CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
 
INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION AND DRUG TRAFFICKING IN 
GHANA 
 
 
 
BY 
 
RAPHAEL EWUNTOMAH 
(10307763) 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 
PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF 
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (MPHIL) IN MIGRATION STUDIES  
 
 
 
 
 
 
JULY, 2017
DECLARATION 
I, Rapheal Ewuntomah hereby declare that except for reference to other people’s work 
which have been duly acknowledged, this thesis is the result of my own research carried 
out at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana under the supervision of Dr 
Joseph Kofi Teye and Dr. Ebenezer Nikoi. I further assert that this work has neither been 
partially or wholly submitted at any other institutions for the award of my degree. 
 
 
…………………………………….                                     …………………………… 
Rapheal Ewuntomah                                                                         Date 
 (Candidate)                
 
 
 
…………………………………..                                  ……………………………….            
Dr. Joseph Kofi Teye                                                                         Date 
(Supervisor) 
 
 
…………………………………..                                  ……………………………….            
Dr. Ebenezer Nikoi                                                                             Date 
(Supervisor) 
 
 
i 
 
ABSTRACT 
This study examined international migration and drug trafficking in Ghana. It specifically 
described trends in reported drug trafficking cases in Ghana from 2009 to 2015 and the 
socio-demographic characteristics of the people involved. It also identified the specific 
vulnerabilities and the perceived socio-economic benefits that influence migrants to 
engage in drug trafficking. Lastly, it described policy interventions implemented to deal 
with drug trafficking in Ghana and the challenges associated with the control of drug 
trafficking in Ghana. Using security personnel from Narcotic Control Board (NACOB) 
and Ghana Police Service (GPS), simple random sampling technique was employed in 
sampling 230 respondents for the questionnaire survey. Key informant and personal 
interviews were also conducted with stakeholders and other Drug Enforcement Officers. 
The results indicate that 2011 recorded the highest drug trafficking cases in Ghana while 
2013 recorded the lowest, drug trafficking cases in Ghana. Ghanaians and males were 
reported as the major drug traffickers relative to other nationals and females, respectively. 
The majority of security personnel sampled were of the view that drug traffickers are 
mostly the rich and literate relative to the poor and illiterate. Poverty, the need to get rich 
quick, unemployment and ignorance were cited as some of the main reasons why people 
engage in drug trafficking in Ghana. Even though Ghana has collaborated with the 
international community in ratifying relevant conventions and treaties which provide the 
impetus and capacity to combat drug trafficking in the country, it continues to serve as a 
drug transit country and of user country, given the porous nature of its land borders and 
ports. Inadequate financial motivations, lack of logistics, and Government/State 
interference are some of the major problems facing the law enforcement agencies in the 
discharge of their duties. The study recommends strengthening of law enforcement 
agencies in more selective points of entry which often serve as the gateway for drug 
traffickers via improved conditions of service and provision of advance logistics and 
equipment. 
 
 
 
 
 
ii 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
This work would not have been successfully completed without the support of several but 
important people to whom I am highly indebted to for the contributions they made in 
diverse ways. I am First of all very thankful to the almighty God for his divine favour 
which is resting upon my life. 
I am very thankful and appreciative of the head of the Centre for Migration Studies, Dr 
(Mrs) Delali Badasu and all staff of the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana. 
My appreciation goes to my lead supervisor Dr Joseph Kofi Teye of Geography 
Department, University of Ghana and Course coordinator, Centre for Migration Studies, 
University of Ghana for his patience, insightful direction and guidance throughout this. 
My appreciation also goes to my second supervisor Dr Ebenezer Nikoi of Geography 
Department, University of Ghana for all the assistance and suggestion he gave me in the 
cause of this work. I also wish to thank the staff of Ghana Narcotic Control Board and 
Ghana Police Service for opening their doors for me to interact with them.  
I am also very thankful to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Martin Mbema Ewuntomah and the 
whole Family for their support. 
In addition, I want to thank Ms. Gifty Addo, Ms. Regina Aidoo Rockson, Ms. Judith 
Frimpong and Mr. Benjamin Edem Attitsogbui for their support and contributions. Last 
but not least, my appreciation goes to Mr Odame and Mr James Natia for their support. 
May the Almighty God guide, protect and reward you all. 
 
 
 
 
 
iii 
 
DEDICATION 
This work is dedicated to my parents Mr and Mrs Martin Mbema Ewuntomah and my 
whole Family for their support in pursuing this course. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
iv 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. i 
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. iii 
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v 
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... viii 
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix 
LIST OF BOXES ................................................................................................................ x 
LIST OF ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................... xi 
 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 
1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 4 
1.3 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................... 6 
1.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 7 
1.5 Rationale of the Study ................................................................................................. 7 
1.6 Organization of the Study ............................................................................................ 8 
 
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 9 
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................................................ 9 
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 9 
2.2 Definition of Drug Trafficking .................................................................................... 9 
2.3 Global Trends of Drug Trafficking ........................................................................... 10 
2.3.1 Trends in Africa .................................................................................................. 11 
2.4 Factors Influencing Migrants’ Participation in Drug Trafficking ............................. 13 
2.4.1 Economic ............................................................................................................ 13 
2.4.2 Demographic ....................................................................................................... 14 
2.4.3 Social and cultural factors................................................................................... 18 
2.5 Negative Effects of Drug Trafficking on Development ............................................ 19 
2.6 Ghana’s Role in Drug Trafficking ............................................................................. 20 
2.7 Interventions to Tackle Drug Trafficking.................................................................. 22 
2.8 Challenges Associated with Combating Drug Trafficking in Ghana ........................ 24 
2.9 Theoretical Underpinnings ........................................................................................ 25 
2.9.1 Network Theory .................................................................................................. 25 
2.9.2 Structuration Theory ........................................................................................... 30 
2.9.3 Systems Theory................................................................................................... 32 
2.10 Conceptual framework ............................................................................................ 33 
2.11 Summary ................................................................................................................. 35 
 
v 
 
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 36 
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ............................................................................. 36 
3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 36 
3. 1 Research design ........................................................................................................ 36 
3.2 Data Sources .............................................................................................................. 37 
3.3 Primary Data Source ................................................................................................. 37 
3.3.1 Questionnaire Survey .......................................................................................... 38 
3.3.2 In-depth Interviews ............................................................................................. 39 
3.4 Secondary Data Sources ............................................................................................ 39 
3.5 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................ 40 
3.6 Researcher’s Positionality & Ethical Considerations ................................................ 40 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 42 
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS .................................. 42 
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 42 
4.2 Background Characteristics of Respondents ............................................................. 42 
4.3 Summary ................................................................................................................... 45 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 46 
DRUG TRAFFICKING TRENDS IN GHANA, 2009-2015 AND PERCEIVED 
SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF DRUG TRAFFICKING IN GHANA ............. 46 
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 46 
5.2 Drug Trafficking Trends in Ghana from 2009-2015 ................................................. 46 
5.3 Knowledge & Perceived Socio-economic Benefits of Drug Trafficking in Ghana .. 54 
5.3.1 Factors Accounting for Drug Trafficking in Ghana ........................................... 58 
5.4 Drug Trafficking & International Migration Nexus .................................................. 68 
5.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 72 
 
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 73 
DRUG TRAFFICKING POLICY INTERVENTIONS AND CHALLENGES 
ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONROL OF DRUG TRAFFICKING IN GHANA .... 73 
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 73 
6.2 Drug Policy Interventions in Ghana .......................................................................... 73 
6.3 The Role of the State/Government in Controlling Drug Trafficking ........................ 75 
6.4 Challenges Associated with Drug Trafficking Control in Ghana ............................. 78 
6.5 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 84 
 
CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................................................................... 85 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................... 85 
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 85 
7.2 Summary ................................................................................................................... 85 
7.2.1 Summary of Key Findings .................................................................................. 85 
7.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 89 
7.4 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 90 
 
vi 
 
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 92 
 
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 100 
Appendix A: Questionnaire ........................................................................................... 100 
Appendix B: Interview Guide ....................................................................................... 109 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
vii 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Sex, Age, Marital Status, Level of Education 
and religion ......................................................................................................... 43 
Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Ethnic Background & Income ........................ 44 
Table 5.1: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases in Ghana by Nationality of Drug Traffickers 
from 2009-2015 .................................................................................................. 52 
Table 5. 2: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases in Ghana by the Sex of Drug Traffickers 
from 2009-2015 .................................................................................................. 54 
Table 5. 3: Relationship between Gender and avenues for Awareness creation on the 
threats of engaging in Drug Trafficking in Ghana. ............................................ 56 
Table 5.4: Relationship between Gender of Respondents and their Perception of the 
Category of People engaged in Drug Trafficking in Ghana ............................... 58 
Table 5.5: Relationship between Gender of Respondents & Reasons why People Engage in 
Drug Trafficking ................................................................................................. 66 
Table 5.6: Summary of Relationship between Demographic Variables and Perceived 
Possible Infiltration of Drug Cartels into Ghana ................................................ 67 
Table 5.7: Reasons for Possible Infiltration of Drug Cartels into Ghana ........................... 68 
Table 5.8: Summary of Relationship between Sex of respondents and their Perceived Link 
between Drug Trafficking and International Migration ..................................... 71 
Table 6.1: Summary of Relationship between Sex of Respondents and Perceived State/ 
Government Interference in Combating Drug Trafficking In Ghana ................. 76 
Table 6.2: Relationship between Sex & Strategies to Combat Drug Trafficking in Ghana 77 
Table 6.3: Relationship between Sex & the Efficiency of Strategies to Combat Drug 
Trafficking in Ghana .......................................................................................... 78 
Table 6.4: Reasons Why Security Personnel Cooperate with Drug Traffickers ................. 82 
Table 6.5: Problems Confronting Law Enforcement Agencies .......................................... 83 
 
 
 
 
 
 
viii 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework ..................................................................................... 34 
 
Figure 5.1: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases from 2009-2015 .......................................... 49 
Figure 5.2: Distribution of Respondents by their Sources of information about Drug 
Trafficking Cases in Ghana. .............................................................................. 55 
Figure 6.1 Distribution of Respondents by Perceived Government interference ............... 77 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
ix 
 
LIST OF BOXES 
Box 1: Influence of Adventure and Ignorance on drug trafficking - the case of Julia ........ 62 
Box 2: Ignorance as a contributory factor to drug trafficking - the case of Adams ............ 63 
Box 3: The influence of unemployment on drug trafficking – the case of Kwasi Boadu ... 65 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
x 
 
LIST OF ACRONYMS 
CEPS   - Customs, Excise & Preventive Services 
ECOWAS                  -           Economic Community of West African States 
GPS   - Ghana Police Service 
NACOB  - Narcotics Control Board 
SPSS   - Statistical Package for Social Sciences 
UNODC                     -          United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
xi 
 
CHAPTER   ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Introduction 
There has been an increase in drug trafficking worldwide (Akyeampong, 2005). For 
instance, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2008) estimated that, in the late 
nineties, drug business generated income of US$ 500 billion per year and almost doubled 
at the beginning of the 21st Century. The production, distribution and consumption of 
illicit drugs including cocaine, cannabis and heroine have attained increased international 
concern over the last couple of years (Ellis, 2009). Although drug trafficking comes with 
economic benefits, the gravity of the negative effects such as money laundering, human 
and state insecurities supersedes them (Mazzitelli, 2007).  
Drug trafficking is defined as an illegitimate trade which involves cultivating, 
manufacturing, and distributing and selling substances, that are prohibited by law (World 
Drug Report (2010). Countries play different roles in the drug business. For instance 
countries such as Bolivia, Columbia and Peru produce cocaine in large quantities. On the 
other hand countries in south East Asia such as Afghanistan are known for the production 
of heroine (Akyeampong, 2005: Rawlings, 2014). Whereas most African states are noted 
for the production of cannabis, these drug are usually not consumed in the production 
countries (Ellis, 2009; Nayanka, 2012; Travis, 2012). They are usually trafficked to the 
United States and Europe for consumption. The means of getting the drug from the 
production point to the consumption areas that is distribution is the most crucial part. 
Many African countries serve as routes connecting these two stages in the drug trade and 
Ghana is one of such countries (UNODC, 2008; Max & Conor, 2013). 
1 
 
 The war against drug trafficking is inextricably linked with migration. Mobility that is 
migration and travel are central to the drug trade (Akyeampong, 2005). Therefore, most 
immigrants from known production and transit countries are usually suspected of drug 
trafficking. The drug trade has therefore been detrimental to immigrants (Barkan, 2013). 
However, the conception that immigrants are drug smugglers is not altogether false. A 
study conducted on the border between Morocco and Spain showed that the majority of 
the smugglers arrested are into drug trade (Mouna, 2016). The media and law enforcement 
agencies in Europe routinely identify migrants particularly those who migrated recently, as 
the traders and traffickers of most illicit drugs consumed in Europe (Paoli & Reuter, 
2008). Also statistics on the involvement of foreigners in drug trafficking in Europe shows 
an overrepresentation of migrants (Paoli & Reuter, 2008). For instance in Italy 37.1 
percent of drug smugglers are immigrants yet, only 2.3 percent of the Italian population 
were migrants (Paoli & Reuter, 2008). Some of the migrants groups immensely involved 
in the drug trade in the United States include Mexicans, Columbians and the Chinese 
(Paoli & Reuter, 2008). 
A study by the Center for Investigative Reporting on immigrants and drug trafficking 
found about 80 percent of drugs smuggled into the United States are done by American 
citizens. Therefore, the view that migrants are drug smugglers is misguided. The 
stereotyping of migrants does not only happen in destination countries. For instance in 
Columbia, a production country, people have negative perception about recent immigrants 
(Barkan, 2013). Also in production and transit countries, migrants who are successful are 
often assumed to be engaging in drug trafficking (Barkan, 2013). In addition, most statistic 
show that people arrested for drug offences in Europe and the United states are usually 
migrants or the ethnic minority, this  cannot be considered to represent reality because 
there is an extent of selective enforcement in these countries (Paoli & Reuter, 2008). 
2 
 
With regard to African migrants, they play a considerable role in shipping of drugs such as 
cocaine, heroin and especially cannabis into Europe and the United States (Europol, 2005). 
This is because most African countries have corrupt governments, ineffective institutions 
and low wages therefore to buy protection for drug transactions (K Aning, 2007; Paoli & 
Reuter, 2008). Also it is cheaper to get couriers in most African countries (Paoli & Reuter, 
2008). It is worth noting that West Africans particularly Nigerians dominate drug 
trafficking in Africa (Elochukwu, 2016; Paoli & Reuter, 2008). West Africa presents ideal 
geographic choice and a vulnerable political environment (Kwesi Aning & Pokoo, 2014). 
Mr. Yury Fedotov, the Executive Director of UNODC in 2012 mentioned that about 30 
tons of cocaine and 400 kg of heroin were trafficked West Africa in 2011 (Kwesi Aning & 
Pokoo, 2014). Therefore, he expressed concern about the increasing rate of drugs and 
crime in the region. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) also 
noted that “…drug trafficking is an enemy of the state and the rule of law, existing as a 
parallel power that rivals the legal system and we are compelled to fight it” (United Nation 
Security Council, 2012).Recent seizures and arrests in the sub region has shown that the 
drug network is facilitated by government officials, businessmen, clergymen, members of 
the security forces and politicians (Aning & Pokoo, 2014). Additionally, social conditions 
such as political patronage, porous borders, poverty, corruption, ethnic identities and weak 
institutions have enhanced the operation of traffickers in the sub region (Lacher, 2012). 
Though often touted for its peaceful environment, security and good economic growth, 
Ghana is one of the countries that have become victims of the drug menace. It is generally 
believed that Ghanaians were initially introduced into the drug trade by Nigerian 
syndicates (Bernstein, 1999; Akyeampong, 2005).  The country which became part of the 
drug trade in the 1980s now takes part in all three stages of the drug trade that is 
consumption, production and distribution. The country has become the transit route for 
3 
 
drugs destined for America and Europe from Latin America and Southeast Asia 
(Bernstein, 1999; Akyeampong, 2005). The high unemployment rate and poverty make the 
country vulnerable to the drug trade (Bonsu, 2011). Also the amount paid to couriers 
represents a fortune in Ghana, thus making the drug business attractive to most Ghanaians.  
In this regard, government has adopted several policies and interventions to combat this 
menace. The four main institutions fighting drug trafficking in Ghana include the 
Narcotics Control Board (NACOB), Ghana Police Service (GPS), Customs Excise and 
Preventive Service (CEPS) and the Judiciary. However, there are other institutions such as 
the Ghana Immigration Services and Military who also assist in this fight.  Bernstein 
(1999) in his article asserted that the trafficking of illicit drugs such as cocaine, heroin and 
marijuana is the most of non-traditional exports and re-exports. The government of Ghana 
for example, seized 182 tons of cannabis in 2003 whereas only 30 tons were seized in 
2001 and 2002 from migrants travelling from the Kotoka International Airport. Although 
the efforts of these institutions has led to several arrests and seizures, there are still some 
loopholes in these institutions that hinder their performance. For instance Mr. K.B 
Quantson, a former NACOB head stated that “‘in between the arrest and trial, tremendous 
pressure was exerted on me from all over to drop the case against the suspect, I stood firm 
that the case should proceed’’ (Aning, 2007). In view of this, drug trafficking continues to 
be an expanding business in Ghana.  
 
1.2 Statement of the Problem 
As in many parts of the world, drug trafficking situation in Africa has also increased 
dramatically over the years. A report by United Nations (2009) showed that several 
countries in Africa had registered a number of drug trafficking incidences. The exposure 
of children and adults to dangerous substances such as cocaine, heroin, marijuana and 
4 
 
others may lead to breakdown of social and cultural values besides the health costs and 
fatal incidents associated with their use (Mulenga, 1998; Etaghene, 2010). The negative 
outcome of drug trafficking on the individual may include psychological effects, stigma 
from society and the family, and health risks, which sometimes end into death. Apart from 
the danger of drug trafficking and its effects on the society, government, civil society 
organizations (CSOs), church organization, faith based organizations (FBOs), institutions 
or agencies responsible for curbing drug trafficking and many other interested parties have 
expressed their concern over the growing number of women folk being used or involved in 
drug trafficking. 
In this regard, drug trafficking has gained international concern over the years. However, 
it became more prominent in Ghana in the 1990’s and has increased since then. Ghana has 
over the years been used as a transit for drugs such as heroin and cocaine and the 
production of Indian hemp. Although this problem is not new in the country, it became an 
issue of concern especially in the year 2000 because it has increased considerably. 
In view of this, the Ghanaian government has made relentless efforts towards in curtailing 
the drug menace in the country. This necessitated the establishment of NACOB under the 
Narcotic Drugs (Control, Enforcement and Sanctions), Law 1990/PNDC Law 236 and 
with the mandate of combating the drug trade in conjunction with other security agencies 
such as CEPS, Ghana Police Service (GPS), the military and other enforcement agencies. 
However, the drug menace is far from over. In spite of the high sentences of 10 to 15 
years, traffickers are not deterred from using the country as a transit point from 
swallowing pellets of drugs to hiding them in luggage. It is worth noting that the drug 
trade has currently not had any impact on the country as most South American countries, 
but given the rate of its upsurge, it could disrupt the countries stability if measures are not 
taken. 
5 
 
Also migration and travel are central to drug trafficking (Akyeampong, 2005). Therefore, 
the drug trade cannot be discussed without looking at migration. Migration is very crucial 
in the drug trade because it helps to build the network between production countries and 
consumption countries. Also policies on migration affect the flow of drug from the points 
of production, transit and consumption  
Even though there is much literature on drug trafficking in Ghana, most of these reports 
and studies focused on prevalence of drug trafficking, the historical background and 
modus operandi of drug trafficking. There are, however, very little studies examining the 
specific vulnerabilities that expose migrants to be involved in drug trafficking and the 
perceived socio-economic benefits motivating migrants to engage in drug trafficking. In 
addition, there is very little studies that examine the various challenges confronting drug 
enforcement agencies in carrying out their duties. It is against this backdrop that this study 
examines international migration and drug trafficking in Ghana, by examining drug 
trafficking trends, perceived vulnerabilities and socio-economic benefits of engaging in 
drug trafficking and challenges that confront drug enforcement agencies in the country. 
 
