TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 27 June 2023
DOI 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1194321
Consumer food storage practices 
OPEN ACCESS and methods at the 
EDITED BY
Luca Secondi,  household-level: a community 
University of Tuscia, Italy
REVIEWED BY study in Ghana
Luis F. Goulao,  
University of Lisbon, Portugal
Evans Brako Ntiamoah,  Ebenezer Afriyie 1,2, Monika Zurek 3, Freda E. Asem 4, 
Sichuan Agricultural University, China
David Nartey Obemah,  Bernard Okpattah 5, John K. Ahiakpa 6 and Yong-Guan Zhu 1*
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and 
Technology, Ghana 1 Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, China, 2 University of Chinese 
Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China, 3 Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, 
*CORRESPONDENCE
United Kingdom, 4 University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana, 5 Asinyo Agri-Commerce Ltd., Accra, Ghana, 
Yong-Guan Zhu  6 Research Desk Consulting Ltd., Accra, Ghana
 ygzhu@iue.ac.cn
RECEIVED 05 April 2023
ACCEPTED 05 June 2023 Introduction: Household-level food storage can make food available to 
PUBLISHED 27 June 2023 consumers, and promotes food security. Nevertheless, attention is mostly 
CITATION devoted to enhancing food storage at the farmer and national levels, neglecting 
Afriyie E, Zurek M, Asem FE, Okpattah B, the household level. It is therefore critical to assess food storage practices of 
Ahiakpa JK and Zhu Y-G (2023) Consumer food 
storage practices and methods at the households. This study examined food storage practices of households, evaluated 
household-level: a community study in Ghana. expert opinions on household-level food storage, and assessed the effect 
Front. Sustain. Food Syst. 7:1194321. household characteristics has on food storage and food security.
doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1194321
COPYRIGHT Methods: Dzorwulu and Jamestown communities in Accra, Ghana, were chosen 
© 2023 Afriyie, Zurek, Asem, Okpattah, Ahiakpa as the study locations. The study consisted of a survey, expert interviews and 
and Zhu. This is an open-access article structural equation modeling. For the survey, 400 food household heads selected 
distributed under the terms of the Creative 
Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The using systematic sampling method responded to a semi-structured questionnaire. 
use, distribution or reproduction in other Seventeen (17) experts were also purposively sampled and interviewed.
forums is permitted, provided the original 
author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are Results and Discussion: The results showed that, most households stored 
credited and that the original publication in this foodstuffs they often consumed, with generally low storage of fruits and 
journal is cited, in accordance with accepted vegetables. Perishable foods such as cassava, tomato, yam, and banana were 
academic practice. No use, distribution or 
reproduction is permitted which does not stored by 37.8, 42, 38.3 and 43.8% of households, respectively, for 1–3 days. 
comply with these terms. Households often stored food within a period of 2 weeks, due to poor storage 
facilities and lack of food storage knowledge. About 85.8% of households had 
never received training on food storage. Most households used baskets, bowls, 
sacks and polyethylene bags to store food at home, and some used refrigerators 
and deep freezers. Regarding the link between food storage and food security, 
household heads’ income showed a significant positive moderating effect (p ≤ 0.01), 
households’ socioeconomic status had a positive effect, while household size 
indicated a significant negative moderating effect (p ≤ 0.01). The experts asserted 
that, household-level food storage enhances food security and food safety, and 
reduces food expenditure and food wastage. The limited food storage knowledge 
of households should be a basis for intervention to enhance proper food storage 
practices within households.
KEYWORDS
household-level food storage, food security, food safety, food waste, household 
income, Ghana
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1. Introduction (Spielmann and Aggarwal, 2017). In China, the Scientific Grain 
Storage Project has been implemented by the government to minimize 
Achieving food security and ending hunger is a major aim of the food storage losses by promoting advanced storage facilities including 
United Nations’ sustainable development goals, SDG 2 (United metal mesh warehouses, metal silos and steel framework warehouses 
Nations, 2015). Nevertheless, the number of people affected by hunger to farmers at subsidized prices (Luo et al., 2021). Similarly, improved 
in the world were between 702 and 828 million in 2021, and about 2.3 storage facilities such as hermetic storage bags and silos are being 
billion people were moderately or severely food insecure in the world promoted for use to farmers in Ghana to reduce postharvest losses. 
in the same year (FAO et  al., 2022). Another concern is also the Regardless of the effort geared towards enhancing food storage at the 
pressure on food security from climate change – the Food and national and farmer levels in Ghana, little attention is paid to 
Agriculture Organization (FAO) noted that because of its impact on promoting food storage at the consumer or household-level in 
agriculture, climate change will negatively affect food security in all of the country.
its dimensions (FAO, 2016), and hence increase economic pressure on In prehistoric times, household-level food storage was a robust 
food access. Simulations performed using the International Model for and common adaptation strategy for coping with inter-annual 
Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) variability in crop production and securing annual supply of food. A 
predict that inflation-adjusted prices of maize, rice and wheat (the study by Dean (2006) assessed the variations in household food 
three most important staple grains in the world) would increase storage capacity within prehistoric households in Tsegi Canyon, 
between 31 to 106% by the year 2050 (Nelson et al., 2010). Generally, Northeastern Arizona, around 1,250 and 1,300 CE. The study revealed 
rise in food prices will lead to increase in food insecurity and poverty, that households increased their corn store rooms or granaries while 
especially for urban poor households. their living spaces decreased, in order to store more grains. Overall, in 
A key contributing factor towards global food insecurity is post- the study area, granary spaces increased by 61% at the expense of 
harvest losses (Makalle, 2012). Post-harvest loss causes direct physical living spaces, during the period when agricultural production 
and quality loss of food which can reduce its economic value and may worsened. Household storage bins were also used to store 3 to 10 tons 
also make it unsuitable for human consumption. It is estimated that of grains for 2 to 3 years among the Hausa people of present-day 
about one-third of food produced globally (valued at US $1 trillion) Nigeria around the 18th century (Spielmann and Aggarwal, 2017). 
is lost or wasted annually, with per capita food losses in Sub-Saharan Household-level food storage is critical for minimizing postharvest 
Africa projected to be about 37% or 120–170 kg/year (FAO, 2011; losses and securing food supply to consumers. Hence, it is important 
Sheahan and Barrett, 2017). Although there are losses along the food to channel efforts on investigating and developing appropriate 
value chain from production to consumer level, food loss during strategies for enhancing food storage within households. The aim of 
storage is regarded to be  most critical, particularly in developing this study was therefore to assess food storage practices of households 
countries, since most losses occur at this stage (Aulakh et al., 2013; in Accra, Ghana. We  also evaluated the opinions of experts on 
Majumder et al., 2016). There can be 50 to 60% loss of food grains household-level food storage practices, and assessed the direct and 
during storage due to factors such as poor storage practices (Kumar moderating effect of household characteristics on food storage and 
and Kalita, 2017). Also, nearly 50% of most food crops cultivated in food security.
