THE NATURE OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN GHANA SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMME IN THE BEKWAI MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY BY BAFFOUR CLEMENT GYAWU 10154303 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES DEGREE MAY, 2012 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Baffour Clement Gyawu, do hereby declare that except for references to other people‟s work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is the result of my own independent research work carried out at the Centre for Social Policy Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, under the due supervision of Dr. Alhassan Sulemana Anamzoya and that it has not been presented in whole or in part for award of another degree elsewhere. ………………………………………. Baffour Clement Gyawu (Candidate) Date…………………………………. ……………………………………….. Dr. Alhassan Sulemana Anamzoya (Supervisor) Date………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the entire family of Mr. Prince Baffour Awuah Gyawu, for the immeasurable support towards my upbringing and education at the University of Ghana. God richly bless them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Alhassan Sulemana Anamzoya for his meaningful contributions, guidance and constructive criticisms that have made this work a success. I am much grateful to Mr. Douglas Lomotey for his immense support, devotion, kindness and encouragement which saw me through the application and admission to the Centre for Social Policy Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. I am also thankful to Mr. Danso Samson for his support and advice to me with regards to this dissertation. Equally acknowledged are Mr. Patrick Osei-Fosu, Ama Aboagyewaa Akor, Isaac Ofori- Nti, Nii Obodai Sai and the entire community of the Bekwai Municipal Assembly for giving me the necessary assistance during my data collection at the Municipality especially my respondents who provided first-hand information of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Content PAGE DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... iv LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. vii LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... viii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. ix ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... xi CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Key Actors in GSFP Implementation .............................. 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 11 1.4 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................. 12 1.5.1 Main Objective ........................................................................................................... 12 1.5.2 Specific Objectives..................................................................................................... 12 1.6 Rationale for the Study.................................................................................................. 13 1.7 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 13 1.8 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................ 14 1.9 Organization of the Work ............................................................................................. 15 1.10 Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 18 LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................... 18 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 18 2.2 What is School Feeding? ............................................................................................... 18 2.3 School Feeding Programme in Other Countries ........................................................... 20 2.4 Nature of Community Participation .............................................................................. 23 2.4.1 Why is Community Participation Essential?.............................................................. 24 2.4.2 Promoting Community Participation ......................................................................... 25 2.5. Theoretical Framework: Participation.......................................................................... 27 2.5.1 Arnstein‟s Ladder of Participation ............................................................................. 27 2.5.2 Game Theory of Participation .................................................................................... 31 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 36 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................................. 36 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 36 3.2 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 36 3.3 Study Area ..................................................................................................................... 36 3.4 Target Population .......................................................................................................... 37 3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures ......................................................................... 37 3.6 Data Collection.............................................................................................................. 38 3.6.1 Instrument for Data Collection .................................................................................. 39 3.7 Data Quality Control/ Assurance .................................................................................. 40 3.8 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................. 40 3.9 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................ 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 42 DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 42 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 42 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents .............................................................. 42 4.3: Section B: Consultation of Community Members in Designing the School Feeding Programme. ................................................................................................................ 46 4.4: Section C: Nature of Community Involvement in Deciding which Food Items to be Used ........................................................................................................................... 51 4.5: Section D: Key Participants of the School Feeding Programme within the Community .................................................................................................................................... 56 4.6: Section E: Community Contribution to the School Feeding Programme .................... 59 4.6.1: Significant of Community Contribution to the S. F. P.............................................. 62 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 65 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION ........................................... 65 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65 5.2 Summary ....................................................................................................................... 65 5.3 Major Findings .............................................................................................................. 66 5.4. Implications .................................................................................................................. 67 5.5. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 68 5.6. Recommendations ........................................................................................................ 69 REFERENCE ...................................................................................................................... 71 APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDE ................................................................................... 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Social Exclusion Filter………………………………………………… 34 Table 4.1: Consultation of Community Members in Designing the S. F. P….… 47 Table: 4.2: Consultation of Community Members……………………….……. 48 Table 4.3: Decision on Food Items to be Used………………………………..… 52 Table 4.4: Participants of the School Feeding Programme…………………….... 57 Table 4.5: Community Contribution to the School Feeding Programme…………. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Arnstein‟s Ladder of Citizens Participation………………………. 28 Figure 4.1 Sex of Respondents…………………………………………..………. 43 Figure 4.2: Ages of Respondents ………………………………………..……… 44 Figure 4.3: Number of Years Participants have Resided in the Community. …….. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome CAADP Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme CSOs Civil Society Organizations DCD District Coordinating Director DFO District Finance Officer DIC District Implementation Committee FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FFE Food for Education GoB Government of Bangladesh GoG Government of Ghana GPRS II Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy II GSFP Ghana School Feeding Programme GSS Ghana Statistical Service HIPC Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IDT Inpres Desa Tertinggal IMF International Monetary Fund MDGs Millennium Development Goals MLGRD Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies MoE Ministry of Education MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture MoH Ministry of Health University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x NEPAD New Partnership for Africa‟s Development NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations PESP Primary Education Stipend Program PTAs Parent Teacher Association SFPs School Feeding Programs SIC School Implementation Committee UNHTF United Nations Hunger Task Force UNICEF United Nation International Children Emergency Fund USDA United States Department of Agriculture WB Word Bank University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi ABSTRACT In the Child Nutrition Act, it is stated that educational progress is an objective of Ghana School Feeding programs. In spite of this fact no serious attempt has ever been made to evaluate whether this objective has been met; the few evaluations that have been conducted lack scientific rigor as well as community participation. As a whole, the studies failed to provide a strong basis from which to make valid inferences regarding the long- term effects of the feeding program on school achievement and adaptation. It therefore becomes necessary to evaluate community participation in the entire programme. Based on this, the study sought to establish the nature of community participation in Ghana‟s school feeding programme. Based on the research objectives, literature was reviewed in related areas such as the concept of community participation and central thematic areas in relation to the phenomenon under study and ways of enhancing community participation in school feeding programme activities. The study employed explorative and descriptive survey design. Findings from the study indicate that community participation in the entire programme is very minimal as less than 5% of community participated in all activities of the school feeding programme. On this notion, it is recommended that capacity building for communities in the area of Planning, Implementing, Monitoring and Evaluation must be carried out with GSFP in order to train officials at all levels to take charge of the programme. This will go a long way to strengthen the programme as communities will take it as theirs. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study The health, quality of life, and survival of children continue to be impaired by hunger and malnutrition (Buhl, 2009). It is estimated that a child dies every six seconds from hunger related causes and one out of four children in developing countries are underweight (FAO, 2004:UNICEF, 2007). School-age children are particularly vulnerable to under nutrition as the priority in nutrition interventions is often to prevent malnutrition during fetal development and the first years of life - considered the most critical period for growth and development (Bundy, Burbano, Grosh, Jukes and Drake, 2009). However, school feeding offers an excellent opportunity for targeted intervention among school-age children, both as a means for enhancing nutrition and improving school attendance and educational outcomes (Buhl, 2009). Edwards, Lindermann and Olson (2010) traced the origin of the school feeding programme. They had it that school feeding initiatives originated as early as the late 1700‟s as the projects of charitable donors in Europe. However, concentrated school feeding interventions did not appear until the mid-1800s, as governments began incorporating school meals into their legislation. After World War II in 1945, the United States began the practice of initiating school feeding programs in Austria as an act of international aid focused on combating the severe malnutrition of children. Since that time, school feeding programs have become a key part of food assistance and relief in emergency and development programs. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Likewise, the Ghana School Feeding Program (GSFP) was initiated by the Government of Ghana in 2005, in collaboration with the Dutch Government (GoG, 2006). The programme was inspired by the Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) Pillar 3 of the New Partnership for Africa‟s Development (NEPAD) and the recommendations of the UN Millennium Task Force on Hunger (GoG, 2006). Its stated long term goal is to contribute to reducing poverty and enhancing food security in Ghana (GoG, 2006). This is a programme that the then President of the Republic of Ghana His Excellency John Agyekum Kuffuor unveiled at the African Union meeting in Ethiopia in 2005. The Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP) identified, in general terms, that a quality school feeding program has the following in place: (1) a national policy framework, (2) sufficient institutional capacity for implementation and coordination, (3) stable funding, (4) sound design and implementation, and (5) community participation (GSFP, 2005). It is worth noting that the basic idea of the Ghana School Feeding Program (GSFP) is to provide all children in public primary schools and kindergartens in the poorest areas with a hot, nutritious meal each day, using locally grown food (GoG, 2006). This meal should consist of carbohydrate, protein and vegetables. To this end, cooks have been trained and funded, kitchens have been built, portable water secured, and food is being procured in local markets or through local retailers and caterers. Overall objectives of the GSFP are to contribute to poverty reduction and food security through:  Increasing enrolment, retention and attendance rates;  Enhancing the nutritional status of all school-going children;  Creating wealth at the rural level through agricultural development; and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3  Ensuring accessibility to markets (GoG, 2006). Ghana‟s School Feeding Programme is meant to contribute to achieving the first Millennium Development Goal (MDG) which is to eradicate extreme poverty & hunger. The United Nations Hunger Task Force (UNHTF) has made 7 recommendations on how to achieve the first MDG. These are stated in their 2004 report “Halving Hunger, it can be done”. One of the strategies identified by the UNHTF to achieve this goal is the implementation of school feeding programmes (SFPs) with locally produced foods rather than imported food (aid). The UNHTF considers school feeding programmes as a good combination of education and agriculture. Their point of view is that SFPs could increase school attendance, especially of girls. Furthermore, the Task Force expects that the implementation of SFPs can stimulate the market demand for locally produced foods. The United Nations Hunger Task Force (UNHTF) recommends comprehensive community and school-based feeding programs that include not only school feeding, but also systematic de-worming, micronutrient supplementation, take-home rations, safe cooking facilities, clean drinking water, and improved sanitation. More to this point, school feeding programmes should necessarily respond to community needs, should be locally owned, and also incorporate some form of parental or community contribution, whether cash payment or in‐kind. In many countries, especially among Africa countries, the school feeding programme falls under the responsibility of the ministry of education (Agbey, 2011). It is worth noting that where decentralization is very advanced, the Ministry of the Interior or the ministry of local government also plays a prominent role. Should the bus thus stop with them? According to Johnson and Janoch (2011), school feeding programmes are expected to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 respond to communities‟ needs as well as they being influenced by the community. Community leaders, schools, churches, mosques and grass root groups are thus critical in terms of making school feeding programs a success. They help transform development goals into action. Unfortunately, they are often not given a voice in identifying problems and designing solutions. The million dollar question to be asked therefore is „„what have been the contributions of the community with regards to community participation in the Ghana School Feeding Programme (GSFP)?‟‟ The premise of the community participation approach is that local people can become partners in the management of School Feeding initiatives and can be primarily responsible for the beneficial surveillance activities that accompany these programs. With a community participation approach, children who are found on the breadline are monitored. The effectiveness of community participation programs is thus a consequence of local capacity building, timely and sufficient delivery of supplies, and coordinated efforts between non-governmental organizations and local and national governments. 1.2 Roles and Responsibilities of Key Actors in GSFP Implementation The District Operations Manual of the GSFP outlines a number of roles and responsibilities for the various implementing actors of the programme. The main line actors identified in the manual comprise the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, the Ghana School Feeding Program Secretariat, District Assemblies, District Implementation Committees (DICs), School Implementation Committees (SICs), Schools and Matrons/Caterers. In pursuit of the programme objectives as stipulated in the District Operations Manual, it is expected that strong local/community participation be upheld and operations decentralized using existing structures of District Assemblies and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 Regional Coordinating Council offices in the implementation of the programme (District Operations Manual, 2008). The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development has the oversight responsibility for the Ghana School Feeding Programme. The Roles and Responsibilities of the Ghana School Feeding Programme National Secretariat: The GSFP National Secretariat is the coordinating body of the programme and it is supervised by the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development. The GSFP National Secretariat is to ensure that the programme provides one hot, adequately nutritional meal daily, prepared from locally produced foodstuffs to poor school children at the basic level in order to strengthen agriculture production in the poorest communities and enhance capacity of the communities to improve their food security, health and nutritional status and economic base. The National Secretariat among other things: Facilitate the development of a common information, education and communication campaign message and ensure consistency of message. Ensure that Districts select beneficiary schools based on agreed criteria Provide periodic Audits of DICs and SICs to assure consistency Ensure effective collaboration with MoE on the education component Ensure effective collaboration with MoH on the health component Ensure effective collaboration with MoFA on the agriculture component Ensure effective collaboration with strategic Partners Provide sensitization, training and capacity building to implementers Monitor and evaluate the Programme Nationwide. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 The Roles and Responsibilities of the District Assemblies (DAs): The success of the programme depends on the commitment of the District Assembly and the beneficiary communities toward the programme and the level of readiness and interest toward the programme and the level of readiness and interest towards sustaining it. The following are their roles and responsibilities: Identify and designate a staff of the Assembly as a Desk Officer to serve as a link between the Assembly and the National Programme Secretariat; Open a special school feeding bank account into which feeding funds from GSFP/MLGRD will be lodged; The District Finance Officer (DFO) and the District Coordinating Director (DCD) must be signatories to the account in line with the Financial Administration Act; The District Finance Officer is responsible for the preparation of quarterly and annual report/accounts to cover all school feeding funds received at the MMDA for onward submission to MLGRD and GSFP Secretariat; MMDAs are also to select schools and caterers based on requirements set out under the programme; Should ensure that basic infrastructure such as kitchen, storage place and canteen are available before the commencement of cooking; Ensure that appointed caterers open bank accounts; Payment to caterers should be strictly by cheque; Interview and appoint caterers and ensure that appointed caterers/matrons are capable of cooking food on a large scale under hygienic conditions as well as be able to demonstrate basic understanding of the nutritional needs of children; No procurement should be done by the MMDAs on behalf of the caterers; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 The MMDAs should ensure that caterers as much as possible buy/procure from local farmers and producers; Encourage Agricultural Extension Officers to assist local farmers to produce for the GSFP; Collate information on how GSFP has linked up with famers at the district level; Ensure there is adequate water for the implementation of the programme; Collaborate with communities/schools to construct a simple all weather kitchen, store, canteen with seats and table; Facilitate the collection or compilation of base line and subsequent Monitoring and Evaluation data on beneficiary schools; Arrange with the Ministry of Health for periodic de-worming exercise of the school children and regular education in environmental and personal hygiene as well as HIV/AIDS awareness and anti-malaria campaigns; Prepare and submit to the GSFP National Secretariat quarterly monitoring reports comprising sources and uses of funds statement and bank reconciliation statement. (The District Operations Manual, 2008: 17) The District Implementation Committee (DIC): The DIC is a committee designated under the Ghana School Feeding Programme. It is a District level coordinating unit for the GSFP that exercises direct oversight over beneficiary schools of the programme in the District. The DIC oversees the implementation and management of all components of the programme at the district level. The DIC is a representation of the key decentralized departments and consist of the following: The District Chief Executive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 The District Director of Education The District Director of Health The District Director of Agriculture One Traditional Ruler from the District Two Representatives of the Social Services Sub-committee One Opinion Leader from the District District Desk Officer The DIC is tasked with these roles and responsibilities: The DIC is to ensure that funds are disbursed on time to caterers on receipt from the GSFP Secretariat/MLGRD; Ensure that schools selected meet the criteria for eligibility; Promote the GSFP by informing the communities about the programme content through community sensitization and encourage their participation in meetings and ensure that the communities commit themselves to the programme; Ensure that the caterers and cooks have health certificates; Ensure the formation and inauguration of the SICs; Provide required assistance as needed to the SIC in all areas including health, water and sanitation, hygiene, agriculture and nutrition Follow up on the recommendations, actions and decisions to be carried out by the MLGRD and the National Coordinator of the GSFP; Monitor the status and the achievements of set targets in terms of the operations of SICs, compliance with audit recommendations at the school level and any other task as may be assigned by the National Secretariat or the MLGRD; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Prepare and submit end of term and annual reports on School Feeding Programme activities in the district to the Regional Coordinator for onward submission to the National Secretariat; Conduct periodic monitoring of the quality, quantity and hygienic level of food served by the caterers and keep records of all such instances of sub-standard food so that it will be taken into consideration in the renewal of the contract of the caterer. (The District Operations Manual, 2008: 21) The School Implementation Committee (SIC): The School Implementation Committee is the structure at the community level that oversees school feeding activities. Each community shall have a School Implementation Committee consisting of the following: The PTA Representative of the beneficiary (Chairperson) Head teacher of the school (Secretary) One representative of the School Management Committee One Traditional Ruler from the community An Assembly Member The Boys and Girls Prefects of the school The following are their roles and responsibilities: Collaborate with the Head teachers and Caterers/Matrons in providing adequate and nutritious food for children; Prepare term reports on the school feeding activities at the end of each term and each year and submit same to the district assembly that would inform payment accordingly; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Follow up on recommendations, actions and decisions to be carried out by the MLGRD and the Secretariats through the DICs; Liaise with the DIC in collaboration with District Nutrition Officer to develop a locally and seasonally driven menu to provide nutritionally adequate meals; Provide oversight and direct supervision of appointed caterers/matrons entrusted with cooking and feeding; Facilitate community involvement, mobilization and support for the implementation of the programme; Ensure that soap/detergents are used in washing and cleaning of hands, cooking utensils, cutlery, eating and kitchen facilities; Ensure that related equipment e.g. gas cylinders and burners used in cooking are kept in good condition; Arrange for security for the kitchen, store and canteen; Ensure proper maintenance of the physical facilities for cooking and feeding; Ensure the use of potable water and maintenance of good sanitation; Report any instances of sub-standard food to the District Implementation Committee who will take into consideration during renewal of contract for caterers/matrons; Liaise with the District Desk Officer and the District Health Director to ensure de- worming of the children every 6 months and education on personal and environmental hygiene as well as HIV/AIDS and Malaria; Collaborate with CSOs to sensitize communities to take ownership of the programme. Source: The District Operations Manual (2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 1.3 Statement of the Problem The Ghana School Feeding Programme is a laudable programme by all standards. Although it started on a pilot basis, it has now spread across the length and breadth of the country. The National School Feeding Secretariat has been set up to coordinate the programme. However, since its inception in 2005, the programme has been rocked with inadequate funding, lack of proper monitoring and evaluation despite the provision of technical assistance. It is expected that communities would support the programme in one way or the other. Community participation which remains key to the success of the programme has not been forthcoming in some parts of the country. This brings to the fore questions such as „„who are the key persons or institutions that have been pivotal in the school feeding programme in the communities?” “What have been their contributions with regards to community participation in the school feeding programme?” It is in this vein that the researcher would attempt to find answers to these probing questions in this study. 1.4 Research Questions In attempting to find out the nature of community participation regarding the school feeding programme, the following questions would be asked to enable the researcher ascertain some findings at the end of the study.  Were community members consulted in the design of the school feeding programme?  Were community members involved in deciding which products are provided in the food basket?  Who are the key participants with regards to the school feeding programme within the community? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12  What have been the contributions of community members with regards to the programme? 1.5 Objectives of the Study 1.5.1 Main Objective The main objective of the study was to establish the nature of community participation in Ghana School Feeding Programme in the Bekwai Municipality. 