1.3 Objectives of the Study 
The general objective of this study was to explore the factors that influence migrants’ 
involvement in drug trafficking in Ghana.   
The specific objectives were to: 
1. To describe the trends in drug trafficking cases in Ghana from 2009 to 2015 and 
examine the socio-demographic characteristics of the people involved. 
2. To identify the specific vulnerabilities that expose migrants to be involved or 
engaged in drug trafficking. 
6 
 
3. To examine perceived socio-economic benefits motivating migrants to engage in 
drug trafficking. 
4. To describe policy interventions implemented to deal with drug trafficking in 
Ghana and examine perceived challenges associated with controlling drug 
trafficking in Ghana. 
 
1.4 Research Questions 
The study seeks answers to the following research questions:  
1. What are the specific vulnerabilities that expose migrants to be involved or 
engaged in drug trafficking in Ghana?  
2. What socio-economic factors motivate migrants to be involved or engaged in drug 
trafficking?   
3. What demographic factors are associated with individuals involved in drug 
trafficking?  
4. What are the various challenges that confront law enforcement agencies in 
combating drug trafficking in Ghana? 
 
1.5 Rationale of the Study 
Organizations such as NACOB, CEPS and GPS that are tasked to address the problem of 
involvement in drug trafficking in Ghana seem to lack information and institutional 
capacity to identify and address this problem. This study is therefore important because it 
will highlight the main factors that lead migrants to get involved in drug trafficking. It is 
envisaged that the findings of the study will provide policy direction to government and 
help organizations that help migrants to find alternative ways of earning an honest income. 
7 
 
Further such information would assist those country in adopting policies and laws that will 
prevent migrants from getting involved in drug trafficking. 
 
1.6 Organization of the Study 
The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One comprises the background of the 
study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, and 
significance of the study. Chapter Two presents a review of literature related to the study 
and the theoretical perspectives that are used to guide the study. Chapter Three presents 
the methodology of the study which comprises the research design, the profile of nursing 
colleges under review as well as the methods for data collection and analysis. Chapter 
Four and Five present and discuss the findings of the study. They present the socio-
demographic distribution of the respondents, among others. Chapter Six presents the 
summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
8 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 
2.1 Introduction 
This chapter presents the review of related literature. The essence is to identify the gap 
that exist in the literature and provide a conceptual framework to understand the 
relationships that exist among the key variables of the study. 
 
2.2 Definition of Drug Trafficking  
The World Drug Report (2010) defines Drug trafficking as a global illicit trade involving 
the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of substances, which are subject to drug 
prohibition laws. According to Desroches (2007) drug trafficking is the production or 
movement of illicit drugs whether at international or intra-national level, the city level, or 
direct selling to users or another individual within the drug chain. Therefore, in contrast 
with general belief, drug trafficking is not limited to the distribution of drug but includes 
the production of these drug.  
However, over the years it has been difficult for scholars to penetrate the world of drug 
trafficking, thus the understanding of drug trafficking has been based on street-level 
dealers and records of cases from law enforcement agencies. Thus studies always focus on 
lower-level dealers who sell directly to users (Desroches, 2005).  One of such researchers 
found that there were four main organizational types among traffickers. They include: 
Communal businesses; family businesses; corporations; and freelance (Natarajan, n.d.). 
According to Natarajan (n.d.)most traffickers have parallel legitimate businesses alongside 
this illicit trade. Similarly, Desroches (2005) also found that the structure in the drug 
9 
 
business begins with wholesalers who supply to the pushers or street level dealers and then 
users. 
 
2.3 Global Trends of Drug Trafficking 
The drug trafficking problem can be viewed from two perspectives, the addictive nature of 
all these drug and the fact that they are low in volume but have very high unit prices. In 
view of this, drug trade has become a global problem due to the estimated turnovers. 
However due to its complex and clandestine nature it is very difficult to have consistent 
estimates of their operations and turnouts. There are three ways through which countries 
participate in the drug trade, they include production, trans-shipment and consumption 
(Singer, 2008). Latin American countries act as producers; West African countries as 
transits; and the united states and Europe are the consumption areas (Akyeampong, 2005; 
Davis, 2013). However, some of these areas play multiple roles in the drug trade. 
There is no universally accepted figures for the production of illicit drugs due to the nature 
of the trade. However, there has been several assumptions on this issue. However, the 
trend and magnitude are clear. Assessments based on these assumptions show that the 
production of Coca and Cannabis rose significantly during the 1980’s but has become 
stagnant since the 1990’s.  Production of Opium on the other hand is still rising. The 
production of illicit drugs are usually concentrated in certain regions but frequently shifts 
to other places. Southern and Western Africa now produces most of the world cannabis, 
with Ghana, Mozambique, Ethiopia and Nigeria as the major producers (Akyeampong, 
2005). Most of the world’s heroine are from countries of the Golden Triangle (Thailand, 
Burma, and Laos), Golden Crescent (Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan), Lebanon and 
Mexico. The production of Coca on the other hand is concentrated in three main Latin 
American countries i.e. Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. 
10 
 
The most critical and lucrative stage in dealing with illicit drugs is trafficking or transiting 
of the drugs. With regards to cocaine there are two main trafficking routes. The first is 
from the South America through Central America to the United States and the alternative 
is from the South America (Argentina and Brazil) through Africa to Europe 
(Akyeampong, 2005). Heroine is also trafficked to North America from South East Asia 
through Africa, China, Malaysia and Thailand (Akyeampong, 2005). The alternate route to 
Europe is through Pakistan, Iran, Turkey and the Balkan route. 
The main destinations of these drugs are the United States and Europe. However recent 
studies have shown that there are spillages along trafficking routes. Consumption has risen 
in most trafficking countries. However, the largest single consumer of illicit drugs is the 
United States. Australia and Brazil are also noted for the use of illicit drugs but mostly 
they consume cannabis.  
 
2.3.1 Trends in Africa 
Comparatively, drug trafficking in Africa is a fairly new phenomenon. There is evidence 
to suggest that within West and Central Africa sub regions, there are global seizures of 
non-specified amount of amphetamines. These regions became prominent in the drug trade 
due to the weak security systems, poverty among majority of the populace, poor 
governance and weak government institutions (Kwesi Aning & Pokoo, 2014). The region 
remained a key area in terms in respect of curbing the drug problem, beginning with a 
better comprehension of the nature of drugs peddled in the drug market. According to 
World Drug Report (2010), between 2004 and 2007, at least two distinct trans-shipment 
hubs emerged in West Africa: one centered on Guinea-Bissau and Guinea, and the other 
centered in the Bight of Benin, which spans from Ghana to Nigeria. The Colombian 
traffickers transported cocaine by 'mother ship' to the West African coast before off-
11 
 
loading to smaller vessels. Some of this cocaine proceeded onward by sea to Spain and 
Portugal, but some was left as payment to West Africans for their assistance (World Drug 
Report, 2010). The drugs mostly cocaine are sent on to the destination countries mostly 
via commercial air couriers. Shipments were also sent in modified small aircraft from the 
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela to various West African destinations (World Drug 
Report, 2010). 
World Drug Report (2010) stated that South Africa, Malawi and Zambia of Southern 
African region is also a major producer of the "soft" drug marijuana. The government of 
Zambia, for example, seized 182 tons of Cannabis in 2003 whereas only 30 tons were 
seized in 2001 and 2002 (DEC, 2005). The World Drug Report by United Nations (2004) 
estimated that during the period 2001 and 2003, 185 million people, equivalent of 3 
percent of the global population or 4.7 percent of the population aged 15 to 64 were using 
drugs. These estimates indicate that cannabis was the most widely used substance close to 
150 million. South Africa has also been home to a strong indigenous trade in Mandrax - 
manufactured in tablet form in the Durban area or shipped to Maputo, Mozambique for 
manufacture. Tanzania (Dar es Salaam) and Mozambique (Beira) are the most prominent 
entrance routes for traffickers from the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Investigations 
have also revealed that drug syndicates that are based in Nigeria ship large loads of 
cocaine to South and Southern Africa. Drug seizures over the past few years seem to 
indicate that drug trafficking was on the increase. This has led to the U.S. Drug 
Enforcement Administration providing training for law and order officials in Zambia, 
Tanzania and South Africa, and has even opened an office in Johannesburg. 
Although literature shows that most African countries are patronized by traffickers, 
African governments are known to have done very little in the fight against drug 
trafficking. In some instances those at the helm of affairs  are named as abettors and they 
12 
 
use state resources as well as their positions for their own benefits (Akyeampong, 2005; 
Bonsu, 2011). Also arrest made beyond the bother of most African countries especially 
West Africa suggests that the security in the region is not effective. A study by Aning 
(2007) showed that the about a third of traffickers arrested in Germany and Switzerland 
are from West Africa. These weaknesses in security can be associated with the interest of 
these consumer countries in policies that serve their benefits than that of the transit 
countries. Also the government in African countries believe that these drugs are just 
passing through their territories thus may not have significant impacts on their countries. 
However, as a transit region the West African sub- region has begun to experience the side 
effects of drug trafficking. There has been an increase in the consumption of cocaine and 
heroin in addition to the locally produce cannabis which was not the case hitherto. 
 
2.4 Factors Influencing Migrants’ Participation in Drug Trafficking 
2.4.1 Economic 
Several factors account for the susceptibility of a country to drug trafficking. According to 
Bybee (2011) the main factors that make countries susceptible to drug trafficking are the 
legitimacy of the state, societal acceptance of drug trafficking, pre-existing conflicts and 
opportunities in the active national economy. Also, a study conducted by Hartlyn (1993) 
showed that drug trafficking proliferated in 1980s due to the economic benefits they 
provided. For instance in Columbia drug cartels took over because they provided 
economic growth and employment (McLean, 2002; Thoumi, 2005). Also, individuals 
within the supply chain of the drug trade rely on it as their source of livelihood  
Another factor influencing drug trafficking is that starting a criminal business is generally 
easier since less investment is needed (Akerstrom, 1985). Since the emergence of the 
crack markets in the 1980s, there has been extant research on drug selling (Levitt and 
13 
 
Venkatesh, 2000; MacCoun and Reuter, 1992) and more recently female involvement in 
drug sale activity (Anderson, 2005; Jacobs and Miller, 1998). According to the report by 
the UNODC (2007), drug trafficking is one of the highly profit oriented enterprises 
relative to the other forms of trade, and thus serves as an attractive venture for most 
criminals in OCGs (UNODC, 2007).  For example, UNODC report valued the world 
narcotics trade US$320 billion (UNODC, 2005). Some studies also gave similar 
estimation at approximately $20-25 billion per annum (Reuter & Greenfield, 2001). One 
interesting finding of Reuter and Greenfield (2001) suggest that the quality of the drugs 
and the price have an inverse relationship as it moves down the supply chain. The value of 
the drugs tends to appreciate as it moves from the source to supply whiles the quality of 
the drugs tends to adulterated as it moves from its source. Although these gross differences 
exist, one can clearly argue without any equivocation that the profits accrued from the 
drug trade mostly motivates people in OCGs.     
However, it is worth noting that these economic benefits are superseded by the health and 
financial burden drug trafficking puts on society. Bulk of the revenue generated from the 
drug trade remain in consumer countries because traffickers usually launder the money 
back by purchasing other products in consumer countries (akyeampong, 2005).  
 
2.4.2 Demographic 
According to Punch 2008, females are gaining grounds as key contenders in the drug 
trafficking business in Nigeria relative to males. Similar to the case of drug trafficking in 
Nigeria, there are some evidence to show that women were also exploited in the human 
trafficking business. For example, between the 1980 and 2008, Nigerian women have 
played key roles during the emergence of human and international hard drugs trafficking 
due to economic crises. The lack of stability in the economic and social conditions in the 
14 
 
country were largely attributed as the causes of these menace (Tribune, 2005). In the 
trafficking of drugs to the international markets, women were mostly used in the 
trafficking of these drugs. For example, Champion (2004) in his study pointed out that, as 
part of the network involved in the drug business, a former Minister of Communications in 
Nigeria aided the drug dealers to specialize in using oil drums to transport hard drugs 
across Nigeria’s borders. Some females were used for this purpose. In order to conceal 
their identity, they disguised themselves as traders but were actually engaged in the 
trafficking of these drugs.  
Moreover, in one of the patrols on the Nigeria-Benin border, the Narcotic operatives of the 
National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) a vehicle with mostly women on 
board had scraps of drugs neatly wrapped in cellophane bags and concealed in the tin so 
foil (Champion, 2004). On interrogating the suspects, it became known that they were not 
aware of the drugs concealed in the tins of oil. They role in the whole trade was to deliver 
the products to a buyer in Cotonou, and also receive payment for the foil (Champion, 
2004). From the example given, one would agree that the intricate nature of the drug trade 
makes it difficult to curb the menace. In some instances, the people mandated to control 
the drug trade are found either engaging in the act or assisting drug dealers in the 
trafficking of these drugs. Specific reference can be made of the retired military and police 
personnel who were engaged in the drug business in Nigeria. In such circumstances, the 
drug business thrives, especially when the services of innocent villagers, especially market 
men and women who are willing to enter into trading partnership with these barons but 
quite ignorant of the fact that they are being used as carriers are used (Champion, 2004).  
A Nigerian woman was arrested in June 1999 by NDLEA for attempting to export 660 
grams of cocaine (New Nigerian, 1999). According to the report, she was apprehended at 
the baggage section of the departure wing of the border post after successfully clearing 
15 
 
other security checks to cross into the Republic of Benin. The drug she was exporting 
were concealed in 102 wraps of black polyethylene bag under the suspect’s armpits as she 
made her way through the baggage section (New Nigerian, 1999). When she was 
interrogated, she revealed that the bag contained foreign currencies given to her by a 
childhood friend from Bangkok. In such circumstances, the girl was used as a courier in 
trafficking the drugs (New Nigerian, 1999). In addition, one can refer to the case of the 
thirteen drug suspects, including a 51-year old woman and two Togolese who were 
apprehended by the NDLEA at the Murtala Mohammed International Airport, Ikejain 
Lagos in November 2003. It was later revealed that they had in their possession 11,480kg 
of cocaine and 4,710kg of heroin.  
Crusader (2007) argues that more and more women, including a growing number of 
college students, are venturing into drug peddling. Some are in search of quick money to 
augment their lavish lifestyle while some have simply taken over the trade from their men. 
Further, according to statistics with Delhi Police in India, 97 women drug traffickers were 
arrested in the national capital in 2006 as compared to 84 the year before. In 2004, 54 
women were caught for the same crime. The figures indicated a sharp increase of over 50 
percent in the past two years. Over 30 women drug, traffickers had been arrested that year. 
When examining women’s participation in the cocaine economy in New York City in the 
late 1980s, Fagan (1994) offers two factors as relevant to understanding women’s 
participation in the drug trade specifically. First, Fagan explains that beginning in the 
1970s economic forces led to higher poverty concentration among women, which had an 
adverse effect on their economic status and families. Second, changes in the street drug 
markets occurred with the emergence of crack cocaine, producing new avenues and 
opportunities for women’s involvement in drug selling and distribution markets, that is, 
while drug selling was a male dominated activity, the emergence of crack markets 
16 
 
afforded women greater opportunities to participate in the drug trade, albeit at low income 
levels compared to male counterparts.  
Furthermore, women’s increased use of drugs created a reliance on illegal incomes to 
support their drug use during times of shrinking labour markets and rising unemployment 
levels (Fagan, 1994). Women’s role in drug trafficking is commonly thought as being of 
subordinate nature although certain researchers propose that some of their female type 
characteristics actually facilitate their role as drug dealers. Finally, motivation to enter the 
drug scene is partially explained using Merton’s differential opportunity theory while 
social learning theory offers a hypothesis in explaining the motivation to continue. 
A meticulous inspection and gleaning of data from the National Drug Law Enforcement 
Agency (NDLEA-Nigeria) revealed an interesting finding by Ekerette (2009). The study 
portends that age and sex were major determinants in respect to the failure success of the 
trafficking business in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first century (Ekerette, 
2009). Given the socio-biological nature of women, they could easily be exploited by 
trafficking networks in the trafficking of hard drugs from one place to another. For 
example, Swanstrom was of the view that drug barons often recruited women who were 
willing to use any part of their body for trafficking purposes (Swanstrom, 2007, p.13; 
Nigerian Tribune, 2005, p.10). Women’s role in then narcotics trade was also directly 
connected to psychological issues related to sex exploitation.    
There are other modes of concealment and trafficking of drugs aside the well-known 
modes of swallowing or concealment in containers. Recent evidence and reported cases 
shows that drug couriers (traffickers) sometimes used their shoes and other accessories to 
transport these drugs across international borders. With the consent and active role of the 
shoe manufacturers in this ploy, the shoes are made in such a way to enable the substance 
17 
 
to be concealed in them without any detection. In some bizarre circumstances, insulated 
soles are used which was very effective in rendering the drugs hidden in them 
undetectable by the electronic searching devices. Champion (2000) concluded that because 
women mostly fancied fashionable shoes, they became easy targets for the testing of 
various trafficking methods and strategies (Champion, 2000). 
 
2.4.3 Social and cultural factors 
Different sociological theories are available to partially explain motivations to traffic 
drugs (Williams and McShane, 1993, p. 94). His proposition of innovation as a mode of 
adaptation to anomie is applicable to drug selling. Using this concept, an individual still 
wants to achieve goals but would reject the normal means for achieving these goals in 
favour of a deviant means (drug selling). Furthermore, Merton (1968) offers a similar and 
related theory, differential opportunity theory, which hinges on the fact that individuals 
have differentials in access to legitimate and illegitimate avenues to achieving their goals 
(Williams and McShane, 1993, p. 133). Lastly, many individuals explain their entry into 
the drug world as an opportunity created through business connections (Desroches, 2001). 
The motivation to continue selling drugs is again due to various factors. Among the 
reasons previously stated in describing drug trafficking recidivism, arrests of major dealers 
occur relatively infrequent and are the result of longwinded and sophisticated 
investigations by the police (Desroches, 2001).    
In terms of sociological theories, social learning theory suggests that pleasurable 
experiences in drug dealing activities make repeating these behaviours more likely. 
Through operant conditioning, the good social feelings, such as acceptance within their 
social circle and status achieved in dealing drugs serve as positive reinforces to continue 
the drug selling habit. Despite its illicit nature, drug trafficking remains a very profitable 
18 
 
practice in the eyes of many. Drug trafficking is a complex crime (especially at the 
international smuggling level) requiring much thought, planning, organization, and social 
connectedness.   
According to the UN (2003) drug trafficking is a major international problem and argues 
that no country however remote and robust its democracy was immune to the adverse 
consequences of abuse and trafficking. Among the reasons cited for this acceleration in 
drug trafficking were improved transport and communications, which make it easy for 
drug traffickers to transport the drugs and transact via electronic machines. This 
accelerated trade was seen to have contributed to an estimated $ 400 billion per year illicit 
drug trade by the year 2003 (UNDCP, 2004). 
 