Ghana for example are wasted and do not get to the final consumer, 
and food wastage in Accra, the capital city of Ghana, is mainly 
attributed to factors such as inadequate financing and inappropriate 2. Methods
food storage structures (Nyo, 2016). Nevertheless, food storage can 
make enough food available to consumers and enhance food security 2.1. Study design
when adequate effort is made in promoting efficient food storage 
methods and use of improved storage structures. The study consisted of a survey, expert interviews and partial least 
In most parts of the world, attention is usually devoted to squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The survey was 
enhancing food storage at the national and farmer levels, neglecting carried out from November, 2020 to January, 2021. Semi-structured 
food storage at the consumer or household-level. In India for instance, questionnaires were administered to food household heads – the 
the central government procures food from farmers, store and person who has the major task of planning and preparing food for 
distribute it to mostly vulnerable urban and rural consumers or members of a household (Webber et al., 2010). The interviews were 
households at affordable prices (Spielmann and Aggarwal, 2017). conducted between October to November, 2020 by interviewing 
Governments of several countries in Africa including Ghana experts in food storage, food security, food safety, food value chain 
undertake similar food policy to stabilize food prices and help farmers and post-harvest technology. The structural equation modeling was 
to easily market their produce. The National Food Buffer Stock done by using data collected from the survey to predict the impact of 
Company (NAFCO) established in 2010 in Ghana is responsible for household characteristics on food storage and food security.
avoiding food surpluses from the market by buying cereals such as rice 
and maize from farmers at a minimum guaranteed price and store 
them in warehouses during the glut season. In the lean season, the 2.2. Data collection
cereals are released onto the market to stabilize prices and make the 
food readily available to consumers (Armah et al., 2019). Despite this 2.2.1. Survey
food policy capable of making food prices stable and ensuring food This study forms part of a larger study, and so the procedure for 
availability during lean seasons, it has still not been able to eradicate collecting the survey data is the same as described earlier by Afriyie 
hunger and avoid food insecurity, especially in poor households et al. (2022). Data was collected from households in two communities, 
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Dzorwulu and Jamestown, located within Accra, Ghana, (5o33’00” N, Ghana (Non-Governmental Organization promoting agricultural 
0o12’00” W, 61 m) (Attipoe and Li, 2016). These study areas were development in Ghana), using purposive sampling technique. The 
selected because of the different socioeconomic statuses of their interviews were all carried out in English language by the same 
inhabitants. Dzorwulu is inhabited by 3,309 households who are researcher by asking questions about household-level food storage 
mainly of middle-income socioeconomic status, with some high- methods, factors affecting it, and its influence on food security, waste, 
income status households (Owusu et  al., 2013; AWMA, 2019). food safety and expenditure, using open-ended interview guide which 
Jamestown has 5,013 households that are mostly regarded to be of consisted of nine (9) questions.
low-income status, residents usually live in congested housing and 
have low educational levels (Boatemaa et al., 2018; AMA, 2019). Using 
stratified random sampling procedure, a total of 400 respondents were 2.3. Data analyses
selected for the study, with 160 respondents from Dzorwulu and 240 
from Jamestown [using Eqs. (1)–(2)]. Systematic sampling method Data obtained from the survey were subjected to descriptive 
was used to select households at an interval of 1:22 [using Eq. (3)]. analysis using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 
Pieces of paper with numbers from 1 to 22 written on them were (version 26). Food commodities stored by households, storage period 
shuffled in a container, and one number was randomly chosen to for various foods within households, and storage methods for food 
decide the penultimate household (Ovuga et al., 2005). We observed commodities were assessed. Food commodities were classified under 
a spacing of 22 households from a selected household to the next. the six food groups of Ghana including starchy roots and plantain; 
Sample size was determined at 95% level of confidence, 50% cereals and cereal products; legumes; animal products; fruits, 
degree of variability and 5% level of precision (Cochran, 1963): vegetables and mushrooms; and fats and oils (Nti, 2008). Canned, 
cooked and leftover foods were also included in the analysis. The SPSS 
z2 p 1− p
n ( )= (1) was also used to estimate the socioeconomic status (SES) of 
 d 2  households through principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA is 
a statistical technique that is used for reducing variables in a dataset 
into smaller set of variables or dimensions (Vyas and Kumaranayake, 
Proportional allocation 2006). Data for variables that capture living standards, including, 
household ownership of durable assets (example; car, television, 
n Nh = h × n (2) refrigerator), and infrastructure and housing characteristics (example; 
 N  sanitation facility, housing floor material, source of water) were 
subjected to PCA to estimate the SES of the sampled households 
Estimating the systematic sample interval (k) was done according (Rutstein and Johnson, 2004; Vyas and Kumaranayake, 2006). 