1.5.2 Specific Objectives Specific objectives of the study were: To examine the nature of community participation in the school feeding programme with regards to: a. Community participation in designing the school feeding programme b. Community involvement in deciding which products should constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. c. Key participants of the school feeding programme. d. Community contributions to the school feeding programme Identify ways to improve the school feeding programme in the Bekwai Municipality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 1.6 Rationale for the Study In the review of the pilot of the Ghana School Feeding Program (GSFP) of 2006, an improvement of health status and nutritional status of children in SFP schools was suggested, although based on anecdotal evidence rather than objective and quantitative data (Government of Ghana, 2006). A small effect of SFPs on the nutritional status of school children has been demonstrated in a few studies. The GSFP has come to stay and is a fact. It can thus help the country achieve the MDG 1 and increase local food production. Guidelines concerning its implementation should be strictly followed to ensure its sustainability. However it is not yet clear if Community ownership and involvement has been crucial in the sustenance of the programme. Community participation normally ensures transparency and accountability by the implementers of the programme. These communities will demand accountability from programme implementers and also provide the support required for the programme when they begin to feel a sense of ownership. Building the capacities of all the various stakeholders is therefore essential to ensure the programme sustenance. 1.7 Significance of the Study This study is relevant in a myriad of ways. One goal of this study is to provide an important theoretical advance to the field of social policy analysis by highlighting how the decisions by the rank and file of the School Feeding Program are affected by community participation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 The present study also necessitates a word about the import of the views shared by all stakeholders and community members for that matter that result into the operational activities of School Feeding Program Secretariat. The study will also help policy implementers and development agencies recognize the communities they seek to develop as development partners rather than a harp for dumping and experimenting development programmes. The study will also help raise awareness as to the significance of community participation in social intervention programmes in general and specifically the school feeding programme. 1.8 Limitations of the Study As with most research, this study was fraught with challenges. The first theoretical limitation had to do with limited literature related to the school feeding programme in Ghana. Thus, most of the materials reviewed were not directly related to the Ghanaian school feeding programme. There was also very little documentation on the school feeding programme by the regulatory agencies. Another limitation was the limited scope of the study. The study was further limited to only one district and even then, the sample did not exhaust all sampled respondents therefore findings may not be applicable to other districts. Finally, future research in this area may be conducted over a longer period as the time frame of this study was not long enough. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 1.9 Organization of the Work The final work is organized along the following: The introduction of the study which is chapter one, discusses the concept of school feeding program in terms of how community members who are in one way or the other beneficiaries of this program tend to participate or contribute to the success of the program. The chapter constitutes the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, rational of the study to mention a few. The chapter two is dedicated to reviews of current literature on relevant works done in this area of research. So therefore this chapter of the study aims to examine the theoretical and practical works that relate to the nature of community participation in the school feeding programme. That is, this section will provide first the theoretical framework and will go on to review related literature. Chapter three constitutes the research methodology. This section of the dissertation provides the various research methodological techniques that were employed to tackle the research questions raised. In this regard, this section discusses the following; the research design, the data collection strategies, data specifications; this is just to mention a few. Chapter four is dedicated to data presentation and analysis. In this segment, the researcher provides an overview of the nature of community participation in the school feeding programme. This is followed by an analysis of the research questions raised based on the interview data; the researcher in this regard made use of graphs, statistical tables and charts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Chapter five focuses on summary of findings, conclusion and recommendation arrived at. This part of the dissertation provides information on the outcome of the study (research findings), the conclusive statements made on the basis of the findings obtained. What is more, recommendations regarding future researches in the same or similar area were put forth. 1.10 Definition of Key Terms  Community Participation: The United Nations (2002) defined community participation as the creation of opportunities to enable all members of a community to actively contribute to and influence the development process and to share equitably in the fruits of development. With reference to the study community participation concerns the engagement of individuals and communities in decisions about things that affect their lives.  Homegrown school feeding programme: In the broadest sense, home-grown school feeding is a school feeding programme that provides food produced and purchased within a country (WFP, 2010).  Hunger: hunger describes the feeling of discomfort that is the body‟s signal that it is in need of more food (World Food Programme, 2008). Hunger is used to describe the social condition of people who frequently experience the physical sensation of desiring food. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17  Malnutrition: malnutrition is a condition caused by improper diet or nutrition, and can occur in conjunction with both under and over consumption of calories (World Food Programme, 2008).  Poverty: poverty encompasses the multiplicity of dimensions associated with poverty. It includes deprivation on a material level, e.g. lack of proper diet, clothing, shelter, and work. It also includes social deprivation, such as denial of employment, participation in social institutions, and education (Krieger, 2002). Poverty is the state of one who lacks a certain amount of material possessions or money as defined in the study.  Safety net programme: Safety net programmes are non-contributory transfer programmes seeking to prevent the poor or those vulnerable to shocks and poverty from falling below a certain poverty level (World Bank, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Community participation has received considerable academic attention particularly since the early 1990s but has been a source of debate since at least the 1960s. This session of the study is intended to provide a brief overview of some of the most prominent theories which have been put forward as a means of understanding and appraising participation structures and practices. It has been prepared in order to provide a theoretical context within which the appropriateness of different approaches to community participation in school feeding program can be assessed. The following paragraphs therefore try to review current literature on relevant works done in this area of research. 2.2 What is School Feeding? School feeding is a well-recognized safety net programme that alleviates hunger while supporting education, health and community development (WFP, 2010). School feeding can take different forms. This includes providing school meals or snacks to be eaten during school hours or distributing dry take-home food rations to pupils at the end of each month or school term if they attended school regularly. It is a versatile safety net that can be used as a platform to support children and their families in a variety of contexts. At the onset of an emergency, school feeding can be used to get food to affected communities. For example, in the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami in South East Asia, World Food Programme (WFP) used schools to deliver food to those in the most affected areas. Also during economic shocks, such as those related to increasing food prices, or during protracted crises, school feeding can be an effective safety net to reinforce livelihoods and prevent those affected from adopting negative coping strategies. School feeding is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 currently being used in this way in many countries, including Haiti, Liberia, Pakistan and Senegal. Finally, if linked with local purchases, school feeding can increase the incomes of small-scale farmers and stimulate local development (WFP, 2010). School feeding programmes exist in almost all high- and middle-income countries and are present, typically with WFP support, in some 70 of 108 low- and lower-middle-income countries (WFP, 2008). They enjoy strong political support and have been identified by the international community as a major strategy to respond to the consequences of rising food prices. There are many types of school feeding programmes, from those that are totally funded, managed and monitored by the government, to those that depend largely on implementing partners such as WFP to procure the food, deliver it to the schools and monitor the programme. The private sector may also be involved to various degrees. The community thus contributes quite a lot of resources to the programme in the form of food, utensils, firewood or labour. The community‟s fruits, vegetables and staple products may be the basis of the school feeding programme (Government of Ghana, 2006). Whether by making voluntary contributions or by selling its products, the community benefits from this link. In other cases, such as in emergencies, the community might be struggling with challenges and is therefore not able to contribute substantially. In general, the participation of the community at all stages of the programme – design, implementation and monitoring is encouraged because stronger and more sustainable interventions result from empowering communities to find local solutions to hunger and poverty. The objectives of school feeding vary depending on the context. General objectives are to: meet the immediate food needs of children; alleviate short-term hunger and improve learning capacity; increase access to education (i.e. enrolment, attendance, retention and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 completion); reduce gender and social inequalities; improve health and nutrition status; and finally increase development opportunities (WFP, 2008). 2.3 School Feeding Programme in Other Countries According to the National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS), (1996), the Government of Indonesia introduced a national school-feeding program in the 1990s. BAPPENAS stated that the national feeding programme was planned and funded entirely by the government. The main targets of the programme were children, schools, parents, and the broader village community (BAPPENAS, 1996 cited in Studdert, Rasmussen, Soekirman and Habicht, 2004). The programme served as an intervention to reduce the poverty ratio in the country. This was then integrated into the national poverty alleviation strategy of the Sixth Five-Year Development Plan for Indonesia, using school feeding as a community-level entry point. In addition to this, Levinger, (1986) as cited by Del Rosso posited that the school feeding programme used mechanisms for program delivery which was innovative as compared with other Indonesian government programs and in the context of school-feeding programs internationally. To ascertain the effectiveness of the programme in Indonesia, a pilot study of the programme were carried out in other regions of the country. The results confirms to previous writings. This paved way for the expansion of the programme in Indonesia (Del Rosso, 1999). Following evaluation of these trials, national implementation started in 1996 for approximately 2.1 million primary school children in more than 16,000 schools in villages designated as poor according to the Inpres Desa Tertinggal (IDT) or „Presidential Instruction for Villages Left Behind‟ program criteria. These criteria identified villages University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 with economic growth less than the regional average according to a list of 36 indicators of village infrastructure and household socioeconomic factors (Azis, 1995; Bureau of Statistics, 1995). By 1998, the schools in all IDT villages were mandated to implement the school-feeding program. Implementation of the school-feeding program involved the provision of a mid-morning snack three days a week through the school year, for a total of 108 snacks a year. Program guidelines stipulated that the snack must not include the local staple food in order to avoid the impression that the food was a main meal that replaced a meal children would otherwise receive at home. Despite protests from industry groups at the time of the program‟s inception, the program guidelines also stipulated that industrially produced foods such as milk powder and noodles not be used (Central Coordinating Board for Child and Youth Improvement Program, 1996). To ensure that funding was directed into the local economy, only locally grown commodities could be used. The program also stipulated that children should receive de- worming medicine twice a year (Central Coordinating Board for Child and Youth Improvement Program, 1996). Program funds, based on a per-snack, per-child, per day amount, went directly from the national level to a local bank, bypassing the provincial and district levels of government. This was a new approach to delivery of program funds in Indonesia that was designed to minimize the attrition of funds that occurs as each level of government administers funds, and thus to ensure that more of the allocated funds reached the targeted program beneficiaries. From 1996 to late 1998, the allocated amount was 250 rupiah per snack in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Java, Sumatra, and Bali, and 350 rupiah per snack in the rest of Indonesia (equivalent in 1996 to approximately US$0.10 and US$0.15, respectively). Only the school principal could withdraw funds from the local bank