2.5 Negative Effects of Drug Trafficking on Development 
As mentioned already most people enter into the drug trade because of the perceive 
benefits they stand to gain. However, the negative consequences of the drug trade 
supersede these benefits. There have been several studies to identify these adverse effects 
or cost of the drug trade to individual, society and the nation. The drug problem negatively 
impacts all aspects of development including economy, society and environment.  
Economically, although the drug trade generates several million dollars in revenue 
annually, it is detrimental to development (Miron, 2010). For instance a study in Australia 
found that the estimated cost of use and trade of illicit drugs is about 4.8 percent of the 
country’s GDP (Collins & Lapsley, 1996). This cost was due to the loss of productivity, 
drug related mortality and cost of the law enforcement. There is a correlation between 
unemployment and drug use. In addition the abuse of drugs happen more among people 
within the 15-25 age group (Mott, 1995). This include people in or about to enter into the 
19 
 
work force. Therefore, one can conclude that drug lead to unemployment as well as loss of 
productivity. In addition, due to illicit drugs the poorest portion of the population spend 
most of their income on drug consumption, hence they become poorer. Again, investment 
in the economy is jeopardized because income that could be invested into health or 
education is now being used to fight the drug trade 
There is extensive literature on the social impacts of drug use on several aspects of our 
daily lives. The negative impact of drug use on health is fairly obvious (Cercone, 1994). It 
has also been scientifically proven and documented. Although education is often seen as 
the best way to discourage people from drug use, the use of drug adversely affects the 
education sector. Children who abuse drug have short-term memories hence very often 
drop out of school. Again, families which serve as support systems for people who deal in 
drugs sometimes are the reasons why people trade and use drugs in the first place. The 
environment is also damaged due to the cultivation of illicit drugs. 
 
2.6 Ghana’s Role in Drug Trafficking 
Ghana was not part of the drug trade until recently (Bonsu, 2011). Akyeampong (2005) 
asserts that up until the 1980’s few Ghanaians knew about drugs such as Heroin and 
Cocaine. However, the situation changed entirely during the 1990’s. During this period 
Ghana recorded about 1,744 illegal narcotic deals. This changes were due to a number of 
factors. Firstly, this can be explained by the extension of Nigeria smuggling networks to 
Ghana. This was because during this period it was difficult to smuggle drugs from 
production countries such as South America and Asia, thus they used African routes. 
However, in the 1980s the Nigerian government began to execute traffickers thus the 
Nigerians turned to Ghana. Also during this period Nigeria became notorious 
internationally for drug trafficking. Secondly, the Ghanaian economy went into recession 
20 
 
during this period. Therefore, most Ghanaians went into the drug trade for the economic 
benefits. In addition, the economic decline may have accounted for the cultivation of 
cannabis in parts of West Africa including Ghana. But during this period Ghanaians were 
just couriers for the Nigerian syndicates. However, an investigation launched by the 
Ghanaian government in 1997 showed that about 80% of Ghanaians in foreign jails for 
trafficking were actually Nigerians with Ghanaian passports. Since this period, Ghana has 
become an important transit route for cocaine from South America and Heroin from 
Southeast Asia destined for Europe. Therefore, the drug menace has gain footing in Ghana 
for several reasons.  
Furthermore, in the quest for investment the country’s economy has been ‘over’ liberalised 
to allow anyone with anything to enter for business. Therefore, people people hide under 
the guise of legitimate businesses to trade drugs. For instance, in 2005 two Venezuelans 
cocaine dealers were arrested at East Legon were operation under the guise of gold 
dealership. Also there are many Banks operating in Ghana, therefore drug traffickers are 
able to hide the large sums of money accrued from this trade. Also, it is easier for one to 
connect from Accra the capital of Ghana to various destinations around the world. Within 
a few hours one can connect from the Kotoka International airport to UK, Germany, USA, 
Canada, Netherlands and other. Therefore, this make transiting a bit easier and the journey 
is short. Additionally, the high rate of unemployment and poverty in Ghana makes drug 
trafficking very attractive to most Ghanaians. Thus making them willing couriers. Most of 
the drug dealers in Ghana view drug dealership as a source of income rather than a crime. 
In effect, Ghana has become part of the drug business in various ways. For instance, an 
interview with the Director of the Accra Psychiatric hospital showed that users of illicit 
drugs are increasing in Ghana, because about 80 per cent of the cases reported in the 
21 
 
hospital are drug related. Currently, it will be convenient to not that Ghana is playing three 
different roles in the drug business. They include 
 Production of cannabis 
 Transiting of cannabis, heroin and cocaine 
 Consumption of heroin, cannabis and cocaine 
 
2.7 Interventions to Tackle Drug Trafficking 
Fighting the drug trade is an international agenda. A single state would not be able to 
eradicate it completely. It is therefore imperative for countries to collaborate in tackling 
this menace. Also states should on their own put in mechanisms to help in the fight against 
the drug trade.  
On the international scale the United Nations has had three conventions to address the 
issue of drug trafficking. The first was the 1961 convention on Narcotic drugs. The main 
objective of this convention was to merge existing multilateral treaties in the fight against 
drug trafficking; streamline the control of drug trafficking and extend control system to 
include the cultivation of these drugs. The second was the 1971 convention on 
Psychotropic substances. This convention extended control to include hallucinogens, 
stimulants and sedatives. The third convention and the only one that address the issue of 
illicit trafficking was the 1988 convention against illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and 
psychotropic substances. The 1988 convention dealt with the problem of international 
trafficking and also included money laundering. 
In October 2008, the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 
supported by UNODC and the United Nations Office for West Africa (UNOWA), and in 
partnership with the European Union, held a Ministerial Conference in Praia, Cape Verde, 
22 
 
to address the serious security threat posed by drug trafficking in the region. The Political 
Declaration and Regional Action Plan that resulted from this conference were 
subsequently endorsed by the Heads of State and Government of ECOWAS in Abuja on 
19 December 2008. The Praia Declarations reflect a strong political commitment and 
established the basis for a detailed cooperation framework to combat drug trafficking and 
organized crime in West Africa. UNODC was entrusted with leading the process of 
translating the Political Declaration and Regional Action Plan into concrete programmes 
to be carried out by ECOWAS Member States in partnership with UNOWA, the 
Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO), the International Criminal Police 
Organization (INTERPOL), and the European Union. An ECOWAS Operational Plan and 
a Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanism were formulated, specifying the operational role 
of the ECOWAS Commission in supporting Member States in the implementation of the 
Regional Action Plan. UNODC uses its comparative advantage to ensure a cross-border 
and integrated approach in the fight against illicit drug trafficking and organized crime, 
including the global threat posed by the transatlantic trafficking route (World Drug Report, 
2010). Recognizing the difficulty of managing vast African blue and green borders, 
UNODC had set the objectives to promote proactive policing by developing an 
intelligence-based approach to law enforcement and to improve inter-agency coordination 
with a view to disrupt the activities of organized crime groups behind drug trafficking.  
Within the framework of South-South cooperation, UNODC in partnership with Brazil 
supported Guinea Bissau in different initiatives under the framework of the 
implementation of the National Operational Plan to combat drugs and crime (World Drug 
Report, 2010). Guinea Bissau had been suffering from its territory being used by drug 
smugglers and posing a major impact on its security and stability. One of the important 
projects being implemented with the support of Brazil was the establishment of a Training 
23 
 
Centre for Security Forces, aiming at law enforcement capacity building. The immediate 
objective was to serve the national needs and improve security forces capacities to counter 
narcotics and organized crime with a long-term aim for the Training Centre to become a 
Regional Training Academy for Portuguese speaking countries in Africa.   
In Ghana, the main institution tasked with the fight against drug trafficking is NACOB. 
NACOB works with other security agencies such as include CEPS, the Judiciary, Ghana 
Police Service (the Narcotics Unit) and the immigration service. In addition to this Ghana 
is signatory to international conventions such as the ”1961 Single Convention; 1972 
Protocol Amending the Single Convention; 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances; 
1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances” 
(Bernstein, 1999) .These institutions have been able to attain successes in spite of the 
challenges they face.  
 
2.8 Challenges Associated with Combating Drug Trafficking in Ghana 
The international community is beginning to grasp the anonymity of the drug problem in 
Africa. Also governments have made significant effort to curb this menace. In some cases, 
there are bilateral and multilateral assistance to stop drug trafficking. However due to the 
scarcity of resources, intertwining of drug trafficking and politics, and the intercontinental 
nature of drug trafficking these efforts have been futile (Cockayne & Williams, 2009).  
Due to the scarcity of resources for combating drug trafficking, there has been attention on 
strategy based methods to fight drug trafficking. In an effort to fight drug trafficking most 
governments in the West African sub region concentrate on legislation and legal 
frameworks. Mazzitelli (2007) posits that this method has yielded little or no results. This 
could be attributed to  lack of coordination between law enforcement agencies (Cockayne 
24 
 
& Williams, 2009). At the national level, law enforcement agencies fail to share 
intelligence to maximize their efforts.  
Also there is the need for the political will to fight drug trafficking at the international 
level as well as national level. In most West African countries there is less coordination in 
strategic plans between counties. Thus change in the political party in government means a 
change in strategy. Also, political leaders often interfere in the work of government 
agencies. In a study conducted by Aning (2007) NACOB staffs complained of the 
interference of some political leaders in their work. There is the need to create awareness 
and engage political leaders as well as social elites. In addition, there is hardly a 
collaboration between international bodies such as UN, EU. Or ECOWAS (Cockayne & 
Williams, 2009). In addition, corruption in law enforcement is very common in West 
Africa. Therefor Traffickers are able to easily buy the protection for their transactions. 
Also some members of the law enforcement agencies are involved in the drug trade 
themselves (Bonsu, 2011).  
 
2.9 Theoretical Underpinnings 
2.9.1 Network Theory 
There is evidence to show that most of the criminal trade activities takes place within the 
network structures. Sutherland’s study (1937) on expert thieves establish that criminals 
interact with each other through informal, inter-personal networks grounded in shared 
norms, common language and knowledge. Sutherland (1937) further stated that networks 
are organized in the sense that “it is a system in which informal unity and reciprocity may 
be found.” These characteristics are not exclusive to criminal networks but are common 
across all types of networks. From the 1950s, the study of social networks arose in 
response to growing displeasure with the use of structural-functional analysis as a 
25 
 
framework for studying multifaceted societies (Boissevain and Mitchell 1973; Mitchell, 
1973). Structural-functional analysis views societies as static and social change is 
perceived as dysfunctional (Boissevain and Mitchell 1973). Furthermore, social 
organization is described in terms of the economic, social and political institutions, rather 
than the fluid interactions which take place between individuals and groups (Barnes, 1954; 
Noble, 1973). Thus, the limitations of structural-functional analysis become apparent 
when studying rapidly changing, modern, complex societies (Boissevain and Mitchell, 
1973).  
Anthropologists studying urbanization found that society organizes itself around 
relationships (Wasserman and Faust, 1994; Boissevain and Mitchell, 1973). Therefore, 
taking into account social status, social role and the position of individuals as well as the 
“inevitability of the formation of relational ties among these actors” this leads to the 
conclusion that “relationships form gateways to political and economic power for all 
involved” (McIllwain, 1999). These early studies into social networks foreshadowed later 
research on the presence of networks within crime groups. 
Albini (1971) studied “syndicated crime” in the United States and argued that organized 
crime was not based on “rational hierarchies” but a fluid system of power relationships 
initiated upon local and ethnic ties. Similarly, Ianni (1972) studied an Italian-American 
organized crime family (Lupollo) and found that the Lupollo’s organization was based 
upon social networks, kinship ties and shared cultural values that were common in 
Southern Italian communities. Blok (1974) studied the social networks of the local Mafiosi 
in the Sicilian village of Genuardo and found that the Mafiosi developed inter-dependent 
relations with peasants, landlords and politicians. Through a patron-client relationship, 
landlords relied on the Mafiosi to control the peasants’ access to land whilst allowing the 
Mafiosi to exercise autonomy in their local regions (Blok, 1974). Chambliss’ (1978) 
26 
 
analysis of organized crime in Seattle found that organized crime was a “coalition” of 
politicians, law-enforcers, businessmen, union leaders and racketeers. Chambliss (1978) 
stated that not every crime network had a “godfather” but rather, organized crime was a 
“...network in which people come and go, dominant offices shift and change, roles vary 
and fluctuate, but the system goes on.” In another study of the Mafiosi, Arlacchi (1986) 
concluded that entrepreneurial Mafiosi relied on family and friendship networks in 
Southern Italy to engage in illegal activities including extortion, heroin trafficking and 
controlling commerce between the countryside and cities.  
Social network models characterize organized crime as a system of social and personal 
relationships among several individuals (Kleemans and de Poot, 2008). Block (1994) in a 
study of organized crime in New York, argues that organized crime is represented by a 
series of reciprocal relationships between professional criminals, legitimate businesses and 
politicians. These individuals or groups may engage in the process of social networking 
for the provision of illicit goods and services or gain access to other lucrative criminal 
opportunities (Kleemans and de Poot, 2008; McIllwain, 1999). Reciprocity is a system 
based on the notion of “give and take”, whereby network members can expect an equal 
return at some point in the future (Waterhouse, Keast and Brown 2011). Reciprocity has 
the effect of stabilizing networks and facilitates continued cooperation between network 
members (Waterhouse, Keast and Brown, 2011; Gouldner, 1960). Thus, network members 
interact in horizontal relationships. This can be contrasted with hierarchical styles of 
organization that operate in a vertical relationship based on goals, norms and methods 
prescribed by the leader.   
Sociological and organizational studies on the advantages of networks suggest that 
networks are flexible and facilitate learning and exchange between members. In terms of 
learning capacity, networks operate in complex communication channels that often 
27 
 
involve the rapid exchange of information (Podolny and Page 1998, 62; Powell, 1990). In 
a criminal context, if networks create a pool of resources and skills then the exchange of 
information and knowledge would be vital to developing efficient and innovative methods 
for operation and the performance of tasks. A network’s adaptability and flexible nature 
enables them to be “lighter on their feet” than hierarchies (Powell, 1990). Networks are 
more responsive to changes in their environment given that the network’s boundaries are 
far less defined than a hierarchy (Podolny and Page, 1998). Flexibility is desirable in 
criminal networks because external pressure (e.g. law enforcement) or reduced levels of 
supply and demand in illicit markets may force OCGs to change established methods of 
operation.     
Social networks are advantageous for certain types of crime. Networks based on kinship or 
family better insulate drug trafficking operations from penetration by law enforcement 
agencies because network members only work with people they know and trust (Edwards 
and Levi, 2008; Williams and Godson, 2002; Pearson and Hobbs, 2001; Morselli, 2001). 
The foundations of “trust” in criminal relationships are quite diverse as they can include 
family, kinship, community and ethnic ties (von Lampe and Johansen, 2004).  
However, curbing distrust is a recurring issue for offenders, particularly for those engaged 
in organized crime activity where the operating environment is less stable and “stakes are 
high” (Kleemans and van de Bunt, 1999). Therefore, how trust is negotiated in organized 
crime activity and criminal networks is a key theme in the literature. High levels of trust 
reduce the uncertainty regarding the behaviour of potential crime partners and therefore, 
increase the willingness of these parties to co-offend (Weerman, 2003). Kleemans and van 
de Bunt (1999) argue that social relations mitigate distrust and stabilises cooperation 
between criminals because they have invested in the relationship, have information about 
each other and are likely to meet again in future operations. Cohesive networks are ideal 
28 
 
for criminal ventures where a strong degree of mutual trust is needed, especially carrying 
out activities with high criminal and financial risks (Bruinsma and Bernasco, 2004; Zaitch, 
2002). For example, drug trafficking is an inherently high risk criminal activity. As a 
security measure, the norm in most drug markets is that transactions with strangers are to 
be avoided (Bouchard, 2007).  
Williams (2010) developed a provisional network typology comprising of four types of 
networks: directed network, mesh network, transactional network and flux network. The 
four network types are described below:   
1) Directed network: This network is formed and directed by a group of “core organizers” 
for a specific purpose (Williams, 2001). The core of the network is the hierarchical 
component because it acts as a “steering mechanism” to direct and coordinate the network 
as a whole (Williams, 2001). An example of a directed network is the development of the 
Colombian cocaine trade in the 1980s and early 1990s which was created for the sole 
purpose of transporting cocaine to the United States (Williams, 2001).  
2) Mesh network: These networks are “decentralized and self-organizing”; actors perform 
specific tasks and transact directly with other members without the need for a core body 
(Williams 2010). This type of network is best characterized by horizontal rather than 
vertical relationships between actors.  
3) Transactional network: These networks rely heavily on brokers and middlemen who 
play critical roles at each stage of a “transaction” (Williams 2010). The Southeast Asian 
heroin trade is largely modelled on a transactional network, in which brokers play a key 
role from source, supply to distribution. It is also possible for a directed network to be a 
part of a transactional network (Williams, 2001);  
29 
 
4) Flux network: Flux networks are highly unstable, small and have little established 
structure as a result of its amorphous nature. There is limited trust between members and 
they appear to disband more easily compared to other network types. Groups operating in 
these networks usually cooperate for specific criminal activities or single projects 
(Williams 2010).  
Some groups can operate initially under one network style and then change their methods 
of operation to evolve into a different network type. Williams (2010) states that criminal 
operations may involve several, distinct kinds of networks depending on the type of 
activities and processes carried out by the group. Therefore, perhaps Williams did not 
intend to create four mutually exclusive categories in this typology. For example, 
transactional networks could operate within a directed network. However, it is expected 
that a flux network would be very difficult to identify given its small, amorphous nature 
and the relative ease at which its members could probably enter and exit the group. 
Williams (2010) also acknowledges that flux networks are difficult to infiltrate for similar 
reasons. Although this typology may be included at the stage of data analysis, the level of 
information required for classification is likely to be substantial and some cases will have 
an insufficient amount of detail in the judgment or transcript that enables classification. 
 
2.9.2 Structuration Theory 
Giddens posited this theory as an antithesis to the structural and interpretivist sociologies 
which were connected to Marxist and other humanist traditions (Holt-Jensen, 1999). The 
first group of social analysts concerned themselves with just the structural relationships in 
society. This first group did not give relevance to individuality but rather focused on the 
conditions that determined social outcomes (Moos & Dear, 1986). An example of these 
social theories include Marxism, functionalism and structuralism. On the other hand, the 
30 
 
second group also focused on individuals. These types of analysis are reflected in the work 
of phenomenologists and existentialists who believed that individual attached meaning to 
the world life thus lacking theoretical understanding of society and institutions. 
Furthermore, agent oriented theories have relegated institutions to the background 
therefore lacks understanding of power relations and conflicts in society. Whereas theories 
on economic forces (for example, Marxism) and cultural forces (for example, 
Functionalism) lacked understanding of individuals as knowledgeable, active and a 
reflexive monitoring agent, Giddens gave credence to structures as a creation and re-
creation via the human agency; thus the role of the agent in this context is pivotal 
(Giddens, 1979; Holt-Jensen, 1999). The differences between these two points of view 
could not be resolved by just merging them. Therefore Giddens (1979) overcame this by 
developing a theory that posits that action and structure presupposes on another.  
In Giddens model, the agents are conceived as conscious and unconscious actors between 
the real level and the empirical level. For instance, when an individual is born into a 
community, they are in a way entangled by the social structures which restricts and 
enables them at the same time. Individuals go through life guided by rules made by society 
and at the same helps in reproducing these rules by changing its form (Holt-Jensen, 1999). 
Given the fact that individuals act as agents, the rules that govern them are always 
changed. Central to Giddens’s theory are concepts such as structure, action, social system, 
social practice, context and duality of structure. Structures are conceived as rules and 
resources for action, either in the form of social norms (informal) or laws and bureaucratic 
regulations (formal).  They set the conditions for human actions, nonetheless they also 
result from human actions. Actions denotes the normal usual pattern of activities in our 
daily life and are a continuous process. Giddens suggests that even though society and its 
institutions form an individual, they are also skilled agents who direct their own lives via 
31 
 
actions. This he termed the duality of structure (Holt-Jensen, 1999). In the context of 
international migration and drug trafficking, though they are set of rules to either bar or 
constrain drug dealers from undertaking their illicit business, the individuals, via their own 
skills and contacts are able to operate within the system.  
 
