In Summary, questionnaires were used as a survey instrument to collect data on perceptions on security in Ghana by tourists. Responses were measured on a number of 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh attributes, including socio-demographic characteristics, perception of security, attraction to Ghana, whether they would recommend Ghana to other people. For each item, respondents used a five-point Likert-type scale to rate their probability of recommending Ghana as a safe place to visit, and whether they would return. Similarly, respondents were asked to express their overall sense of safety; their perception of safety was measured on a 1–5 scale where 1=very safe and 5=very unsafe. Finally, respondents were asked the likelihood of their return to Ghana. Independent measures used in the analysis included respondent’s sex, age, whether it was their first-time visit or not, the purpose of their visit to Ghana (i.e. culture, education, other, the number of days that they had already stayed. Cross-tabulation was used to investigate the relationship of these characteristics to respondents’ perceptions of safety in Ghana. 3.4 The role of the State in mitigating Security threats in Ghana All stakeholders interviewed unanimously agreed to the importance of security in a thriving tourism industry. This assertion they explained is crucial particularly in this age of growing global insecurity. Interviews were conducted with the Ghana Tourism Authority, the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts as well as the Tourism Safety and Security Initiative Ghana; a Non-governmental Organization collaborating with stakeholders in the tourism in Ghana. The Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) was established by an Act of Parliament (Tourism Act, 2011). The mandate of the Authority is to promote the sustainable development of the tourism Industry internationally and within the country. Among the functions of the Authority is to grant licences for the industry and supervise all tourism enterprises. Other functions include conducting, promoting and encouraging studies for the growth and development of the tourism industry in Ghana, take appropriate measures for the safety and security of consumers of 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the tourism industry etc.26 According to the Marketing Manager of GTA, Madam Betty Kobi, ‘’through their activities in marketing Ghana as a destination, there has been an increase in the number of visits to Ghana. She reiterated that despite the security threats within the West African sub-region and globally, Ghana still recorded a high tourist receipts’’.27 Between from 2010 to 2014, Ghana recorded a 10.1% increase in its tourist arrivals.28 Moreover, ‘’the GTA also works hand in hand with the Ghana's missions abroad through exhibitions, meetings to sell Ghana out there as a safe and secured destination’’.29 An interview with the Chief Director, Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts,, Nana Oduro Kwateng also highlighted the role of the Ministry in boosting Ghana as a preferred destination. He asserted that; ‘’ As the policymaking body of the tourism industry in Ghana, they work to develop a sustainable tourism industry, pivoted on Ghana's culture for development. Likewise the GTA, they work with Ghana's missions abroad through fairs such as the World Travel Market in the United Kingdom, ITB in Germany. As part of the Ministry's activities in ensuring the safety and security of tourists the Ministry together with a Non-governmental organisation, Tourism Safety and Security and are implementing a number of initiative to ensure the personal security of tourists are not compromised. Among these initiatives include the introduction of a permanent force in charge of inspecting vehicles at tourist sites, a tourism police force to be introduced to supplement the permanent force in ensuring security at tourist sites. The Ministry is working together with the Kotoka International Airport as well as the Ghana Ports Authority in ensuring persons and goods that enter the country does not pose a threat to the security of people’’.30 3.6 The Role of Non-Governmental Organisations in mitigating the effects of Security Threats Tourism Safety & Security Initiative (TOSS) is a Ghanaian Non-Governmental tourism organization and a leading member of Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF). TOSS was registered in December 2000. TOSS in collaboration with the Ghana Tourist Board, 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Vanef Company and the Ghana Tourists Federation, organized the first ever workshop on Safety and Security in the country on 30th October, 2008. ''This initiative was as a result of an observation on the short fall of international tourists’ arrivals into the country