UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES SCHOOL OF ARTS SALVAGE ARCHAEOLOGY AT THE MARINE DRIVE PROJECT SITE: DOCUMENTING THE LEGACIES OF THE INDIGENOUS-EUROPEAN ENCOUNTERS AT OSU- GHANA. BY BEATRICE DARKO-YEBOAH (10304187) THIS THESIS/DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF PHD IN ARCHAEOLOGY DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES AUGUST, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION To my father, Charles Darko Yeboah (Esq) My mother, Eunice Yeboah My siblings, Charles Darko Yeboah and Joseph Darko-Yeboah and My darling husband, Bismark Brogya Owusu University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My solemn and heartfelt gratitude to God Almighty for bringing this research to its finality. Many contributed significantly to this research and without them this journey would not have been possible. First, I want to express my profound gratitude to my Principal Supervisor Prof. Wazi Apoh for his support and direction. I am also grateful for the partial scholarship he secured for me since my second year from the Andrew Mellon Foundation. I also wish to express my utmost appreciation to other members of my thesis supervisory committee namely, Dr. Fritz Biveridge and Prof. John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu. To the latter, I wish to express my profound gratitude for facilitating my inclusion in the Ghana-Norway exchange programme at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) and for the constructive contributions he made towards the completion of this thesis. I am also thankful to the Enhancing Capacity and Postgraduate Education in the Humanities (ENCAPEH) project funded by the Andrew Mellon Foundation at the University of Ghana for assisting this research with a Thesis Completing Grant. My sincere appreciation to the chief, sub chiefs, the traditional councils and the people of Osu who were instrumental in helping me gather oral information for this thesis. I am thankful for their cooperation during the data collection phase of this research. I am also grateful to Prof. H. N. A. Wellington for granting an interview and directing my ethnographic data collection exercise. I particularly appreciate Dr. Gertrude A. M. Eyifa Dzidzienyo for her wise counsel throughout the writing of the thesis. I also wish to thank my research assistant Lotus Asare and other faculty, Dr. David Akwesi Mensah Abrampah, Ms. Christiana W. Diku, Mr. Daniel Kuma, Dr. Mark Amenyo-Xa, Ms. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv Victoria Aryee, Mr. Edward Adum Nyarko, Dr. Emmanuel Osei Boakye and Mr. Gideon Agyare for their encouraging words when things were difficult and their contributions toward the work. And to my colleagues Portia Bansa, Sharon Dede Padi, Albert Larbi and Kelvin Asare, God richly bless you all for the physical and emotional support. Finally, my profound gratitude goes to my parents, Charles Darko Yeboah (Esq.). and Mrs. Eunice Yeboah, my siblings Charles Darko Yeboah and Joseph Darko-Yeboah, and my dearest husband, Bismark Brogya Owusu, for their immeasurable support, prayers and encouragement throughout this process. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ABSTRACT This research investigates the legacies of trade along the coast of the Christiansborg Castle, Osu as a result of Indigenous-European interactions from the late sixteenth century to the present. Salvage archaeology being one of the main methods used, was conducted at the beachfront of Osu to rescue the material legacies associated with the early Osu people, the Trans-Atlantic Trade and the interactions that were on the verge of being destroyed due to the Marine Drive Tourism Investment Project. Historical sources, oral traditions and archival data were also used to complement the archaeological data to derive as much information on the subject as possible. The Marine Drive Project is a beachfront project intended by the Ghanaian government to plan and develop 241 acres of land, stretching from the Osu Klottey Lagoon (behind the Christiansburg Castle) to the Accra Community Centre. Osu became a fountainhead of Dutch mercantile interest and a major point of embarkation and disembarkation of cargo. This partly boosted the coastal trade and added a wide array of mainly European trade goods. The trade boom also attracted many ethnolinguistic groups to relocate to Osu. After the abolition of slavery in 1807 by the Danes, Osu’s commercial viability depreciated significantly. Despite this, it became the seat of government after independence and was used