2.9.3 Systems Theory 
A system can be defined as a set of elements with specific characteristics who work 
together to attain the an identifiable result (Rhodes & College, 2012).  Shaw (1965) also 
assets that a system is an entity that takes in inputs, operates and come out with outputs. 
The pioneers of the system theory are Durkheim and Max Weber. They took the system 
theory which was first applied to biological organisms and applied it to human social 
systems.  
Durkheim was interested in how societies were organized and maintained cohesion.  This 
was because he was of the view that human had a social system unlike that of other 
organisms. According to him order can be maintained through the consent if individuals 
who share the same values (Friedman & Allen, 2014). Therefore, Durkheim was of the 
view that division of labour contributed to maintenance of cohesion in a highly organized 
society. Hence individuals specialize in the performance of certain roles, thus creating a 
degree of mutual interdependence. Although the individual assign to certain roles may 
change, the role itself persists overtime therefore maintaining a cohesive society. He 
therefore linked this theory to crime and suicide. He believed that both occurred as a result 
of disruptions and imbalances in the integration of individuals and societies (Friedman & 
Allen, 2014; Kay, 2015). He assesses this in the macro sense. For instance, the role of the 
police is to maintain law and order in society. However, if the police abuse its power then 
society is threatened. Durkheim also came up with the concept of “anomie” to describe 
32 
 
individual who do not conform to societal expectations therefore alienating society. In 
essence the system exists in the social environment and certain factors in this environment 
affect the systems outcome and output. The systems also interact with other systems and if 
the system is not compliant with the norm then it is considered as dysfunctional. Max 
weber is a contemporary of Durkheim known for his work on social institutions and 
organizations. However unlike Durkheim who believed that societies are maintained with 
the consent of individuals to comply with expectations, Weber was of the view that 
bureaucracies are coercive in nature and are maintained through the legitimate use of 
violence or force (Friedman & Allen, 2014). 
With regards to Durkheim’s assertion ineffectiveness of institutions mandated to fight 
drug trafficking disrupt the system. Thus the continuous operation of traffickers could be 
blamed on the weaknesses of our institutions. On the other hand, the system is also 
supposed to provide these institutions with incentives and the necessary resources to 
enable them work effectively. Therefore, institutions cannot be solely blamed for the drug 
menace. On the other hand, Weber believes that enforcement of the powers of those who 
have been given the mandate should be enough to curb illicit operations. However, the 
drug trade has invaded these enforcement institutions and drug barons sometimes have 
control over people in the helm of affairs thus they are unable to enforce law and order. 
 
2.10 Conceptual framework 
According to Miles and Huberman (1994) a conceptual framework is a visual or written 
product, one that “explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be 
studied—the key factors, concepts, or variables—and the presumed relationships among 
them” (p.18). The term “conceptual framework” can also be used in a broader sense that 
33 
 
includes the actual ideas and beliefs that the researcher holds about the phenomena studied 
whether these are written down or not.  
The conceptual framework determines that vulnerability, low education and 
trustworthiness especially in men and women migrants are highly likely to influence 
migrant involvement in drug trafficking and the participants are motivated by low 
investment required, good  economic status  obtainable,  pleasure  arising from the use and 
the good business connections that come with trafficking. 
 
 Socio-demographic factors Migration motivation 
  Gender  Good economic status 
 
 Age  Good business 
 
  Level of education  
 Pleasure 
  Occupation  
  Dependents 
 
Drug trade 
 
  Rise in value of 
  dollar 
 Migration  Rise in use of drug 
 network  Institutional 
 weakness 
  Lack of knowledge 
 of drug trafficking 
 consequences 
  
 
 
 
Vulnerability factors Cultural factors 
 
 Poverty  Appearance less  
 Low income likely to arouse  
suspicion 
  Quick need for cash 
 Unemployment  Trustworthiness  
   
  
 
 
Figure 2.1: Conceptual framework 
Source: Author’s construct 
34 
 
2.11 Summary 
This chapter provides a review of relevant literature on international migration and drug 
trafficking in Ghana. The global trend of trafficking was thoroughly explained together 
with the trends in Africa. In addition, relevant literature on the various economic, 
demographic, social and cultural factors that influence drug trafficking were discussed in 
this chapter. Also, the role of Ghana in the drug trafficking and the various forms of 
interventions to curtail the drug menace were also discussed. Lastly, the theoretical 
underpinnings were given much cognisance in this chapter. These include the network 
theory, the structuration theory and the system theory.  Clearly there is enough evidence 
which portend that social networks plays a role in facilitating organized criminal activities 
include drug trafficking. The drug dealers have a defined or structured network within 
which they operate. In circumstances, the efficiency of the system or network of drug 
trade makes it possible for them to operate, especially in circumstances where the systems 
mandated to control and curb illicit drug trafficking are fraught with some challenges 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
35 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 
3.0 Introduction 
This chapter describes the methodology for the study. The chapter gives an in-depth 
overview of the main approaches that the study adopts including, research design, data 
needs, approaches to gathering the data and how the data is analysed and presented. 
 
3. 1 Research design 
Research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived for collecting 
data and obtaining answers to research questions. The study design for this research is 
mixed methods. According to Creswell (2012), mixed methods research is an approach to 
research in the social, behavioural, and health sciences in which the researcher gathers 
both quantitative (close-ended) and qualitative (open-ended) data, fused the two data and 
draws interpretations based on the two sets of data. Mixed methods use multiple data 
sources for its data collection (Merriam, 2000). The use of mixed methods is to 
compensate for the weakness of the dichotomous approach (2012). Qualitative methods 
were used to collect data from the law enforcement institutions. Patton (2002) defines 
qualitative methodology as a naturalistic approach that seeks to understand phenomena in 
context-specific settings, such as a “real world setting where the researcher does not 
attempt to manipulate the phenomenon of interest” (Patton, 2002, p.94; Teye 2008). The 
strengths of qualitative research methods are its inductive approach, its focus on specific 
situations or people, and its emphasis on words rather than numbers (Patton, 2002). It is 
used to reflect on, and interpret the understandings, and shared meanings of people’s 
everyday social worlds and realities. Qualitative methodology seeks subjective 
36 
 
understanding of social realities. The intent is to describe, explain and judge how these 
institutions work to combat drug trafficking. 
Also, quantitative research methods were used to collect quantitative data on socio-
demographic characteristics, mode of migration, trends in drug trafficking cases in Ghana, 
perceptions on socio-economic benefits of engaging in drug trafficking and challenges that 
confront security personnel. In regarding quantitative research method is any kind of 
research method that produces findings through statistical procedures or other means of 
quantification.  Questionnaire survey method was employed to carry out this research 
because of its inherent ease in delivery and more appropriate for the study of a large 
population (Gay & Airasian, 2003). The two methodologies when used together tend to 
complement each other. The triangulation of these methods for the study is as a result of 
the nature of the research questions and objectives (see Teye, 2012). Castro et al. (2016) 
emphasizes that quantitative and qualitative methods are not simply different ways of 
doing the same thing. Instead, they have different strengths and logics, and are often best 
used to address different angles of questions and serve different purposes.  
 
3.2 Data Sources   
The study relied on both primary and secondary data sources in attaining the objectives of 
the study. The study relied on questionnaire survey, and in-depth interviews for garnering 
primary data. The secondary data were sourced from books, journals, articles, etc. 
 
3.3 Primary Data Source 
Questionnaire surveys and in-depth interviews were used in sourcing primary data for the 
study. 
37 
 
3.3.1 Questionnaire Survey 
This section provides a description of the survey conducted including the design of the 
questionnaire and the sampling technique adopted in sampling respondents for the survey. 
 
3.3.1.1 Questionnaire Design 
Given the fact that the study sought the need to obtain quantifiable data and make conclusions 
based on these responses, the study adopted the questionnaire survey and the questionnaires 
used were semi-structured in nature. It comprised of both close-ended and open-ended 
questions. The target population were security personnel working with NACOB and GPS. 
The questionnaire was divided into sections I, II and III. Section I covered the socio-
demographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, sex, level of education, 
religion, ethnic background and income. Section II covers respondents’ knowledge of drug 
trafficking, sources of information pertaining to drug trafficking, and socio-demographic 
characteristic of drug traffickers. It also covers perceived reasons why people engage in 
drug trafficking, and international migration and drug trafficking nexus. The last section 
(III) looks at the various policy interventions and challenges security personnel encounter 
in the control of drug trafficking in Ghana. The questionnaire was first pretested among 
some officials of CEPS, considering the fact that they are part of the agencies mandated to 
keep our borders and ports safe from illicit drugs. In addition, they were not part of the 
target population for the questionnaire survey. This aided in the correction of minor errors 
in the questionnaire, restating of certain questions to enhance clarity. Two field assistants 
were trained and used for the data collection process. The data was collected from January 
to February. An informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from relevant 
authorities before data collection process began. 
38 
 
3.3.1.2 Sampling Technique 
NACOB and GPS personnel were selected for the questionnaire survey. The decision to 
exclude CEPS and the Judiciary even though they are also the main actors in the fight 
against drug trafficking in the country was due to limited time, resource and lack of access 
to these officers. A simple random sampling method was employed to sample 230 
respondents for the questionnaire survey. This comprised of 130 respondents from 
NACOB and 100 from GPS. This probability-based sampling method or technique is 
effective because of its un-biased nature. 
 
3.3.2 In-depth Interviews 
Key in-depth interviews were conducted with some six security personnel, three each form 
NACOB and GPS respectively. The interview mostly centered on their knowledge of drug 
trafficking, the characteristics of people involved and why people engage in the drug trade. 
Additionally, issues of policy interventions and challenges security personnel face in the 
control of drug trafficking in Ghana were also holistically examined. This gave much 
clarity to some of the issues they were not clear during the questionnaire survey. 
The six security personnel were purposively selected for the key in-depth interview. This 
was largely informed by their rank in the services and years of working in the security 
services. Thus, information from them were very constructive and aided in giving much 
clarity and in-sight to the issues examined.  
 
3.4 Secondary Data Sources 
The secondary data sources used included reports on drug trafficking and trends over the 
years, as well as books, journal articles, publications and working papers related to drug 
trafficking in Ghana. 
39 
 
3.5 Data Analysis  
The quantitative data were generally analysed using SPSS version 20. Data coding was 
systematically organized for easier analysis. This involved compiling a data matrix and 
then coding all the variables that were used in the questionnaire. Coding required 
identification of codes and assigning numerical values to each variable to signify a 
particular response. Frequency tables were generated, cross tabulations and chi-square test 
performed to ascertain relationship between variables. The recorded interviews were 
transcribed, grouped under specific themes and thereafter, content analysis was performed. 
Some quotations were used to underscore some findings and give clarity to statements 
which needed empirical comprehension. 
 
3.6 Researcher’s Positionality & Ethical Considerations 
According to Mohammed (2001), the type of issues researched and the characteristics of a 
researcher can influence the researcher’s access to informants and the type of data to be 
garnered (as cited in Teye 2012). In some situations, where the phenomena researched are 
sensitive, the quality of data collected and depth of insight given are mostly contingent on 
the characteristics of the researcher such as sex, age, socio-cultural and ideological 
background; that is if he/she is to be treated as an insider or outsider. The researcher works 
with NACOB thus will be treated as an insider by respondents and security agencies 
involved (Mohammed, 2001) In view of this, the respondents were forthcoming with 
responses since they felt comfortable discussing these issues with a colleague, especially 
their personal experiences and challenges. It should be noted however that, the researcher 
was not directly involved in the survey but played a key role during the qualitative facet of 
the data collection process. Trained and competent research assistants were engaged for 
the purpose of data collection.  
40 
 
Given the sensitive nature of the issues examined, ethical clearance was sought from the 
university before proceeding with the data collection. In addition, the consent of the 
various participants was obtained before the questionnaire survey and interviews were 
conducted. The various heads of the security agencies were contacted and permissions 
obtained from them before interviewing the various participants. In order to protect the 
anonymity of respondents selected for the interview, pseudonyms were used. With the 
anonymity of participants granted, they were forthcoming with issues and very helpful in 
unravelling some key challenges confronting the various institutions in the fight against 
drug trafficking in the country. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
41 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 
4.1 Introduction 
This chapter provides an analysis of the field data results based on socio-demographic 
characteristics of respondents. Specifically, this section gives a description of the 
background features of respondents’ including sex, age, level of education, religion, ethnic 
ground and income.  
 
4.2 Background Characteristics of Respondents 
The results in Table 4.1 show that out of the 230 respondents sampled, 56.5 percent were 
males and 43.5 percent were females. This is not surprising because males tend to 
dominate in the two professions chosen, that is NACOB and GPS.  In terms of the age 
group of the respondents, majority of them were within the 30-39 years’ age group 
(53percent), followed by those within the ages of 20-29 years (27.4 percent) and 40-49 
years (14.8 percent): The least represented age group were those more than 50 years of age 
(4.8 percent). The age distribution of respondents is expected considering the fact that the 
minimum required age to be enrolled into these services is 18 and the maximum is 25 
years. Thus, one would expect majority of respondents to be within 30-39 year age group 
after some years of service in these institutions. Unsurprisingly, majority of respondents 
sampled had attained some form of tertiary (60 percent) education whereas those with 
JSS/JHS education (1.3 percent) were the least represented in terms respondent’s level of 
education. This could be because majority of the security personnel sampled were within 
some high ranks and certainly such ranks warrant some form of tertiary education. With 
respect to the religion of respondents, majority of respondents were Christians 
42 
 
fellowshipping with Charismatic churches (30.4 percent), Catholic churches (20.9 percent) 
and Presbyterians (12.6 percent), whereas 16.5 percent were Muslims.  
Table 4.1: Distribution of Respondents by Sex, Age, Marital Status, Level of 
Education and religion 
Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage 
Sex   
Male 130 56.5 
Female 100 43.5 
Total 230 100 
Age   
20-29 years 63 27.4 
30-39 years 122 53 
40-49 years 34 14.8 
More than 50 years 11 4.8 
Level of Education   
JSS/JHS 3 1.3 
Middle School 10 4.3 
SSS/SHS 36 15.7 
Technical/Commercial 43 18.7 
Tertiary 138 60 
Religion   
Catholic 48 20.9 
Anglican 18 7.8 
Presbyterian 29 12.6 
Methodist 20 8.7 
Charismatic 70 30.4 
Islamic 38 16.5 
Others 7 3 
 Source: Feld data (2017) 
In addition, Akan’s (30 percent) constituted the majority of respondents sampled, followed 
by Ewe’s (19.1 percent) and other ethnic groups (18.3 percent). Also, 10.4 percent were 
43 
 
Ga-Adangbes, 9 percent Dagaare and 6.5 percent Bono and Dagbani respectively. With 
respect to monthly income of respondents, 74.8 percent earn more than 1000 cedis while 
less than 1 percent earn less than 500 cedis. Again, 23 percent of the respondents indicated 
that they earn within 701-900 cedis on a monthly basis. Given the rank and level of 
education of majority of respondents, it’s not surprising that majority of respondents earn 
above ₵1,000 on a monthly basis.  
Table 4.2: Distribution of Respondents by Ethnic Background & Income 
Demographic Variables Frequency Percentage 
Ethnic Background   
GA Adangbe 24 10.4 
Akan 69 30 
Ewe 44 19.1 
Bono 15 6.5 
Dagbani 15 6.5 
Dagaare 21 9.1 
Others 42 18.3 
Total 230 100 
Income   
Less than 500 cedis 2 0.9 
501-700 cedis 3 1.3 
701-900 cedis 53 23 
More than 900 cedis 172 74.8 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
44 
 
4.3 Summary 
This chapter examined the background characteristics of respondents and respondents’ 
knowledge and awareness of drug trafficking and perceived socio-economic benefits of 
engaging in drug trafficking. Lastly, the relationship between international migration and 
drug trafficking was examined. The result of the analysis shows that majority of 
respondents were males and within the ages of 30-39 years. Most of the respondents 
sampled had attained some form of tertiary education. Lastly, majority of respondents earn 
more than 1000 cedis monthly.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
45 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
DRUG TRAFFICKING TRENDS IN GHANA, 2009-2015 AND 
PERCEIVED SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF DRUG 
TRAFFICKING IN GHANA 
5.1 Introduction 
This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the trends in drug trafficking cases in Ghana 
from 2009 to 2015.  This was done in relation to reported drug trafficking cases in Ghana 
by nationality and gender of drug traffickers from 2009-2015. It also assesses the 
perceived socio-economic benefits of drug trafficking in Ghana.  
 