which could be traced to lack of adequate safety and security measures in the industry in Ghana''.31 Participants in attendance were representatives from the Insurance industry, Banks, the Security agencies, Donor agencies, Diplomatic Corps, relevant Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDA’s) as well as operators in the Tourism industry. TOSS as reiterated at the relaunch, ''will be the leading advocacy and facilitating NGO in Ghana’s Tourism industry with the prime institutional initiative aimed at supporting quality tourism growth through the development of sustainable programs to safeguard, protect and ensure safety of the tourism industry as a whole''.32 The mission statement of Tourism Safety and Security Initiative (TOSS) is to lead a national crusade to develop sustainable programs, products and take appropriate measures to safeguard, protect and ensure the safety and security of tourists, tourists’ attraction sites and receptive facilities in the growth and development of the tourism industry as a whole. The Executive Director for TOSS, Mr. Kofi Yankah, explained, ...that in the wake of global and regional Insecurity, Toss was relaunched on the 17th of November 2015, to reintroduce TOSS to the tourism major stakeholders and the general public, under the theme: ''Promoting Tourism Through Safety Security and a Clean Environment.33 The organisation working hand in hand with GTA, as well as the Ghana Police service. He reiterated that the GTA was prepared to collaborate with TOSS to carry out its objectives of making tourist feel secure wherever they visit any tourist attractions in the country. The Inspector General of Police gave his assurance to collaborate and support TOSS to establish Police Posts at most major tourist attraction sites.34 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Conclusion In summary, one can conclude from the analyses of the data that a number of factors, both internal and external, play a vital role in shaping the perception of tourists about a destination. As the concept of Destination Image posits, perception is a subjective interpretation of reality by a tourist thus, the image tourists have of a destination is largely subjective because it is based on the perceptions each tourist has of all of the destinations they have been to or have heard of. However, whether an image is a true representation of what any given region has to offer the tourist is less important than the mere existence of the image in the mind of the person.35 As the result of a perceptual and cognitive process, the destination image is formed from several sources of information comprising of past experience, former visitors, media etc. Findings also demonstrates that as the concept of security has shifted from a state centric approach to that of a human centred approach, states as much as possible work to ensure the safety of its citizens as well as foreign nationals within their territories. In addition, states work to portray a positive perception of itself through its various apparatus such as missions abroad, Ministries etc. In the case of Ghana, the state through its missions abroad, Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Ghana Tourism Authority and other Non-governmental organisations, working together with the aim of ensuring a positive perception of Ghana as a destination as well the safety and security of tourists. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ENDNOTES 1 Metin Kozak, John C. Crotts and Rob Law. ''The Impact of the Perception of Risk on International Travellers''. International Journal of Tourism Research Res 9. (2007) : 234 2 ibid 3 ibid 4 ibid 5 ibid 6 ibid 7 Sönmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Determining future travel behaviour from past travel experience and perceptions of risk and safety." Journal of travel research 37.2 (1998): 171-177. 8 ibid 9 Pennington-Gray L. & Schroeder A. ''International Tourist’s Perceptions of Safety & Security: The Role of Social Media''. Matkailututkimu. 9.1. (2013): 8 10 Altbach, G. P, Reisberg L., Rumbely L. E. ''Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking an Academic Revolution''. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education. UNESCO. (2009):7-8 11 ibid 12 ibid 13 ibid 14 George, Richard. ''Tourist’s perceptions of safety and security while visiting Cape Town''. Tourism Management 2. (2002): 578 15 ibid 16 ibid 17 Lepp, Andrew and Gibson Heather. ''Tourist Roles, Perceived Risk and International Tourism''. Annals of Tourism Research. 30. 3. (2003): 620, DOI:10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00024-0 18 Questionnaire Respondents, Tourists, Accra, June 2016 19 Metin Kozak, John C. Crotts and Rob Law. ''The Impact of the Perception of Risk on International Travellers''. International Journal of Tourism Research Res 9. (2007) : 235 20 Questionnaire Respondents, Tourists, Accra, June 2016 21 Leung Daniel, Law Rob, Hubert van Hoof & Buhalis Dimitrios. ''Social Media in Tourism and Hospitality: A Literature Review''. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing. 30.1-2. (2013) DOI:10.1080/10548408.2013.750919 22 Xiang, Z., & Gretzel, U. ''Role of Social Media in Online Travel Information Search''. Tourism Management, 31.2. (2010) : 180 23 Leung Daniel, Law Rob, Hubert van Hoof & Dimitrios Buhalis. ''Social Media in Tourism and Hospitality: A Literature Review''. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 30.1-2. (2013) : 6, DOI: 10.1080/10548408.2013.750919 24Questionnaire Respondents, Tourists, Accra, June 2016 25 ibid 26 Tourism Information on Ghana, National Tourism Development Plan. (2012) 27 Kobi, Betty. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Marketing Manager, Ghana Tourism Authority, Accra- Ghana 17-06-16 28 ibid 29 Kobi, Betty. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Marketing Manager, Ghana Tourism Authority, Accra- Ghana 17-06-16 30 ibid 31 ''Relaunch of Tourism Safety and Security Initiative''. Tourism Safety and Security Initiative. 12 December, 2015. Retrieved from: http://www.tossghana.org/news/relaunch-of-tourism-safty-and-security- initiative, 12-12-2015 32 ibid 33 Yankah, Kofi. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Executive Director, Tourism Safety and Security Initiative Ghana, Accra. 18-06-16 34 ''Relaunch of Tourism Safety and Security Initiative''. Tourism Safety and Security Initiative. 12 December, 2015. Retrieved from: http://www.tossghana.org/news/relaunch-of-tourism-safty-and-security- initiative, 12-12-2015 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35Bigne, J. Enrique, M. Isabel Sanchez, and Javier Sanchez. "Tourism image, evaluation variables and after purchase behaviour: inter-relationship." Tourism management 22.6 (2001): 608 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 4. 0. Introduction This concluding chapter provides a summary of the research findings, draws conclusions from the study and proposes recommendations. 4.1. Summary of Findings of Research This study was conducted for the purposes of determining how perceptions of personal security are formed and its influence on tourism in Ghana. The study was carried out with the mixed form of research method i.e. quantitative and qualitative research with the aid of structured interviews for collecting data. Desk research and general observation techniques were also employed in undertaking the study. In Chapter one, it was hypothesised that perception of threat to personal security has a negative impact on tourism in Ghana. Moreover, it was hypothesised that a number of factors both internal and external has an influence in shaping the perception of tourists about a destination. Finally, it was added that the media in contemporary times plays a significant role in informing potential tourists about the security situation of destinations. Questionnaires were used as survey instruments to obtain information from tourists. Both open ended and closed ended questions were employed in gathering data. Unstructured interviews were conducted with stakeholders from the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Ghana Tourism Authority, Tourism Safety and Security Initiative Ghana in Accra. The study confirmed the research hypothesis which sought to find out if individual perception of threat to personal security has a negative impact on tourism in Ghana. The 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hypothesis was confirmed by the study conducted and the following research findings were made:  It appears from findings that tourists’ construction of security is to a large extent informed by Past experiences, personal travel experiences of former visitors', thus a significant influence on peoples travel decisions. Respondents’ sources of information about Ghana was largely based on past experiences and personal travel influences from former visitors. This is in line with the literature that a tourist will always come back to a destination where he or she had a pleasant experience and will also recommend that destination for future travels.  There is a minimal use of social media to inform potential tourist about Ghana as a destination. From the data collected, most respondents were not informed through the media, however as part of their recommendations for improving the perception of Ghana as a safe and secured destination, the use of social media was proposed.  