by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. Archaeological and historical evidence also indicated that interaction between the Africans and Europeans at Osu impacted subsistence and several aspects of traditional cultural lifeways. This is evident in the areas of indigenous dress codes and cuisine while the Europeans embraced local cuisine and cultural ties. Western formal education and the use of European construction designs/materials such as glass windows superimposed on metal frames, asbestos, red bricks and metal hinges constituted University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi technologies incorporated in traditional architecture. This paper therefore assesses the findings from three excavated trenches that were characterized by midden deposits of pre-European, early Osu materials and those of Dutch, Danish and British Trans-Atlantic trade and colonial interactions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION …………………………………………………………………………….…. i DEDICATION ………………………………………………………………………………….. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……………………………………………………………………… iii ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………………. v TABLE OF CONTENT …………………………………………………………….…………. vii LIST OF FIGURES ……………………………………………………………………………. xiii LIST OF MAPS ……………………………………………………………………………….. xx LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………………………. xxi CHAPTER ONE ………………………………………………………………………….……... 1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ……………………………………………………….……. 1 1.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………... 1 1.2. The Study Area ……………………………………………………………………. 3 1.3. Research Problem ……………………………...…………………………………... 6 1.4. Research Aim ……………………………………………………..…………….…..7 1.5. Research Objectives …………………………………………………………...…... 7 1.6. Research Questions ………………………………………………………………… 8 1.7. Research Approach and Methodology …………………………………………….. 8 1.8. Significance of Study ………………………………………………………………. 9 1.9. Organization of Thesis …………………………………………………..………… 9 CHAPTER TWO ……………………………………………………………………………….. 12 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ASSOCIATED WITH THE SETTLEMENT HISTORIES OF OSU……………………………………………………………………………………...……… 12 2.1. Introduction ……………..………………………………………………….…….. 12 2.2. Migration and Settlement Histories of the Ga People ……………..……….…….. 12 2.3. History of African-European Encounters on the Gold Coast ………………..…… 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.4. History of Coastal Trade and Economic Interactions on the Gold Coast………….. 22 2.5. Post European/Atlantic Contact Period and the Legacies of Encounters at Osu ….. 28 CHAPTER THREE …………………………………………………………………………..… 40 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ……………………………………………………………… 40 3.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………. 40 3.2. Historical Archaeology ………………………………………………..………… 40 3.3. Culture Contact Studies ………………………………………….………………. 42 3.4. Material Culture Studies ………………………………………………………… 45 3.5. Development-led Archaeology …………...….………………...…….…………... 49 3.5.1. Salvage Archaeology and Legislation …………………………………….. 53 CHAPTER FOUR …..………………………………………………………………………….. 58 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ………………………………………………………………. 58 4.1. Introduction ……………………………………………….……………………….. 58 4.2. Library Research ……………………………………………..…………………….. 58 4.3. Archival Research ……………………………………………………..…………… 59 4.4. Ethnographic Research ………………………………………………………...…… 60 4.5. Surface Survey and Salvage Archaeological Excavation …………………............... 62 4.6. Ethical Consideration ………………………………………………………………. 63 4.7. Data Processing and Analysis ……………………………………………………… 65 CHAPTER FIVE ……………..………………………………………………………...………. 66 GEOGRAPHICAL AND CONTEMPORARY SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING AT OSU …… 66 5.1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….. 66 5.2. Physical Background: Relief and Drainage ……………………………………….. 66 5.2.1. Climate …………………………………………………………………... 67 5.2.2. Vegetation and Soils …………………………………………………… 68 5.3. Contemporary Socio-economic Setting at Osu ………………………………….… 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 5.3.1. Current Demography of Osu ………………………………………….. 69 5.3.2. Contemporary Political/Traditional Setting of Osu ……………………. 69 5.3.3. Contemporary Socio-economic Setting of Osu ………..……………… 71 5. 3.4. Contemporary Subsistence and Adaptive Activities at Osu ……….….. 72 5.3.5. Contemporary Cultural Setting of Osu ………….………….……….… 77 5.4. The Marine Drive Tourism Investment Project ………………………..…………… 78 CHAPTER SIX ……………………………………………………………………..……..