5.2 Drug Trafficking Trends in Ghana from 2009-2015  
In recent years, drug trafficking has become pervasive in most West African countries, 
affecting countries such as Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria, Sierra-Leone and Ghana (UNODC 
Report 2008; Cook & Wyler, 2009). Akyeampong (2005) suggests that the strict security 
measures adopted by most European and North American countries dissuaded traffickers 
from using their ports and rather paved way for most drug traffickers from Thailand and 
Latin American countries, especially Brazil to use African countries as transit point and 
Africans serving as the traffickers. In view of this, Shehu (2009) is of the view that, many 
countries in West Africa serve as routes for the trafficking of drugs. Despite the fact that 
the trafficking of drugs was adopted as a means of capital formation in most West African 
countries including Ghana, Ghana has gained much notoriety as a hub and transit point for 
illicit drugs (Akyeampong, 2005). Although, the country is not actively engaged in the 
production of illicit drugs such as cocaine and heroin, recent events suggest that it plays an 
active role in the distribution and consumption of these drugs (Cook & Wyler, 2009). The 
46 
 
report by the Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs in 2007, 
suggests that Ghana became the hub for South American cocaine trafficking between 2006 
and 2008 (cited in Sosuh, 2011). Owing to this background, the study sought to examine 
trends in drug trafficking in Ghana from 2009 to 2015 (see Figure 5.1).  
Evidence from Figure 5.1 shows that 2013 (9.8%) and 2014 (10.1%) recorded the lowest 
reported drug trafficking cases within the seven year period (2009-2015) in the country, 
whereas the highest reported drug trafficking cases were recorded in 2011 (22.6%) and 
2015 (15.9%). In addition, there was an increase in the trend of reported drug trafficking 
cases from 2009 to 2011 but recorded a steady decline from 2011 to 2013. Nonetheless, 
there was an increase from 2013 (9.8%) to 2015 (15.9%). 2013 (22.6% to 9.8%). 
However, there was an increase from 2013 to 2015 (9.8% to 15.9%). This suggests that 
within the seven year period, reported drug trafficking cases in the country has undergone 
some changes. An interview with some key informants at NACOB and GPS revealed that 
the modus operandi of trafficking drugs via the ports of the country is variable, as drug 
traffickers often change the mode of trafficking drugs as at when the drug enforcement 
agencies become aware. The method of concealing the drugs and ways of trafficking the 
drugs changes with time. In view of this, some were of the view that the low recorded and 
reported arrested cases were not as a result of low rate of drug trafficking but rather lack of 
insight or awareness about the mode of concealing and trafficking the drugs. One of the 
officers noted 
“I don’t think low number recorded in 2009, 2013 and 2014 was because the drug 
couriers were not trafficking the drugs. I think they were but we had not noticed or 
found out the way they were doing it. When they started concealing the drugs in 
tubers of yams and oils and stuffs and we found out they immediately switched to 
something else. Now most of them are either inserting it or swallowing them with 
the hope that the scanners can’t identify the drugs. If you take 2011 for example, 
47 
 
most of the arrested drug traffickers had resorted to swallowing them in pellets 
and we had the tip-off so we could arrest most of them. That should explain why 
we had so many arrested cases then. As I am speaking to you, may be they have 
adopted a new technique we aren’t aware of making it possible for them to traffic 
the drugs but we will certainly catch them (Key Informant, NACOB, personal 
Interview) 
The views of this informant lend credence to the fact that given the fluid nature of the 
method drug traffickers adopt in concealing and trafficking drugs, it becomes difficult to 
make conclusive generalisation on the trend of drug trafficking in the country. Consistent 
with the views expressed by the key informant from NACOB, one key informant from the 
Drug Enforcement Unit of the GPS also indicate that, whenever there is increase in the 
number of arrested cases of drug trafficking at the Kotoka International Airport then it 
means we have identified a trend they are using in concealing and transiting those drugs. 
A decrease in reported cases does not suggest that they are not using our ports as transit 
points. He indicated that 
“We cannot be certain that these drug barons in South America, Asia and some 
parts of Middle East are not using our ports to transport drugs to Europe and 
North America. They are always paying people to outsmart us in a way but we are 
always a step ahead of them. When we notice a method they are adopting they 
quickly change making it difficult to track them sometimes but I think we are still 
doing our best with our team and other people who are on the ground and various 
ports. (Key informant, GPS, personal interview) 
The views of this informant suggests that the changes in the reported drug trafficking 
arrested cases within the seven year period (2009-2015) can be aligned with fluid nature of 
the modus operandi of concealing and trafficking drugs often adopted by drug dealers. 
However, one can also clearly point out that the increase in reported drug trafficking cases 
from 2009 could be attributed to the porous nature of our borders and ports, poor 
governance, loose security systems, and ineffective government institutions whereas the 
48 
 
decline can be associated with the strict measures adopted by the various drug 
enforcement agencies like NACOB, GPS, and CEPS. This often deters people from using 
the borders or ports of the country as transit point. Given the trend in the number of drug 
trafficking cases recorded, this supports studies by Bernstein (1999) and Aning (2010) 
which show that Ghana has become a defined route for the trafficking of illicit drugs from 
Latin America and Southeast Asia to consumers in North America and European 
countries. As Akyeampong (2005) notes in his study on Diaspora and Drug trafficking in 
Ghana, most West African countries including Ghana has served as a transit point for 
European and North American bound heroin and cocaine since the 1980’s.  
25.0 22.6
20.0
15.9
14.2 14.9
15.0 12.5
9.8 10.1
10.0
5.0
0.0
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
 
Figure 5.1: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases from 2009-2015 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
Given the fact that Africa is not a producer of illicit drugs such as heroin and cocaine, 
most couriers or drug traffickers used in the transit of drugs via the ports of most West 
African countries are Africans (Akyeampong, 2005). This was precisely because they 
were the least suspicious in terms of drug trafficking before they gained much notoriety as 
drug couriers. Nigerians gained much infamy as drug couriers in West Africa and later 
49 
 
extended their drug trafficking networking to Ghana in the 1980’s after the clampdown by 
the Nigerian government (Akyeampong, 2005). As a result, some Ghanaians joined the 
bandwagon as drug couriers. In addition, other nationals from Togo and Sierra Leone were 
also reported to be engaged in the drug trade as couriers. Some reports suggest that it is 
sometimes difficult to ascertain the nationality of drug couriers. For instance, a report by 
the Ghanaian voice suggest that, in 1997, when the Ghanaian government sought the need 
to ascertain the veracity of reports that more than a hundred Ghanaians were in Southern 
African jails for drug trafficking crimes, it became apparent that more than 80 percent 
were Nigerians who had acquired Ghanaian passports (as cited in Akyeampong, 2005).  
In view of this, further attempts were made to examine the distribution of reported drug 
trafficking cases in Ghana by the nationality of the drug traffickers. This is presented in 
Table 5.1. The result shows that, within the seven (7) year period, there have been 296 
reported cases of drug trafficking in the country. Of this number, 53.7 percent (159) of the 
drug traffickers were Ghanaians, 29.1 percent (86), Nigerians and 17.2 percent (51) were 
other nationals. (See Table 5.1). Put differently, majority of drug traffickers were 
Ghanaians and Nigerians, with a few comprising of other nationals. From 2009 to 2011, 
Ghanaians were reported as the major drug traffickers in the country relative to Nigerians 
and other Nationals. However, in 2012 and 2014, Nigerians were the major drug 
traffickers. (See Table 5.1).  
With respect to the number of reported drug trafficking cases in 2015, Ghanaians were 
reported as the major drug traffickers. It should also be noted that other nationals (41.1%) 
were the major drug traffickers in 2013 relative to Nigerians (27.6%) and Ghanaians 
(31%). In all, this suggests that even though Ghanaians were noted as the major drug 
traffickers over the seven years, Nigerians and other nationals were also reported as main 
drug traffickers in the country. This is consistent with the study by Akyeampong (2005) 
50 
 
were Nigerians were noted as the major drug traffickers in Africa. An interview with some 
security officers brought to the fore the fact that, most Ghanaians joined the drug 
trafficking trade because of its lucrative nature and due to the influence of other nationals. 
Most of the Nigerians are into the drug business but given the bad reputation they have 
gained as couriers, they often persuade and lure most Ghanaians to traffic these drugs for 
them. In some instances, the apprehended drug courier has no knowledge of what is 
involved. One of the informants indicated that 
“We arrested a Ghanaian at the Kotoka International Airport for carrying drugs 
on her. On interrogation, she revealed that she was contacted some weeks ago by 
some Nigerians and a Thai to take the drugs to someone in United States of 
America. She needed the money to pay some debt and they also assured her that 
the officers at the airport have been paid to enable her transport the drugs. She 
later confessed this was her first time travelling outside the country and had been 
promised $8,000 if she delivers the drugs safely. (Key informant, NACOB, 
personal interview) 
This suggests that even though some Ghanaians are mostly used as drug couriers, they are 
mostly not involved in the drug business but play active roles as couriers in the transit of 
the drugs. The drug dealers or drug financiers themselves play passive roles in the 
trafficking of these drugs but often rely on couriers. This is consistent with the findings of 
Akyeampong (2005) which shows that most drug financiers rarely partake in the drug 
trafficking business.  
 
 
 
  
51 
 
Table 5.1: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases in Ghana by Nationality of Drug 
Traffickers from 2009-2015 
Nationality Year Total 
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015  
Number Number Number Number Number Number Number Number 
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 
Ghanaians 24 26 45 14 9 12 29 159 
(64.9%) (61.9%) (67.2%) (31.8%) (31%) (40%) (61.7%) (53.7%) 
Nigerians 5 5 15 25 8 16 12 86 
(13.5%) (11.9%) (22.4%) (56.8%) (27.6%) (53.3%) (25.5%) (29.1%) 
Others 8 11 7 5 12 2 6 51 
(21.6%) (26.2%) (10.4%) (11.4%) (41.4%) (6.7%) (12.8%) (17.2%) 
Total 37 42 67 44 29 30 47 296 
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) 
Source: Feld data (2017)                        Figures in parentheses represent percentages 
 
Crusader (2007) argues that more women, including a growing number of college 
students, are venturing into drug peddling. Hitherto, studies have shown that drug 
trafficking was a male dominated venture. Nonetheless, current trends in reported 
incidence of drug trafficking suggests that it has become a major activity for young 
migrants who are women. In Nigeria for example, Punch (2008) found that females had 
gradually emerged as strong forces in the drug trafficking business in Nigeria. The study 
by Ekerette (2009) indicates that age and sex of drug traffickers play a major role in 
determining the success of a drug trafficking business. Women are often exploited in the 
drug trade to traffic hard drugs from one country to another (Osiki, 2010). They conceal 
hard drugs in their private parts, shoes and other accessories (Nigeria Tribune, as cited in 
Osiki, 2010)    This suggests that women are used as couriers of hard drugs for the 
international markets.  
52 
 
Against this background, the study sought to examine the distribution of reported drug 
trafficking cases in Ghana by the sex of the drug traffickers. This result is presented in 
Table 5.2. Out of the 229 reported cases of drug trafficking, 82.5 were males and 17.5 
were females. This shows that the majority of the drug traffickers were males. The highest 
number of female drug traffickers was recorded in 2010 (33.3%) and the lowest recorded 
in 2014 (3.3%). Unfortunately, the data on the gender distribution of drug traffickers for 
2011 was unavailable. There has been a decrease the number of females engaged in drug 
trafficking over the years. This contradicts the findings of Punch (2008) which show that 
females are becoming the stronger force, mostly serving as couriers in the drug trade. 
Some key informants were of the view that, though males tend to dominate as drug 
couriers, currently, most drug dealers have resorted using young females as drug couriers. 
They are the least suspicious and have other alternative modes of concealing the drugs. 
Whiles men are confined to either swallowing or anal insertion as a mode of concealing 
the drugs, current trends suggest that some resort to both anal and vaginal insertion to 
conceal and transport these drugs. One of the officer remarked: 
“It would surprise you to note that some drug dealers are using women now to 
traffic these drugs. Apart from paying some officers so they can transport them in 
bags and other items, they have so many places they can keep it. Moreover, women 
are the least suspicious when it comes to drug trafficking, unlike men. We arrested 
a South American woman who had inserted cocaine via the Vagina. Upon 
suspicion because of the discomfort noticed in the way the woman was walking, we 
brought her in for question. She started jittering and that was when we noticed 
something was wrong. A thorough search revealed where the drug was hidden. A 
case in point is the famous Nayele Ametepe case where she was arrested in the 
United Kingdom for carrying 12 kilos of cocaine.  (Key informants, NACOB, 
Personal Interview) 
 
This shows that even though the findings of this study contradicts the findings of Punch 
(2008), there is an increase in the use of females as drug couriers in the country.  
  
53 
 
Table 5. 2: Reported Drug Trafficking Cases in Ghana by the Sex of Drug 
Traffickers from 2009-2015 
Sex Year Total 
 
2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 
Number 
Number Number Number Number Number Number 
(%) 
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 
Male 31 28 38 22 29 41 189 
(83.8%) (66.7%) (86.4%) (75.9%) (96.7%) (87.2%) (82.5%) 
Female 6 14 6 7 1 6 40 
(16.2%) (33.3%) (13.6%) (24.1%) (3.3%) (12.8%) (17.5%) 
Total 37 42 44 29 30 47 229 
(100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) 
Source: Feld data (2017)       Figures in parentheses represent percentages 
 
5.3 Knowledge & Perceived Socio-economic Benefits of Drug Trafficking in Ghana  
Respondent’s awareness was examined given the fact that issues to be assessed would 
largely be based on their knowledge and awareness of drug trafficking in Ghana. 
Unsurprisingly, all the respondents sampled were aware of drug trafficking issues in 
Ghana. Respondents were further asked to indicate their source(s) of information on issues 
pertaining to drug trafficking in Ghana. The result of this is presented in Figure 5.2.  
Out of the 230 respondents sampled, 45 percent were of the view that they get drug 
trafficking information from the radio, 28 percent from in-service and 10 percent from 
television. In addition, 8 percent and 6.5 percent of respondents also revealed that the 
government and the internet were their sources of information on issues pertaining to drug 
trafficking in Ghana. Other information sources such social media platforms such as 
54 
 
Facebook, WhatsApp, twitter etc. accounted for 2.2 percent response from response in 
relation to their sources of information on drug trafficking. One would have expected 
majority of these security personnel to get information about drug trafficking cases from 
in-service training but the converse was reported in this study. These also show that the 
radio plays a major role as a medium for the dissemination of information on drug 
trafficking in Ghana. In addition, one plausible explanation for the distribution of 
respondents by their sources of information on drug trafficking could be because most of 
them had already heard of drug trafficking on the radio before working with the security 
agencies. Thus, this could account for reasons why only radio was the major information 
source relative to in-service training 
2.2
27.8
45.2 Radio
Television
Internet
8.3 Government
6.5 In-service training
10
Others
   
Figure 5.2: Distribution of Respondents by their Sources of information about Drug 
Trafficking Cases in Ghana. 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
There are variations in the way drug trafficking and its threats are mostly created. In some 
jurisdictions, they are mostly made prominent through various civil organisations and 
pressure groups while the government plays an active role in averting drug trafficking. In 
55 
 
other countries, the media and religious organisations are very pivotal in this exercise. In 
ascertaining how this also plays out within the Ghanaian context, the study sought the 
need to examine how drug trafficking and its threats are constructed in Ghana. The study 
gives credence to the fact it relied only on the subjective views of the security personnel. 
This is presented in Table 5.3  
Out of the 230 respondents sampled, 65.7 percent were of the view that drug trafficking 
and its threats are constructed in Ghana through media reportage. Also, public reaction and 
political pronouncements accounted for 22.6 percent and 8.7 percent respectively, as ways 
drug trafficking and its threats awareness are created in Ghana. The role of religious 
discourse was the least represented in terms of how drug trafficking awareness are created 
in Ghana (see Table 5.3). With respect to public reaction, majority of male respondents 
(25.4%) attributed this as an avenue for awareness creation as compared to females (19%), 
though the chi square test reported no significant relationship between the two variables. 
In all, media reportage was reported as the principal avenue for awareness creation on 
threats of engaging in drug trafficking in the country.  
Table 5. 3: Relationship between Gender and avenues for Awareness creation on the 
threats of engaging in Drug Trafficking in Ghana. 
Sex Responses 
Through Political Religious Public Social Total 
media pronouncements discourse reaction Media 
reportage Platforms 
Female 69 8 3 19 1 100 
69.0% 8.0% 3.0% 19.0% 1.0% 100.0% 
Male 82 12 3 33 0 130 
63.1% 9.2% 2.3% 25.4% 0.0% 100.0% 
Total 151 20 6 52 1 230 
65.7% 8.7% 2.6% 22.6% .4% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017)   χ2 statistic = 2.8, df = 4, p = 0.58 >0.05 
Socio-economic background could have significant relationship with the drug trafficking 
in Ghana. The type of people engaged in the act have specific characteristics in relation to 
56 
 
their affluence or literacy. Given the background of respondents and their experience in 
drug related issues, they were asked to indicate the type or category of people that comes 
to mind when they hear about drug trafficking. This was to examine the category of people 
often engaged in the act of trafficking drugs out or into the country. The result of this 
analysis is presented in Table 5.4. Majority of respondents (69.6%) sampled indicated that 
the rich are mostly the kind of people that are involved in drug trafficking trade while 18.7 
percent of respondents were of the view that the poor are the ones engaged in the drug 
trade. Comparing the literate and illiterate, majority of respondents revealed that the 
illiterate are mostly involved in drug trafficking (see Table 5.4). None of the female 
respondents perceived the literate to be involved in drug trafficking as compared to male 
respondents (2.3%). This suggests that the rich are mostly engaged in the drug trafficking 
business relative to the poor. Nonetheless there was no significant relationship between the 
gender of respondents and their perception about the category of people involved in drug 
trafficking in Ghana (p value>0.05). An interview with some security personnel brought to 
the fore some of the reasons why the drug trade is more often than not associated with the 
rich than the poor, albeit the poor are sometimes involved in the trafficking of drugs 
sometimes. One of the personnel indicated; 
“It’s mostly those who are rich that are involved in this trade. They want to keep 
living their expensive lavish lifestyle so they engage in this kind of trade to make 
more money. Most of the people drug traffickers arrested here or abroad are 
people who live very expensive lifestyles or are very rich people in the society” (34 
year old security personnel, Individual Interview) 
Consistent with the views shared by this respondent, some were also of the view that drug 
trafficking is mostly based on the cartel; a luxury the poor cannot afford. The rich mostly 
have contacts outside the country and have formed this networks defined by a unique 
interest; drugs. The poor are mostly involved when there is the need to exploit them in 
achieving their interest. Again, some security personnel also revealed that in situation 
57 
 
where the poor are involved in the act, it’s often due to some pressure to make ends meet, 
sort a pressing need or get rich quickly. One of the security personnel was the view that; 
“When the poor are arrested then you should know it’s the rich people who are 
just using them to traffic the drug. The poor cannot even afford the drugs they are 
trafficking. When they are often interrogated, it turns out they are being used in 
transporting the drugs” (45 year old security personnel, Interview)  
Table 5.4: Relationship between Gender of Respondents and their Perception of the 
Category of People engaged in Drug Trafficking in Ghana 
Sex Category of people Total 
The Rich The Poor Literate Illiterate Others  
Number Number Number Number Number Number 
(%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 
Female 70 20 0 4 6 100 
70.0% 20.0% 0.0% 4.0% 6.0% 100.0% 
Male 90 23 3 4 10 130 
69.2% 17.7% 2.3% 3.1% 7.7% 100.0% 
Total 160 43 3 8 16 230 
69.6% 18.7% 1.3% 3.5% 7.0% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017)   χ2 statistic = 2.85, df = 4, p = 0.58 >0.05 
 
5.3.1 Factors Accounting for Drug Trafficking in Ghana 
Some studies suggest that economic and social conditions are the main reasons why 
people engage in drug trafficking. Aning (2007) suggests that, considering the high 
poverty and unemployment rate in the country, most Ghanaians are often willing to serve 
as couriers because the drug business becomes an attractive alternative for them. Most 
studies indicate that poverty, ignorance, and high rate of unemployment are the major 
reasons why people engage in the trafficking of drugs. In view of this, the study sought the 
need to examine reasons why people engage in drug trafficking. Again, the study relied on 
the subjective views of the security personnel (NACOB & Police). Evidence of this result 
is presented in Table 5.5.  
 
58 
 
5.3.1.1 Poverty 
Central to factors that make people susceptible to drug trafficking is poverty. Whiles most 
individuals within the supply chain rely on it as their major source of livelihood (Thoumi, 
2005), some people often used as couriers are noted to engage in it due to economic 
hardship or the need for money to solve a pressing social or economic problem.  
Akyeampong (2005) notes that the Ghanaian economy went into recession during the 
1980’s and thus the advent of the drug trade made it more lucrative for people to join. 
Therefore most Ghanaians went into the drug trade for the economic benefits given its 
lucrative nature. Aning (2007) suggests that, considering the high poverty and 
unemployment rate in the country, most Ghanaians are often willing to serve as couriers 
because the drug business becomes an attractive alternative for them. In view of this, the 
study sought the need to examine reasons why people engage in drug trafficking. Again, 
the study relied on the subjective views of the security personnel (NACOB & Police). 
Evidence of this result is presented in Table 5.4. The result shows that out of the 230 
security personnel sampled, 47.4 percent indicated that poverty is the main reason why 
people engage in drug trafficking in Ghana. Some were of the view that poverty makes 
them vulnerable and easy to convince, especially in situations where the drug dealers have 
access to these vulnerable people and convince them to engage in the act. In some 
instances, some of these poor people try to find these drug dealers in an attempt to involve 
them in the transaction in order for them to make ends meet.  During the qualitative facet 
of the study, one officer interviewed revealed that; 
“I think there are so many reasons why people engage in drag trafficking but from 
what I have observed during my interrogation of suspects is that, most of them do 
mention economic hardship as the main reason why they engage in the act of 
trafficking drugs. For example, we arrested a Nigerian at the Kotoka international 
airport on Emirate airline carrying cocaine. During the interrogation, she made 
59 
 
mention that she needed money to pay for her mother’s medical bills so when the 
offer came from the drug baron she did not say no and also she was told payment 
was made to the officers at the airport for her to pass through. So you can see 
because this lady was in need of money, they could easily convince her to engage 
in the act” (Individual Interview, 2017) 
The views expressed by the security personnel lend support to the fact that poverty is often 
the major reason why people engage in drug trafficking. In situations where they are 
successful, the money is laundered back into the country by buying goods or cars to come 
and sell in the country. One key informant was also of the view that: 
“Some of these people are easily influenced by their friends, class mates, families, 
finance or spouse. They lure them into believing that they can also become rich 
like them if they serve as drug couriers. Sometimes you see some of these things in 
movies and you doubt it. Believe you me, these things are real. We have 
apprehended people who engaged in drug trafficking because an old school mate 
introduced them to it and promised them so many things. (Key Informant, personal 
interview) 
Ellis (2009) notes that, within the network of drug trade, the couriers represent the lowest 
tier in the transit of the drug and they are more often than not people who are in urgent 
need of money. Most of these couriers end up ingesting condoms filled with hard drugs, or 
bagging them in baggage. He points out that most of these people are young and in their 
vulnerable ages where they are made to fend for themselves with no parental support. This 
makes them very vulnerable having to make life choices on their own.  
 
5.3.1.2 Ignorance 
Apart from economic motivations, ignorance is one of the reasons why most people 
engage in drug trafficking. According to a study by Ellis (2009) on West Africa’s 
International Drug Trade using the case of Nigeria, he points out that most drug couriers 
60 
 
are often recruited by drug barons to transport parcels of drugs to another country for a 
fee. Most of the people involved are ignorant of the consequences. In some instances, they 
are even ignorant of what they are trafficking. The economic motivation largely blinds 
them making them ignorant of their actions. Some of them also have no idea that they are 
carrying drugs with them till they are apprehended by security officers. A case in point is 
the drug case of the late Daasebre Dwamena, a renowned high-life artiste who was 
arrested at the Heathrow airport in the United Kingdom for carrying 100 kilograms of 
cocaine worth 100 thousand pounds.  
In view of this, the study sought the need to examine if ignorance was a major reason why 
people engage in drug trafficking. Again, the study relied on the subjective views of the 
security personnel (NACOB & Police). Evidence of this result is presented in Table 5.4. 
out of the 230 security personnel sampled, 13.9 percent were of the view that ignorance on 
the part of drug traffickers was the principal reason why they engage in drug trafficking. 
Most of them are ignorant of the act and in a bid to satisfy their curiosity, engage in the 
trade. Some male respondents (1.5%) were of the view that some people perceive it as 
adventurous and take up that initiative of trafficking drugs (Table 5.4). Some key 
informants were of the view that, ignorance as a factor does not act in isolation but 
combines with other economic and social factors to influence drug trafficking by couriers 
in Ghana. One informant remarked: 
“We can’t always blame it solely on the ignorance of the couriers but multiple 
factors of which ignorance could play a major role. For instance, most of these 
incarcerated drug couriers when interrogated will tell you the money was the 
major thing but they didn’t know anything about it.  When they were recruited by 
the drug dealers to transport the drugs, all they were told was that their passport, 
visa’s accommodations and expenses have been catered for and all the security 
61 
 
personnel bribed to ease their way at the airport. (Key informant, NACOB, 
personal interview) 
Box 1: Influence of Adventure and Ignorance on drug trafficking - the case of Julia 
Julia is an eighteen year old Italian born Ghanaian girl. She lived with her parents (both 
Ghanaians) in Rome, Italy. She had a pal whom she met on Facebook and apparently 
happened to be Ghanaian young man as well.  According to Julia, this young man 
managed to convince her to come to Ghana which she obliged. Unfortunately, she didn’t 
tell her parents she was travelling to Ghana but rather made them believe she was visiting 
her friend in Venice (a city in Italy). She stole her passport from her parents and flew to 
Ghana. She was met on arrival at the Kotoka international airport facebook friend. When 
she was ready to return to Italy, this man convinced her to carry along with her some 
cocaine. When she asked whether she will not be apprehended at the airport, the reply 
was “I have paid all the security officers so no one will disturb you at the airport”. So this 
man succeeded in convincing her to put some of the drugs in brassiere because she had 
smaller breasts. Notwithstanding that, she inserted some of the drugs into her vagina. All 
these were realized when she was going through normal security processes at the airport. 
Her demeanour at the time got the security operatives suspicious and was subjected to a 
thorough search. It was then that we discovered that she had some drugs in her bra and 
vagina as well. When questioned why she was carrying those drugs, the teenager said 
‘the person who gave the drugs told me that when I get back to Italy, the person who was 
going to meet me to collect the drugs will give me a lot of money which will solve most 
of my problems’. She didn’t mention which problems these were but that was why she 
agreed to carry the drugs. Julia was arrested and detained. She was later prosecuted and 
remanded into prison custody. After a couple of weeks, we received a call from the 
Nsawam prisons to come for her for a medical attention because she had been vomiting 
and the warders had also realized some behavioural changes in her. We acted on that 
quickly and conveyed her to the police hospital for the necessary medical attention. A 
series of tests were run and it was later detected she was pregnant. From all indications it 
was this same young man who had impregnated her. Consequently, to the cocaine 
charges young Julia was sentenced to ten years imprisonment where she delivered. Her 
parents were informed and they came for her baby. 
  
The case Julia suggests that she was adventurous and ignorant, thus making her vulnerable 
for the drug dealer to persuade and use her in the drug trade. Clearly, one can see that the 
aim of the man was to use her in trafficking the drugs. In some instances, the people 
involved are very ignorant or have no idea of the content of their luggage. For instance, an 
informant from NACOB was also of the view that: 
62 
 
“In some instances, the couriers themselves are not aware that they are been used 
in the trafficking of drugs. Somethings they are sent to transact business on behalf 
of the drug baron (who is perceived by the courier as a businessman). They pack 
your luggage, pay your travel expenses and everything. They become aware that 
they are been used as couriers when they are arrested. (Key informant, GPS, 
personal interview) 
Box 2: Ignorance as a contributory factor to drug trafficking - the case of Adams 
Mr. Adams was successful Ghanaian businessman who had travelled across the globe 
doing business but most of his business activities are between Brazil and Ghana. 
During one of such trips from Brazil to Ghana, he met a fellow Ghanaian at Sao Paulo 
airport. They exchanged pleasantries and the other Ghanaian introduced himself as 
Inusah. While interacting, Inusah pleaded with Mr. Adams to do him a favor by 
delivering some two boxes of lollipop candies to his (Inusah) brother in Ghana. Inusah 
said his brother would be readily available at the Kotoka international airport for 
collection immediately. Mr. Adams initially declined to carry out this favor stating that 
he doesn’t do that because of these trending drug issues. Inusah was quick to react and 
said “oh no! I don’t do drugs”. Inusah then challenged Mr. Adams to open one of the 
packs to ascertain whether or not it contained any substance like drugs which the latter 
did. Inusah further told Mr. Adams that he is a staunch Muslim who is bound by his 
beliefs and teachings not to engage in such practices as drug trafficking. At this point, 
Mr. Adams seemed convinced and obliged to carry out the supposed favor. On his 
arrival at the Kotoka international airport, during the security check procedures, Mr. 
Adams was invited by Narcotic Control Board (NACOB) officials to answer question 
on why he was carrying such quantity of the lollipops. He answered by saying he is to 
deliver them to someone who would be waiting for him at the airport for him on his 
arrival. This immediately triggered the NACOB officials to suspect the products since 
they are very much aware that Brazil is a source country. Based on their suspicion, the 
officials decided as per the norm open several packs of the supposed lollipops only to 
discover that most of the packs contained cocaine instead of lollipops. Mr. Adams was 
then arrested, prosecuted and sentenced to ten years imprisonment. He however 
claimed innocence and argued that he wasn’t aware the boxes contained cocaine. 
 
The case of Adams and the views of the informant from NACOB are consistent with the 
findings of Champion (2004) where the services of innocent villagers, especially market 
men and women who were willing to enter into trading partnership drug barons were quite 
63 
 
ignorant of the fact that, they are being used as couriers in the trafficking of drugs in 
Nigeria.  
 
5.3.1.3 High Rate of Unemployment 
According to some studies, the rate of unemployment and corruption in most African 
countries have made drug trafficking a lucrative venture for most of the youth. The desire 
to acquire wealth quickly coupled with poverty compels most of the youth to engage in 
drug trafficking (Rawlings, 2014). In view of this, respondents were asked if 
unemployment in the country is one of the reasons why people engage in drug trafficking 
(See Table 5.4). The results show that only 2.2 percent of the respondents attributed high 
rate of unemployment as a reason why people engage in drug trafficking in the country. In 
relation to the gender of respondents, only 3.8 percent of males attributed unemployment 
as a cause of drug trafficking in the country relative to none from the female sample 
group. Even though this could be a motivating factor, some security personnel interviewed 
bemoaned the “get rich quick” mentality of the youth which makes it easy for the drug 
dealers to convince and recruit them as drug couriers. One of the interviewees remarked: 
“………….the problem of unemployment is not unique to Ghana alone. It is a 
global phenomenon. So if a youth sits somewhere and tell me he or she is engaging 
in drug business because they have no job to do, then this country has a problem. 
They just want to buy big cars and build big houses early in life without 
necessarily working hard for it. They are just lazy and want to get rich quick 
through illegal means. Just check the drug couriers arrested over the years and 
look at their ages. (Key Informant interview, GPS) 
The views expressed by this informant suggest that even though unemployment may 
induce or influence someone to engage in the act of drug trafficking, the need to get rich 
or acquire wealth may be the principal reason why people engage in drug trafficking.  
64 
 
Box 3: The influence of unemployment on drug trafficking – the case of Kwasi Boadu 
Kwasi Boadu, a graduate from one of the universities in Ghana was arrested at 
Kotoka for possessing 55 kilos of cocaine. He had swallowed as pellets and also had 
some concealed in his belongings. When the NACOB officials apprehended him 
upon the jittery nature he was in, he confessed to the crime and was immediately 
rushed to the hospital for the drugs to be taken out. When he was being interrogated 
he broke down in tears and narrated his ordeal. He had been unemployed for some 
years after completing the university. Most of his friends were making it in life 
while he struggled to make daily meal. On meeting one of his friends at a funeral, he 
managed to convince him to join the drug courier trade since it will make him rich 
in no time. He was very hesitant from the onset but a pressing family issue gave him 
no option than to give in. He was then promised $12,000 dollars upon delivery of 
the products to a contact in the United States. He was promised safe passage at the 
airport but got apprehensive when one of the security officials kept looking at him. 
To him, he wouldn’t have engaged in this act if he had a job and could afford to take 
care of himself and his family.  
  
Similar to the case of Boadu, lack of job opportunities coupled with financial difficulties 
leave majority of people, especially the youth vulnerable. As a result, drug leaders are able 
to deceive them into serving as drug couriers. Rawlings (2014) for instance, makes a valid 
argument when attributing unemployment in the formal sector as a driving force for illicit 
drug trafficking in Nigeria. In his submission, he indicated that the need to survive in an 
economy that presents increasing levels of poverty, high unemployment rate, and limited 
opportunities for economic activities more often than not drive people to engage in the 
illicit drug trade. This is consistent with the case of Boadu where lack of employment and 
the quest for survival compelled him to engage in drug trafficking 
  
65 
 
Table 5.5: Relationship between Gender of Respondents & Reasons why People 
Engage in Drug Trafficking 
Sex Perceived Reasons Why People Engage in Drug Trafficking Total 
Economic Unemployment Get rich quick Ignorance 
hardship and 
social 
frustrations 
Female 55 0 30 15 100 
55.00% 0.00% 30.00% 15.00% 100.00% 
Male 54 5 54 17 130 
41.50% 3.80% 41.50% 13.10% 100.00% 
Total 109 2 84 32 230 
47.40% 2.20% 36.50% 13.90% 100.00% 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
There is evidence to suggest that the operation of drug trafficking groups are often 
characterized by loose, informal, adaptable networks based on social relations or in some 
cases, ethnic and cultural ties (Gruppo, 2004; Natarajan, 2006; Chin & Zhang, 2008; 
Decker & Chapman, 2008). The study examined the perception of respondents in relation 
to the possibility of drug cartels infiltrating Ghana. This was examined in relation to 
respondents’ sex and age. The results of the analysis are presented in Table 5.6. Out of the 
230 respondents sampled, 99.6 percent perceive the possibility of drug cartels coming into 
the country, given the rate of drug trafficking and drug trade in the country. This was 
highly characteristic of majority of both male (99.2%) and female (100%). Again, the 
result shows that less than one percent of respondents indicated that the infiltration of drug 
cartels in the country is not possible. Moreover, only 1.6 percent of respondents between 
the ages of 20-29 years indicated that drug cartel. However, some officials were of the 
converse view that drug cartels don’t necessarily need to infiltrate the country but can be 
formed in the country. One of the officers interviewed revealed that;  
“The cartel is an intricate association which involves some high degree of wealth, 
contacts and networks. Given the rate at which Ghana is becoming a point of 
transit and user of hard drugs, some drug barons in the country can definitely 
66 
 
build a cartel and not necessarily depend on the other Nationals” (Individual 
Interview, 2017).  
Table 5.6: Summary of Relationship between Demographic Variables and Perceived 
Possible Infiltration of Drug Cartels into Ghana 
Demographic  Possible Infiltration of Drug Cartels into Ghana Total 
Variables  Yes No 
Sex     
Female Number 100 0 100 
% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% 
Male Number 129 1 130 
% 99.2% .8% 100.0% 
Total Number 229 1 230 
% 99.6% .4% 100.0% 
Age      
20-29  years Number 62 1 63 
% 98.4% 1.6% 100.0% 
30-39 years Number 122 0 122 
% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% 
40-49 years Number 34 0 34 
% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% 
50 + years Number 11 0 11 
% 100.0% 0.0% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
Furthermore, the reasons why these security personnel perceive that there could be 
infiltration of drug cartels into the country were examined. The results of this analysis are 
presented in Table 5.7. Out of the 229 respondents that responded in the affirmative, 72 
percent bemoaned the porous nature of our borders as the main reason why drug cartels 
could infiltrate the country. Also, 11 percent gave credence to the fact the inadequate and 
ineffective policies geared towards addressing drug trafficking threats account for the 
possible infiltration of drug cartels whereas 2.2 percent blamed it on the weak Ghanaian 
foreign policy. Additionally, 12.6 percent of the respondents attributed it to lack of 
knowledge on the part of the general public on how to identify and deal with drug 
trafficking threats. Certainly, weak border controls, inefficient policy directives to address 
drug trafficking threats and ignorance on the part of the citizenry are the major reasons 
why respondents dread the possible infiltration of drug cartels into the country. When one 
67 
 
of the NACOB officers was asked if he thinks drug cartels can infiltrate into the country, 
he indicated that;  
“I will say yes. This is because of the porous nature of our borders and lack of 
attention from the government on the fight against illicit drug trafficking in Ghana 
most of the help in combating drug trafficking in the country come from foreign 
countries like the UK, US and Italy and I think these countries main aim is to 
ensure drugs do not go to their countries and the do not care what is coming in, so 
it makes it makes it easier for drug cartels to infiltrate in to the country. It should 
also be noted that as drug barons in Ghana become powerful they can develop to 
become Cartels not necessary foreigners alone” (Individual Interview, 2017) 
Table 5.7: Reasons for Possible Infiltration of Drug Cartels into Ghana 
Reasons Frequency Percent 
Porous nature of our borders 165 72.1 
Inadequate and ineffective policies to address drug 25 10.9 
trafficking threats 
Ghana's foreign policy 5 2.2 
Lack of knowledge on the part of the general public on how 29 12.6 
to identify and deal with drug trafficking threat 
Others 5 2.2 
Total 230 100.0 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
  
5.4 Drug Trafficking & International Migration Nexus 
Considering the fact that drug trafficking has become very pervasive in most African 
countries, the study sought the need to examine the link between drug trafficking and 
international migration. Even though much effort is geared towards the fight against drug 
trafficking in Ghana, it is still gaining much ground in the country. The role of 
international migration in this menace cannot be underemphasized. The porous nature of 
our borders, coupled with corruption and weak institutions makes is feasible for drugs 
intended for markets in Spain, United States, United Kingdom and Portugal to be 
trafficked (Akyeampong, 2005; Sosuh, 2011; Aning & Pokoo, 2014). Respondents were 
asked if given the recent rise in drug trafficking in West Africa, Ghana is at risk of 
68 
 
becoming a drug transit and user country. The result is presented in Table 5.8. Out of the 
230 respondents sampled, 50 percent of respondents strongly agreed and disagreed with 
this viewpoint respectively. Majority of females (52%) strongly disagreed with this 
statement than males (48.5%). This suggests that even though there were no differences in 
responses male respondents strongly agreed that Ghana is becoming a drug transit and user 
country, given the increase in drug trafficking in West Africa. It became clear during the 
interview that it has become very difficult to transit drugs into the developed countries, 
given the strict border controls. However, the porous nature of our borders makes it easy 
for people to bring drugs into the country, which are mostly consumed by the people. One 
of the officers interviewed was of the view that;  
“Ghana has being a transit country for narcotic drugs for a while now. This is 
because it’s profitable sending them to the developed countries. And about Ghana 
becoming a user country, I think is also happing now in the country. From the 
intelligence we gathered, it is now very difficult to traffic drugs from Ghana to the 
developed countries due to the collaboration of local law enforcement agencies 
and foreign law enforcement agencies like the Special Investigation Unit (SIU) 
from the US and West Bridge from UK. Even though we benefit from the 
collaborative efforts of these I think it’s usually their own interest they are after, 
which is to prevent transit drags from reaching their countries. So if most of these 
drugs that come in to the country due to the porous nature of our Borders remains 
then the people end up being the consumers of the drugs” (Individual Interview, 
2017) 
Another officer also indicated that;  
“Inbound drugs such as heroin are mostly produced in Pakistan and Afghanistan 
and shipped to East African countries like Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Mozambique and 
Madagascar. These drugs are then trafficked to Ghana.  Cocaine are produced in 
Colombia and Brazil and then sent to Brazil and Mexico. They are then shipped 
from Ghana to European countries such as United Kingdom (UK), Netherlands, 
and Portugal etc.” (Individual Interview, 2017) 
69 
 