Another interesting pattern observed was that Africans were more likely to feel safe than tourists from the other continents. Both recorded the highest proportions of respondents who indicated that they did not feel safe. This finding is not particularly strange and could be attributed to the idea of familiarity. For example, the absolute perception of safety 100% by African respondents is a strong indication of their confidence in knowing the terrain since they are visiting from a country with similar socio-politico-economic and cultural settings.  Similarly, African respondents’ purpose of visit as compared to Americans, Europeans is purely for educational and other purposes and not because of the culture. Their presence in Ghana for educational purposes generates revenue for 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh host universities and add international diversity to the academic environment. This is as well not particularly strange as most of the respondents i.e. Nigerians, Nigeriens, Beninese are from countries with similar socio-cultural background as Ghana. Most of these countries have historical and cultural ties.  Ghana receives a great number of tourists from the United States, Nigeria and Europe. Majority of respondents were made up of Americans, Nigerians (all English speaking countries) with smaller percentage from francophone countries. This pattern of few respondents from French speaking countries could be attributed to English as a language barrier among French speaking nationals.  It also emerges from the findings that some socio-demographic variables are important in understanding tourists’ perceptions of security at a destination. Sex, age produced patterns when juxtaposed against perceptions. Women and the elderly more concerned about their personal safety. Respondents’ sex was also found to have some relationship with perception of vulnerability. Males were generally more likely to consider themselves less vulnerable to crime than females.  Tourists travelled in their youthful age i.e. between 18 and 25 years. Majority of the respondents within this age group were females. On the other hand, male respondents were likely to travel between the ages of 26 and 30 years or 30 years and above, as compared to females. It is evident that the youth travel more as compared to the elderly who confine their activities.  Ghana is generally perceived as a safe and secured destination. Respondents’ perception of Ghanaians was generally friendly and welcoming. However, the threat of infectious diseases and terror attacks to the personal safety of respondents was very high among tourists from the West (Europe, USA). Crime 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was perceived as a likely threat to the personal security of the Nigerian respondents. 4.2. Conclusions The study was carried out to ascertain how tourists perceive their personal security in Ghana as a destination. The study was informed by the upsurge in global and regional insecurities especially directed at tourists. Providing security for tourists has become an imperative and any destination, which ignores this responsibility stands to lose out on the keen competition for the ''tourist dollar''. One way to provide security for tourists is to seek their own views on such matters. Studies, which seek to achieve this, are relatively underrepresented in the literature. As tourism has emerged as the most sustainable economic venture all over the world, its significant contribution to the economy of nations mainly through job creation and revenue generation cannot be downplayed. In recent years, Ghana has seen phenomenal growth in the tourism industry, which is now the fourth largest foreign exchange earner, after cocoa, gold and foreign remittances from Ghanaians living abroad (MoT, 2011). In addition, despite the positive perception of Ghana as a tourist destination, it is of the essence to intensify publicity to potential tourists. This is of particular importance as the West African Sub-region is threatened with security risks such as terrorism, armed conflicts, diseases etc. As the generalization effect sets in and as the international media continue to portray Africa as a dangerous destination, the image tourists will have of African destinations will continue to be largely subjective since it will be based on the perception each tourist has of all of the destinations they will have been to, or have heard of. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Consequently, as the destination image is formed from several sources of information such as reference groups, past experience, tour companies, media, etc., anyone can build an image of any destination (in their mind) without ever having been there. In other words, the image of the destination will be based on historical, political, economic and social information which, in turn, will shape the image that the person already held. As more and more people gain access to the internet and social media, the tourism industry must understand that tourists may not disconnect from their devices and online social networks while at the destination. As a result, these technological advances can have an impact on the perceptions and behaviours of tourists. Therefore, countries and for that matter Ghana must take advantage of this platform to brand Ghana as a safe destination within the West African Sub-region despite all the odds surrounding it. 4.3. Recommendations The perception of Ghana as a destination is generally warm and welcoming by tourists. This is especially against the backdrop of the near-default negative image about the continent as a tourist destination. This notwithstanding, proactive measures are required from all stakeholders to at least, maintain the status quo. To this end the study makes the following recommendations: 4.3.1. Partnership with the Private Sector Tourism development in Ghana is to a large extent promoted and managed by the State through its institutions and agencies such as the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Ghana Tourism Authority, Missions Abroad, Ghana Investment Promotion Centre etc. Increased partnership with private investors will go a long way to develop the sector in Ghana. Private investment at tourist sites, both foreign and local 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh will release the burden off the state in allocating its scarce resources in developing sites. Heads of Missions and Ambassadors through intensive economic diplomacy, should work towards selling Ghana’s tourism potential abroad to encourage more investors to invest in the various sectors in the tourism industry such as accommodation, developing tourist sites or attractions, security etc. The ministry should team up with other known destination countries such as Singapore, Malaysia etc. in the form of trainings and capacity building programmes, funding etc. Local and indigenous investment in the tourism industry should be promoted through tax incentives, financial support in areas such as transport, accommodation, security and safety at the sites etc. Collaboration with indigenes within the communities of tourist attractions to provide services such as security, tour guides, accommodation etc. Locals living within sites should be sensitized to own these sites and not to regard them as government property. The ministry should support locals in taking active part in the provisions of accommodation and entertainment of tourist as done in other destinations. Effective collaboration with existing private tourist institutions such as the Tourist Safety and Security Initiative Ghana etc. Institutionalizing means of venture capital financing, making taxation “start-up friendly”, and attracting both foreign and local investors to Ghana by improving macroeconomic indicators and improving infrastructure such as access internet, accommodation and power in the country. 4.3.2. Branding Ghana as a Safe Destination Countries in Africa bear the burden of negative images, where failures of some African states feed into the international perception for the entire African continent, irrespective of the reality of a particular country. Success stories emerging from Africa about good governance, economic growth and people’s daily struggles for liberation and wellbeing, 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are covered by stories of instability, violence, war, corruption, fraud, famine and disease. Ghana needs to stand out, differentiated from the larger Africa. Country branding is important because effective branding can generate competitive advantage and several opportunities for that country in the area of tourism and business travel promotion. Moreover, it serves as better prospects for fighting the formation of negative perceptions, distance nation from residual imagery formed through past uneasy experiences and ineffective country communication. Country branding therefore attracts consumers and influences the formation of favourable perception. Therefore the GTA which is the marketing institution for tourism should collaborate with the Brand Ghana Office to portray and project Ghana both domestically and internationally as a safe and unique destination. Training and capacity building programmes should be organised for staff of the Ghana Tourism Authority and the Brand Ghana Office. Brand Ghana office should be well equipped and funded to carry out its mandate effectively. Ghana as a country through the Brand Ghana office as well as the GTA should develop its brand with a catchy and an encompassing slogan such as ‘’Malaysia; truly Asian, Amazing India etc. As a country we should make good use of our unique assets such as our location in the centre of the world, our history, our culture as a unique brand to market our attractions and lift the name of Ghana high in terms of tourism. 4.3.3. Effective use of Social Media The growing role of social media in tourism has been increasingly an emerging research topic. Social media plays a significant role in many aspects of tourism, especially in information search and decision-making behaviours, tourism promotion and in focusing on best practices for interacting with consumers. Ghana must take advantage of this internet revolution to project Ghana as a preferred destination as well as erase the 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh negative perception of Africa and for that matter Ghana as a dangerous destination. The Ministry of Tourism should regularly update their websites to inform and encourage potential tourists about Ghana. More security and safety information and measures in Ghana should be updated regularly on the websites. Vigorous advertisement on diverse media platforms not only within Ghana and Africa but worldwide by the GTA should be encouraged as is seen of other top destinations like Kenya, Dubai, South Africa etc. 4.3.4. Areas for further Research Finally, with the benefit of time and resources, this research should be expanded to cover issues concerning perception of personal security among domestic tourists. This researcher recommends further studies to be undertaken to seek the perspective of domestic tourists concerning their safety and security at tourist sites. This can be replicated in all the ten region in Ghana. Furthermore, the sampled population size can be increased in other to have a wide representation of tourists in Ghana as well as a comprehensive response to the research questions and achieving the research objectives. More interviews can be conducted with stakeholders from the tourism industries such as the travel and tour agencies, hospitality service providers in other to obtain their views and responses to tourism and security in Ghana. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAHPY A. Books Akyeampong, Oheneba A., and Alex Boakye Asiedu, eds. 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An empirical study with special reference to political instability." Tourism Management 22.2 (2001): 181-191. Sifolo, N. and Sifolo Siyanda P. P. ''The tourism inconvenience of the Ebola epidemic: lesson for the South African tourism sector''. African Journal of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure 4.1. (2015): 3-5 Sönmez, Sevil F., and Alan R. Graefe. "Influence of terrorism risk on foreign tourism decisions." Annals of Tourism Research 25.1 (1998): 112-144. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sönmez, Sevil F. "Tourism, terrorism, and political instability." Annals of Tourism Research 25.2 (1998): 416-456. Sonmez, Sevil F, Yiorgos Apostolopoulos, and Peter Tarlow. ''Tourism in Crisis: Managing the Effects of Terrorism''. Journal of Travel Research, 38.1 (1999): 13- 18 Teye, Victor B. "Coups d'etat and African tourism: A study of Ghana." Annals of Tourism research 15.3 (1988): 329-356. Teye, Victor B. ''Tourism Development Experience in Ghana.'' DPMN Bulletin 7.1 (2000): 8-12. Xiang, Zheng, and Ulrike Gretzel. "Role of social media in online travel information search." Tourism management 31.2 (2010): 179-188. C. INTERNET SOURCES Anku, M. ''Tourism Minister Praises Ghana's Security Credentials'', Ghana News Agency (GNA). (2016). Web. 26-05-2016. http://www.ghananewsagency.org/economics/tourism-minister-praises-ghana-s- security-credentials--103897 Asante, A. ''West African Voices on Ebola: can West African economies withstand the Ebola pressure''? (2014). Web. `9/06/2016. http://sphcm.med.unsw.edu.au/infectious diseases-blog/west-african-voices-on- ebola3-can-west-african-economies-withstand-the-ebola) BBC News. ''Ebola's effect on West African Tourism''. (2014). Web. 17/11/14. http://www.bbc.com/news/business-29656707 Euro news. ''The Threat of The Zika Virus to Tourism In Brazil in Olympic Year''. (2016). Web. 11-06-2016 http://www.euronews.com/2016/02/03/the-treat-of- the-zika virus-to-tourism-in-brazil-in-olympic-year/ Fares M. and Tennery A. ''Travel Industry Faces Growing Concern Over Zika Virus''. (2016). Web. 25-06-2016 http://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-zika-travel socialmedia-idUSKCN0V429 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Johnson B. ''Zika's Impact on Tourism, Health''. (2016). Web. 22-05-2016 www.claimsjournal.com/news/international/2016/03/22/269587.htm Lovel, Jeremey. ''British Tourism expects major disease loss''. Reuters. April 11, 2001. Retrieved from: http://www.mad-cow.org/UKCJD/CJD_news54.html TOSS. ''Relaunch of Tourism Safety and Security Initiative''. (2015). Web. 12-12-2015 http://www.tossghana.org/news/relaunch-of-tourism-safty-and-security-initiative D. INTERVIEWS Oduro- Kwarteng, Nana. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Chief Director, Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative Arts, Accra. 