and to do this was required to present a menu plan signed by the village leader, the village midwife, and the heads of the local women‟s and school parents‟ associations (Studdert et al., 2004). This process was designed to ensure that multiple local parties verified student numbers and were aware of the funds being provided for the program. The menu plan was prepared at the village or sub-district level with technical advice from Ministry of Health staff. In Bangladesh, feeding children in school is a recent phenomenon. In July 2002, in order to diminish hunger in the classroom as well as to promote school enrollment and retention rates, the Government of Bangladesh (GOB) and the World Food Programme (WFP) launched the School Feeding Program (SFP) in chronically food insecure areas of Bangladesh (Ahmed, 2004). The program distributes nutrient-fortified biscuits to all children in the intervention schools (Ahmed, 2004). In addition, a small pilot project, started in 2002, distributes „tetrapack‟ milk and fortified biscuits to children in project schools in one of the 64 districts in Bangladesh. This pilot project is funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and implemented by the Land O‟Lakes Foundation. Although in-school feeding is new in Bangladesh, the GOB has devoted a significant share of its budget for over a decade to providing incentives to families to send their children to school (Ahmed, 2004). In an effort to increase primary school enrollment of children from poor families, the GOB had launched the Food for Education (FFE) program in 1993. The FFE program provided a free monthly ration of food grains (rice or wheat) to poor families in rural areas if their children attended primary school. A number of studies suggest that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 the FFE did raise primary school enrollment (Ahmed 2000; Ahmed & Arends-Kuenning 2003; Ahmed & Billah, 1994; Ahmed & del Ninno 2002; Khandker, 1996; Meng & Ryan, 2004; Ravallion & Wodon, 1997). The Primary Education Stipend program (PESP), which replaced the FFE program in 2002, provides cash assistance to poor families if they send their children to primary school. The GOB also provides cash assistance to girls in secondary schools through four secondary school stipend programs. These conditional cash transfer programs aim to increase the enrollment and retention rates of students in primary and secondary schools throughout rural Bangladesh. A recent study indicates positive influence of these programs on educational attainment (Ahmed, 2004). Active community participation is a key to building an empowered community. Not only is participation a requirement for the school feeding program and other empowerment programs, but it is also critical to community success. In participating communities, many people are involved in the community‟s activities. That is, business is not simply run by an elite leadership, but it is the work of everyone. Community participation is thus open to involvement by all groups, and responsibilities ought to be divided up so that the special talents and interests of contributing individual and organizations are engaged. Here, power and responsibility are decentralized. Studies show that communities with high rates of participation apply for and receive more funding than communities with less participation (Meng & Ryan, 2004). 2.4 Nature of Community Participation The nature of community participation in Ghana‟s School Feeding Programme is within the framework of social mobilization and volunteerism. So therefore this study will employ the concept of social mobilization and volunteerism. Social Mobilization, as defined by UNICEF (2004), is a broad movement to engage people‟s participation in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 achieving a specific developmental goal through self-reliant efforts (Tulane University School of Public Health, 2012). It involves all relevant segments of society: decision and policy makers, opinion leaders, bureaucrats and technocrats, professional groups, religious associations, commerce and industry, communities and individuals (Tulane University School of Public Health, 2012). Social Mobilization is a planned decentralized process that seeks to facilitate change for development through a range of players engaged in interrelated and complementary efforts. It takes into account the felt needs of the people, embraces the critical principle of community involvement, and seeks to empower individuals and groups for action. Volunteerism under its many names and guises is deeply embedded in long-established, ancient traditions of sharing in most cultures. Be it understood as mutual aid, helping the less fortunate, caring and service, or participation and campaigning, voluntary action is an expression of people‟s willingness and capacity to freely undertake to help others and improve society in the spirit of reciprocity. It brings significant benefits to individuals and communities and helps to nurture and sustain a richer social texture and a stronger sense of mutual trust and cohesion. Volunteering constitutes an enormous reservoir of skills, energy and local knowledge which can assist Governments in carrying out more targeted, efficient, participatory and transparent public programmes and policies (Economic and Social Council, 2000). 2.4.1 Why is Community Participation Essential? According to Burns, Heywood, Taylor, Wilde and Wilson (2004), the following are some of the key reasons: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Active participation of local residents is essential to improved democratic and service accountability. It enhances social cohesion because communities recognize the value of working in partnership with each other and with statutory agencies. It enhances effectiveness as communities bring understanding, knowledge and experience essential to the regeneration process. Community definitions of need, problems and solutions are different from those put forward by service planners and providers. It enables policy to be relevant to local communities. It adds economic value both through the mobilization of voluntary contributions to deliver regeneration and through skill development, which enhances the opportunities for employment and an increase in community wealth. It gives residents the opportunity to develop the skills and networks that are needed to address social exclusion. It promotes sustainability because community members have ownership of their communities and can develop the confidence and skills to sustain developments once the „extra‟ resources have gone. 2.4.2 Promoting Community Participation Schools that depend on the community to organize and implement SFPs offer certain advantages. These advantages include: increasing the contact, and hence communication, between parents and teachers, officials and others; giving parents the opportunity to become more aware of what goes on at schools; and serving to raise the value of education/the school for parents and the whole community (WFP, 1993). For example, school canteens are viewed as an important feature of education policy in Ghana. Since University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 1978 WFP and the government have supported school feeding. The programs have strong government and community support and are viewed as part of a necessary package of inputs for improving education. The feeding program is credited with helping to maintain high enrollment and attendance and encouraging community participation in education. School cooperatives support the school canteens and parents associations assist with the transportation of food aid (WFP, 1993). 2.4.3 The Authority/Institutional Structure of Ghana School Feeding Programme The institutional structure in charge of the Ghana School Feeding Programme has been mandated by the government of Ghana to see to the day to day administration of the programme. The structure as outline by the government of Ghana had its operation from both national through to the local level as follows: National level: Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development collaborating with other ministries such as the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Ministry of Women and Children Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Regional Cooperation and NEPAD and others. The Programme Steering Committee (Board) and the GSFP National Secretariat can also be found under the national level. Regional Level: this include the GSFP Regional Coordinators and Monitors District Level: District Implementation Committee (chaired by DCE) and District GSFP Desk Officer Local Level: School Implementation Committee (chaired by PTA Representative) Source: Operations Manual (2008: 11) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.5. Theoretical Framework: Participation The prominent frameworks for understanding community participation are summarized and explored in this section of the essay. In recognition that such frameworks represent simplifications of a far more complex reality; a number of ideas are shared. For the purpose of this study, the Arnstein Ladder of Participation and the Game Theory of Participation by Dorsner are utilized as they best fit the phenomenon under study. 2.5.1 Arnstein’s Ladder of Participation The subject of community participation was by Arnstein (1969) which is called Arnstein‟s Ladder of Participation. Arnstein‟s Ladder of Participation posits that participation without redistribution of power is an empty and frustrating process for the powerless. The particular importance of Arnstein‟s work stems from the explicit recognition that there are different levels of participation, from manipulation or therapy of citizens, through to consultation, and to what we might now view as genuine participation, i.e. the levels of partnership and citizen control. The use of a ladder implies that more control is always better than less control. Figure 2.5.1 illustrates Arnstein‟s Ladder of Citizens Participation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Figure 2.1: Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizens Participation Source: Arnstein‟s Ladder of Citizen Engagement (Arnstein, 1969) Manipulation and Therapy: Both are non-participative. The aim is to cure or educate the participants. The proposed plan is best and the job of participation is to achieve public support by public relations. Informing: Is the most important first step to legitimate participation. But too frequently the emphasis is on a one way flow of information. No channel for feedback. Consultation: Again a legitimate step - attitude surveys, neighborhood meetings and public enquiries. Placation: For example, co-option of hand-picked 'worthies' onto committees. It allows citizens to advice or plan ad infinitum but retains for power holders the right to judge the legitimacy or feasibility of the advice. Citizen Control Delegated Power Partnership Placation Consultation Informing Therapy Manipulation Non Participation Degree of Citizen Power Degree of Tokenism University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Partnership: Power is in fact redistributed through negotiation between citizens and power holders. Planning and decision-making responsibilities are shared e.g. through joint committees. Delegated power: Citizens holding a clear majority of seats on committees with delegated powers to make decisions. Public now has the power to assure accountability of the programme to them. Citizen Control: Have-nots handle the entire job of planning, policy making and managing a programme e.g. neighbourhood corporation with no intermediaries between it and the source of funds. Initiation and Process This guide deals with situations where someone, or some organization, seeks to involve others at some level that is, participation doesn‟t just happen; it is initiated. Someone then manages a process over time, and allows others involved more or less control over what happens. In the guide the process is described during four phases: Initiation - Preparation - Participation - Continuation. Control The initiator is in a strong position to decide how much or how little control to allow to others for example, just information, or a major say in what is to happen. This decision is equivalent to taking a stand on the ladder or adopted a stance about the level of participation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Power and purpose Understanding participation involves understanding power: the ability of the different interests to achieve what they want. Power will depend on who has information and money. It will also depend on people‟s confidence and skills. Role of the practitioner This guide is written mainly for people who are planning or managing participation processes here termed “practitioners”. Because these practitioners control much of what happens it is important they constantly think about the part they are playing. Stakeholders and community A stakeholder is anyone who has a stake in what happens. The term forces us to think about who will be affected by any project, who controls the information, skills and money needed, who may help and who may hinder. It does not follow that everyone affected has an equal say; the idea of the ladder is to prompt thinking about who has most influence. Partnership Partnership, like community, is a much abused term. I think it is useful when a number of different interests willingly come together formally or informally to achieve some common purpose. Commitment Commitment is the other side of apathy: people are committed when they want to achieve something, apathetic when they don‟t. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Ownership of ideas People are most likely to be committed to carry something through if they have a stake in the idea. The antidote is to allow people to participate in decision making. Confidence and capacity It is unrealistic to expect individuals or small groups suddenly to develop the capability to make complex decisions and become involved in major projects. They need training or better still the opportunity to learn formally and informally, to develop confidence, and trust in each other. However, increased control may not always be desired by the community and increased control without the necessary support may result in failure. The limitations of Arnstein‟s framework are obvious. Arnstein‟s framework represents a very broad category, within which there are likely to be a wide range of experiences. For example, at the level of „informing‟ there could be significant differences in the type and quality of the information being conveyed. Realistically therefore, levels of participation are likely to reflect a more complex continuum than a simple series of steps. The ladder of participation shows the various stages at which participation take place. In line with this, the study seeks to identify the stages at which participation takes place. However, confirming the theory will be based on empirical data. 2.5.2 Game Theory of Participation Another theory underpinning the study is the Game Theory of Participation by Dorsner. Game theory highlights the rational mechanisms underpinning individual decision-making in a collective action contributing to the common good. In this case, the game theory can help to understand how participation in, or exclusion from a community project occurs. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 The options (voluntary or involuntary) for the members of a community in which a development project is introduced are either to be excluded (not to participate), or to be included (to participate). It seems that this complements the concepts of participation and social exclusion as it allows the articulation of the push and pulls factors of participation or exclusion, determined by “the changing social position of individuals over life courses, the variable costs and benefits of differently placed people, the contending and complementary concerns with production and reproduction that shape people‟s willingness and ability to participate” (Cleaver, in Cooke and Kothari 2001). The rationale behind participation is multifold: increased participation is supposed to promote greater efficiency, more accountability and transparency, enhanced ownership and empowerment. Ultimately, participation is supposed to be the key to genuine and sustainable poverty alleviation by shifting power to those who are “local and poor” (Chambers, in Nelson and Wright 1995). The attraction of game theory lies in its simple representation of a variety of situations in a single table. “The actions of the first player form the rows and the actions of the second player the columns, of a matrix. The entries in the matrix are two numbers representing the utility or payoff to the first and second player respectively” (Levine 2003). A second feature of game theory is that it shows how decision-making at the individual level is supported by a rational calculus of personal gains (or capabilities) against the pursuit of the common good. This rational calculus depends on the different characteristics of the community and its members. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 Game theory can be adapted to the analysis of any process, provided that relevant variables feed into it. In my case, the game theory can help in understanding how participation or non-participation in community development activities occur with particular reference to community members since this study is concerned with community member‟s participation in community development activities at Bekwai district. Dorsner asserts that the game theory emerged as an enlightening alternative tool for capturing the rational aspects of participation and non-participation. The theory assumes that individuals have an option to be either included or excluded in development activities due to some pull or push factors. Table 2.5.3 articulates the different variables that impact upon participation at the levels of the community and of the individual. It can be used as a social exclusion filter to identify “areas of exclusion/integration” (CESIS 1997). The variables listed in the table all have some relevance and potential to explain inclusionary or exclusionary processes. The checklist offered has the advantage of being flexible in the adoption or rejection of variables according to the project under scrutiny. The aim is to provide a comprehensive but by no means exhaustive list of variables that can explain patterns of participation or of social exclusion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Table 2.1: A Social Exclusion Filter for Community Development Projects Variable Community Level Individual Level Economic Level of economic development Level of inequalities Employment patterns and distribution Living standards Income/consumption Assets (land, capital) Level of poverty Employment status and related time availability Social Social norms and networks Societal fragmentation (ethnicity, gender, disabled people, etc.) Community organization and hierarchy Traditional system of decision-making Position in society and social role Membership of CBOs or other networks Political Influence and power of interest groups Political fragmentation Political stance/belief Level of political power Civic engagement and role Religious Influence of religious leaders Degree of intervention of religious leaders in community decision-making Religious objection to the project Degree of trust in religious leaders Psychological General psychological mood determined by national and global environments Degree of self-esteem trust and self-confidence Physical Physical infrastructures and accessibility Electricity, telecommunications, IT Geographical location Access to services (cost and distance) Human Skills and knowledge Capacities and intellectual resources Educational level, management and leadership skills Environmental Presence and impact of external bodies (NGOs, expatriates, etc.) Relationship with NGO staff Past experiences with similar projects Source: Adapted from Lipton (in Haan et al. 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 This social exclusion filter is meant to be used for the analysis of participation in community projects, in order to increase awareness about all the potential barriers to participation. The most relevant variables can be identified on a case-by-case basis and worked upon to minimize social exclusion. The amalgamation of the variables in table one will either give confidence or put a damper on individual‟s participation especially local community members to participate in community development activities such as the school feeding programme. Local community members will seriously consider their economic status, social roles as well as educational level before they can make a choice to either participate or be excluded from developmental projects (Addae, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction In this chapter the researcher describes the methodology used in this study. The chapter presents research design, study area, target population, sampling arrangement, data collection, data management and data quality control as well as data analysis procedures used in the study. In order to accomplish the objectives of this study, comprehensive desk research was combined with consultations from respondents from the field. 3.2 Research Design The study is a cross sectional survey using a mixed method including both qualitative and quantitative approaches among 30 respondents. Specifically, in-depth interviews and semi- structured interviews were conducted to solicit information from respondents. Both quantitative and qualitative analytical tools were used to synthesize the information for the report. 3.3 Study Area The Bekwai Municipal is located in the southern part of the Ashanti Region and shares boundaries with Amansie West and Central Districts to the West, Bosomtwe – Atwima - Kwanwoma District to the north, Adansi East, Adansi North and Asante Akim South District to the East. The Municipality lies within 6º 00‟N - 6º30 „N and Longitudes 1º00W and 1º 35W. The Bekwai Municipal Assembly, formerly the Amansie East District is one of the twenty-seven (27) districts in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The Municipality is the eightieth most populous in Ghana. The population of the Municipality, according to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 2000 Population and Housing Census is 219,508, representing 6.1 percent of the total population of Ashanti region. The Municipality has 116 Nursery/kindergarten schools, 195 primary schools, 94 Junior High Schools, 6 Senior High Schools, and 1 vocational school which is under the Department of Community Development. All these schools are public schools. There are also private schools in the Municipality. (www.ghanadistricts.com: retrieved: 17th July, 2012). 3.4 Target Population The targeted population for the study includes representatives of institutions and a section of community members. The target population for the study comprised the District Implementation Committee (DIC) of the School feeding program, School Implementation Committee (SIC) of selected schools, the Parent Teacher Associations (PTAs) of selected schools, Head Teachers, Matrons, Farmers, Religious Groups, NGOs, Opinion Leaders in the Bekwai Municipality, and ordinary citizens. 3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Procedures In all, a sample size of thirty (30) respondents was chosen for the study. This gave a true reflection of the population selected for the study. This comprised of all persons and committees involved directly in the school feeding programme at the municipal level. A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select the sample for the study. These were purposive and convenience sampling techniques. The scattered nature of the population across the municipality made it imperative to adopt a sampling technique that could give a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 true representation of the population. A multi-stage sampling technique was therefore deemed appropriate to obtain a sample that was representative of the population. Purposive sampling was used to select Bekwai District for the study. This was based on Frankel and Wallen‟s (2003) assertion that based on previous knowledge of a population and the specific purpose of the research, investigators may use personal judgment to select a sample purposively. Consequently Bekwai Municipal Assembly was selected because of the researcher‟s knowledge of the community. Thirty (30) respondents with varied professional characteristics were purposefully selected for interview. This afforded the researcher in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under study. The study further selected communities and schools based on researcher‟s own judgment. It was based on idea of schools enjoying the school feeding programme. Finally, convenience sampling was used to reach the respondents at the respective communities. The convenience sampling was adopted considering the size of the population and the scattered nature of this population across the district and bearing in mind the time frame within which this work ought to be completed. The researcher therefore visited the respondents at the various communities and conveniently selected them. 3.6 Data Collection An introductory letter from the Centre for Social Policy Studies (CSPS) was taken to each of the research centres visited to solicit the needed co-operation for the collection of data. Data collection was done within a week. To ensure a high rate of response, the instruments were self-administered to respondents at their centres. Interviewing of respondents was done concurrently within the period. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 3.6.1 Instrument for Data Collection The study employed an interview schedule for data collection. The researcher deemed the interview schedule appropriate due to the nature of the phenomenon under discussion, thus allowing the respondents to give detailed answers to the questions. The self-administered interview schedule was used on 30 of the respondents. Combinations of open and closed ended questions were used for the interview schedule. Open ended questions allowed in-depth generation of information on some key objectives of the study. According to Gall, Borg, and Gall (1996), the open form questions allows respondents to add information to the survey; whereas the closed form make quantification and analysis of the results more manageable. The 21 items in the interview guide were grouped under five sections. Each section focused on each objective of the study with the exception of section A which addressed the demographic characteristics of the respondents. Section A focused on the demographic characteristics of respondents. Section B investigated community members‟ consultation in the design of the school feeding programme. Section C explored community involvement in deciding which items constitutes the food basket of the programme while Section D and E sought key participants of the school feeding programme within the community and community contribution with regards to the programme respectively. Open-ended questions were used in the interview schedule to allow the respondents the opportunity to answer to items without restrictions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 3.7 Data Quality Control/ Assurance A valid instrument, according to Cohen, Swerdlik and Smith (1992) is one that measures exactly what it is supposed to measure. To ensure that the instrument designed measured what it purported to measure, the items on the research instrument reflected the objectives of the study. The interview conducted helped the researcher to correct the content validity. Additionally, fellow Master of Arts colleagues and thesis supervisors were consulted to edit the items on the instrument to ensure its validity. Also, Best and Khan (1997) maintain that reliability is the degree of consistency that an instrument or procedure demonstrates by measuring consistently and precisely whatever it measures. An instrument is therefore said to be reliable if it provides same results or values consistently when used at different times. To ensure reliability in this study, the researcher pre-tested the instruments on 12 people within Abodom community in the Bekwai District. Pre-test brought to light some ambiguities that were removed, and other valuable points necessary for the work were also reviewed. 3.8 Ethical Considerations Ethical approval and administrative permissions for the study was obtained prior to data collection from the selected study setting. The respondents were assured of the confidentiality of their responses and provided with informed verbal consent so participation could be voluntary. Data was preserved confidentially throughout the study in accordance with the research ethical committee of the University of Ghana, Legon. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 3.9 Data Analysis The unit of analysis of a research methodology defines what the case is and so considering the present study, the individuals within institutions and members of the community formed the researcher‟s unit of analysis. This was informed by the fact that the researcher sought to analyze how a community which in this case is the Bekwai Municipal Assembly, contributes to a national social intervention programme such as the School Feeding Programme. The members of the community comprised members of the District Implementation Committee (DIC), School Implementation committee (SIC), head teachers, Parent Teacher Association (PTA), Matrons/Caterers, religious groups, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), opinion leaders, farmers and ordinary citizens. From this composition, two (2) members on the DIC were interviewed; six (6) members on the SICs were interviewed; three (3) head teachers were interviewed; three (3) PTA chairpersons were interviewed; three (3) matrons were interviewed; three (3) members from various religious groups were interviewed; four (4) opinion leaders and six (6) ordinary citizens were also interviewed. In all, thirty (30) respondents were interviewed for the purpose of this study. The nature of the research instrument generated both quantitative and qualitative data. The quantitative data collected was edited, coded, and fed into the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) to analyze. Descriptive statistics such as frequency tables were used in the data analysis. The results from the open-ended questions were also edited, summarized, organized, transcribed and interpreted into themes and sub-themes. Narratives were used for the qualitative data. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the results of the study conducted on the participation of community members in the School Feeding Programme at Bekwai Municipality of the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The chapter focuses on data collected from the field which have been analyzed and presented in tables and charts. The data addresses the research objectives and questions. The results are presented in order of the following objectives: 1. To examine the nature of community participation in the school feeding programme with regards to: a. Community participation in designing the school feeding programme b. Community involvement in deciding which products should constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. c. Key participants of the school feeding programme. d. Community contributions to the school feeding programme. Identify ways to improve the school feeding programme in the Bekwai Municipality. 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents This section presents results on the demographic characteristics of respondents who participated in the study. In this wise, respondents were asked to provide the researcher with bio-data. This helped in establishing reasons why people participated in the school feeding programme. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 The first question posed was in relation to gender. The results established that 17 male and 13 female participated in the study representing 56.7% male and 43.3% female respectively. This is represented in the figure 4.1. Figure 4.1: Sex of Respondents Source: Author’s Field Data (2012). The study further wanted to find out the ages of respondents who mostly participated in the school feeding programme. The results are depicted in the figure 4.2. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 Figure 4.2: Ages of Respondents Source: Author’s Field Data 2012 Figure 4.2 shows that majority of the respondents who were 51 and above participated more in the school feeding programme as compared to the other ages. This was represented by 40% of the respondents. This was followed by respondents who were between the ages of 41-50, represented by 26.7%. Also 31-40 had 20% while 20-30 had 13.3%. From data analyzed, it can be said that the higher the age of respondent, the more likely respondent participated in the school feeding programme in the study. This may be due to importance African societies attach to ages as older persons are viewed reservoirs of knowledge due to experience. The study confirms the results which indicates the ages of respondents who participate in the school feeding programme are 51 years and above. This is made of up of government officials and non-government officials. Government officials includes: District Assembly members and members of the District Implementation Committee. While non-government University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 officials included community members, caterers, religious leader, as well as Officials of the various schools. In addition to this, the respondents were asked the number of years they have resided in the community chosen for the study. This was important as it helped in establishing whether the community participated effectively in the programme. The results are depicted in figure 4.3. Figure 4.3: Number of Years Participants have Resided in the Community Source: Author’s Field Data 2012 According to figure 4.3, a majority of the respondents have stayed in the community for over 20 years. This represents 61% of the sample. This was followed by 19% of the respondents who have stayed in the community for less than six years. However, the remaining 20% had lived in the community ranging from six years to twenty years. It can University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 be deduced that the lengthy stay in a community increases the chances of participation in a community. This affirms research by Biney (2010) which indicates that decision is mostly taken by influential citizens of a community who had very good knowledge of the community. This can attest to reasons why most decisions are taken by adult and matured people within the community. However, most of this knowledge comes with years of residence in the community. In order to know the schools within the Bekwai municipal assembly that enjoys the school feeding programmes, respondents were asked to list some of the schools within the community. All the respondents (100%) indicated some of the schools enjoying the school feeding programme. These include S. D. A. Primary School, Islamic School, Islamic J. H. S., Abodom M. A. Primary School, Methodist Primary, Poano R. C. Primary School, Anwia Nkwanta S. D. A. Primary, Agyamasu Primary and Islamic Cluster of School. This is by no means exhaustive of all the schools that are on the SFP within the Bekwai municipality, as about eighteen (18) schools happen to be on the programme at the time of the study. 4.3: Section B: Consultation of Community Members in Designing the School Feeding Programme. A question was posed to community members to find out whether they were consulted in designing the school feeding programme. This was to find out whether the community members participated in designing the programme. The responses from the respondents are given in Table 4.1. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 Table 4.1: Consultation of Community Members in Designing the S. F. P Consultation of Community Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Yes 19 63.3 No 9 30 Neutral 2 6.7 Total 30 100 Source: Author’s Field Data (2012) Table 4.1 shows 63.3 % of the respondents said they were consulted in planning and designing the school feeding programme while 30 % were not consulted. Also, 6.7% of the respondents were indifferent when asked whether they were consulted in designing the school feeding programme. From these responses, it can be said that a majority of the respondents were involved in designing the school feeding programme. The comments below attest to some selected teachers within the Bekwai community who indicated “yes” “It included opinion leaders and PTA” (Head Teacher, Anwia Nkwanta, 19/10/12) “Yes but not always” (Head Teacher, Islamic School, 19/10/12) “Yes I was consulted on several occasions” (Head Teacher, Poano, 20/10/12). On the other hand, a verbatim account of respondents who were not consulted in designing the school feeding programme had this to say: “I was never consulted; it is just between the head teachers and the government” (Community member, Poano, 20/10/12) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 “Not all patrons were involved except the assembly members” (Teacher, Methodist Primary School, 20/ 10/12) “It was just a discussion between the government officials” (Teacher, Anwia Nkwanta S. D. A. Primary, 19/10/12). In furtherance of the analysis, respondents were asked various questions under this section. The responses are depicted in table 4.2. Table: 4.2: Consultation of Community Members Priorities in Village Development Plan Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Yes 25 83.3 No 5 16.7 Total 30 100 Structures Used to Establish Communication Yes 25 83.3 No 5 16.7 Total 30 100 Consultation of Community Members on Possible Challenges Yes 25 83.3 No 5 16.7 Total 30 100 Source: Author’s Field Data (2012) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 Table 4.2 shows that respondents were asked whether the community places priority on the school feeding programme. A majority of the respondents 83.3% responded in the affirmative. This is what some the respondents had to say: “I only know one head teacher who calls a meeting with the matrons to address issues pertaining to the programme” (Opinion Leader, Bekwai, 19/10/12) “Very much so because sometimes the parents rely on the school feeding programme to cater for their wards.” (Opinion Leader, Anwia Nkwanta, 19/10/12) “Because enrollment increased and drop out decreased” (Assembly Member, Bekwai, 19/10/12) On the other hand, less than 20% of the respondents did not place priority on the phenomenon under discussion. This was indicated by 16.7% of the responses given. In addition to the analysis in this section, respondents were asked if structures of communication exist between the community and implementers of the school feeding programme. This question was asked to solidify answers as to level of community participation in the school feeding programme. Responses analyzed as depicted in Table 4.2 shows that 83.3% of the respondents admitted that structures of communication existed between the community and implementers of the programme. The comment by a respondent attested to this fact: “Yes: can mention the chiefs, the head teachers, desk officer at the district office” (DIC Member, Bekwai, 19/10/12) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 Likewise, 16.7% of the respondents said “No” as few people were consulted as compared to the entire community. This is what some respondents had to say: “No: it is just the school management committee and sometimes the PTA members” (Opinion Leader, Bekwai, 19/10/13). “Not necessarily because we don’t provide funds” (Assembly Member, Poano, 20/10/12). In further development, the respondents were asked if they were consulted on any possible challenges to meeting the minimum requirement for school feeding programme. The analyzed data on Table 4.2 indicated that 83.3% of the communities were consulted while 16.7% were not consulted. A number of studies suggest that community consultation in school feeding programme did raise primary school enrollment (Ahmed 2000; Ahmed & Arends-Kuenning 2003; Ahmed & Billah, 1994; Ahmed & del Ninno 2002; Khandker, 1996; Meng & Ryan, 2004; Ravallion & Wodon, 1997). A study in Bangladesh posited that consultation of community members in the daily management of school feeding programme paves way for community members to contribute in diverse ways towards the enhancement and sustainability of the programme. The study further confirmed the increase enrolment of school going age at the primary level due to community consultation (Ahmed, 2004). The analysed data confirmed community consultation in designing the school feeding programme. This supports the increase enrolment of children at the primary level in the Bekwai Municipality as confirmed by respondents. On the other hand, the level or degree of consultation leaves room for further studies. Arnstein ladder of citizen participation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 attest to this fact which he named “information”. He referred to this stage as the first step to legitimate participation. He had it that information is one flow and that there is no channel or means for feedback. This can be said to be the case in the Bekwai municipality where community members are informed about the school feeding programme but there are no means for feedback. 4.4: Section C: Nature of Community Involvement in Deciding which Food Items to be Used According to Biney (2003), though the term participation is open to different interpretations, there seems to be a general agreement among scholars and agencies involved in community development about its meaning. Biney contends that in their view, participation has three dimensions – the involvement of all the people concerned in the decision making process, mass contributions to the improvement effort, and sharing the benefits of the development effort. It can be deduced from above that, if the beneficiaries of a development activity do not participate in decision making process and other aspects of the development process, their mere involvement in the physical work can hardly be described as community participation. Based on this, respondents were asked questions in relations to community involvement in decision making. The responses are depicted in Table 4.3. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 Table 4.3: Decision on Food Items to be used Involvement of Community in Deciding which Products to be Used Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Yes 2 6.7 No 28 93.3 Total 30 100 Community Involvement in Analyzing Food Production Capacity Yes 23 76.7 No 7 23.3 Total 30 100 Farmers Contribution to the Food Basket of the S.F.P Yes 3 10 No 27 90 Total 30 100 What Constitute the Food Basket S.F.P in the Mun. Yes 28 93.3 No 2 6.7 Total 30 100 Source: Author’s Field Data (2012) According to Table 4.3, only 6.7% of the respondents were involved in deciding which products should be provided in the food basket. A majority 28 (93.3%) of the respondents were not involved in the process. From a stand point, it can be said that majority of the community members are not involved in deciding what should constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. An account from respondents was: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 There is a national menu that takes into account the nutritional needs of the pupils (DIC Member, Bekwai, 19/09/12) No: this is because there is a menu, but this is subject to change since some food stuffs are seasonal (Matron, Islamic School, 19/09/2012 ) There is no need to involve the community members since decision comes from the top (Matron, Poano R/C Primary School, 20/09/12). In conformity to Arnstein‟s ladder of citizenship participation, it can be deduced that community members belongs to first or the down-line of ladder namely; manipulation and therapy as well as informing. The manipulation and therapy refers to community members as non-participant. The main aim is to cure or educate the participants. It can therefore be said community members at Bekwai municipality are to be educated on the school feeding programme rather than seeking community members‟ active involvement. It can also be said that message flow or communication is one way as community members are only informed about the school feeding programme. This Arnstein termed as informing. It clearly indicates that community members do not have a voice as there is no feedback to the managers of the programme. In addition, when respondents were asked if there would be a possibility of mapping local- level business, processing capacity and food production capacity to analyze the food basket of the programme if the communities were more involved, 76.7% indicated “yes” while a little below 25% of the respondents indicated “no”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 Furthermore, only 10% of the respondents agreed that farmers contribute to the food basket of the school feeding programme. Likewise, a majority of the respondents (90%) of the respondents indicated “no” when asked whether farmers in the municipality contribute to the food basket of the school feeding programme. The comments attest to the analysis above. Some of the comments were: Fund for procurement of food items are not released on time and this makes it difficult to deal with the farmers on credit bases (Matron, Islamic School, 19/09/2012) Initially we did but most of the farmers increased food items beyond the stipulated prices since it was government funded programme. Based on this, a decision was taken to procure items at a cheaper source at the market. (Matron, Poano R/C primary, 20/09/12) Community members have an idea that it is a government initiative and therefore government must be solely responsible for it (Opinion Leader, Poano, 19/09/12) Verbatim account by respondents shows that there was lack of education and sensitization on the programme to the farmers as they wanted to take undue advantage of government coffers other than seeing the programme as community owned. It can also be said that delayed release of funds for the programme hindered the participation of local farmers in the programme. Nonetheless, one of the main reasons why the school feeding programme was implemented was to provide ready markets for farmers produce which will go a long way to create employment as well as empower the citizenry of the local community. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 In a further development, a question was posed to solicit response on what constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. This was to enable the researcher to have a fair idea as to whether the communities have a fair idea on what constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. The response indicated that 93.3% of the respondents had a fair idea while a little above 5% had no idea on what constitutes the food basket of the programme. This is a summary of what respondents mentioned to constitute the food basket: Rice, yam, beans, cabbage, eggs, maize, cassava dough, palm oil, tomatoes, pepper, beans, gari, palm oil, yam, palm nut, maize, cassava, potatoes, palaver sauce, cassava, waakye, okro, groundnut, fish etc. The result analyzed in Table 4.3 does not support literature as majority of the respondents were not involved in deciding which products should constitute the food basket. The importance of involving community members in decision making is echoed by Knowles (1980) when he states categorically that, „human beings tend to feel committed to decisions to the extent that they have participated in making it‟. White (1982) is also in support of this view. According to White, „ when beneficiaries are actively involved in the planning and implementation of a project/ programme, they tend to accept it as their own, feel responsible for it and therefore use it responsibly and ensure its regular maintenance‟. In order for all community members to be part of the development efforts of community programme, there is the need to create a platform for members to be part of such efforts. Community meetings which will serve this purpose will create the avenue for community members to plan and implement development activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 Rubin and Rubin (2008:213) assert that “meetings are about expanding collective involvement in social change work. Information shared at meeting increases the competence of people to act. More specialized meetings build capacity by presenting knowledge. At decision making meetings organization, members and leaders come together to work out action strategies”. This is to say that community involvement is very important since it will help the sustainability of the programme. 4.5: Section D: Key Participants of the School Feeding Programme within the Community This section presents results on key participants of the school feeding programme within the community. The section is divided into five areas as depicted in table 4.4. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 Table 4.4: Participants of the School Feeding Programme Food Management Committee with any Representative from the Community Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Yes 20 66.7 No 10 33.3 Total 30 100 Intermediary between the Community and the Sch. Yes 20 66.7 No 10 33.3 Total 30 100 Management of the School Feeding Prog. Yes 21 70 No 9 30 Total 30 100 Implementation Arrangement and its Burden Yes 23 76.7 No 7 23.3 Total 30 100 Involvement of Sch. Children in the Mgt. of the Food Yes 26 86.7 No 4 13.3 Total 30 100 Source: Author’s Field Data (2012) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 The result from the field as shown in Table 4.4 depicts key participants of the school feeding programme within the Bekwai community. The first question was in line with a quest to find out if there was food management committee comprising representatives from the community. The responses show that 66.7% of the respondents indicated yes while 33.3% of the respondents indicated “no”. Also, when posed with the question whether the committee acts as an interface between the community and the school, 66.7% said “yes” while 33.3% “no”. In furtherance to the study, 70% of the respondents responded “yes” when asked a question in reference to the management and monitoring of the school feeding programme by the committee. On the other hand 30% responded “no”. Also, a question to solicit response on whether implementation arrangements avoid putting pressure and burden on teachers, 76.7% said “yes” while only 23.3% said “no”. What‟s more 86.7% of respondents avoid involving children in the cooking or management of the food. Only 13.3% did said “no” when asked whether implementation arrangements avoid involving children in the cooking or management of food. According to Aref and Ma‟rof (2009), community key people are an important element of any community and vital to successful laudable initiatives like the free school feeding programme. Key people such as leaders in a community can play the role of catalysts for actualizing the potential of local communities and assisting them to change. According to Sautoy (cited in Battern, 1962) community programmes, governmental programmes and other developments requires something more than the possession of enthusiasm, good intentions and the liking and respect for people. Sautoy contends that leaders or key people University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 within a community need a wide range of knowledge and skills to be able to stimulate, educate, inform, and convince people who may initially be apathetic or skeptical about participation in community development. Leaders‟/ key people participation may be operationalized as the creation of opportunities to enable them contributes effectively to the development process of their communities. Leaders/ key personnel‟s in the rural communities are an embodiment of respect and as such can be a source of motivation to community members in contributing to the development process. This is to say that for the sustainability and expansion of the school feeding programme, the committees in charge must seek the inclusion of key personnel in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of the entire programme. 4.6: Section E: Community Contribution to the School Feeding Programme This section presents results on the contribution of community members to the sustainability of the school feeding programme. The results are depicted in Table 4.5. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 Table 4.5: Community Contribution to the School Feeding Programme Community Contribution to the S. F. P. (Logistics) Frequency (f) Percentage (%) Yes 2 6.7 No 28 93.3 Total 30 100 Community Contribution to the S. F. P. (Food) Yes 23 76.7 No 7 23.3 Total 30 100 Community Contribution to the S. F. P. (Financial) Yes 3 10 No 27 90 Total 30 100 Source: Author’s Field Data (2012) The results from the field as indicated in Table 4.5 show that only (2) 6.7% of the respondents sometimes contribute fire wood to programme. On the other hand, a large section of the respondents said otherwise. This was indicated by 93.3% of the respondents. The comments from this section attest to this fact: “What they mostly provide is firewood. But we buy most of these things from the community members” (Anwia Nkwanta, Assembly Member, 19/10/13). “We sometimes buy items from the farm gates from the farmers within the community” (Bekwai, PTA Chairman, 19/10/13) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 In addition, respondents were asked if community members contribute food to be given to children. 76.7% maintained that the community members contribute but most of these items were not free as 23.3% of the respondents. A further question indicated that all items are mostly bought from the community. This is what a head teacher from the community had to say: “It’s a government funded programme and we don’t allow any parent/ members of the community contribute food resources or cash resources to the programme” (19/10/13). A further question in reference to cash donations by the community, only 3 (10%) of the respondents maintained that some parents and philanthropist in the community sometimes contribute to the school feeding programme. Differently from what have been said, 90% said no in that there is no cash donation from the community members. One of the respondents had this to say: “The government has not asked for a helping hand” (Head Teacher, Islamic School, 19/10/13). Other respondents commented: “It’s a government sponsored programme and the matrons don’t complain about lacking resources” (Poano, PTA Chairman, 20/10/13). “Most of the community members see themselves as poor and therefore cannot support in that regard” (Bekwai, Assembly Member, 30/10/13) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 4.6.1: Significant of Community Contribution to the S. F. P. In order to know how significant the contribution of the community participation in the school feeding programme is, a question was posed to respondents to indicate whether their contribution to the programme is burdensome or vice-versa. This is what some of the respondents had to say: “It is significant. It is within their means and does not burden them. Anyway, we don’t need them badly” (Asst. Matron, Poano R/C Primary, 20/10/13) “The community can help in cash and kind since we purchase most of our items from the market” (Assembly Member, Bekwai, 19/10/13) “I think they contribute by fetching fire wood for cooking and I think this is within their means and can help cut down the cost” (Opinion Leader, Anwia Nkwanta, 19/10/13) “Very minimal and so they are not burdened. They could contribute things like fetching water, firewood and other little things” (Assembly Member, Poano, 20/10/13) “It is very significant. It is within the means of household. I think the community can help supply source of the food stuff” (Asst. Head Teacher, Poano R/C Primary, 20/10/13) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 From the responses given, it could be deduced that community contribution to the school feeding programme is very important as it will help reduce the burden on suppliers. It will also go a long way to strengthen the school feeding programme since participations helps in creating community project ownership as highlighted by Addae (2010). These advantages may include: increasing the contact, and hence communication, between parents and teachers, officials and others; giving parents the opportunity to become more aware of what goes on at schools; and serving to raise the value of education/the school for parents and the whole community. A research by WFP 1978 indicated that school canteens are viewed as an important feature of education policy in Ghana. This is to say that since 1978 WFP and the government have supported school feeding. The programs have strong government and community support and are viewed as part of a necessary package of inputs for improving education. The feeding program is credited with helping to maintain high enrollment and attendance and encouraging community participation in education. School cooperatives support the school canteens and parents associations assist with the transportation of food aid (WFP, 1993). To conclude with, studies in northern Ghana have also confirmed that the depth and incidence of poverty among the majority of rural households restricts children from attaining higher levels of education and completing basic education (Casely-Hayford, 2006). Studies by the WFP also suggest that the contribution of food assistance programmes particularly targeted at girls can make a tremendous impact on reversing the trends of non-access, and poor retention particularly for young girls at the upper primary level (WFP, 2004). To do away with this phenomenon and better to enhance its efficiency and its efficacy, community selection must be better targeted in order for GSFP to make University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 an impact. This requires working much closer with the GES in order to ensure that communities selected meet the criteria set out in programme document and target communities with low enrolment and retention figures. After a community has been chosen, a transitional period (of at least 6 months) must be allowed for sensitization. During this period, community roles and responsibilities must be clearly explained and consultation should be held on operational issues to assist the community bodies better govern and manage the programme at the school level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on the summary, conclusion and recommendations of the study. The recommendations were made based on the major findings of the study and the conclusions drawn. The chapter also considers the implications of the findings to social policy and practice as well as suggestions for future studies. 