In addition, respondents were asked to indicate if they agree or disagree with the view that 
there is link between drug trafficking and international migration (see Table 5.8). Out of 
the 230 respondents sampled, majority, representing 74.3 percent strongly agreed to the 
view that there is a link between drug trafficking and international migration whereas 25.7 
percent strongly disagreed with it. More females (77%) strongly agreed than males 
(72.3%), albeit majority of both males and females strongly agreed to the link between 
international migration and drug trafficking.  
Moreover, the study further ascertained from respondents if Ghanaians and other 
Nationals are likely to team up and engage in drug trafficking. The result is presented in 
Table 5.8. The result shows that 61.3 percent of respondents strongly disagreed with the 
view that Ghanaians and other Nationals collaborate to engage in drug trafficking, whereas 
38.7 percent strongly agreed. In terms of variations across gender of respondents, though 
majority of both males and females strongly disagreed, more males (62.3%) strongly 
disagreed than females (60%). During the in-depth interview with some of the officers, 
they indicated that the drug trade involves other nationals to team up or collaborate with 
other nationals, especially point of transit and destination. One officer indicated;  
“There is always a case that drug barons in Ghana will have to team up with other 
Nationals to engage in drag trafficking. This is mostly because drug trafficking is a 
Trans-National crime and for one to operate from one country to the other is very 
important, thus one ought to have nationals from other countries to help in their 
operations” (Individual Interview, 2017) 
On the other hand, respondents were asked to indicate if they agree or disagree with the 
view that, foreign nationals from Africa and elsewhere are more likely to engage in drug 
trafficking in Ghana. This was done towards the ascertainment of the perceived role of 
foreign nationals from other African countries in the drug trade in Ghana. The results in 
Table 5.8 show that majority of respondents (63.9%) strongly disagreed with the 
70 
 
perception that other nationals from African are more likely to engage in drug trafficking 
relative to those that strongly agreed (36.1%).  
Table 5.8: Summary of Relationship between Sex of respondents and their Perceived 
Link between Drug Trafficking and International Migration 
 Ghana has become a drug transit and user country Total 
Sex Strongly disagree Strongly agree 
Female 52 48 100 
52.0% 48.0% 100.0% 
Male 63 67 130 
48.5% 51.5% 100.0% 
Total 115 115 230 
50.0% 50.0% 100.0% 
Sex Drug trafficking & international migration Linkage Total 
Strongly disagree Strongly agree 
Female 23 77 100 
23.0% 77.0% 100.0% 
Male 36 94 130 
27.7% 72.3% 100.0% 
Total 59 171 230 
25.7% 74.3% 100.0% 
Sex Ghanaians and other Nationals  are likely to team up Total 
to engage in drug trafficking 
Strongly disagree Strongly agree 
Female 60 40 100 
60.0% 40.0% 100.0% 
Male 81 49 130 
62.3% 37.7% 100.0% 
Total 141 89 230 
61.3% 38.7% 100.0% 
Sex Foreign nationals from Africa and Elsewhere are Total 
more likely to engage in drug trafficking in the 
country 
Strongly disagree Strongly agree 
Female 63 37 100 
63.0% 37.0% 100.0% 
Male 84 46 130 
64.6% 35.4% 100.0% 
Total 147 83 230 
63.9% 36.1% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
 
71 
 
5.5 Chapter Summary 
This chapter examined the trends in drug trafficking in Ghana from 2009 to 2015. Again 
this was also examined in relation to nationality and gender of drug traffickers. The results 
of the analysis revealed that within the seven year period (2009-2015), 2011 recorded the 
highest recorded drug trafficking cases in Ghana with 2013, recording lowest.  The porous 
nature of our borders accounts for the increase in drug trafficking in Ghana. Ghanaians 
were the major drug traffickers relative to Nigerians and other nationals. Despite the 
increase in female drug traffickers in the world, majority of the reported drug traffickers 
were males compared to females. 
All the respondents were generally aware of drug trafficking and mostly gets information 
of drug trafficking from the radio, in-service training, television, internet and other social 
media platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook etc. With respect to how drug trafficking and 
its threats are constructed in Ghana, the results show that it is mostly via media reportage, 
public reaction and political pronouncements. With regards to type of people who are 
mostly into drug trafficking, majority of respondents indicated that the rich and literate are 
mostly the ones who are into drug trafficking, relative to the poor and illiterate. In view of 
this, respondents cited economic hardship and social frustrations, the need to get rich 
quickly and ignorance as the chief reasons why people engage in drug trafficking. 
Majority of respondents also indicated that the porous nature of our borders and 
ineffective policies to address drug trafficking are some of the reasons why drug cartels 
could infiltrate the country. Although efforts are being made by the various law 
enforcement agencies to combat drug trafficking, respondents were of the view that Ghana 
has become a drug transit and user country. In addition, majority of respondents perceive 
that Ghanaians and other nationals are likely to collaborate to engage in drug trafficking in 
Ghana. 
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CHAPTER SIX 
DRUG TRAFFICKING POLICY INTERVENTIONS AND 
CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE CONROL OF DRUG 
TRAFFICKING IN GHANA 
6.1 Introduction 
The chapter presents the results of the analysis on policy interventions to combat drug 
trafficking in Ghana. It also discusses the various challenges confronting the law 
enforcement agencies in the control or fight against drug trafficking in the country. 
Specific references are made to the direct/indirect Government/State interference in the 
fight against drug trafficking, the various strategies or measures adopted to combat this 
menace, the challenges confronting the various agencies involved and measures adopted to 
curb this problem.  
 
6.2 Drug Policy Interventions in Ghana 
In recent times, Ghana has given much priority to the need to curtail drug trafficking. It 
would suffice to point out that, through its endogenous initiatives and other concerted 
efforts with the international community, the government has devised various effective 
measures to combat drug trafficking in the country. As a result, Ghana has teamed up with 
the international community in sanctioning relevant conventions and treaties which 
provide the impetus and capacity to combat drug trafficking in the country. Ghana is a 
signatory to the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on 
Psychotropic Substances, the 1972 Protocol Amending the 1961 Single Convention, the 
1988 Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs And Psychotropic Substances 
(NACOB Annual Report, 2008). The United Kingdom (UK) and Ghana launched the 
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“Operation Westbridge” in 2006 to help Ghana deal with the drug menace in the country. 
The operation yielded significant results. For example, it led to £214 million worth of 
drugs impounded at the Kotoka International Airport (Daily Graphic, 5th April, 2011).  
In Ghana, the Customs, Excise Preventive Services (CEPS), Narcotics Control Board 
(NACOB), Ghana Police Service (GPS) and the Judiciary are the main actors in the fight 
against illegal drugs in the country. The CEPS, NACOB and GPS maintain law and order 
by apprehending offenders whereas the Judiciary interprets the law. These institutions 
work closely in the fight against drug trafficking in the country. The GPS are tasked to 
arrest people engaged in drug trafficking and process them for court. Given the urgent 
need to clampdown on the drug menace, the GPS via its Criminal Investigations 
Department (CID) has its own Narcotics Unit mandated to apprehend people engaged in 
drug business in the country.  
The Judiciary then interprets the law and hands out sentences to them if they are found 
guilty of the offense. Officials from CEPS are positioned at the borders, harbours and 
ports of the country to ensure that genuine and standard goods come into the country. As a 
result, they are mandated to ensure that illicit or illegal drugs are neither transported in nor 
out of the country. Drug traffickers are often arrested by this institution. The Narcotics 
Control Board (NACOB), established under the Narcotics Drugs Act 1990/PNDC Law 
236 on the other hand, is the central organizing body responsible for drug related problems 
in the country. It’s one of the autonomous drug enforcement agencies responsible for 
collating and collecting information on drugs for use by the government; receives and 
refers for investigations cases and complaints of allegations, or suspension of any 
prohibited drug activity, partners with international bodies on narcotic issues, educate the 
public on the dangers of drug use or involvement. They are mostly stationed at Ghana’s 
International Airport, various ports and harbours, as well as other entry points. Together 
74 
 
with other agencies like the GPS, CEPS and the judiciary, some significant results have 
been attained in the fight against illicit drug business in the country. 
 
6.3 The Role of the State/Government in Controlling Drug Trafficking 
One of the major actors in the fight against drug trafficking is the State/Government. 
Certainly, with an increase in the rate of drug trafficking in most West African countries, 
the onus lies on the State or Government to put in appropriate measures to combat this 
menace. As a result, various law enforcement agencies have been equipped and stationed 
at various borders and ports, all geared towards curbing the movement of drugs in or out 
of the country. Institutions such as the Narcotics Control Board (NACOB), the Ghana 
Police Service (GPS), the Customs Excise and Preventive Service (CEPS) and the 
Judiciary are all mandated to rid the country of drug trafficking menace. Be that as it may, 
there are some reported incidences of some state officials or government officials who are 
actively engaged in the drug trade, thus often play passive roles in the transit of drugs. As 
a result of these circumstances, there is high tendency for these officials to intervene or 
interfere in the activities of these security officials 1(i.e. CEPS, NACOB, and Police, etc.) 
in their fight against drug trafficking. Moreover, these officials often act at the behest of 
these State officials and are perhaps obligated to act contrary to the mandate of their duty 
against this backdrop the study sought the need to ascertain from respondents if the State 
or Government officials interfere negatively in combating drug trafficking in Ghana. This 
was examined in relation to the gender of respondents. The results of this analysis is 
presented in Table 6.1 
The result of the analysis shows that 60 percent of the respondents were of the view that 
the State or Government Officials do not interfere negatively in their fight against drug 
trafficking in Ghana whereas 40 percent of respondents reported the negative interference 
75 
 
of Government officials in curbing the movement of drugs from or into the country. Even 
though the majority of respondents from both sexes indicated that there are no negative 
state or government interference (see Table 5.1), a higher percentage of the males (41.5%) 
than the females (378%) were of the view that Government officials interfere negatively in 
the fight against drug trafficking. There is no significant relationship between sex of 
respondent and their perception in this regard (χ2 statistic = .49, df = 1, p = 0.49 >0.05).  
Table 6.1: Summary of Relationship between Sex of Respondents and Perceived 
State/ Government Interference in Combating Drug Trafficking In 
Ghana 
Sex State/Government  Officials Interfere Negatively in Total 
Combating Drug Trafficking in Ghana 
Interfere Do not Interfere 
Female 37 63 100 
37.0% 63.0% 100.0% 
Male 54 76 130 
41.5% 58.5% 100.0% 
Total 91 139 230 
39.6% 60.4% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017)  χ2 statistic = .49, df = 1, p = 0.49 >0.05 
Further attempts were made to examine the role of some state officials in interfering in the 
fight against drug trafficking. Respondents were asked if there has ever been a situation 
where a State official tried to interfere in a particular drug trafficking case they were 
involved in. This was to specifically identify how state officials interfere in drug 
trafficking cases in the country. The result of this is presented in Figure 6.1. Out of the 230 
respondents sampled, majority, representing 74.8 percent revealed that, there has never 
been a situation where a state or government official tried to interfere with drug trafficking 
cases they were involved. Nonetheless, 25.2 percent of respondents were of the view that 
there have been circumstances where State or Government officials had interfered in drug 
trafficking cases. 
 
76 
 
25.2%
74.8%
Interfered Did not interfere
  
Figure 6.1 Distribution of Respondents by Perceived Government interference  
 Source: Feld data (2017) 
Respondents were asked if there are strategies or measures put in place by the government 
to combat drug trafficking in Ghana. The result of this analysis is presented in Table 6.2. 
Out of the 230 respondents sampled, 82.2% responded in the affirmative whereas 17.8 
percent indicated that there are no strategies or measures to combat drug trafficking in 
Ghana. The results also show that more females (84%) were aware of these strategies than 
males (80.8%).  
Table 6.2: Relationship between Sex & Strategies to Combat Drug Trafficking in 
Ghana 
Sex Are there Strategies to combat Drug Trafficking in Total 
Ghana 
Yes No 
Female 84 16 100 
84.0% 16.0% 100.0% 
Male 105 25 130 
80.8% 19.2% 100.0% 
Total 189 41 230 
82.2% 17.8% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
77 
 
An attempt was made to ascertain the effectiveness of these strategies in controlling drug 
trafficking in Ghana (See Table 6.3). Majority of respondents (68.7%) revealed that the 
strategies adopted to control drug trafficking in Ghana are ineffective.  
Table 6.3: Relationship between Sex & the Efficiency of Strategies to Combat Drug 
Trafficking in Ghana 
Sex Efficiency of the Drug Trafficking Total 
Control Strategies 
Effective Ineffective 
Female 35 65 100 
35.0% 65.0% 100.0% 
Male 37 93 130 
28.5% 71.5% 100.0% 
Total 72 158 230 
31.3% 68.7% 100.0% 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
6.4 Challenges Associated with Drug Trafficking Control in Ghana 
Drug trafficking across the globe is very intricate and involves a lot of networks and 
resources to achieve it. The practice often involves various formal and informal networks 
with some powerful people. Rawlings (2014) is of the view that a successful illicit drug 
transaction is largely contingent on the will of political leaders, the moral standards of the 
society and the skills and ingenuity of the individual in executing the crime. For instance, 
Block (1994) in a study of organized crime in New York, argues that organized crime is 
represented by a series of reciprocal relationships between professional criminals, 
legitimate businesses and politicians. These individuals or groups may engage in the 
process of social networking for the provision of illicit goods and services or gain access 
to other lucrative criminal opportunities (McIllwain, 1999; Kleemans & de Poot, 2008). 
As a result, combating drug trafficking in most countries have been an arduous task, 
especially for the various law enforcement agencies mandated to prevent drug trafficking. 
The corrupt practices of some state or government officials, security personnel and the 
78 
 
drug traffickers make it very tedious to curb the drug trade in most countries. Anning and 
Amedzrator (2013) indicated that an efficient drug trafficking network is made possible by 
several people including the traditional and youth leaders of the communities who assist in 
the transfer and distribution, the businessmen, members of the security forces and 
politicians. In some jurisdiction, lack of motivation, mistrust in the judicial system and 
corruption serve as the bane to effective drug trafficking control. Against this background, 
the study examined the factors that are likely to influence security officials to connive with 
drug traffickers in the drug trade. As a result, respondents were asked to indicate the 
factors that are likely to influence security officials to cooperate with drug traffickers in 
Ghana. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 6.4.  
The results of the analysis show that, out of the 230 respondents sampled, 69.6 percent of 
respondents indicated that insufficient financial motivation are the chief reasons why 
security personnel team up with drug traffickers. Also, 20.9 percent attributed their 
collaboration with drug traffickers to the desire of some security personnel to get rich 
quickly. Some respondents (3.9%) bemoaned lack of trust in the judicial system to 
prosecute offenders, given the influence these drug traffickers often have and their 
association with some government or state officials. Unsurprisingly, financial motivation 
is the principal or main reason why security personnel often collaborate with drug 
traffickers in Ghana. In the qualitative facet of the study some key informants were of the 
view that the people often involved in the drug business are rich, powerful with various 
forms of formal and informal social networks established in the country to enable them 
operate and avoid detection by drug enforcement agencies. They keep bribing their way 
through the system. Given the income some of the personnel earn annually or monthly, 
they are often swayed into accepting them, especially the corrupt ones, who put money 
ahead of country. One of the security personnel reported; 
79 
 
“I think money is the main reason why some of the law enforcement agencies work 
together or allow these people (drug traffickers) to send drugs outside or bring 
them into the country. They give them all sort of money, cars and even promise 
them houses all in an attempt to get them to cooperate” (Key informant interview, 
14/05/17). 
The views of this respondent is in line with the criminal case in 2011, which involved 
NACOB officers and Drug Traffickers. Even though NACOB has gained the public trust 
as one of reliable institution to combat drug trafficking, the arrest of some NACOB 
officers in August, 2011 for allegedly collaborating with drug traffickers dented the image 
of the institution. Aning (2010) is of the view that in some cases, the security officials 
provide some form of security for the traffickers. The case of the five Ghanaian police 
officers who were arrested in September 2012 for the role they played in the trafficking of 
1.5 tons of cannabis which was valued at £4.3 million to the United Kingdom is one major 
example that depicts the role of security agencies in the trafficking of drugs in Ghana.  
Some of the respondents were of the view that, aside the financial motivation which more 
often than not persuade officers to work with these drug traffickers, there are instances that 
these people are able to influence top State or Government officials to intervene for them. 
They are very powerful, both financially and in terms of their social capital. One Officer 
interviewed indicated that 
“The people involved in this kind of business will surprise you. Sometimes you 
impound a drug and you want to process the person for court. Someone who works 
within the government will issue a command and you have no option than to 
discontinue with the case and set the person free. So why won’t you rather 
cooperate with the offender if he has something to offer?” (Individual Interview, 
2017) 
While another respondents also indicated that; 
80 
 
“We are always talking as if we don’t how some ‘big men’ influence everything in 
this country. Some people have so much connections that no matter how you deal 
with the case, you will get someone telling you to release the offender because it’s 
a relative, a friend or schoolmate. If the superiors speak, who am I to disobey?” 
(Individual Interview, 2017) 
The impression one gets from the above excerpts is that these factors play significant role 
in contributing to some of the reasons why security personnel often team up with drug 
traffickers. Given the resources and networks of the people involved in the drug business, 
they are able to influence the agencies and institutions mandated to control or curb their 
activities. To a large extent, most of the security personnel accept bribes from the drug 
traffickers because of inadequate financial motivation. In addition, as Ellis (2009) puts it, 
this people are influenced by people and networks that are more powerful than their 
candour.   
In consonance with Durkheim’s assertion on system of maintaining cohesion in a society 
and organising societies, one can clearly argue that ineffectiveness of institutions 
mandated to fight drug trafficking disrupt the system. Thus the continuous operation of 
traffickers could be blamed on the weaknesses of our institutions. On the other hand, the 
system is also supposed to provide these institutions with incentives and the necessary 
resources to enable them work effectively. Therefore, institutions cannot be solely blamed 
for the drug menace. On the other hand, Weber believes that enforcement of the powers of 
those who have been given the mandate should be enough to curb illicit operations. 
However, the drug trade has invaded these enforcement institutions and drug barons 
sometimes have control over people in the helm of affairs thus they are unable to enforce 
law and order. 
  
81 
 
Table 6.4: Reasons Why Security Personnel Cooperate with Drug Traffickers 
Reasons Frequency Percent (%) 
Insufficient financial motivation 160 69.6 
Desire to get rich quick 48 20.9 
Lack of trust in the judicial system 9 3.9 
State or government officials' interference 10 4.3 
Others 3 1.3 
Total 230 100.0 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
Effective control of drug trafficking relies heavily on the security personnel involved. 
Thus, if these agencies are fraught with some challenges, it becomes very difficult to 
ensure effective control of drug trafficking in the country. Bribery and corruption issues 
often derail the mandate of these institutions. The people involved in the drug trade have 
the resources to bribe their way through a corrupt system. Against this backdrop, the study 
further examined the problems that confront law enforcement agencies in the discharge of 
their duties Out of the 230 respondents, 43.9 percent were of the view that lack of 
financial motivation is the major problem that confronts them in the discharge of their 
duties, followed by insufficient logistics and technology (37%) (See Table 6.5). Lack of 
research and training of personnel on how to combat drug trafficking was also reported as 
one of the problems that affect effective control of drug trafficking in Ghana. The 
evidence from the table suggests that inadequate financial motivation and lack of logistics 
are the major problems security agencies face in controlling drug trafficking in Ghana. 
This finding is in line with the study by (Bonsu, 2011) where most of the drug 
enforcement agencies bemoaned inadequate financial motivation and logistics as major 
problems crippling the activities and objectives of the institution.  
In the face of inadequate financial motivations coupled with lack of logistics, bribery and 
corruption often take center stage in crippling the quest to clampdown on drug trafficking 
and illicit drug business in the country. These securities bemoaned financial motivation as 
82 
 
a bane to effectively dealing with the drug menace in the country. According to some 
informants, the drug dealers are very rich people who belong to a network of very rich 
men who can easily pay their way through the system. Mostly, some officers are 
financially motivated by these officers in order to facilitate their business. One informant 
remarked: 
“One core issue which I believe when dealt with by the government would help in 
the fight against drug trafficking and illicit drug business in the country is 
financial motivation. Most of these officers are not paid well so it becomes easy for 
these drug dealers to bribe them. Remember they are humans and can easily be 
convinced. If the appropriate measures are taken to resolve this problem, I believe 
the solutions to the other problems will fall in line (Key informant interview, 
25/05/17) 
The excerpts from thisinformants lends support to the fact that lack of financial motivation 
is a major problem confronting law enforcement agencies in the fight against drug 
trafficking in the country. The study by Bonsu (2011) shows that in some instances, 
security officers are persuaded with bribes as much as $2000. He suggests that in such 
situations, security officers hide behind insufficient or lack of logistics at the check point 
and allow the couriers to traffic these drugs. 
Table 6.5: Problems Confronting Law Enforcement Agencies 
Problems Facing Law Enforcement Officers Frequency Percent 
Lack of financial motivation 101 43.9 
Lack of research and advance training for personnel 22 9.6 
Insufficient logistic and technology 85 37.0 
State or government officials' interference 17 7.4 
Others ( Please specify) 5 2.2 
Total 230 100.0 
Source: Feld data (2017) 
 
83 
 
6.5 Chapter Summary 
This chapter examined drug policy interventions to combat drug trafficking in Ghana. It 
also assessed the various challenges that confront law enforcement agencies in their fight 
against drug trafficking in Ghana. In Ghana, the Customs, Excise Preventive Services 
(CEPS), Narcotics Control Board (NACOB), Ghana Police Service (GPS) and the 
Judiciary are the main actors in the fight against illegal drugs in the country. The CEPS, 
NACOB and GPS maintain law and order by apprehending offenders whereas the 
Judiciary interprets the law. There are some reported incidences of some state officials or 
government officials who are actively engaged in the drug trade, thus often play passive 
roles in the transit of drugs. The result of this study shows that majority of respondents 
sampled were of the view that the State/Government do not directly/indirectly interfere in 
their fight against drug business in the country. With respect to why some security 
personnel cooperate with drug traffickers, majority of respondents revealed that 
inadequate financial motivation from the government coupled with the need to get rich 
quickly are some of the reasons why they allow drug trafficking in the country. 
Additionally, inadequate financial motivation, lack of logistics, and Government/State 
interference are some of the major problems facing the law enforcement agencies in the 
discharge of their duties.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAPTER SEVEN 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 
7.1 Introduction 
This chapter presents the summary of the key findings of the study in relation to the 
study’s objectives. The chapter also provides a conclusion based on the findings of the 
study. Lastly, some recommendations are made based on the findings of the study.  
 
7.2 Summary  
This study examined international migration and drug trafficking in Ghana. It specifically 
examined trends in drug trafficking cases in Ghana from 2009 to 2015 and the socio-
demographic characteristics of the people involved. It also assessed the specific 
vulnerabilities and the perceived socio-economic benefits that influence migrants to 
engage in drug trafficking. Lastly, it examines policy interventions implemented to deal 
with drug trafficking in Ghana and the challenges associated with the control of drug 
trafficking in Ghana. Using the case of security personnel from NACOB and GPS, simple 
random sampling technique was used in sampling 230 respondents for the questionnaire 
survey and key informant and personal interviews were also conducted with key 
stakeholders and other Drug Enforcement Officers. The key findings of this study are 
discussed below. 
 
7.2.1 Summary of Key Findings 
The results of the analysis show that 2011 recorded the highest recorded drug trafficking 
case in Ghana with 2013, recording lowest. There was an increase in drug trafficking from 
2009 to 2011 (12.5% to 22.6%), and a decline from 2011 to 2013 (22.6% to 9.8%). 
However, there was an increase from 2013 to 2015 (9.8% to 15.9%). The increase in 
85 
 
reported drug trafficking cases in 2011 could be as a result of the porous nature of our 
borders and ports, poor governance, loose security systems, and ineffective government 
institutions whereas the decline can be associated with the strict measures adopted by the 
various drug enforcement agencies like NACOB, GPS, and CEPS. The result is consistent 
with the findings of studies by Bernstein (1999) and Aning (2010) which show that Ghana 
has become a defined route for the trafficking of illicit drugs from Latin America and 
Southeast Asia to consumers in North America and European countries. The majority of 
the drug traffickers were Ghanaians (54%) relative to Nigerians (29%) and other Nationals 
(17%). With respect to the gender of the drug traffickers, the results indicate that males are 
the dominant sex in the drug trade, albeit there has been an increase in females in the drug 
trade over the years. Out of the 229 reported drug trafficking cases, 82.5 were males and 
17.5 were females. This contradicts the findings of Punch (2008) which show that females 
are becoming the stronger force, mostly serving as couriers in the drug trade.  
Expectedly, all the respondents sampled were aware of drug trafficking issues in Ghana, 
given the nature of their work. With respect to their sources of information on issues 
pertaining to drug trafficking, radio, in-service training and television were the major 
sources of information. Other social media platforms like WhatsApp, Facebook, Twitter 
etc. were the least represented information source in terms of drug trafficking in Ghana. 
This suggests that radio plays a key role as a medium for the dissemination of information 
about drug trafficking in Ghana.  In terms of how drug trafficking and its threats are 
constructed in Ghana, the results show that it is mostly via media reportage, public 
reaction and political pronouncements. With respect to public reaction, majority of male 
respondents (25.4%) attributed this as an avenue for awareness creation as compared to 
females (19%), though the chi square test reported no significant relationship between the 
two variables.  
86 
 
The majority of security personnel sampled were of the view that drug traffickers are 
mostly the rich and literate relative to the poor and illiterate. None of the female 
respondents perceived the literate to be involved in drug trafficking as compared to male 
respondents. Nonetheless there was no significant relationship between the gender of 
respondents and their perception about the category of people involved in drug trafficking 
in Ghana. Some security personnel also revealed that in situation where the poor are 
involved in the act, it’s often due to some pressure to make ends meet, sort a pressing need 
or get rich quickly.  
With reference to the socio-economic conditions that motivate people to engage in drug 
trafficking, majority of respondents cited economic hardship and social frustrations and 
the “need to get rich quick” as the main reasons why people engage in drug trafficking. 
Ignorance and curiosity on the part of drug traffickers were also cited as the reason why 
people engage in the act of trafficking drugs. Moreover, majority of respondents (99.6%) 
were of the view that there is the possibility of drug cartels infiltrating and establishing 
themselves in the country. Majority of respondents also indicated that the porous nature of 
our borders and ineffective policies to address drug trafficking are some of the reasons 
why drug cartels could infiltrate the country. Although efforts are being made by the 
various law enforcement agencies to combat drug trafficking, respondents were of the 
view that Ghana has become a drug transit and user country. In addition, majority of 
respondents perceive that Ghanaians and other nationals are likely to collaborate to engage 
in drug trafficking in Ghana. Majority of respondents also indicated that the porous nature 
of our borders and ineffective policies to address drug trafficking are some of the reasons 
why drug cartels could infiltrate the country. Although efforts are being made by the 
various law enforcement agencies to combat drug trafficking, respondents were of the 
view that Ghana has become a drug transit and user country. In addition, majority of 
87 
 
respondents perceive that Ghanaians and other nationals are likely to collaborate to engage 
in drug trafficking in Ghana. 
In Ghana, the Customs, Excise Preventive Services (CEPS), Narcotics Control Board 
(NACOB), Ghana Police Service (GPS) and the Judiciary are the main actors in the fight 
against illegal drugs in the country. The CEPS, NACOB and GPS maintain law and order 
by apprehending offenders whereas the Judiciary interprets the law. Ghana has also 
collaborated with the international community in sanctioning relevant conventions and 
treaties which provide the impetus and capacity to combat drug trafficking in the country. 
Officials from CEPS are stationed at the borders, harbours and ports of the country to 
ensure that genuine and standard goods come into the country; The GPS are tasked to 
arrest people engaged in drug trafficking and process them for court; NACOB on the other 
hand, is the central coordinating body responsible for drug related problems in the 
country; and the Judiciary then interprets the law and hands out sentences to them if they 
are found guilty of the offense.   
The results of the analysis also show that there is some reported incidence of some state 
officials or government officials who are actively engaged in the drug trade, thus often 
play passive roles in the transit of drugs. The result of this study shows that majority of 
respondents sampled were of the view that the State/Government do not directly/indirectly 
interfere in their fight against drug business in the country. With respect to why some 
security personnel cooperate with drug traffickers, majority of respondents revealed that 
inadequate financial motivation from the government coupled with the need to get rich 
quickly are some of the reasons why they allow drug trafficking in the country. 
Additionally, inadequate financial motivation, lack of logistics, and Government/State 
interference are some of the major problems facing the law enforcement agencies in the 
discharge of their duties.  
88 
 
7.3 Conclusion 
Evidence from the findings of this study suggest that, even though several strict measures 
have been adopted by the government in conjunction with other international bodies to 
clampdown on drug trafficking, it still persist as a menace in the country. As a result, 
Ghana is perceived as a drug transit and user country. Undoubtedly, Ghanaians and other 
Nationals continue to use the ports and borders of the country to traffic drugs. The 
increase in the use of women as couriers cannot be overemphasized, albeit the results of 
this study show that drug trafficking trade is a male dominated business. One would argue 
that financial and economic motives often drive people to engage in this trade, considering 
the lucrative nature of the business. However, it is clear that in some instances, drug 
traffickers are often driven by curiosity and ignorance. The poor often become victims 
when there is the urgent need for money to settle a pressing social issue or the need to get 
rich quickly. The onus lies on the porous nature of our borders, corruption, direct/indirect 
State/Government interference, inadequate economic/financial motivation and lack of 
logistics as the main reason for continues use of the borders and ports of the country as 
transit points of illicit drugs. To a large extent, corruption and Government/State 
interference continue to serve as a bane to effective control of drug trafficking. Drug 
dealers often use their networks and money to influence the decisions of the security 
agencies (CEPS, NACOB, GPS) and the Judiciary. The findings of this study lend support 
to the study by Akyeampong (2005) and Bonsu (2011). Also, the study’s findings resonate 
with the system theory posited by Durkheim and Weber; thus ineffectiveness of 
institutions mandated to fight drug trafficking disrupt the system. The study concludes that 
even though Ghana has made significant strides in combating drug trafficking in the 
country given the trends over the years, it continues to be a menace in the country.  
 
89 
 
7.4 Recommendations  
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made 
 The conditions of service of the various agencies and law enforcement units tasked 
to curb drug trafficking should be improved. Given the fact that most of these 
security personnel are easily lured by drug traffickers with money and other forms 
of bribe. This will go a long way to motivate them in the discharge of their duties. 
These could be in the form of increase in their salary, allowances and other 
benefits which will serve as a motivation.  
 There is also the need to strengthen law enforcement agencies in more selective 
point of entry which often serve as the gateway for drug traffickers. To achieve 
this, the necessary logistics and equipment should be provided to improve the 
services of these institutions. These could be in form of advance scanners at the 
various ports and harbours, vehicles and communication gadgets to improve access 
to information and border patrols. Additionally, frequent training should be 
provided for the officers to orient them on current practices of illicit drug 
traffickers and ways of combating them. 
 In order to clampdown on corruption and state interference in drug control, there is 
the need to actively confront the various forms of political and government 
challenges that promote corruption within the security services and the Judiciary 
services, which most drug barons and traffickers tend to exploit. Some special 
independent court or prosecutor should be established to investigate and prosecute 
Government/State officials and security officials who connive, enable or facilitate 
in the drug trafficking trade in Ghana.  
 There should be public campaigns to educate the citizens about the dangers of drug 
trafficking to the trafficker, the drug user, and the national image. These 
90 
 
sensitisation or media campaigns should be carried by the National Centre for 
Civic Education (NCCE) in association with relevant agencies such as NACOB, 
GPS and other interested stakeholders.  
 
 
 
 
 
  
91 
 
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APPENDICES 
Appendix A: Questionnaire 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 
THE CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES,  
(Security Personnel) 
I am a student from the centre for migration studies at university of Ghana, Legon. I am 
conducting a study on “International Migration and Drug trafficking from Ghana”. 
As part of my research towards the award of MPHIL degree, I humbly request you to grant 
me an interview lasting for about an hour. Your participation is very important for the 
success of this project. If at any point you do not understand our questions, please let me 
know and I will be glad to clarify. Be assured that this interview is purely for academic 
purposes and will be treated confidentially. No information provided will be passed on to 
any third party. 
 
Thank you for your cooperation. 
 
IDENTIFICATION 
 
Number________________________________________Profession_________________ 
Marital Status_____________________________Occupation______________________ 
Telephone number_______________________Email:_____________________________ 
 
  
100 
 
SECTION I: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 
Firstly I would like to ask you a few questions to help me analyse the survey. To 
answer place a tick in the boxes that apply. 
 
1. Age ___________________________________________________________ 
  
2. Sex 
1. Female   2. Male   
  3. What is your level of education? 
1. JSS/JHS                                                
2. Middle School                                   
       3.     SSS/SHS                                      
       4.    Technical/Commercial                 
       5.    Tertiary                                         
 
4. Which of these religions do you belong to? 
     1.        Catholic                  
2.  Anglican                     
3. Presbyterian                
       4.     Methodist                
5 Charismatic                
101 
 
6  Islamic                   
       7      Other ( Please specify)______________________________________________ 
 
5. What is your ethnic background? 
       1.     Ga Adangbe         
2.     Akan                     
       3.      Ewe                     
4.     Bono                    
       5.     Dagbani               
       6.     Dagaare         
       7.    Other ( Please specify)_______________________________________________ 
 
 6. Which of these groups does your monthly income fall into?  
       1.      1 – 100  cedis                    
       2.      200 – 300 cedis                 
       3.      400 – 500  cedis                
4.   600 – 700  cedis                  
5.   800 - 900 cedis                     
       6.      More than 1000  cedis       
 
 
102 
 
SECTION II: KNOWLEDGE OF DRUG TRAFFICKING IN GHANA  
I am going to ask you questions about your knowledge of drug trafficking and 
international migration. 
 
7. Have you heard about drug trafficking? 
 1.     Yes                                                            
2.      No          
 
8. How did you hear about drug trafficking? 
        1.     Radio                                
        2.     Television                         
        3.     Internet                             
        4.     Government                     
        5      In-service training            
        6.     Other (Please specify) ______________________________________________ 
 
9. In what way is drug trafficking and its threats constructed in Ghana? 
        1.  Through media reportage         
        2.   Political pronouncements        
        3.   Religious discourse                 
        4.   public reactions                       
        5.   Other (Please specify) ______________________________________________ 
 
103 
 
10. When you hear about drug trafficking, who or what category of people come to 
your mind? 
        1.   The Rich          
        2.   The Poor          
        3.   Literate            
        4.   Illiterate             
        5.   Other (Please specify) _____________________________________________ 
 
11. Please explain answer to question 
10_________________________________________________________ 
 
12. Why do you think people engage in drug trafficking? 
     1.   Economic and social frustrations hardship      
     2.   Adventure                                                        
     3.   Get rich quick                                                  
     4.   Ignorance                                                         
     5.   Other (Please specify) _________________________________________________ 
 
13.   Do you think drug cartels can infiltrate into the country? 
     1.   Yes                                                                                                   
     2.   No           
 
14. Which of the reasons explain why you think drug cartels can infiltrate into 
Ghana? 
104 
 
     1.   Porous nature of our borders  
     2.   Inadequate and effective policies to address drug trafficking threats 
     3.   Ghana’s foreign policy 
     4.   Lack of knowledge on the part of the general public on how to identify and deal 
with drug trafficking threat 
     5.   Other (Please specify) ________________________________________________ 
 
Questions 15 to 17 are about your perception of a link between drug trafficking and 
international migration. Please tick the box that best describes your perception.  
  I   I    
strongly Strongly 
disagree agree 
  Question 1 2 3 1 2 3 
15 Given the recent rise in drug trafficking        
in West Africa, is Ghana at a risk of 
becoming a transit and user country  
16 There is a link between drug trafficking       
and international migration 
17 Ghanaians who left the country team up       
with other nationals to engage in drug 
trafficking 
18 Foreign nationals from Africa and       
Elsewhere are more likely to engage in 
drug trafficking in the country 
 
 
105 
 
19. Please explain your answer for question 16 
_____________________________________________________ 
 
SECTION III:  POLICY INTERVENTIONS AND CHALLENGES WITH 
CONTROLLING DRUG TRAFFICKING. 
In this section I will be asking you questions about government interventions and some of 
the challenges associated with combating drug trafficking.  
 
20. Does state or government officials’ interfere negatively in combating drug 
trafficking in the country? 
   1.   Yes                                                                                                    
    2.    No     
 
21. Have you ever had a situation in which a state official tried to interfere in drug 
trafficking cases? 
     1.   Yes         
    2.   No        
 
22. Do you think Ghana has the strategies/measures to combat drug trafficking? 
   1.   Yes                                                                                      
    2.    No    
 
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23. Do you think these strategies/measures to combat drug trafficking are effective?   
1.   Yes                                                                                       
2.   No      
 
24. What factors are likely to contribute to security officials conniving with drug 
traffickers?  
      1.   Insufficient financial motivation                       
      2.   Desire to get rich quick                                     
      3.   Lack of trust in the judicial system                   
      4.   State or government officials’ interference        
      5.   Other (Please specify) _______________________________________________ 
 
25. What is the major problem facing law enforcement officers in combating drug 
trafficking in Ghana? 
     1.   Insufficient financial motivation  
     2.   Lack of research in to causes of drug trafficking and advances training for personal        
 
     3.   Insufficient logistic and technology                                        
     4.   State or government officials’ interference                             
     5.   Other (Please specify) _______________________________________________ 
  
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26. What do you think the Government should do in combating drug trafficking in 
Ghana? 
    1.   Enact more laws to fight drug trafficking                                                                 
    2.   Prevent Ghanaians from engaging in drug trafficking                                              
    3.   Arrest and jail Ghanaians and other nationals who are engaged in drug trafficking          
 
    4.   Public educational campaigns on dangers of drug trafficking                                  
    5.   Check irregular migration                                                                                         
    6.   Do none of the above                                                                                                 
     7.   Other (Please specify)_______________________________________________ __ 
 
27. Please is there anything you would like to add or clarify?____________________ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix B: Interview Guide 
THE CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 
(SECURITY PERSONNAL, IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW) 
I am a student from the centre for migration studies at university of Ghana, Legon. I am 
conducting a study on “International Migration and Drug trafficking from Ghana”. 
As part of my research towards the award of MPHIL degree in Migration Studies, I 
humbly request you to grant me an interview lasting for about an hour. Your participation 
is very important for the success of this project. If at any point you do not understand our 
questions, please let me know and I will be glad to clarify. Be assured that this interview is 
purely for academic purposes and will be treated confidentially. No information provided 
will be passed on to any third party. 
Thank you for your cooperation. 
IDENTIFICATION 
Number___________________________________Profession______________________ 
Social Status____________________________ccupation_______________________ 
Telephone number_________________________Email:__________________________ 
 
SECTION A:    KNOWLEDGE OF DRUG TRAFFICKING IN GHANA 
1. What do you understand by drug trafficking? 
2. What is the state of drug trafficking in Ghana? 
3. Why do you think people engage in drug trafficking? 
4. When you hear about drug trafficking, who or what category of people come to 
your mind? 
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5. Is there a link between drug trafficking and international migration? probe : 
 What is making the relationship possible/endure/flourish? 
 Weather Foreign nationals from Africa and Elsewhere are more likely to engage in 
drug trafficking in the country?                  
6. Have you ever had a situation in which a drug trafficker have being arrested  
 
SECTION B:   POLICY INTERVENTIONS AND CHALLENGES WITH 
CONTROLLING DRUG TRAFFICKING 
1. What is the impact of drug trafficking in Ghana? 
2. Does Ghana have the right strategies/measures to combat drug trafficking? Probe: 
for some of the measures/strategies introduces by the government. 
3. Do you think this strategy /measures introduces are helping to curb drug trafficking 
in Ghana? 
4. What are the challenges in Ghana in the fight against drug trafficking and 
terrorism? 
5. Any recommendations? 
 
 
 
 
110