to Subramani et al. (2014) and Sudakar (1978): Additionally, the expert interviews were directly transcribed verbatim 
in English. Analysis of the transcripts was carried out by inductive 
k n= (3) coding using NVivo (version 12), in vivo codes and codes assigned by 
 N  the researcher were used for data coding (Lamers et al., 2021). Key 
themes emerged were used to analyze the results based on the 
Where; N = total number of households, n = sample size, responses from the participants. The partial least squares-structural 
Nh = number of households in a community, nh = sample size of a equation modeling was carried out by the use of SmartPLS software 
community, d = margin of error, z = the confidence interval, and 3.2 (Ringle et  al., 2015). Validity and reliability of formative and 
p = degree of variability. reflective constructs were tested (Hair et al., 2017). The model did not 
The survey questionnaire was made up of 47 questions and have any formative constructs and all concepts were modeled as 
required about 40 min to complete. Generally, it aimed to find out the reflective constructs, hence reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s 
food storage behavior and practices of households, and effect of food alpha and composite reliability tests (Hair et al., 2019). Composite 
storage on food security, safety, food wastage and expenditure as reliability values were between 0.71 and 1.00, well beyond the 0.70 
indicated in the supplementary file. A total of 400 questionnaires that recommended threshold, and average variance extracted values were 
were administered were all valid, which represents 100% response also between 0.56 and 1.00, indicating acceptable convergent validity, 
rate. The questionnaire was pre-tested by administering to 35 because they were beyond the recommended 0.50 threshold (Saunders 
households in Osu, a community in Accra that has similar et al., 2019; Afriyie et al., 2022).
characteristics as the study areas. In pre-testing the questionnaire, 
we were able to; ensure respondents understood its content, avoid 
ambiguity, and determine the time needed to complete it. The survey 3. Results
was conducted in Ga and Twi (local languages), and English, which 
were the languages preferred by the respondents. 3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of 
respondents
2.2.2. Expert interviews
The expert interviews were done by face-to-face interviewing 17 The survey comprised of participants who were mainly females 
experts from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture of Ghana (MoFA), (85%), mostly had Junior High School/Middle level education (31.5%) 
Departments of Agriculture (Regional, Metropolitan and Municipal), and were mainly between 40 to 59 years of age (40.8%). A majority of 
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), the survey participants were also traders (60.8%) (Table 1). The expert 
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and SEND interviews were done with interviewees who were between ages 27 to 
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TABLE 1 Distribution (%) of respondents and households by characteristics (n = 400).
Variable % Variable %
Age of respondents Household size
Less than 18 years 0.3 1 18.8
18–25 years 13 2–3 41
26–39 years 38.8 4–5 28.5
40–59 years 40.8 6 or more 11.8
60 years and above 7.2 Socioeconomic status of households (SES)
Sex of respondents Higher-income/richest 2.3
Female 85 Upper-middle-income 6.5
Male 15 Middle-income 18
Education of respondents Lower-middle-income 16.5
Tertiary (Degree/diploma) 15.8 Lower-income/poorest 56.8
SHS/secondary 25.8 Education of household heads
JHS/middle 31.5 Tertiary (Degree/diploma) 20.3
Primary 19.5 SHS/secondary 26
None 7.5 JHS/middle 28
Occupation of respondents Primary 17.8
Professional/technical/managerial/clerical 6.3 None 8
Agricultural self-employed 0.8 Occupation of household heads
Trade 60.8 Professional/technical/managerial/clerical 13
Service 6.3 Agricultural self-employed 2.5
Skilled manual 15.8 Trade 41.8
Unskilled manual 9.3 Service 7.2
None 1 Skilled manual 23
Monthly income of respondents (GHȻ) Unskilled manual 12.5
above 2,500 22.8 None 0
2001–2,500 10.5 Monthly income of household heads (GHȻ)
1,501–2000 2 above 2,500 29
1,001–1,500 15.5 2001–2,500 7
501–1,000 38 1,501–2000 4
500 and below 11.3 1,001–1,500 13.8
501–1,000 39.5
500 and below 6.8
SHS, Senior High School; JHS, Junior High School; GHȻ, Ghana Cedi. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to estimate the socioeconomic status of households (Rutstein and 
Johnson, 2004; Vyas and Kumaranayake, 2006; Kabudula et al., 2017).
58 years, with 35.3% being males and 64.7% females (Table 2). The Additionally, households usually used basket to store orange (23%), 
experts had educational levels of Bachelor’s degree (47.1%), Master’s pepper (29.6%), onion (38.3%) and garden eggs (28.1%) (Figure 1B). 
degree (35.3%), and Doctorate degree (Ph.D.) (17.6%). Banana was mainly stored in a polyethylene bag (17%) while tomato 
was mostly kept in a bowl (28.1%). Deep freezer was often used to 
store cooked food (39.5%) and leftover food (34.5%). Overall, middle- 
3.2. Survey and higher-income households usually used refrigerator and deep 
freezer to store perishable foods. Households without these storage 
3.2.1. Food storage methods used by households facilities resorted to using methods such as storing in a bowl, basket, 
The study showed that most households stored starchy roots such and on the floor, and therefore could not store food for longer period. 
as cassava in polyethylene bag (15.8%), bowl (15.8) and on the floor Non-perishable food commodities were often stored using a sack, 
(10.3%) (Figure 1A). Yam and plantain were usually kept on the floor polyethylene bag and bowl.
(28.4, 31% respectively), in deep freezer (12.1, 10.8% respectively) and The study also revealed that 65.8 and 31% of households owned 
in a polyethylene bag (13.3, 16% respectively). Rice was mainly stored refrigerator and deep freezer, respectively for storing food (Table 3). 
by 49.8% of households in a sack while 22.2% kept maize in a bowl. We found that 2.6% of lower-income households rented spaces in 
Bread was usually stored by households in a refrigerator (40.5%) and deep freezers from other people to store their food and paid an 
polyethylene bag (31.5%). Majority of households kept meat (48%) amount ranging from 2 to 5 Cedis (which is 0.34 to 0.86 
and fish (47%) in deep freezer, 49.8% of households stored milk in a United States Dollars; using Bank of Ghana exchange rate) per day, 
refrigerator while 37.5% stored groundnut in a polyethylene bag. as at the time of the study. Some other households also used various 
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TABLE 2 Characteristics of expert interview participants.
Serial number (SN) Sex Age Education Specialization
01 Male 41 Bachelor’s degree Food security
02 Female 55 Master’s degree Food safety
03 Female 50 Bachelor’s degree Food safety
04 Female 58 Master’s degree Food value chain
05 Male 34 Bachelor’s degree Food storage
06 Female 37 Bachelor’s degree Post-harvest technology
07 Female 41 Master’s degree Food value chain
08 Female 29 Bachelor’s degree Food safety
09 Female 38 Ph.D. Food security
10 Male 35 Bachelor’s degree Post-harvest technology
11 Male 53 Ph.D. Food storage
12 Male 42 Master’s degree Post-harvest technology
13 Female 37 Master’s degree Food security
14 Female 49 Master’s degree Food safety
15 Female 33 Bachelor’s degree Food value chain
16 Female 46 Ph.D. Food security
17 Male 27 Bachelor’s degree Food storage
indigenous ways to store food. For instance, wood ash is sprinkled (43.8%), tomato (42%), cooked food (60.5%), and leftover food 
or smeared on cut surfaces of leftover fresh yam to increase shelf (78.8%) (Tables 6A,B). Majority of households stored maize (25%), 
life, onion is mixed together with lime, and pieces of charcoal are fish (32.8%), egg (32%), groundnut (36.8%), pepper (39.5%), onion 
put into soup when storing to avoid spoilage (Table 4). Additionally, (42.5%), garden eggs (35.8%), and canned food (18%) for 4–6 days. 
a majority of households (85.8%) had not received any training on Rice, palm oil, and refined vegetable oil were mainly stored by 29.8, 
food storage (Table 5), meaning that a training intervention could 27.5, and 21.3% of households, respectively for 1–2 weeks. Although 
have helped households to enhance their food storage practices. a majority of households generally stored most food commodities 
within a period of 2 weeks, some of them stored rice, oats, meat, fish, 
3.2.2. Food commodities stored by households poultry, groundnut, onion, palm oil, palm kernel oil, refined 
The results showed that food commodities stored by most vegetable oil, coconut oil, shea butter, and canned food for a month 
households included yam (80%), rice (80.7%), bread (86.7%), fish or more.
(80.2%), groundnut (81.2%), tomato (86.2%), pepper (89.2%), onion 
(90.5%), palm oil (91.5%), and leftover food (84.5%) (Figures 2A,B). 
Generally, there was low storage of fruits and vegetables, and maize, a 3.3. Expert interviews
staple food commodity was stored by 61% of households. Leftover 
food being mostly stored implies that majority of households avoided The results of the expert interviews are grouped into six main 
food wastage by not throwing away foods they were unable to finish themes: the effect of household-level food storage on (1) the eating 
consuming. Households did not generally store millet, snail, taro, pattern and food preference of consumers, (2) food security, (3) food 
Bambara nuts, palm kernel oil, groundnut oil and coconut oil probably expenditure, (4) food wastage, (5) food-based nutrition and safety, and 
because they did not usually consume them. The study also revealed (6) factors that affect household-level food storage.
that all households stored basic foodstuffs including tomato, pepper, 
onion, garden eggs, bread, and palm oil (Figures 3A,B). The higher the 3.3.1. Eating pattern and food preference of 
socioeconomic status of a household, the more it is able to store most consumers
foods. Lower-income households were generally the least to store The majority of participants mentioned that food storage at the 
most food commodities. This can be attributed to the fact that they do household-level compels consumers to eat the same food over the 
not have appropriate storage facilities, or they usually buy what they period during which it remains in storage. Although households may 
can consume for the day, since poor households often do not have prefer to eat a different food, they do not, because the food in storage 
enough money to buy food in bulk to store. will go bad if not eaten, especially when the storage facility is not 
suitable, as narrated by a participant below;
3.2.3. Storage period for various foods by 
households “People eat what food is available at home so that it doesn’t go bad. 
The results showed that food commodities mostly stored by Once the food is there and I know it may go bad, I am forced to eat the 
households for 1–3 days were cassava (37.8%), yam (38.3%), plantain same food more often so that it will finish without going bad, even 
(36.5%), bread (40%), milk (27.8%), orange (43.3%), banana though I may prefer to eat a different food”. (Food safety expert, SN03)
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FIGURE 1
(A) Common storage methods for starchy roots and plantain, cereals and cereal products, animal products, and legumes, (B) common storage 
methods for fruits, vegetables and mushrooms, fats and oils, canned, cooked, and leftover foods. Ref, refrigerator; Dee, deep freezer; Bow, bowl; Bas, 
basket; Pol, polyethylene bag; Sac, sack; Bot, bottle; Cra, crate; Jer, jerry can; Cok, cooking pot; Flr, floor; Cup, kitchen cupboard; Kcb, kitchen cabinet; 
Ksh, kitchen shelf; Tab, on top of table; Trf, on top of refrigerator; Pal, pallet; Grd, in the ground.
One of the experts revealed that even for households having frequently every day, but compels households to eat the 
proper storage facilities, most of them cook food, particularly same stew and soup for the period they remain in storage till they 
stews and soups, and store them for use during the week or are exhausted, which affects their eating pattern and food 
beyond. This helps to save time and energy needed to cook preference.
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“Some households with proper storage facilities cook stews and soups Additionally, it was revealed that in order to improve food 
during weekends and store them in refrigerators and deep freezers security, households should be able to buy food in bulk and store for 
for use during the week or beyond”. (Food value chain expert, SN15) longer period, preferably beyond the lean season. Participants noted 
that food prices in Ghana are lower during glut seasons and higher 
during lean seasons, therefore it will be  in the best interest of 
3.3.2. Food security households to buy food in bulk to store during glut seasons to avoid 
Most participants asserted that household-level food storage the high food prices and possible food scarcity during lean seasons.
improves food security within households. Some of them affirmed 
that when there is food scarcity, households that always store food will “When food is in abundance during surplus season and you are able 
be secured compared to those who do not. Some dimensions of food to store, you can always fall on what you have stored during the lean 
security such as availability, accessibility and utilization were cited, as season since it will be available”. (Food security expert, SN13)
recorded verbatim below;
“Most foods are seasonal and prices change, hence it is good to store 
“When households are able to buy food in bulk and store at home, when in season and the cost is less so that during off-season there 
it makes food always available, accessible and properly utilized by will be food available for use”. (Food safety expert, SN03)
the households”. (Post-harvest technology expert, SN12)
3.3.3. Food expenditure
“The ideal situation is to be  able to shop for and eat fresh and According to some participants, household-level food storage is 
healthy food every day, but in cases of food disruptions, consumers cost-effective and enhances food surplus due to bulk purchases and 
may face challenges. For instance, when there is food price increase discount deals which helps households to buy more food with the 
or food shortage, consumers who always store food at home will same amount of money or less. Also, by planning and avoiding 
have an upper hand compared to those who do not. Therefore, it is frequent food purchases, households are able to save money, to 
important to always store food to ensure food availability at home”. minimize food expenditure.
(Food value chain expert, SN07)
“Storing food in bulk at home cuts down on costs since you get 
TABLE 3 Households that have refrigerator and deep freezer to store reduced price when you buy in bulk or you can even get surplus or 
food. additional foodstuff”. (Post-harvest technology expert, SN06)
Socioeconomic Deep 
Refrigerator
status freezer “When food is stored at home, it helps to spend less money on food 
Lower-income 91(22.8%) 1(0.3%) since it prevents buying food regularly and in bits which may 
be expensive”. (Food storage expert, SN11)
Lower-middle-income 65(16.3%) 20(5%)
Middle-income 72(18%) 68(17%) However, storage facilities such as deep freezer and refrigerator 
Upper-middle-income 26(6.5%) 26(6.5%) needed to store food require the use of electricity, which can 
Higher-income 9(2.3%) 9(2.3%) be costly. Therefore, the participants indicated that whilst purchasing 
Total 263(65.8%) 124(31%) food in bulk and storing makes food available and minimizes costs, 
keeping the foodstuff in good condition and of high quality can 
It was observed that 2.6% of households in the lower income class rented spaces in deep 
freezers to store their food and paid an amount ranging from 2 to 5 Cedis (0.34 to 0.86 USD; be  expensive. Below are the verbatim responses from some of 
using Bank of Ghana exchange rate) per day, as at the time of the study. the participants.
TABLE 4 Various indigenous ways of food storage used by households.
Commodity Different forms of storage % Response
Cassava Stored in granular flour form (gari) 10.2
Pour hot water on cassava in sack to store for longer period 0.8
Yam Sprinkle wood ash on cut surfaces to prevent it from going bad quickly 6.5
Maize Store maize in dough or flour form 19.3
Meat Stored as smoked 9
Poultry Stored as smoked 1.3
Fish Stored as smoked, salted or fried 26.3
Snail Stored as smoked 6.3
Milk Store opened can milk in cold water in a bowl 2.5
Onion Mix onion together with lime when storing to increase shelf life 4.1
Cooked food Put pieces of charcoal in soup before storing to prevent it from going bad quickly 1.5
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TABLE 5 Household training status on food storage.
Have you or your household received training on food storage?
Socioeconomic status
Yes No Not sure
Lower-income 5(2.2%) 194(85.5%) 28(12.3%)
Lower-middle-income 1(1.5%) 56(84.8%) 9(13.6%)
Middle-income 1(1.4%) 66(91.7%) 5(6.9%)
Upper-middle-income 2(7.7%) 21(80.8%) 3(11.5%)
Higher-income 3(33.3%) 6(66.7%) 0(0%)
Total 12(3%) 343(85.8%) 45(11.3%)
FIGURE 2
(A) Food commodities stored by households – starchy roots and plantain, cereals and cereal products, animal products, and legumes, (B) food 
commodities stored by households – fruits, vegetables and mushrooms, fats and oils, canned, cooked, and leftover foods.
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FIGURE 3
(A) Various socioeconomic households storing starchy roots and plantain, cereals and cereal products, animal products, and legumes, (B) various 
socioeconomic households storing fruits, vegetables and mushrooms, fats and oils, canned, cooked, and leftover foods.
“I don't think it helps much, because for instance if I buy tomatoes “Buying food in bulk and storing is relatively cheaper but ability to 
in bulk at a cheaper price but I store in the refrigerator or deep pay for electricity to store some foods in refrigerators and freezers 
freezer for longer period, the problem is, the cost goes into the is also a factor to consider”. (Post-harvest technology expert, 
electricity bill”. (Food value chain expert, SN04) SN12)
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TABLE 6 (A) Storage period for starchy roots and plantain, cereals and cereal products, animal products, and legumes.
% Response
Commodity More than 
Never 1–3 days 4–6 days 1–2 weeks 3–4 weeks
1 month
Starchy roots and tubers
Cassava 41 37.8 15 4.8 1.5 0
Yam 19 38.3 33.3 9.5 0 0
Cocoyam 69 15.8 10.5 3.5 1.3 0
Sweet potato 85 9 4.5 1.5 0 0
Taro 91.8 5.8 2.5 0 0 0
Plantain 25.8 36.5 25.5 11.3 1 0
Cereals and cereal products
Maize 39 18.5 25 12.3 5.3 0
Rice 19.3 17.5 16 29.8 12.3 5.3
Millet 95.8 1.3 1.5 1.3 0.3 0
Oats 75.5 11.5 5 5.5 1.8 0.8
Wheat 87.8 6 3.5 1.8 1 0
Bread 13.3 40 39.5 7.2 0 0
Biscuits 61.5 20.3 13.3 5 0 0
Animal products
Meat 44 29.5 17.8 6.3 1.8 0.8
Fish 19.8 25 32.8 16.5 3.5 2.5
Poultry 60.3 21 11.3 5 1.3 1.3
Egg 25.3 20.3 32 21 1.5 0
Milk 39.8 27.8 24 8.3 0.3 0
Snail 82.8 7.2 5 5 0 0
Legumes
Cowpea 67 6.8 16.5 9.5 0.3 0
Soybean 89.2 3.8 4.5 1.8 0.8 0
Groundnut 18.8 26.2 36.8 15.5 2 0.8
Bambara 91.3 3 3.8 1.5 0.6 0
Agushie 63 17 15.5 4.3 0.3 0
3.3.4. Food wastage “If you don't store food well or if you don't check how long you are 
The analysis revealed that household-level food storage storing the food, it will go bad and become waste”. (Food value 
contributes to reducing food wastage, especially when food is properly chain expert, SN04)
stored. The participants mentioned that because households plan and 
store the quantity of food they need within a particular period of time, “Sometimes electricity or power outage causes food stored in 
they do not usually waste the food. refrigerators and deep freezers to go bad, thereby wasting the food”. 