15-06-16 Kobi, Betty. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Marketing Manager, Ghana Tourism Authority, Accra-Ghana. 17-06-16 Yankah, Kofi. Interviewed by Annabelle Pwalia. Executive Director, Tourism Safety and Security Initiative Ghana, Accra. 18-06-16 E. REPORTS/DOCUMENTS Altbach G. P, Reisberg L., Rumbely L. E. ''Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking an Academic Revolution''. A Report Prepared for the UNESCO 2009 World Conference on Higher Education. UNESCO. (2009):7-8 Bajpai, Kanti. ''Human Security: Concept and Measurement''. Kroc Institute Occasional Paper. (2000). Web. http://www.conflictrecovery.org/bin/Kanti_Bajpai- Human_Security_Concept_and_Measurement.pd Frimpong-Bonsu, William. ''Diagnostic Study of Tourism in Ghana''. African Centre for Economic Transformation. 2015 Sahilu, Nalia. ''The Centre Can Hold: Towards A Regional Approach to Combating West Africa’s Terrorists''. Policy Brief Kofi Annan International Peace Keeping Training Centre (KIPTC). 2015. Web. http://www.kaiptc.org/Publications/Policy-Briefs/Policy- Briefs/2015-KAIPTC- Policy-Brief---Naila-Salihu.aspx 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Schimid, Juan Pedro., and Xavier Malcom. ''The Fear Factor: A back of the envelope calculation on economic risk of an Ebola scare in the Caribbean''. Jamaica: Inter- American Development Bank. (2014): 3-5 Twining, Ward. L. ''Sub Saharan African Tourism Industry Research''. Final Report. (2009):16-17. Retrieved from: siteresources.worldbank.org/.../Resources/.../FinalSSATourismRpt1118.p United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report. 23-24. N.p.: Oxford UP, (1999). UNWTO. ''World Tourism in 2002: Better than expected’’. WTO Reports (2003) retrieved from:www.hospitalitynet.org/news/4014546.html, accessed on 26/04/2016 World Tourism Organisation. Tourism after 11 September 2001: Analysis, Remedial Actions Prospects, Special Report. 18, 10. World Tourism Organisation. (2001). 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX LEGON CENTRE FOR INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS AND DIPLOMACY (LECIAD) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA QUESTIONNAIRE PERCEPTIONS OF PERSONAL SECURITY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON TOURISM: THE CASE OF GHANA I am a student of LECIAD, University of Ghana and I am undertaking a research on the above mentioned topic. This research is in partial fulfilment of requirements for a Master of Arts Degree. Your willingness to complete the questionnaire will be much appreciated. The research is purely for academic purposes and your response will be treated with utmost confidence. NATIONALITY.............................................. AGE (18-25/25-30/35+) SEX (F/M) 1. Duration in Ghana a) 1- 4months b) 5-9months c) 10-12months d) Above 1 year 2. First time visitor? a) Yes b) No If No, how many times have you visited Ghana including this current trip? a) 1-3times b) 3-5times c) 5-7times d) 7or more 3. What attracted you to Ghana? a) Culture b) Tourist sites 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c) Education d) Other..................................................................................................................... 4. Did you consider any threats to your personal security before travelling to Ghana? a)Yes b) No 5. Which of the following do you consider as a threat to your personal security when travelling to a tourist destination in Ghana? a) Terror attacks b) Infectious diseases c) Crime d) Other (......................................................................) SCALE OF 1-5 (1- very safe, 2- safe, 3- unsafe, 4- very unsafe, 5- unsure) 6. Do you consider Ghana as a safe tourist destination? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 e) 5 7. If Yes/No Why? 9. What is your source of information about security at destination areas in Ghana? a) Media b) Past experience c) Former visitors to Ghana d) Tour company (business) e) Other............................................... 10. Has your experience validated or invalidated the information on security in Ghana received prior to your visit? a) Yes b) No c) Somewhat 11. Please explain your response and could you share that experience? 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SCALE OF 1-5 (1- highly recommend, 2- recommend, 3- unsure, 4- not recommend, 5- highly not recommend) 12. Would you recommend Ghana to any tourist? a) 1 b) 2 c) 3 d) 4 e) 5 Please explain your response...................................................................................? 13. Will you return to Ghana again if you have the option? a) Yes b) No 14. How can Ghana boost its tourism numbers and address the perception of insecurity based on your experience? THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION! 84