…… 86 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY AND SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS AT THE MARINE DRIVE PROJECT SITE …………………..…………………………………………………………….. 86 6.1. Introduction ……...…………………………………………………...……..…………. 86 6.2. Review of Past Archaeological Investigations at Osu ……………………….………... 86 6.3. Surface Survey at the Marine Drive Project Site ……………………………………… 89 6.3.1. Sampling Techniques ………………………………………………………. 92 6.4. Salvage Archaeological Excavations at the Locus B site …………………………….. 93 6.4.1. Trench One Excavation ……………………………………………………. 93 6.4.1.1. Profile of Trench One …………………………………………...…... 97 6.4.2. Trench Two Excavation …………………………………………………... 98 6.4.3. Trench Three Excavation ……………………………………………………. 100 6.4.3.1. Profile of Trench Three ………………………………………….. 103 CHAPTER SEVEN …………………….……………………………………………………... 105 DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF EXCAVATED MATERIAL CULTURE FROM THE SALVAGED LOCUS B SITE OF OSU ………………………………………………………. 106 7.1. Introduction …………..………………………………………………………......…. 106 7.2. Local Pottery from the Locus B Site ……………………………………..……….… 108 7.2.1. Surface Treatment/Finish Characteristics …..……………………………... 109 7.2.2. Decorative Patterns/Motifs on Local Pottery …..………………………..… 111 7.2.3. Fabric/ Paste Characteristics …………………………………………..…… 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 7.2.4. Measurement of Potsherds ……………………………………………...….. 116 7.3. Rim Forms ……………………………………………........……………………...…… 117 7.3.1. Bowl Forms ……………………………………………………………………….. 117 7.3.1.1. Bowl Form One …………………………………………………………… 117 7.3.1.2. Bowl Form Two …………………………………………………………... 118 7.3.1.3. Bowl Form Three ……………………………………………………….…. 119 7.3.1.4. Bowl Form Four ………………………………………………………….... 120 7.3.1.5. Bowl Form Five …………………………………………………….…….... 121 7.3.1.6. Bowl Form Six …………………………………………………………….. 121 7.3.2. Jar Forms …………………………………………..……………………..…….…. 122 7.3.2.1. Jar Form One …………………………………………………..………….. 122 7.3.2.2. Jar Form Two ………………………………………………….……….….. 123 7.3.2.3. Jar Form Three ……………………………………..……………………… 124 7.3.2.4. Jar Form Four ………………………………………………………………. 125 7.3.2.5. Jar Form Five ………………………………………………………………. 125 7.3.2.6. Jar Form Six ………………………………………………………………... 126 7.3.2.7. Jar Form Seven ……………………………………………………………... 127 7.4. Imported Ceramics ……………………….…………………………………………... 127 7.4.1. Porcelain …………………………………………………………………. 129 7.4.2. Creamware …………………………………….………………………… 135 7.4.3. Pearlware ………………………………………………………………… 137 7.4.4. Whiteware ……………………………………………..………………… 141 7.4.5. Stoneware ………………………………………………………………... 143 7.5. Glass Objects …………………………………………………...………………….….. 146 7.6. Smoking Pipes ………………………………………………………………………… 163 7.7. Food Remains …………………………………………………………………………. 167 7.8. Stone Tools ………………………………………………………………...………….. 178 7.9. Clothing and Dressing Accessories ……………………………………………………. 180 7.10. Metal Objects ………………………………………………………………………… 185 7.11. Construction Materials ……….…………………………… ……………………….... 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 7.12. Education Related Materials………………………………………………………….. 190 7.13. Plastics ……………..………………………………………..……………………….. 191 CHAPTER EIGHT ……………………………………………………………………….….... 192 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION ………………………………. 192 8.1. Introduction ………………………………………………………………………..... 192 8.2. Summary ………………………………………………………………..………….... 192 8.3. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………... 209 8.3.1. Impact of the Marine Drive Project on the Research Area ……….………….. 213 8.3.2. Construction Activities as a Key Contributory Factor to Cultural Heritage Loss…215 8.4. Limitations ………………………………………………………………………….. 215 8.5. Recommendations ……………………………………………………...…………… 216 REFERENCES …… ………………………………………………………………………….. 217 APPENDIX A ……………………………………………………………………….... 236 APPENDIX B ………………………………………………………………………… 242 APPENDIX C ………………………………………………………………………… 243 APPENDIX D ………………………………………………………………………… 244 APPENDIX E ………….....…………………………………………………………... 245 APPENDIX F …………………………………………………………………………. 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: East and West views of the current condition of the Christiansborg Castle …...….. 30 Figure 2.2: Current front view of stairs leading to the upper quarters of the Richter House ….. 31 Figure 2.3: Current floor of the courtyard of the Richter House with ‘Oware’ design .……….. 32 Figure 2.4: Current front view of ‘Nii-Okantey Shikatse We’ …………..………………...……….. 33 Figure 2.5: Water cistern located in the middle of ‘Nii-Okantey Shikatse We’ compound ...….. 34 Figure 2.6: The ruins of the first Basel Mission church ……………………………………….. 35 Figure 2.7: The Osu Presby built at the Salem Street, at Osu ………………………………….. 36 Figure 2.8: Front view of the abandoned Salem School compound ……………...…...……….. 37 Figure 2.9: Side view of the abandoned Salem School …...………...…………………………. 37 Figure 2.10: The Wulff-Cochrane houses in view …………………………………………..… 39 Figure 2.11: Researcher’s interview with Lesley Wulff-Cochrane ……………………..….….. 39 Figure 5.1. The wall type runs through the houses from the Chrristiansborg Castle through the Salem Avenue to the beginning of the Osu Oxford Street ……………………………………… 72 Figure 5.2: Fishing canoes at Osu ………………..…………………………………………….. 74 Figure 5.3: Vegetable farming at Osu ………………………………………………………….. 75 Figure 5.4: Animal Husbandry at Osu …………………………………...……………………… 75 Figure 5.5: Fish pond farming at Osu ………………………..………………………………….. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii Figure 5.6: The proposed Marine Drive Project affected areas ……………………………….. 83 Figure 5.7: The design of the completed project ………..……………………………………… 85 Figure 6.1: Excavation of a midden at the Locus A Site ………...…………………..…………. 88 Figure 6.2: Trench being excavated at the Locus A Site ……………...………………….…….. 89 Figure 6.3: Survey of Midden at the Locus B Site ……………………..……..….……....….….90 Figure 6.4: Trench One of Locus B (1.5m x 2.5m) ………..……………...………………….... 94 Figure 6.5: Profile drawing of the north wall of Trench One (1.5m x 5m) ……………..…….. 95 Figure 6.6: Soil Profile of the North wall of Trench One ……………………………………… 98 Figure 6.7: Trench Two (2) of Locus B with arrows showing the direction of the north …...….. 99 Figure 6.8. Trench Three of Locus B (3) ………………………...…………………………… 101 Figure 6.9: Profile of Trench 3 ……………………………………………………………….. 101 Figure 6.10: Soil Profile of the North wall of Trench One …………………………….…….. 103 Figure 6.11: Profile of Trench Three (3) …………..…………………..…………………….. 105 Figure 6.12: Photo showing the excavated Trenches …………..…………………………….. 104 Figure 7.1: Decorated sherds from the Locus B Site . ………………….…..………….…….. 113 Figure 7.2: Pottery decorations from the locus B Site …………….….……………...……….. 114 Figure 7.3: Bowl Form One …………………………………………………………………... 118 Figure 7.4: Bowl Form Two ………………………………………………………………….. 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv Figure 7.5: Bowl Form Three ………………………………………………………………… 119 Figure 7.6: Bowl Form Four ………………………………………………………………….. 120 Figure 7.7: Bowl Form Five ………………………………...………………………………... 121 Figure 7.8: Bowl Form Six ………………………...…………………………………………. 122 Figure 7.9: Jar Form One ……………...………………………………………………………. 123 Figure 7.10: Jar Form Two ……………………………………………………………...……. 124 Figure 7.11: Jar Form Three ………………….……………………………………………….. 124 Figure 7.12: Jar Form Four ……………………….…………………………………………… 125 Figure 7.13: Jar Form Five …………………..………………………………………………… 126 Figure 7.14: Jar Form Six ……………………………………………………………………... 126 Figure 7.15: Jar Form Seven …………………..……………………………………………… 127 Figure 7.16: Post-colonial deep plate embossed with the ‘Ghana Coat of Arms’ …………….. 130 Figure 7.17: Handle of teapot ……………….………………………………………………… 130 Figure 7.18: Plain porcelain (A) and porcelain with blue floral print (B) …………….………. 130 Figure 7.19: Cable/wire insulator for transmitting electricity …….…………………………… 131 Figure 7.20: Fragments of plain porcelain teacup ………..……………………………………. 131 Figure 7.21: Fragment of a saucer with ‘Fine Bone China Crown Staffordshire England’ embossment …………...………………………………………………………………………. 132 Figure 7.22: Base of soup bowl with ‘Aynsley England Bone China’ embossment …………..132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xv Figure 7.23: Tea cups with the ‘Mason Patent Ironstone Hotel Ware England’ embossment .. 133 Figure 7.24: Creamware Floor Tiles ………………..………………………………………… 135 Figure 7.25: Greek key pattern on creamware ……………………………………………….. 137 Figure 7.26: Pearlware with willow and two birds’ decoration ………………………………. 139 Figure 7.27: Pearlware rim fragments of plates with Willow and stencil decorations ………. 139 Figure 7.28: Underglazed hand painted polychrome with floral pattern and transfer prints polychrome …………………………………………………………………………………… 140 Figure 7.29: Photo of Whiteware with narrow, annular rings in blue and red bands …..…….. 141 Figure 7.30: Annular Banded Whiteware ……………………………………………………. 142 Figure 7.31: Whiteware with hand painted floral design in pink ………………………...…... 142 Figure 7.32: Whiteware with blue on white design ………….………………………………. 142 Figure 7.33: Plain Whiteware soup plates …………….……………………………………… 142 Figure 7.34: German Rhenish stoneware with cobalt blue designs ……………………….….. 144 Figure 7.35: White glazed and cork sealed stoneware ………………...……………………… 145 Figure 7.36: Rim of a Brown Rhenish stoneware …………….………………………………. 145 Figure 7.37: Brown salt-glazed stoneware ……………………………………………………. 145 Figure 7.38: Star embossment on a schnapp bottle …………………………………………… 150 Figure 7.39: Champaign bottles …………………………..…………………………………… 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvi Figure 7.40: Beer bottles …………….………………………………………………………… 152 Figure 7.41: Base of beer bottles ……………………………………………………………… 152 Figure 7.42: Fragments of Carbonated drinks ………………………………………………… 153 Figure 7.43: Sauce bottle ……………………………………...……………………………… 153 Figure 7.44: Glass Stopper and Ceramic Stopper …………………………………………….. 154 Figure 7.45: Wine glasses …………………………..………………………………………… 156 Figure 7.46: Tumbler glass …………………………………………………………………. .. 156 Figure 7.47: German crystal tumbler glass …………………………………………………… 156 Figure 7.48: Lavender perfume bottle …………………………………………………………. 158 Figure 7.49: Vaseline Jar ……………………………………………………………………… 158 Figure 7.50: Ointment bottle ………………………………………….……………………….. 158 Figure 7.51: Allen & Hanbury castor oil bottle …………………….………………………… 159 Figure 7.52: Parker Ink bottles ………………………….…………………………………….. 161 Figure 7.53: Gestetner ink toners ……………………..……………………………………….. 161 Figure 7.54: Louver blades or mirror …………………………………………………………. 162 Figure 7.55: Base of a glass bowl ……………………………………………………………. 162 Figure 7.56: Fragments of a lantern shade ……………………………………………………. 162 Figure 7.57: Bowl fragment of local clay smoking pipe ……………………………………… 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvii Figure 7.58: Bowls with stem and heels ……………………………………………………… 165 Figure 7.59: Stems with elaborate designs …………………………………………………… 165 Figure 7.60: Fluted Dutch pipes ……………………………………………………………… 167 Figure 7.61: Bone fragments …………………………….…………………………………….. 168 Figure 7.62: Ostrea denticulata …………………………………………………………….…. 175 Figure 7.63: Pitaria tumens …………………………………………………………………… 175 Figure 7.64: Achatina (A) and Thais Haemastoma (B) ………………………………….……. 175 Figure 7.65: Cyprea stercoria ………………………………………………………….……… 175 Figure 7.66: Cyprea Moneta …………………………………………………………….……. 175 Figure 7.67: Some palm kennel shells from the research area …………………………..…….. 177 Figure 7.6: European made gunflints ………………………………………………………….. 178 Figure 7.69: Stone Grinders ………………………………………………………………….... 179 Figure 7.70: Pebbles ………………………………………………………………………..….. 179 Figure 7.71: Buttons ……………………………………………………………………….….. 180 Figure 7.72: Brick red translucent and blue glass beads ……………………………………… 184 Figure 7.73: venetian bead & blue/green Bohemian beads ……………………...…………… 184 Figure 7.74: Treated nails, rods and other metal objects ………………..……………….…… 186 Figure 7.75: Parts of a canon machine/barrel ………………………………………………… 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xviii Figure 7.76: British West African penny coins ………………………………………………. 187 Figure 7.77: Earring …………………………..……………………………………………… 187 Figure 7.78: Lime ……………………………….……………………………………….……. 189 Figure 7.78: Fragments of imported roofing bricks ………………………………….……….. 190 Figure 7.80: Writing slate ……………………..……………………………………………… 190 Figure 7.81: Unidentified fragments of plastic objects ……………………………………….. 191 Figure 7.82: Fragments of lipstick container and syringe …………………………………….. 191 Figure 8.1: showing the parks and garden area which has been graded and left bare leading to erosion of the land …………………………………………………………………………….. 213 Figure 8.2: Demolition of the squatter’s place of residence in the Marine Drive area ………… 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xix LIST OF MAPS Map 1.1: Contemporary map of the research area ……………………………………………… 3 Map 1.2: Showing the traditional quarters and the Trans-Atlantic trade relics …………..…….. 5 Map 2.1: Map of Osu showing the plan of Christiansborg by Ray Kea (1883) ………………… 29 Map 5.1: Map of Old Osu network with the proposed underpass ……….…………..…………. 81 Map 5.2: Map showing the 1974 land use plan of the Marine Drive Site ……………..………. 81 Map 5.3: Current Map of the Marine Drive Site and some demarcated areas to be developed ………………………………………..…………………………………………………………. 83 Map 6.1: Site Plan showing all excavated Loci ……………………………………..………… 91 Map 6.2: Site Plan showing excavated trenches ……………………………………..………… 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xx LIST OF TABLES Table 6.1: Cultural materials from Trench One ………………………….………….……….… 96 Table 6.2: Summary of Artefacts and Ecofacts from Locus B Trench Two ………...…………. 99 Table 6.3: Summary of Artefacts and Ecofacts from the Locus B Trench 3 …………..…....... 102 Table 7.1. Numerical Summary of Finds from locus B Site…………………………………... 107 Table 7.2: Total count and the Percentage value of local pottery from the three Trenches ….. 108 Table 7.3: Total Count and Distribution of Sherd Types from the Locus B ………..…...…… 109 Table 7.4: Presentation of Number of Pottery with Surface Treatment per Trench ….…..…... 111 Table 7.5: Decorations from the Locus B of Marine Drive …..………………………………. 115 Table 7.6: Presentation of Measured Potsherds ……….…….………………………….…….. 116 Table 7.7: Distribution of Imported Ceramics by Trenches and Levels ……………………… 128 Table 7.8: Distribution of Porcelain Wares from the Locus B site …………………………… 134 Table 7.9: Distribution of Creamwares from the Locus B site ……………………………….. 136 Table 7.10: Distribution of Pearlwares from the Locus B site …………………...…...…….... 140 Table 7.11: Distribution of Whitewares from the Locus B site ………………………………. 143 Table 7.12: Distribution of Stonewares from the Locus B site ……………………………….. 146 Table 7.13: Distribution of glass objects by levels ……………...……………………………. 146 Table 7.14: Distribution of Diagnostic Glass Objects at the Marine Drive Site ……………... 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xxi Table 7.15: Distribution of Imported Smoking Pipes According to Stratigraphic Levels ….… 163 Table 7.16: Distribution of imported smoking pipe from the Locus B Site ……………..…….. 166 Table 7.17. Total Count of Bones and their Percentages per Trench …………………….…… 168 Table 7.18: Total Count of Bones and their Percentages per Trench/Level ……………..…….. 170 Table 7.19: Total Count of Molluscs and their Percentage from the Locus B Site ……………. 174 Table 7.20: The Class and Species of Molluscs ………………………………………..……… 176 Table 7.21: Total count of palm Kennel and their percentage …………………………..…….. 177 Table 7.22: Total count of Stone Tools/Querns and their percentage …………..…..………… 178 Table 7.23. Total count of Beads and their percentages ……………………………………… 183 Table 7.24: Types of Beads, Origin and Dates ……………………………………………….. 185 Table 7.25: Metal Objects and their Percentage per Trenches/Levels ……………………….. 186 Table 7.26. Metal objects and their Probable dates ………………………………………….. 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.1. Introduction Human activities like construction and developmental projects, negatively impact and destroy areas with socio-cultural, historical, and environmental heritage. The situation is dire in developing countries with weak regulatory laws needed to protect, preserve and rescue heritage materials. In Ghana, the lack of enforceable laws undermines the capacity of agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and institutions like the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board (GMMB), which are responsible for salvaging, documenting and preserving historical monuments and archaeological sites. One such site with immense socio-cultural value is the ancient settlement quarter of the people of Osu (Old Osu) located at the beachfront of Accra. The area is situated close to several notable architectural edifices such as the Christiansborg Castle built by the Danes in the year 1654 (Barbot 1732: 433; Reindorf 1895: 14,15), the Wulff house, Agba Oyeni Shrine, and the Bannaman house off the castle drive. Since the 1900s, several areas along the beachfront of Accra and Osu have submerged in the sea as a result of climate change. Also, human factors such as developmental activities result in the destruction of historic and heritage sites. For instance, the designation of the beachfront of Accra and Osu, including parts of Old Osu for the Marine Drive Tourism Investment Project (MDTIP) was going to result in the destruction of several very old European-style houses and the archaeological significance of the site. The initiation of the state-private partnership project (MDTIP) to develop the coastline of Accra and Osu as a tourism enclave in 2017, led to the Marine University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Drive Salvage Archaeology work (MDSA) spearheaded by Prof. Wazi Apoh, with a research grant from the Andrew Mellon Foundation and the Accra Marine Drive Project Office. As part of the MDSA, this research was birth to use salvage archaeological methods to rescue, document and record cultural remains at the site as a way of mitigating the impact of the construction activities. It examined the effect of the MDTIP on the coastal heritage and livelihoods of the inhabitants of Osu. An eclectic approach (involving salvage archaeological excavations, surface survey, archival and library research and ethnographic methods) was used in gathering data for the research. The study began in December 2017 with surveys of the research area. In 2018, excavations directed by Professor Wazi Apoh, the writer and a team from the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies (DAHS), took place behind Asomdwe Park (Locus A). It was during this salvage work at Locus A that we discovered tractor moving activity at some part of the old Osu site, this informed my research at a midden/dump site discovered during surface survey behind the Christiansborg Castle Worker’s Canteen. The site was named Locus B. These activities exposed the material culture of an ancient dump site at the Old Osu settlement (Locus B). Thus, the need to undertake a salvage archaeological investigation at the dump site. This Chapter has three main sections. The first section (1.2) comprehensively describes the study area, Osu. Section two (1.3-1.8) outlines the research problem, the aim, objectives, some research questions posed, research methods and the significance of the research. Section three (1.9) outlines the thematic structure of the thesis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 1.2.The Study Area The geographical focus of this research was the ancient settlement quarter of Osu (5°33´14´´N 0°10´30´´W). Osu is a coastal town located about 3 kilometres east of the Central Business District in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. It is bounded to the south by the Gulf of Guinea, to the west by Independence Avenue, to the north by North Ridge/Ring Road East, and to the east by Labadi (Map 1.1). Map 1.1: Contemporary map of the research area (Developed by George Owusu, Cerges 2020) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 Reindorf (1895: 9) noted the people of Osu as migrants from different Ga-Dangme groups who migrated from the East and crossed the Volta River. They first settled at Osudoku Hill before migrating to their current location. This notion is supported by Wellington (2017: 4). He noted that: “The fore bearers of the Osu people are a group of families that moved out of their community in Dangme land in the Sixteenth Century due to a quarrel between two families over some precious jewels. The group that fled from Dangme land was the Noete Doku family. In the plains, the group met a hunter called Kadi who led them to king Odoi Akyem of Labadey at the time. According to the narration, the king demarcated the area that lies between two lagoons (Klottey and Korle) to them. The place was named Osu when they finally settled”. Upon arrival, they met a Guan-speaking Kpeshi community and settled with them (Reindorf 1895: 10). The two groups lived peacefully together, intermarried and later adopted the name Osu to identify their newly merged community. Their adoption of the indigenous religion of the Kpeshi/Guan people is a clear attestation that the Osu people encountered the Guans upon their arrival (Field 1937: 142; Henderson-Quartey 2001; Justesen 2019: 172; Willington 2007; 2017). This is seen in the similarities between Guan-Kple music and the Klama music of the Ga Dangme. (Field 1937: 142; Henderson-Quartey 2001). The Ga language derived from the fusion of Dangme and Kpeshi languages became their lingua franca (Wellington 2017: 4). Oral accounts collected by Wellington (2017; 6) at Osu, indicates that, there are two narratives on how the name ‘Osu’ was derived. The first is that, the name ‘Osu’ derives from the Dangme word ‘wosu’, meaning ‘We have arrived’. The second narrative is that ‘Osu’ was adopted in remembrance of their place of origin, which is ‘Osudoku’ in Dangme-land (Pers. Com. with the secretary to the chief, 13/07/2020). After arrival at the coast, an integral part of their culture was the Klama music which was used to commemorate their histories. According to Odotei (1972: 27) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 their primary modes of subsistence comprised farming, fishing, hunting, trapping and later trade with the neighbouring polities. The original settlement, also called Old Osu was located North and west of the Christiansborg Castle. Justesen (2019: 171) noted that, the Old Osu settlement lay immediately west and north of the walls of the Christiansborg Castle and south of the Klotey Lagoon before the bombardment. The western part of the settlement was bombarded by the British in the nineteenth century when the people of Osu refused to pay poll-tax to the British government when they took over from the Danes. This led to the relocation of the community to its current location. Old Osu had four quarters: The Caboceer’s