(Food security expert, SN16)
“Storing food at home reduces food wastage, especially when there 
is proper means of storing”. (Food safety expert, SN08)
3.3.5. Food-based nutrition and safety
“If food is stored well in the house, it reduces food going waste since The participants held that storing food at the household-level 
you  plan and store the quantity you  need”. (Food storage has a positive effect on food-based nutrition and safety. Food storage 
expert, SN11) encourages households to cook food at home, therefore they are not 
exposed to food handled or stored and cooked outside under 
Improper storage of foodstuff, unplanned use of foodstuff and unhygienic conditions or food that do not contain enough nutrients.
unforeseen circumstances such as electricity failure can however cause 
stored food, particularly in refrigerators and deep freezers, to go bad “When you store food at home, it makes you cook food at home and 
or wasted. so you will rarely buy cooked food outside. Food cooked outside may 
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TABLE 6 (B) Storage period for fruits, vegetables and mushrooms, fats and oils, canned, cooked, and leftover foods.
% Response
Commodity More than 
Never 1–3 days 4–6 days 1–2 weeks 3–4 weeks
1 month
Fruits, vegetables and mushrooms
Orange 27 43.3 24.8 5 0 0
Mango 56.8 29.3 11.5 2.5 0 0
Pineapple 57 29.8 12.3 1 0 0
Pawpaw 62.3 22 13.5 2.3 0 0
Banana 24.5 43.8 27.8 4 0 0
Watermelon 60 23.5 13 3.3 0.3 0
Tomato 13.8 42 34.8 4 5.5 0
Pepper 10.8 37.5 39.5 7 5.3 0
Onion 9.5 26.5 42.5 15.5 3.5 2.5
Leafy vegetable 57.8 23.3 14.5 4.3 0.3 0
Carrot 66.3 18.8 8.8 6 0.3 0
Cucumber 74 15.8 7.8 2.5 0 0
Avocado 57.8 26.5 13.3 2.5 0 0
Okro 63.5 25.8 9.5 1.3 0 0
Garden eggs 21.5 35.3 35.8 7.5 0 0
Mushrooms 86.8 4.8 5.2 3.3 0 0
Fats and oils
Palm oil 8.5 16.5 21.3 27.5 19.8 6.5
Palm kernel oil 97.8 0.5 0.3 1 0.3 0.3
Groundnut oil 98.3 1 0.5 0.3 0 0
Refined vegetable oil 22.5 19 19.3 21.3 14.5 3.5
Coconut oil 92.3 0.8 0.5 3.5 2 0.8
Margarine 69 10.5 12.8 6.8 1 0
Shea butter 91.3 0.5 2.5 3.3 2 0.5
Canned food 44.3 17.3 18 11 7.2 2.3
Cooked food 23.3 60.5 14 2.3 0 0
Leftover food 15.5 78.8 5.3 0.5 0 0
not contain all the necessary nutrients, it may also be cooked in an “Once you have the various foods stored at home, when planning 
unhygienic place and hence may pose health problems”. (Food meals, cooking or eating, you will ensure you have all the needed 
security expert, SN01) nutrients and because you  are cooking or handling it yourself, 
you take the necessary safety measures”. (Food safety expert, SN14)
“When you store food well at home, you are able to eat safe and 
healthy food because you make sure you store in a clean and suitable 
environment”. (Food security expert, SN16) 3.3.6. Factors that affect household-level food 
storage
A majority of the participants also asserted that household-level Most participants cited some factors that affect household-level 
food storage enhances food nutrition and safety through diet food storage to be  electricity, temperature, shelf life of food, pest 
planning. They revealed that storing food helps households to plan infestation, improper storage practices, unsuitable storage facilities 
their meals and diets to ensure that optimum amounts of nutrients are and financial capability of households. Electricity is important because 
retained and does not pose any health challenges. “if there is no power or electricity supply, you  cannot use storage 
equipment like refrigerator and deep freezer” (Food security expert, 
“Mostly when storing food at home, you store the ones you can SN01). These storage equipment or facilities are at the core of 
get enough nutrients from and once food is stored well it will household-level food storage. Some of the participants asserted that 
not have any health problems”. (Food value chain the shelf life of food is critical in determining the storage period of 
expert, SN04) food. Additionally, fertilizers and agro-chemicals used to spray 
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FIGURE 4
A network analysis of direct and moderating effect of household characteristics on the relationship between food storage and food security. The +/− 
shows the strength of the association between and among the clustering variables, and the [+] shows a positive association between variables at 
significance level p ≤ 0.05.
foodstuff just before harvesting can also affect the shelf life of food, as 
indicated by the verbatim responses below; statistically significant (β = −0.330, p value = 0.000, p ≤ 0.01) (Figure 4). 
Income of household head also exhibited a negative and statistically 
“The period or time of storage should be considered with regards to significant relationship with food security (β = −0.353, p value = 0.000, 
the shelf life of the food commodity, and the use of proper storage p ≤ 0.01). This indicates that averagely the socioeconomic status of 
facilities should be of importance”. (Food safety expert, SN02) sampled households in the study was low with majority of household 
heads having low income, hence this will generally not lead to achieving 
“The shelf life of the food commodity, and the fertilizer and agro- household food security through food storage. Household size showed 
chemicals used to spray the food before harvesting can affect how a positive and statistically significant direct effect on food security 
long it can be stored”. (Food security expert, SN09) (β = 0.294, p value = 0.000, p ≤ 0.01). This implies that the average 
household size of participants in the study does not put a household at 
Food in storage should be  well protected against pests since a food security risk, but could rather promote food security.
“stored foods can be easily infested by storage pests when they are not 
properly handled and stored” (Food safety expert, SN14), especially 3.4.2. Moderating effect of household 
when households do not have suitable storage facilities. Also, “some characteristics on food storage and food security
people do not have the capital or money to purchase storage equipment The PLS-SEM results also revealed that households’ socioeconomic 
like a refrigerator or deep freezer” (Food storage expert, SN05) or they status had a positive moderating effect on the relationship between food 
use improper food storage methods due to lack of knowledge. storage and food security, although not significant (β = 0.013, p 
value = 0.705, n.s) (Figure 4). This means that improving households’ 
“Inadequate knowledge in storing the various types of food affects socioeconomic status can increase the strength of the link between food 
the way food is stored at home”. (Food security expert, SN16) storage and food security, and vice versa. Therefore, higher socioeconomic 
status of a household can help to improve food security through food 
storage. Income of household head also showed a significant positive 
3.4. Partial least squares-structural moderating effect on the relationship between food storage and food 
equation modeling security (β = 0.201, p value = 0.001, p ≤ 0.01). This implies that to ensure 
household-level food storage lead to the attainment of food security, the 
3.4.1. Direct effect of household characteristics income of household head needs to be improved, particularly within poor 
on food storage and food security households. The findings also indicated that moderating household size 
Results from the PLS-SEM showed that, the direct effect of had a negative and significant effect on the link between food storage and 
households’ socioeconomic status on food security was negative and food security (β = −0.160, p value = 0.001, p ≤ 0.01). Hence, large 
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household size will impede the achievement of household food security delaying deterioration of perishable foodstuffs such as cassava for some 
through food storage. days. However, Rujnic-Sokele and Baric (2014) noted that polyethylene 
bag is non-degradable, poses great danger to aquatic life and in some 
countries there is a levy on its use or it is banned. A study carried out to 
4. Discussion assess food storage practices of farmers by Prempeh et al. (2017) reported 
that cassava was stored by 27% of farmers in polyethylene bags, 8% in the 
The study findings indicate that food commodities such as rice, ground or pit, 34% in sacks, 26% in water and 6% stored cassava under a 
groundnut, fish, tomato, palm oil, and pepper were often stored by most shade. Wumbei et al. (2019) also conducted a study in Wulensi, Ghana to 
households. These are some of the key food commodities used for show that 63% of farmers stored yam in traditional barns, while 8% stored 
preparing major dishes consumed by households in Ghana daily, which it in the ground, and 29% of farmers kept it under trees covered with grass.
implies that households in the study areas usually store foodstuffs they In addition to the survey outcomes, the expert interviews also 
mostly consume. Aberman et al. (2022) in their study in Ghana reported revealed findings regarding the impact of household-level food storage. 
that these were some of the main food commodities that participants We found from the experts that, most households are compelled to eat the 
usually purchased for consumption. The generally low storage of fruits same food for the period it remains in storage until it is finished, lest it 
and vegetables by households in the study communities can be attributed goes to waste, particularly due to inappropriate storage facilities. With 
to the fact that, relatively their consumption is usually low, which affected appropriate cost-effective storage facilities and up-to-date knowledge in 
their overall storage since households infrequently consumed them. food storage practices, households can store varieties of food commodities 
We also observed that, higher-income households were capable of storing so that they can have options to choose any food they prefer to eat. Having 
most foods compared to lower-income households. Higher-income dietary diversity or eating different food types is critical for obtaining 
households had the financial resources to acquire improved storage various micro- and macro-nutrients to ensure nutrient adequacy (Sibhatu 
facilities that enabled them to store most foodstuffs than what lower- et al., 2015). All the experts who were interviewed asserted that storing 
income households could store. Since rich households have the ability and food at the household-level promotes food security. This supports a study 
capacity to invest in and adopt improved agricultural technologies (Ali by Tesfaye and Tirivayi (2018) who reported that storing food, particularly 
and Erenstein, 2017). using improved storage technologies promotes food and nutrition 
The study found that households mostly stored perishable foods security, and could be an important factor in alleviating the problems of 
including cassava, bread, yam, tomato, plantain, cooked food, banana and feeding the increasing global population. Darfour and Rosentrater (2016) 
leftover food for 1 to 3 days. Food commodities have period of time they also reiterated that in order to minimize food and nutrition insecurity in 
can be stored before deteriorating and are not safe to consume. The type Ghana, it is critical to improve food storage practices in the country by 
of food, type of storage facility and storage conditions like temperature are building the capacity of households, consumers and relevant stakeholders. 
some of the factors that affect the shelf life of food (Xue et al., 2014; Although most experts acknowledged that household-level food storage 
Garden-Robinson, 2020). Participants for the expert interviews also helps to reduce food expenditure, some of them asserted that using 
acknowledged that the period of storing food at home can be influenced facilities such as refrigerator and deep freezer to store food can be costly 
by fluctuations in the supply of electricity, financial capability of due to high electricity bills. A study by Sakah et al. (2019) showed that 
households and food storage practices employed by households. Bread for households in Ghana use refrigerators and deep freezers for a whole 24 h 
example when stored at room temperature has about 7 days shelf life, but period, with spikes around 8:00 pm and 2:00 pm because of dinner and 
when it is stored in a deep freezer, the shelf life can increase to 3 months lunch times, respectively. Their study revealed that households’ use of 
(Boyer and Mckinney, 2018). Meat and fish can be kept for between 4 to these storage facilities contributes to 15% of peak electricity load, which 
12 months when frozen; vegetables and fruits can also be stored for about makes it the third priority target for minimizing high electricity 
2 weeks or longer and still be of good quality when appropriate storage consumption in Ghana. It is therefore ideal for households to always buy 
techniques are employed (Boyer and Mckinney, 2018; Garden-Robinson, and use energy efficient food storage facilities in order to minimize 
2020). The findings also revealed that most of the sampled households electricity consumption and save some money.
stored food within a period of 2 weeks, which can be ascribed to the use The expert interviews also indicated that storing food within 
of inappropriate storage facilities, and lack of adequate up-to-date households helps to reduce food wastage, especially when households 
knowledge in storing the various foods for a longer period, since most the have suitable storage facilities to store food. On the other hand, when 
households do not have any training in food storage. households do not store food or do not take full responsibility of ensuring 
Furthermore, our findings revealed that, well-to-do households that food is properly handled and stored, there could be significant food 
usually used deep freezer and refrigerator for storing perishable foods, waste generation. Food wastage within households is mostly caused by 
due to their suitability in preventing food spoilage. Refrigerator and deep unplanned or unintended outcome of entangled daily routines revolving 
freezer are effective for; slowing down bacterial growth, minimizing food around food, including improper handling and storing of food (Dobernig 
spoilage and preserving food quality, hence prolonging the shelf life of and Schanes, 2019). The food waste generation rate of sampled households 
food commodities (Aung and Chang, 2014). During freezing, the physical in Accra was reported to be averagely 0.12 kg/person/day (Attipoe and Li, 
state of the substance or food is changed by converting water into ice 2016). Rutten and Verma (2014) however noted that, reducing food waste 
when energy is removed through cooling below freezing temperature, by 50% in Ghana by the year 2025 will help to improve food production 
such as −18°C (Rahman, 2007). The results also showed that households and enhance food security in the country. The qualitative results revealed 
made use of various storage methods to store their food including; using that, food storage at the household-level enhances food-based nutrition 
a basket, sack, bowl, polyethylene bag and in the ground. Households and safety, because it encourages households to plan their diets and also 
used polyethylene bags for storing food in this study due to its relatively cook food at home. Therefore, households are able to obtain optimum 
cheaper price, durability and ease of use, and also because it is capable of nutrients from food and are not exposed to any health problems by eating 
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food cooked under unhygienic conditions outside home. This is in Income of household head and socioeconomic status of households 
support of a research by Lin and Guthrie (2012), which indicated that due was found to positively affect food security through food storage.
to dietary guidance or planning, food cooked at home were richer in Policies that promote the use of cost-effective storage facilities, 
nutrients than food cooked away from home. Food cooked at home was enhance up-to-date food storage expertise, and facilitate the provision 
higher in nutrients such as calcium and significantly lower in fat content, of social interventions to particularly poor households, will enable 
while food cooked away from home was higher in cholesterol, sodium consumers to store varieties of food commodities for longer periods at 
and saturated fat, and lower in dietary fiber. Improper food hygiene and home, to be able to always access available food and consume variety of 
food safety practices by street-cooked food handlers have also been foods, in order to promote food and nutrition security. Future research 
reported to be a major cause of food-borne illness among consumers and assistance geared towards providing training interventions and 
(Sani and Siow, 2014; Ayaz et  al., 2018). It is therefore important to upgrading indigenous food storage methods and facilities are necessary 
promote food storage within households in order to enhance effective for building households’ capacity to adopt proper food storage practices.
food safety practices and safeguard the health and wellbeing of consumers.
Additionally, the results showed household head’s income and 
socioeconomic status of household to have a positive effect on the link Data availability statement
between food storage and food security. Increasing the income of 
household head and improving household’s socioeconomic status The original contributions presented in the study are included in 
therefore enhances the achievement of household food security through the article/Supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed 
food storage, and vice versa. Income is a key determinant that affects to the corresponding author.
food storage and food security of households. Poor households struggle 
to acquire sufficient nutritious food and adequate resources such as 
proper food storage structures (De Marco and Thorburn, 2009). They Ethics statement
become vulnerable to limited availability and access to food, which 
subsequently affect its re-distribution to household members The studies involving human participants were reviewed and 
(Drammeh et al., 2019). However, rich households are able to buy and approved by Ethics Committee of the Institute of Urban Environment, 
consume adequate nutritious food, and acquire suitable food storage Chinese Academy of Sciences. The participants provided their written 
facilities. Various studies have reported that increase in household informed consent to participate in this study.
income lead to improvement in food security. For example, studies done 
in Nigeria and Ghana revealed that household food security improved 
by 1.65 times by increasing households’ monthly income (Babatunde Author contributions
and Qaim, 2010; Owusu et al., 2011). Antwi and Lyford (2021) also 
reported that a unit increase in the income of households lead to EA collected the data, performed the analysis, and wrote the 
increasing the probability of achieving high household food security manuscript’s draft. BO participated in data analysis and commented 
status by 5.3%. Also, household size had a negative effect on the on the first draft of the manuscript. JA contributed to the writing and 
relationship between food storage and food security. This implies that revising the manuscript. MZ, Y-GZ, and FA supervised the overall 
large household size has the likelihood of worsening food security, project and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the 
regardless of the food storage techniques used. When there are more article and approved the submitted version.
members in a household, demand for food increases, and can outweigh 
the household’s food supply, especially for poor households (Antwi and 
Lyford, 2021). The larger the size of a household, the likelihood of Funding
available food to each household member becoming lesser, which 
subsequently affect the household’s food and nutrition security status Financial support for the study was provided by University of 
(Olayemi, 2012). According to a study by Antwi and Lyford (2021), a Chinese Academy of Sciences (UCAS) and Institute of Urban 
unit increase in household size reduced the likelihood of household to Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences.
attain high food security status by 3.4%.
Acknowledgments
5. Conclusion
The authors are grateful to Franz Gatzweiler for his guidance 
To increase food security in urban households, it is crucial to during the study. Our appreciation goes to Zhong Chuyue for 
understand consumer food storage practices at the household-level. providing administrative assistance, and Felix Bonsu, Andrews Larbi, 
The study found that rich households are able to store more food than Armand Anderson for the help during data collection. We would like 
poor households, since they have financial capability to acquire to also thank all the participants who took part in the study.
appropriate food storage facilities, while poor households mainly 
resort to traditional food storage methods and facilities. The findings 
indicated that most households do not have any training in food Conflict of interest
storage, contributing to the short period they stored food. The study 
also revealed that households must eat the same stored food until it is BO was employed by Asinyo Agri-Commerce Ltd. JA was 
finished to avoid wasting it, especially due to poor storage facilities. employed by Research Desk Consulting Ltd.
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Afriyie et al. 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1194321
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or 
the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or 
be construed as a potential conflict of interest. endorsed by the publisher.
Publisher’s note Supplementary material
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the The Supplementary material for this article can be found online 
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1194321/
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the full#supplementary-material
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