5.2 Summary The study identified the level of participation of community members in the school feeding programme in the Bekwai District of the Ashanti Region. The study was designed to achieve the following objectives: To examine the nature of community participation in the school feeding programme with regards to: a. Community participation in designing the school feeding programme b. Community involvement in deciding which products should constitute the food basket of the school feeding programme. c. Key participants of the school feeding programme. d. Community contributions to the school feeding programme Identify ways to improve the school feeding programme in the Bekwai Municipality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 Based on the research objectives, literature was reviewed in related areas such as the concept of community participation and central thematic areas in relation to the phenomenon under study and ways of enhancing community participation in school feeding programme activities. The study was grounded on the Game Theory of Participation and Arnstein‟s Ladder of Participation. In terms of methodology, the explorative and descriptive survey design was adopted for the study and the population consisted of individuals within various institutions as well as the communities in Bekwai Municipality which are on the school feeding programme. The non-probability sampling technique was employed for the study. The purposive and convenient sampling technique was used in the final stage to sample a total of 30 respondents for the study. The interview schedule was the only data collection instrument used for the study. 5.3 Major Findings Findings from the study indicated that: A majority of the respondents were male. This was represented by 57% of the respondents. Also, respondents who were age 51+ formed majority of the respondents while most of residents have resided in the community for over 20 years. A significant number of the schools in the municipality enjoy the free school feeding programme. Eight (8) out of eighteen (18) of the schools were mentioned by the respondents which they knew to be part of the schools benefiting from the programme. Also, 63.3% of the respondents were consulted in planning and designing the school feeding programme. 83.3% of the respondents placed priority on the school University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 feeding programme while only 5% of the respondents did not prioritize the programme. Findings also indicated there was structure which served as a communication between the communities and the committee handling the free school feeding programme. This view was represented by a majority of 83.3%. Furthermore, the community was not involved in deciding which products to be used in cooking. Only 6.7% of community member were involved on decision making as to what should constitute the products to be used. Also, it is interesting to note that community participation in the entire programme was minimal as it was viewed as a programme of the government. There was very little, less that 5% of the contribution in terms of logistics, food items and finance from the community. There was absence of participation of NGOs at the community level with regards to the SFP. 5.4. Implications Social policy is concerned with activities in which the capacities and capabilities of communities and people who are considered to be vulnerable members of a society are enhanced to an appreciable level. This implies that social policy focuses on the development of the individual and his/her environment. It uses education as the main tool to empower people and communities to embark on development. In order for social policy practitioners to successfully empower people to contribute to the development of their communities and for that matter the nation as a whole, they need to have adequate information about the needs of the communities and people concerned. It is against this background that the results of this study would serve as a guide to policy makers to put in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 place appropriate programmes to empower communities in the study area. The study results for example revealed that community members were of the view that if they receive appropriate education to better understand the school feeding programmes, it can enhance their participation in development activities such as the phenomenon understudy in the Bekwai community. This information would help policy makers working in the Ashanti region and for that matter the nation as a whole to design educational programmes that would empower communities to take action to solve the problems they face. Also, the study results would serve as guide to policy makers and other stakeholders to know how best to motivate community members to participate fully in all development activities in their communities. In respect of policy, the results of the study would help government and other policy makers to put in place a policy that would promote the participation of community members in activities that seek to improve the living conditions of rural dwellers. To this end, all steps should be taken to know the needs of community members and how the satisfaction of their needs can be used as motivation for them to participate in development activities. 5.5. Conclusion The study showed that community participation in the school feeding programme in the Bekwai Municipal Assembly is low. This is due to the fact that only officials who are directly linked to programme participated. This can be attributed to low level of community members on the school feeding programme. The findings of the study confirmed that officials directly linked to the school feeding programme did not adhered to the policy framework guiding the implementation of the school feeding programme. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 5.6. Recommendations The study recommends that: There are several areas in which the GSFP has the potential to make a significant contribution towards educational and agricultural policy goals within Ghana. School feeding is identified as one strategy to help Government to achieve 100 percent completion rates for both male and female children at all basic levels of education by 2015 in the Ministry‟s Annual Education Sector Operational Plan (2007-2009). The GSFP must therefore be provided with all the necessary backings from all quarters to make the initiative successful. The use of locally produced food for the GSFP is also meant to provide markets for local farmers enhance their productivity and production and improve their incomes, in line with Government policy of reducing poverty. Generally, however, the GSFP has failed to make any significant positive impacts on agricultural production in the beneficiary communities. The free school feeding concept must be considered for the implementation of the GSFP since there appears to be no strategy in the GSFP to link farmers and farmer based organizations to the programme. The GSFP should collaborate and work hand in hand with the communities to make the initiative a successful one. The GSFP must improve the governance aspect of its programme. A stakeholders meeting must be called under the auspices of the Minister of Local Government, Rural Development and Environment to discuss the way forward in this regard. In the meantime, it is recommended that the functions of the District Implementation Committee (DIC) be transferred to a relevant legally constituted body of the Assembly and chaired by the District Chief Executive (DCE). Furthermore, it is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 again proposed that the functions of the GSFP School Implementation Committee (SIC) at the community/school level be transferred to the School Management Committee (SMC), which is also the legally constituted body. This new arrangement will further free the head teachers and their staff to concentrate on their academic work and ensure the quality of education is not impaired. This can further reduce the bureaucracy that impair information flow, ambiguity of functions and likely attrition that may accompany programme funds at the various levels of administration. Capacity building in the area of M&E must be carried out with GSFP in order to train officials at all levels to take charge of the programme, particularly the beneficiary communities by CSOs. This will go a long way to strengthen the programme. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 REFERENCE Addae, D. (2010). Local leadership participation in community development. M.Phil Unpublished Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon. Agbey, S. N. D. (2011). Ghana - social accountability in the school feeding programme (GSFP). Ahmed A. U. (2004). Impact of feeding children in school: Evidence from Bangladesh. 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School feeding programs: Improving effectiveness and increasing the benefit to education. A guide for program managers. Oxford, UK: Partnerships for Child Development. Dorsner, C. (2004). Social exclusion and participation in community development: Evidence from Senegal in social policy and administration (Vol. 38, No. 4). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Economic and Social Council (2000). The role of volunteerism in the promotion of social development. United Nations Report. ECN.5/2001/_. New York. Edwards, T., Lindemann, K. E., Olson, N. (2010). Evaluation of world food programme country program in Ghana. An independent analysis of progress to date, focusing on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 the school feeding aspects of the program, including recommendations for sustainability of the Ghanaian School Feeding Program, as well as lessons learned for replicability of WFP School Meals Programs in other African nations. 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Community- based school feeding during Indonesia‟s economic crisis: Implementation, benefits, and sustainability. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 25 (2) The United Nations University. Tulane University School of Public Health website on social mobilization. (2012). Retrieved July 10, 2012, from http://www.tulane. edu/~icec/socmob.htm UNICEF. (2007). The state of the world‟s children. Accessed online: http://www.unicef.org/sowc/ United Nations (2002). UN. millennium project report. Washington D.C.: UN, p. 1 White, A. T. (1982). “Why community participation”. Assignment Children. 50/60, 17 - 34 World Bank (2005). The world bank annual report: 2005year in review. New York: World Bank World Food Program. (2008). “What is Hunger?” World Food Program. http://www.wfp.org/aboutwfp/introduction/hunger_what.asp?section=1&sub_sectio n=1 (accessed April 16th,) World Food Programme (1993). Feeding of children in rural primary schools: Project Morocco 2288. World Food Programme University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 World Food Programme (2004). Home grown school feeding programme. New York: World Food Programme. World Food Programme (2010). Home grown school feeding: A framework to link school\ feeding with local agricultural production. Rome: Via Cesare Giulio Viola 68/70- 00148. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 APPENDIX: INTERVIEW GUIDE My name is CLEMENT BAFFUOR GYAWU and I would like to talk to you about your opinion regarding the nature of community participation in the School Feeding Program. The interview should take less than 20 minutes. All responses will be kept confidential. This means that your interview responses will only be shared with research team members and the researcher will ensure that any information that is included in the report does not identify you as the respondent. Are there any questions about what the researcher has just explained? Are you willing to participate in this interview? __________________ __________________ __________ Interviewee Witness Date Section A: Qualities of Key Respondent Please in this section questions are asked about personal information with respect to you being a member of the Bekwai Municipal Assembly. Please respond to the following questions to the best of your ability. 1. What is your gender type? 2. How old are you? 3. How long have you being a resident of this community? 4. Do you know of any School within the Bekwai municipal assembly that enjoys the school feeding program? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 Section B: Ascertaining Whether Community Members were consulted in the Design of the School Feeding Programme 5. Has the community been consulted in the design of the program? 6. Has the community included school feeding as one of its priorities in village development plans? 7. Are there any community‐level structures that are used to establish communication (village councils, traditional authority structures, village elders, and the like) regarding the implementation of the school feeding program? 8. Has the community been consulted on possible challenges to meeting the minimum requirements for school feeding and supported with strategies to overcome the challenges? Section C: The Community’s Involvement in Deciding which Products are Provided in the Food Basket 9. Has the community been involved in deciding which products are provided in the food basket? 10. If the community was more involved, would there be the possibility of mapping local‐level businesses, processing capacity, and food production capacity to analyze the food basket of the program and the possibility of sourcing it locally? 11. Will you confirm that the farmers in this locality have largely been the providers of the produce that make the food basket of the school feeding programme? 12. Do you have a fair idea what really constitutes the food basket of the school feeding programme of this municipality? If so list them. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 Section D: Key Participants of the School Feeding Programme within the Community 13. Is there a canteen or food management committee comprising representatives who are parents, teachers, and students? 14. Does this committee act as an interface between the community and the school, 15. Does this committee manage and monitor the school feeding programme, and ensure good utilization of the food in the school? 16. Do implementation arrangements avoid putting too much pressure and burden on teachers? 17. Do implementation arrangements explicitly avoid involving children in the cooking or management of the food (especially girls)? Section E: The Community’s Contribution with regards to the Programme 18. Does the community contribute to pay the cooks or provide the firewood used in cooking? 19. Does the community contribute food in‐kind for the program to be given to children? 20. Does the community contribute cash resources to the programme? 21. Overall, how significant is the community‟s contribution? Is it within households‟ means or is it burdening them excessively? What other contributions could they make that do not burden them? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh