External stakeholders in the governance
of slums in Ghana
Anthony Nkrumah Agyabeng, Justice Nyigmah Bawole, Albert Ahenkan,
James KwameMensah and Alexander Preko
Abstract Anthony Nkrumah
Purpose – In the space of slums are many stakeholders; the extent to which their assistance contributes Agyabeng is based at
to slum administration is sparsely studied. The study aims to examine how external stakeholders Department of Business
contribute to slum administration within theGhanaian context. Administration, University
Design/methodology/approach – Using the stakeholder theory, the study used an exploratory of Professional Studies,
qualitative design based on face-to-face, in-depth interviews among 21 respondents. Participants were Accra, Ghana.
purposively selected from stakeholder organisations and slum residents based on the stake in slums
Justice Nyigmah Bawole is
governance inGhana.
based at Department of
Findings – The results indicate that stakeholders have contributed towards slums livelihoods in the
Public Administration and
general areas of housing, trading, skill development and capacity building. It shows that stakeholders’
contributions tend to enhance slums’ living conditions and affect local assemblies positively. The study Health Services
finds that slum dwellers categorise stakeholders’ contributions as short-term relief and long-term Management, University of
solutions. Additionally, it emerged that in the areas of policy design, implementation and policy feedback, Ghana, Accra, Ghana.
external stakeholders have supported the government in that regard. Albert Ahenkan is based at
Research limitations/implications – The conclusion drawn from the study is limited to the four Department of Public
communities and the stakeholder organisations. However, communities with similar characteristics Administration and Health
globally might benefit from the findings. Services Management,
Practical implications – The study uncovers a context-specific role and assistance of external University of Ghana
stakeholders in the domain of slums. This provides a guide to the government regarding key areas of Business School, Legon,
stakeholder collaboration towards slum governance in the Ghanaian context. Theoretically, this Ghana.
study has contributed to new knowledge about stakeholders’ contribution to the overall governance
James KwameMensah is
of slums.
based at Department of
Originality/value – The study expands the frontiers of knowledge in the field of slum administration by
Public Administration and
focusing on external stakeholders. This study departs from previous studies, which have examined, in
broader perspectives, stakeholders’ roles within the space of slums. Health Services
Keywords Management, University ofSlum dwellers, External stakeholders, Contribution, Governance, Policies, Administration
Ghana, Accra, Ghana.
Paper type Research paper
Alexander Preko is based
at Department of
Introduction Marketing, University of
Professional Studies,
Stakeholders’ role in slum administration does not only provide the residents with a sustainable Accra, Ghana.
livelihood; it has a ripple effect on local governance administration as well. Inhabitants in the
slums can contribute to the local assembly tax regime when their capacities are enhanced and
livelihoods improved (Crush et al., 2019). Research has evidenced that slums undertake varied
socio-economic activities such as petty trading, vocations and entrepreneurship (Preko et al.,
2021). These activities tend to decrease unemployment rates among the slums and working-age
individual job seekers that struggle to find work in the formal economy (S
ahin et al., 2014).
Managing the slums in a manner that improves their capacity for a sustainable livelihood requires
governance that ensures they have housing, access to roads, water, sanitation and electricity
(Granada et al., 2018; Haque et al., 2020). Achieving such an endeavour requires harmonising Received 23 June 2022
Revised 8 March 2023
both state and non-state structures, institutions and processes in the pursuit of slum Accepted 20 June 2023
DOI 10.1108/SRJ-06-2022-0253 © Emerald Publishing Limited, ISSN 1747-1117 j SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL j
administration (Sridhar et al., 2020). Slum governance is contextualised in this study as a
collaboration between the government and stakeholders to address slum-related challenges.
The researchers assert that the government can effectively manage the slums through
stakeholder engagement and collaboration. The United Nations Conference on Housing and
Urban Development (2016) refers to both slums and informal settlements as highly populated
dwellings with poor infrastructure and endemic poverty, which characterise their living
circumstances. Addressing issues in the slums needs stakeholders’ involvement, a practice
praised as an effective way to achieve slum policy outcomes (Meredith and MacDonald, 2017;
Muchadenyika, 2015). In that regards, the contribution of external stakeholders, such as the UN-
Habitat, Amnesty International, Peoples Dialogue and the print and electronic Media, is critical to
enhancing slum governance (Average, 2019; Mwangi, 2018). The external stakeholders stated
above, including those beyond the scope of the study, are well-recognised and known in the
field of slum administration. The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which external
stakeholders contribute to slum governance in Ghana.
Stakeholders’ contributions to vulnerable communities and groups cannot be quantified in a
single research study, including the current one. Studies have shown that stakeholders
have filled service provision gaps in the areas of water, sanitation, education and health
care (Cawood, 2021; Power and Wanner, 2017). Their contribution does not only enhance
specific areas in the slums, but it has also allowed national governments to provide the
basic needs of slums (Meredith and MacDonald, 2017; Mitchell, 2015). Whereas
stakeholders’ influence in the slums continues to attract significant research attention (Aliu
et al., 2021; Azevedo et al., 2019; Hekmatnia, 2020), their activities are influenced by their
philosophies and orientations. Although scholars, including Mando and Mutuku (2017) and
Sulistyaningsih et al. (2022), examines stakeholders’ influences in the space of slums,
empirical evidence on how stakeholders’ contributions align with the entire slum
administration is missing. Simply put, there is a dearth of empirically based evidence
regarding the usefulness of stakeholder engagement in accomplishing livelihood goals in
the slums, leaving a gap in the body literature. Interestingly, there is a call by Kusters et al.
(2018) to explore stakeholders’ role in slum administration. This study makes a humble
attempt to fill the above-mentioned gaps through the research questions below:
RQ1. Howdo external stakeholders contribute to slums?
RQ2. What are the views of slum dwellers on stakeholders’ contributions?
RQ3. Howdo stakeholders’ contributions align with slum governance?
In the following ways, the study is important: one, because inclusive governance matters,
the outcome of the study will uncover context-specific contributions of stakeholders in slum
administration in Ghana. Two, the research will indicate areas of government concentration
towards the achievement of slum policy outcomes. Three, the study will reconcile the policy
divide between institutions, external stakeholders and slum dwellers in pursuit of slum
governance in Ghana. The research contributes to knowledge by providing a new
understanding of stakeholders’ inputs to slum management in a developing country. The
remainder of the paper proceeds as follows: a theoretical overview of the research;
methodology; presentation of findings; discussions; conclusions; and implications.
Literature review
Stakeholders’ contribution to slum administration
Stakeholders-related activities and contributions in the space of slums are varied – this
study does a bit of state of the art systematic review of some existing studies. Our review
indicates that stakeholders play several roles in the field of slums geared towards uplifting
the dwellers’ sustainable livelihood. Mwaura et al. (2018) find that stakeholders’ technical
support led to a successful implementation of slum projects. The authors aver that some of
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the stakeholders promote research to evaluate the outcome and monitoring of slums
projects and programmes. In the area of health services, Power and Wanner (2017) assert
that stakeholders, in collaboration with the local government, executed sanitation projects
within some of the slum communities. Such intervention has tended to assist the
government in combating some chronic related infections and sicknesses in the slums.
Alaraji (2016) declares that stakeholders’ contributions in the field of education have
positively enhanced the self-confidence among some of the underprivileged children in the
slums. Relatedly, in policy planning, Fadli and Sarofah (2021) note that stakeholders have
helped in crafting slum management action plans using the concepts of participation,
sustainable development, empowerment and teamwork. This means stakeholders’
contributions towards slums are multifaceted and span across projects to health and
education. Such contributions have significant and positive implications in uplifting their
living conditions both in the short, medium and long terms. In particular, issues relating to
advocacy, sanitation, health, technical support, empowerment and team building are
among the key activities of stakeholders.
Furthermore, Meredith and MacDonald (2017) argue that while a top-down approach may
fail to produce a slum policy outcome, stakeholders’ involvement is critical to overcome any
inherent challenges associated with top-down policy implementation. They explain that
stakeholders ensure that slum-upgrading projects are both effective and successful due to
their skills and experience. This aligns with Aliu et al.’s (2021) call for stakeholders’
involvement in slum administration to safeguard societal deprivation inflicted on slums’
access to basic services. This is consistent with Azevedo et al.’s (2019) suggestion to the
effect that government and stakeholder must collaborate to address slum issues relating to
education, security and infrastructure. This assertion consolidates the existing scholarships
that proclaim a positive link between stakeholder participation in the implementation of
projects within the slums (Ibrahim et al., 2017; Mando and Mutuku, 2017). Other strands of
the existing studies show that stakeholders’ role in the slums does not only orbit around
policy execution but also widens the base of dialogues and conversations (Kuhn, 2020).
Increasing studies on stakeholders and slums, such as those presented above, do not
account for how stakeholders’ contributions align with the overall slum governance.
The systematic review regarding stakeholders’ contributions has largely skewed around
corporate social responsibilities. It shows that varied topics relating to stakeholders’
corporate activities across diverse issues have been examined through different
methodologies. For example, while some of the scholarships investigate stakeholders’
contributions to firms (Al Mubarak, 2021; Chavan et al., 2022; Gimenes and Piao, 2023;
Kane et al., 2022; Zeng, 2021), others orbit around stakeholder initiatives and behavioural
related issues (Gaudencio et al., 2021; Power and Wanner, 2017; Uduji et al., 2021). Other
strands of the existing studies in our review also border on stakeholders’ influence in slum
projects and upgrading (Mando and Mutuku, 2017; Muchadenyika, 2015; Sulistyaningsih
et al., 2022). Thus, from the summary of the systematic review showcased in Table 2, the
need for this study to investigate external stakeholders in slum governance is evident.
Clearly, as depicted in the literature matrix, majority of the studies have researched on
varied topics, as well as methodological applications. The evidence shows a lack of study
that thoroughly examines the contributions of external stakeholders in slums, the viewpoints
of slum dwellers towards those contributions and their overall consequences for slum
governance. This study seeks to nuance public understanding regarding how stakeholders’
activities enhance slum living conditions, and advance slum administration in Ghana. Table 1
presents the systematic literature review showing the gaps in literature.
Stakeholder theory
The study used the stakeholder theory developed by Freeman (1999) to explain how
external stakeholders contribute to slum governance in Ghana. The theory holds that
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Table 1 Summary of literature review matrix
Author/year Topic Methodology Findings Implications
Gimenes and Piao (2023) Drivers of support for Qualitative exploratory Drivers of CSR in Brazilian Studies are required to
corporate social based on multiple case linked to firm performance understand employee
responsibility: what matters approach rather than ethical or motivation in driving
most to Brazilian business external drivers leaders to support CSR
leaders and how CSR practices
affect policies and
behaviour in companies
Uduji and Okolo-Obasi (2021) Does corporate social Quantitative-cross- GMoUmodel has made CSR intervention on young
responsibility initiative sectional survey significant impact in development initiatives
restrain young people from dissuading young people focus on creation serve as
irregular migration in sub- from irregular migration the push factors that
Saharan Africa? Evidence drive compel youth irregular
from Nigeria’s oil- migration in sub-Saharan
producing communities Africa
Chavan et al. (2022) Collaborative corporate Qualitative case study Collaborative CSR initiatives Collaborative CSR initiatives
social responsibility praxis: approach and draws between amultinational firm between amultinational firm
case studies from India document review and an NGO have been and an NGO have been
leveraged to combat leveraged to combat
manifold issues of manifold issues of
education, employment and education, employment and
hunger during the pandemic hunger during the pandemic
Kane et al. (2022) Corporate social Quantitative data were CSR agenda and priorities Analyse of CSR trends,
responsibility in Vietnam: collected through an online amongst Vietnamese issues and priorities amongst
views from corporate and survey of respondents from domestic companies are a larger andmore varied set
NGO executives 186 companies strongly influenced by of NGOs and corporates
long-standing norms (including small andmedium
enterprises or SMEs)
Power andWanner (2017) Improving sanitation in the Mixed-method; document Slum population with Interview with slums about
slums of Mumbai: an review and In-depth sufficient ownership and the degree of
analysis of human rights- interview genuine participation in empowerment and effect of
based approaches for sanitation projects could policies by NGO
NGOs overcome many difficulties,
such as ongoing
maintenance of vital
sanitation facilities
(continued)
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Table 1
Author/year Topic Methodology Findings Implications
Fadli and Sarofah (2021) The Possibilities for an Qualitative with in-depth Community Action Plan Explore alternative policies
Urban Community Action interviews, online media programme was not by the government to
Plan and Collaborative content analysis successful due to the lack implementing community
Work Support for Slum of a collaborative process action plan
Improvement: A Case from citizens, government
Study in Jakarta and civil society
Meredith and MacDonald (2017) Community-supported Qualitative-archival Critical infrastructure Using an adaptive
slum-upgrading: research and key informant in slums has improved over management
innovations from Kibera, interviews the course of the project approach and strongly
Nairobi, Kenya and expectation to promoting community
continued for involvement should be the
improvement in the future aim of institutions delivering
have developed slum-upgrading projects
Azevedo et al. (2019) Urban solid waste Qualitative-in-depth It is required to solve basic Quantitative methods is
management in developing longitudinal single case social issues in slums related required to obtain
countries from the study to education, security, and additional insights and
sustainable supply chain infrastructure, with the reliable data on sanitation
management perspective: integration and support of waste management
A case study of Brazil’s government, local
largest slum community and industry
Mando and Mutuku (2017) The influence of Descriptive survey Positive relationship between Governments need to create
stakeholders’ participation research quantitative stakeholders’ participation and participate in information
in implementation of design among 80 and implementation of sharing platforms to discuss
projects in informal respondents projects in the informal progression in their
settlements in Kenya settlements Communities
McGrath andWhitty (2017) Defining the term Qualitative-conceptual and The definitions of stake and Stakeholder concept will
stakeholder to remove literature review stakeholder are in terms of facilitate building social
confusion surrounding the an interest and activity and physical systems and
use of this term from the infrastructure, benefitting
general and project organisations, whether
management arenas public, charitable or private
Muchadenyika (2015) Slum upgrading and Qualitative-in-depth Housing struggles for Slum upgrading
inclusive municipal interviews and FGDs slums and the emerging sustainability at city-wide
governance in Harare, City-community level requires active City
Zimbabwe: New engagement in urban participation and
perspectives for the urban services provision (water, institutionalisation as
poor sanitation, tenure security opposed to a project
and roads) and changing based approach
municipal attitudes towards
the urban poor
(continued)
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Table 1
Author/year Topic Methodology Findings Implications
Aliu et al. (2021) Living on the margins: Data was drawn from a Slum residents The study suggest that
Socio-spatial survey of fifteen (15) slum experienced critical urban stakeholders should
characterization of communities using a residential and be more focused on the
residential and water structured survey environmental deprivation highly deprived
deprivations in Lagos questionnaire and water, sanitation and communities
informal settlements, hygiene deprivation
Nigeria
Sulistyaningsih et al. (2022) Can combined marketing Mixed method; case study Transformation of a slum A need to explain the policy
and planning-oriented of and a survey of 650 slum area into a new tourist response, level of
community-based social dwellers destination was achieved involvement, and support
marketing (CBSM) project through social marketing provided by the Malang
successfully transform the intervention and place city government toward the
slum area to tourism branding using social sustainability of Jodipan’s
village? A case study of the media colorful tourist destination
Jodipan colorful urban
village, Malang, Indonesia
Al Mubarak (2021) Sustainable development Documentary review based It shows a gap between Stakeholders’ needs and
through five senses of on literature review on what firms do and what are wants internally and
effective corporate social topics such as CSR expected from them to externally; hence, a better
responsibility strategy strategy, CSR activities deliver to society in terms satisfaction level can be
of CSR activities achieved and sustainable
development is likely to be
better secured
Zeng (2021) Corporate social Document Analysis and Compared with other listed Need to examine the
responsibility (CSR) in Retrieval (SEDAR) online firms, family listed firms impact of other family-firm
Canadian family firms database have a higher level of CSR dimensions on CSR
engagement engagement
Gaudencio et al. (2021) The impact of CSR Qualitative structural Perceptions of CSR predict Managers should
perceptions on workers’ equation modelling based TI through the mediating implement CSR practices
turnover intentions: on survey data obtained role of LMX because these can
Exploring the supervisor from 315 participants contribute towards
exchange process and the reducing TI
role of perceived external
prestige
Source: Created by the author
organisations have various stakeholders that need to be involved in decision-making to
ensure the achievement of objectives that enhance competition. The theory is split into three
elements: descriptive, instrumental and normative, underlying the main tenets of the theory.
The descriptive element explains the need to identify relevant stakeholders to manage their
interests for the continuity and growth of the business (Werhane, 2019). The instrumental
version acknowledges the effects of stakeholders on the achievement of goals (Jones et al.,
2018). The normative version, being the main anchor of the theory, illuminates the ethical
justification for involving stakeholders in decision-making (Zakhem and Palmer, 2017). The
researchers used the three elements of the theory based on the following assumptions:
One, stakeholders’ contributions to slums’ administration enhance the lives of dwellers and
affect the local economy. Slum residents can contribute to local economic revenue generation
in the end when they have a sustainable livelihood. Two, supporting the slums enables the
stakeholder organisations to achieve their goals while helping to address governance issues
within the slums. Three, hearing perspectives from slum dwellers concerning stakeholders not
only fulfil the normative version of the theory but also provides direction for slum administration
in the future.
Despite its popularity in the business and corporate worlds, the theory has received some
criticism. For example, issues involving a lack of sufficient rigour in its application to the
managerial and organisational contexts (Wolfe and Putler, 2002) and issues relating to how
incremental benefits exceed costs in stakeholder management (Jones et al., 2018).
Nonetheless, the theory is used to clarify the confusion surrounding project stakeholders
(McGrath and Whitty, 2017) and stakeholders’ participation in the implementation of
projects within the informal communities (Mando and Mutuku, 2017). This study deployed
the theory within the domain of slums, which depart from the business and corporate
environments. The researchers clearly explained the external stakeholders in the domain of
slums, focusing on governance issues. A systematic assessment of the literature indicates
the theory is largely used in corporate and organisational contexts, with little application in
the realm of slum governance. Furthermore, given the practical conceptualisation of
stakeholders in the slum sphere in context, it aids in better explaining the problem. Future
scholars in other domains are urged to apply the stakeholders’ theory to other disciplines,
whether related or unrelated.
Methodology
Research design
This study used the qualitative exploratory design focused on unearthing the views of
stakeholders and slum residents in the Greater Accra Region of the Republic of Ghana. The
Greater Accra is capital city of Ghana and the most urbanised region among the sixteen
regions in Ghana. The population is 5,455,692, making it a major economic centre (Ghana
Statistical Service, 2021). The city attracts a large number of people looking for greener
pastures from other parts of the region, which accounts for the rise in the number of slums.
The qualitative design was used to explore a deeper understanding of how stakeholders
contribute to slum administration rather than quantify their perspectives and generalise
findings. The exploratory strategy enabled the researchers to uncover the “why and how”
relating to the issue investigated, as well as to provide explanations for respondents’
perspectives on the subject matter (Hair et al., 2013). The study used the following inclusion
criteria: firstly, the purposive sampling method was used to select interviewees (assembly
members) who currently represent communities’ interests in governance. Secondly, the
selected assembly members are special representatives who collaborate with the
mentioned stakeholders on matters relating to slum dwellers. Thus, the outcome of
the study does not represent the whole population of external stakeholders and slum
residents in Ghana. Given that a relatively small number of external stakeholder groups
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were initially identified (Agyabeng and Preko, 2021), the study partially relied on a snowball
sampling, in which participants recommended other potential participants to researchers.
Data collection
The study was conducted among seven stakeholder organisations (Amnesty International,
Ghana; UN-Habitat; People’s Dialogue, Ghana; Print Media; Electronic Media; My Souls
International; and Climate Change, Ghana); and four slum communities (Alogboshie,
Christian Village, Agbogbloshei and Old Fadama). Firstly, the stakeholder group constituted
of the key actors working to support the slums in ways that affect their livelihoods and, by
extension, influence governance within the Ghanaian context. See Table 2 below on sample
distribution for the study.
The selected slum communities represent the worst slums in Ghana, lacking access to
potable water, adequate living space, terrible housing and insecure tenure (UN-Habitat,
2016a, 2016b). The participants for this study were representatives and coordinators from
the stakeholder organisations, as well as opinion leaders within the slums who had
experience with the issue investigated. The researchers were interested in gaining first-
hand information about slum governance from the perspectives of external stakeholders
and the slum inhabitants. In-depth interviews among 21 respondents were conducted. In
all, 14 respondents participated, comprising five females and nine males from the slum
dwellers category and one member from each of the seven stakeholder organisations.
Although a small sample size, it was considered that the number of participants
corresponded approximately to the saturation point and did not seriously hamper the
validity of this study (Crouch and McKenzie, 2006). Ethical approval was obtained from the
Ethics Committee for Humanities, University of Ghana, with the ethical clearance number
ECH 114/20-21. Prior consent from respondents was sought before commencing the field
exercise. Respondents were also assured of data confidentiality and anonymity, using
pseudonyms in the data gathering process. An interview guide based on the key research
questions was used for the line of questioning to understand the phenomenon the study
sought to investigate. Each interview lasted approximately 30–40min, conducted in English
and digitally recorded. Interviews were conducted in respondents’ homes and workplaces,
adhering strictly to the COVID-19 protocols for social distancing and face-to-face
interactions.
Data analysis
The field data went through an iterative process, where authors independently transcribed
the recorded data verbatim. The transcripts were shared with the interviewees for
confirmation of the contents. Suggestions raised by the interviewees were incorporated into
the final transcriptions before the analysis to ensure the originality of the content. These
measures were adopted to ensure originality of the content and reliability of findings.
Content analysis was used to identify meanings and common occurring patterns narrations
and respondents views. Firstly, the researchers prepared the data for analysis by
identifying specific questions and then aggregated the answers of all the respondents
Table 2 Number of respondents used for the study
Communities External stakeholder
Alogboshie Christian Village Agbogbloshei Old Fadama organisations
3 4 4 4 7
Notes: One each external stakeholder organisation (Amnesty International; Climate Change UN-Habitant; People’s Dialogue; Print
Media; Electronic Media; My Souls International; Climate Change)
Source: Created by the author
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underneath each question from the vast pages of transcribed interview files. This made it
easier to identify patterns in each question. Secondly, we developed categories and a
coding scheme that focused on three areas of issues: external stakeholders’ contributions,
dwellers’ viewpoints and their influence on slum administration. Thirdly, the authors coded
the text to correspond with or exemplify the designated categories. This measure enabled a
reduction in or condensation of long interviews that did not appear practical at first into
useful discussion items. Each researcher examined a whole interview transcript in light of
the three research questions in this case. Finally, the researchers swapped transcripts to
confirm their findings by arriving at the same themes. In line with Lazaraton (2017),
qualitative analysis can be validated if two or more researchers reach the same conclusions
after analysing the same data.
Findings
As detailed in the methodology section, a number of measures were taken to ensure the
rigour and effectiveness of the findings. The study focused on the contributions of external
stakeholders to slum governance, the perspectives of slum dwellers on stakeholders’
contributions and the link between stakeholders’ contributions and slum governance.
Overall, the analysis of the field data points to the realities on the ground; that external
stakeholder organisations play significant contributions in the space of slums in Ghana. The
findings of the study have been organised according to the three research questions
presented below:
Contributions of external stakeholders’ in slum administration
In relation to the first research question, the study finds four dominant contributions of
external stakeholders in the space of slums: housing projects, financial assistance, skills
development and building the capacity of slum dwellers. For example, the authors
discovered that the stakeholders had renovated and updated the existing structures rather
than erecting brand-new ones as part of the housing project:
We have upgraded housing projects with alleys, pavement, and play grounds for children in
areas like Darkuman, Ashaiman, and Ga-Mashie. In line with our mandate, we are determined to
gradually extend the same principles to other cities with similar situations in Ghana (Female, UN-
Habitat).
Explicating further, a respondent asserts that not only were they focused on the housing
initiative, but the idea of ensuring a clean environment has also created livelihoods for the
youth:
We do not want to see the communities reverting to how it was. Through a community
development fund, we have bought tricycles for the youth who go out to collect waste and take it
to the biogas centers. This enables them to make some income for themselves and their families
(Female, UN-Habitat).
The financial initiative has been replicated by the mother organisation of the slums to
empower slum dwellers who want to undertake small businesses but lack start-up funds.
The analysis of the data reveals that such financial interventions was channelled through the
leadership of the slums to the individuals:
We had discussions with the leadership and noticed most of them desired to do business but
didn’t have capital. So we sourced funds at a cheaper rate and distributed them through their
leadership so that recovery would be easy. This has helped most of them start small businesses,
and others have used them to publish their vocations (Male, People’s Dialogue).
It was further observed that the financial empowerment also enabled most of the slum
dwellers to enrol in some vocations, which tend to build their capacities. This makes it
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possible for other organisations to rally firmly behind them in their resolve to demand what is
due to them. For instance, an interviewee asserts that:
The government makes huge promises to the slums without recourse to their feasibility. Through
the consent of the slum leadership, the media follow them up and keep the government in check
against such promises to ensure they are delivered (Male, Media: 2).
Similarly, another respondent states that:
Over the years, we have been on the neck of the government to implement legislation that prohibits
slums from force eviction and demolition. We will continue to fight for the slums to ensure their rights
are respected in the sameway that any other citizens are (Male, Amnesty International ).
Slum dwellers’ perspectives about stakeholders’ contributions
Slum dwellers’ views on the external stakeholders’ contribution in line with the second research
question have been answered. The findings reveal two dominant themes: long-term effects
and short-term relief underlying how respondents perceive stakeholders’ support for the slum
communities. It shows that while contributions from stakeholder organisation enhance the
livelihoods of the said slum communities in general, they have both long-term and short-term
positive implications. Firstly, the analysis shows that the stakeholders provide free tuition for
the schoolchildren in some of the slums in the areas of English, Mathematics and ICT for their
wards and the respondents assert that such interventions have long-term benefits:
Over the years, we have received much support from some organisations for schoolchildren in
this community. They paid for the services of teachers to teach our little ones in the areas of ICT,
English, and Mathematics (Female, Agbogbloshei ).
Such an initiative, in the view of the interviewees, has the potential to positively change the
fortunes of the children in the future:
We are grateful to stakeholders because it will ensure the future benefit of children [. . .] and it is
also helping to reduce the incidence of street children and miscreants (Male, Alogboshie).
Similar long-term interventions to the view that some of the slum residents received from
stakeholder organisations, skill development training to enhance their livelihoods in future:
Some of the people in this community, most of whom were female, have some training in skill
development. Although people may not see the benefit of such training immediately [. . .] it is a
career development that will help them in the future (Male, Old Fadama).
Without mincing words, a respondent confirmed that stakeholder organisations were helpful
and cared more about the plight of the slums than the government. She also claims that
while long-term contributions will be helpful in the near future, beneficiaries usually lack
support or resources to implement their skills:
Usually, the problem is that acquiring the skills is easy, but their implementation is another thing
entirely. Most of the trainees will be hoping to implement the skills they have acquired in the
future, but due to a lack of support, they go back to the street to do what they have been doing
(Male, Christian Village).
Secondly, views of the measures that offer beneficiaries instant relief and serve to cushion
them typically pertain to those short-term benefits. Respondents alluded to some of such
interventions as mitigating support they received from stakeholder organisations during the
global pandemic and the COVID-19 lockdown:
Issues in the slums sometimes require immediate intervention. During the lockdown, most
households in this community were handicapped and received foodstuffs and some
consumables from stakeholders to fill in the survival gap (Female, Agbogbloshei ).
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A second interviewee confirmed the following:
People’s Dialogue Ghana and other NGOs, including some churches, were very helpful to people in
these communities. “They came to donate foodstuffs and other consumables, including assorted
soft drinks and tin fish, to the needy during the health crisis lockdown” (Male, Old Fadama).
The elderly, children and those with disabilities were not exempt from the short-term support
provided by key respondents’ stakeholders:
In actuality, short-term stakeholder support really saved lives [. . .] particularly those of the
elderly, children, and disabled who were unable to move about during the lockdown. People’s
dialogue brought them breakfast, lunch, and supper (Male, Alogboshie).
Nonetheless, in response to the brief stakeholder contributions, respondents verified that
some of the slums previously lacked social amenities and conveniences but now has
courtesies stakeholders. One of them said that:
Master, would you believe that this community for many years was without a toilet facility? I am
ashamed to talk about this basic thing as an Assembly member [. . .] we had to depend on some
organisations to construct a temporary toilet facility (Male, Agbogbloshei ).
In the same vein, speaking on the short-term relief, another respondent blamed slums lack
of social amenities on the government that:
It is sad that some families in this community have to rely on organisations for basic social
amenities. The government has ignored the slums, and we are now at the mercy of non-
governmental organisations for social amenities (Male, Alogboshie).
Link between stakeholders’ contributions and slum governance
In relation to the third objective, analysis of the data shows that stakeholder contributions have
a link to slum governance. Overly four issues, such as data provision, policy implementation,
slum projects and the influence of slum policies, emerged from the data analysis. These areas
of stakeholder contributions, according to the analysis, can help the government to develop a
broader policy agenda for the governance of slums in Ghana. Firstly, it demonstrates that any
plan for managing slums must be based on reliable information and data. The authors
understand that, for issues pertaining to slums, obtaining reliable data has been a difficult
effort not only in Ghana but in other countries as well. A key respondent reveals that they have
over the years been providing accurate data to the government to aid effective planning:
We provide data about the slums to the government for planning purposes. Currently, there is no
data anywhere to help the government plan for slum development. With this data, government
can even speak to the issue regarding the nature of slums in Ghana, its population and
challenges facing them (Male, People Dialogue Ghana).
Secondly, in the same conversation, the analysis points out that those stakeholders not only
provide data to aid slum policy planning but they also help with policy implementation. The
study finds that some of the stakeholder organisations, such as the media, which have a
national reach and cover a wider audience, have championed such causes. Speaking to
the issue on the subject, a respondent avers that they usually uncover critical issues facing
the slums and follow up with the relevant authorities to ensure they are resolved:
In line with our mandate, we try to uncover critical issues and challenges facing the slums to the
appropriate authority. We do this by highlighting the issues to drive the attention of the public, follow
it up to the concerned authority until it a policy is initiated to resolve them (Male, Media-01).
Thirdly, stakeholders also undertake projects so support government critical areas. Such
initiatives tend to consolidate government existing plans for the slums and invariably help to
j SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL j
cushion policymakers to focus on other critical domains for effective slum governance. An
interviewee states that:
Our programmes are structured to support government efforts for slum governance by
deepening some of the existing projects. Sometimes we offer technical support, financial
assistance, and capacity building to the urban development units within the ministries to help the
government focus on other critical areas (Female, UN-Habitat).
Finally, it also shows that some of the stakeholder organisations influence slum policies in
line with their mandate. This is because slums are considered a minority in society and are
prone to policy neglect and moral abuse. According to the data, Amnesty International
Ghana, for instance, protects the human right of the slum dwellers in areas bordering on
force eviction, demolition and any form of human right abuse against the slums. The
excerpts depict a respondent’s voice:
Over the years, we have been on the government’s neck to implement legislation that prohibits
slums from forced eviction and demolition. We will continue to push the government to ensure a
policy is implemented to protect the rights of slum dwellers in the same way as other citizens
(Male, Amnesty International ).
Discussion of findings
Overall, the findings show that external stakeholders’ contributions to slum governance are very
significant and cannot be undervalued. Such contributions tend to enhance the livelihoods of the
dwellers in both the short and long terms. In relation to the first research question, it reveals that
specific contributions, including housing, finance, skill development and capacity building, have
been provided by stakeholders. Such contributions enabled some of the slum communities to
have enough open space for family gatherings, playgrounds for children and decent living
environments for social gatherings – a rare case in slum settlements. Building slum dwellers’
capacities has boosted their skills in various vocations necessary for livelihood enhancement in
the areas of small businesses and youth empowerment through the tricycles used for waste
collection. These strands of contributions provided by stakeholders have tended to ameliorate
some of the challenges of the dwellers while helping the government focus its attention on other
grey areas of slum administration. The findings of the study align with Bardhan et al. (2019) and
Mando and Mutuku (2017) to the effect that stakeholders’ roles in the implementation of projects
within the informal communities can least be undervalued. It is public knowledge that the influx of
slums is outpacing planning in developing countries such as Ghana. According to research
(Agyabeng et al., 2022), governments’ inability to prioritise slum governance with an integrated
slum administration system and a dedicated policy document is to be blamed for the surge in
slums. Such contributions from stakeholders help in filling the critical void created by the state in
the affairs of slums (Cawood, 2021; Power and Wanner, 2017). Importantly, stakeholders’ inputs
and contributions to slums in particular and the overall implications for the governance of slums in
general create positive impressions about their generosity. This treasure makes the contributed
slum stakeholders advantageous and stands tall above their compatriot non-slum-supported
organisations. Clearly, the feat validates the descriptive and instrumental elements of the
stakeholder theory (Freeman, 1999). This is because stakeholders’ contributions to any
endeavour not only help them achieve their objectives but also provide a competitive advantage.
The second research question about slum dwellers’ views on stakeholders’ contributions identified
short-term relief and long-term development as dominant outcomes. Stakeholders’ contributions,
such as the provision of consumables, food, clean-up exercises and medical screening, from the
perspective of the residents, constitute short-term relief. The study finds that such short-term relief
measures are critical for cushioning residents during difficult times. Given that, most of the slum
dwellers’ households are worse off and are in dire need of such short-term contributions.
Interviewees’ alluded to the fact that during the pandemic lockdown, most of the slum residents
survived on such short-term assistance from stakeholder organisations. Respondents explained
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that the short-term contributions they received from stakeholders are necessary to sustain them in
the immediate and, at the same time, prepare them for the future. This finding is consistent with
Mwaura (2018) that stakeholders’ contributions to the slums helped to combat some infections
and diseases in the slums. Consistently, Aliu et al. (2021) assert that stakeholders’ involvement in
slum administration tends to help slums escape from societal deprivation in accessing basic
services. The long-term influence in the view of participants includes education of children in the
slums; the development of skills relating to apprenticeship; the distilling of gutters; and the
construction of drains. Respondents indicated that such long-term initiatives are future-driven and
do not provide immediate answers to their problems. Although participants were grateful to
stakeholders for such gestures, they desired a balance for both types of assistance because they
have an influence on their livelihoods. According to the study, most slum dwellers are not
supported in putting their newly acquired skills into practice, which makes their future uncertain or
forces them to return to the streets. This finding validates Pierce’s (2017) observation that
institutional impediments explain long-term variance in slum service provision. Clearly, this
explains why slum residents’ preferences are biased towards short-term interventions that provide
them immediate relief. Indeed, having the slum dwellers affirm stakeholders’ contributions and
their effect on their livelihoods aligns with existing research (Al Mubarak, 2021) that says
stakeholders’ needs and wants to determine their activities. The descriptive element (Werhane,
2019) and the instrumental version (Jones et al., 2018) validate the outcome of this finding.
Data relating to the third research question reveals the supply of slum data, policy implementation
and feedback and the influence of slum policies and programmes. For example, it shows that
People’s dialogue provides critical data that details slum profiling to aid decision-making, planning
and policy-driven interventions. Amnesty International facilitates the development of policies to
prohibit slum residents from forced evictions and demolitions. In the same vein, UN-Habitat,
according to the data, contributes towards technical and financial support, as well as offering best
practices for slum housing projects. In the area of internalising government policies and providing
feedback on implemented projects or programmes, the media has been highly versatile.
Additionally, the media facilitates slum projects by following up with the relevant authorities within
the local assembly architecture. These varied strands of stakeholders’ contributions in the space of
slums have tended to make the slums gain prominence in the sphere of governance. This result
fulfils participation governance that promotes equity and inclusion (Sridhar et al., 2020). Research
has shown that stakeholders are experts in constructing slum management action plans that align
with participation, collaboration and empowerment (Fadli and Sarofah, 2021). Stakeholders have
also provided a platform for the inhabitants to express their views on policies affecting their lives,
as well as provide policy feedback to the government. This endeavour attracts a coalition of
partners to help address some of the challenges confronting the slums. This discovery agrees with
Freeman’s (1984) stakeholder theory because public governance involves myriads and not only
state institutions. Therefore, the inclusion of external stakeholders in governance fulfils the moral
and ethical normative element, which is the anchor of the stakeholder theory.
Conclusion
Overall, the study explores external stakeholders’ contributions to slum communities through three
research questions. Firstly, the findings revealed that stakeholders’ contributions towards slums
span areas such as housing, financial assistance, skill development and capacity building. Such
contributions promote the living standards of the dwellers, as well as improve their lives for
sustainable livelihoods. Secondly, it reveals that slums contextualise external stakeholders’
contributions as both short-term and long-term for their livelihoods. It affirmed that, whereas the
short-term provides immediate relief to the dwellers, the long-term prepares them for the future.
Thirdly, the results indicate stakeholder contributions to slums also align with the overall governance
of slums. These include the provision of slum data for planning, the implementation of policies and
feedback, assistance in undertaking slum projects and the influence of slum programmes. The
outcome of the study does not only fill the gap identified in the literature but also opens up new
j SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY JOURNAL j
frontiers of knowledge in the domain of slum and governance literature. The study has also
unearthed the intricacies of stakeholders’ achievements in slums that tend to increase public
understanding. Theoretically, the study validated the stakeholders’ theory in the following ways:
Firstly, external stakeholders’ contributions to the slums enable them to fulfill the aims and objectives
of the stakeholder organisations. Helping the slum residents will enable them to be self-sufficient
and contribute towards revenue generation at the local assemblies. Secondly, as the instrumental
element of the theory prescribes, this tends to provide a competitive advantage to the stakeholder
organisations within the realm of government for future engagement. Thirdly, the normative element
of the stakeholder theory confirmed the findings of the study by answering the research questions.
This is because slum governance involves the engagement and collaboration of institutions and
stakeholders. Stakeholders’ contributions towards slums align with inclusive governance and fulfil
both the ethical and moral requirements of the normative version of the theory. The findings shed
light on a critical yet understudied research area within the phenomenon studied.
Implications of the study
One, the findings show that external stakeholders have assisted the slums in the areas of
housing upgrading, funds for petty trading, skill development and capacity building. These
shards of assistance have a critical impact on slum dwellers’ livelihoods as well as the local
government administration. The study recommends that such initiatives be deepened,
supported and structured to ensure slum communities become independent from state
intervention. Managers of the various assemblies with jurisdiction over the slums should
consciously collaborate with external stakeholders and other bodies such as private
housing developers, financial institutions and vocational organisations. Two, it indicates that
slum dwellers’ challenges require both short-term relief and long-term solutions. This depicts
the realities and happenings in the slum communities that require policy consideration. The
researchers proposed a scientific examination of slum profiling to ascertain first-hand
concerns about the slums and aid planning. For example, the local authorities should
champion that enterprise by supporting academics, research institutions and the People’s
dialogue in that regard. This effort will allow immediate slum interventions to be separated from
long-term plans so that appropriate interventions can be made for the required slum
settlement. Thirdly, the study reveals that in the domains of policy design, implementation and
feedback, the functions of external stakeholders have been exceptional. On account of the
above, it is the recommendation of the study that formal and conscious relationships be
created between the government and the stakeholders to help the cause of slum governance.
Limitations of the study
The study has some limitations that provide fertile grounds for a future scholarship agenda.
Firstly, this study was conducted in one region out of the 16 administrative regions of Ghana,
among participants who represent the communities in governance. Secondly, the qualitative
design adopted in this study was a limitation to fair representation regarding the number of
participants for the interview. Thirdly, the sampled stakeholder organisations were selected
based on the slum residents’ recommendations, an indication that they did not represent the
entire stakeholder organisations working in the space of the slums in Ghana. Fourthly, the study
did not explore slum dwellers’ views regarding their preference for stakeholder contributions,
which would serve as a guide to others. These prospecting areas are available for future scholars
to explore using a quantitative approach.
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Corresponding author
Anthony Nkrumah Agyabeng can be contacted at: anthonynkrumah18@yahoo.com
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