Quarter, which lay to the west of Christiansborg Castle, the Broker’s Quarter (Asante Blohum), the Alatta Quarter, which was the King’s Quarter (traditionally called Akutso) and the Aneho Quarter, which was north of the Christiansborg Castle gate (Map 1.2). Map 1.2: Showing the traditional quarters and the Trans-Atlantic trade relics (Wellington 2007) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Justesen (2019: 172) noted that the population of Old Osu in the 19th century was estimated to be between 1,500 and 2,000 people. Of this number, 500 were believed to be soldiers. Currently, the population of Osu is estimated at 153,452 (Ghana Statistical Service Population Survey 2021). Osu forms part of the Osu Klottey sub-district, one of the eleven sub-districts in the Greater Accra Region with the traditional quarters made up of Kinkawe, Asante Blohum, Alata, and Anohor. The inhabitants of Osu are mostly Ga people. However, diverse ethnolinguistic groups have settled among them, mainly due to trade, exchange and intermarriage (Amartey 1991:13; Ankoma 2014: 2). 1.3.The Research Problem The European trading posts (forts and castles) in Ghana served not only as bedposts of early Euro- African interactions but also played a role in facilitating the coastal trade from the late fifteenth to late nineteenth century. Indigenous communities that hosted these trading stations also grew and flourished from the trade. Though these locations are repositories of significant information about the nature and scope of past commercial and social interaction, they remain archaeologically less explored. One such site is the Christinsborg castle and its indigenous community, Old Osu. The Old Osu community used to be a thriving community to the west and south of the Christiansborg Castle. Oral accounts revealed that, due their refusal to pay the poll tax in the early 1850s, Old Osu was bombarded by the British. As a result, the community was relocated to the north of the Christiansborg Castle. Up until now, no archaeological research has been carried out to locate and reconstruct the lifeways of the ancient Osu people. However, based on the combined impacts of sea erosion, sand winning, and rising sea levels several acres of the beachfront where Old Osu was located have been washed away. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 According to Addo et.al. (2011) about 1km of the former coastline of Osu/Accra has been eaten by the sea. Furthermore, the impact of Intensive construction and developmental activities (such as the Marine Drive Tourism Investment Project) was potentially going to destroy the Old Osu site. Despite the glaring threats caused by natural and human activity to the Old Osu and Christiansborg Castle cultural sites, there has not been any sustained research effort to salvage the historical materials at the coast. 1.4.Research Aim The research aimed to salvage material legacies of the Indigenous-European encounters at Locus B of the Marine Drive Project site located at the beachfront of the Old Osu settlement behind the Christiansborg Castle Worker’s Canteen. Unlike other areas in the research area which had been graded before the commencement of the Marine Drive Investment Project, this area (the Locus B site) which contained an old midden/dump site was yet to be destroyed and was thus a prime area to recover archaeological data to facilitate the reconstruction of past lifeways of the Osu people. 1.5. Research Objectives The three main objectives of this research are to:  Unearth and salvage material legacies of Indigenous and European encounters from the locus B site before they were destroyed.  Analyze the cultural materials to reconstruct and shed light on the past lifeways of the interactants of the research area.  Collect and document oral accounts on the history, socio-economic and cultural lifeways of the Osu people prior to the arrival of Europeans and the period postdating it. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.6. Research Questions The following research questions were investigated to realize the objectives of the thesis:  What recollections do the Osu people have of their migration, encounter and trade with Europeans through their Oral histories and other cultural expressions?  What remains about the encounter can be recovered through excavations at the Locus B site?  What do the salvaged tangible and intangible cultural remains from the Locus B site tell us about the lifeways of the Osu people and their interactions in the past? 1.7. Research Approach and Methodology This research was conducted at the Locus B site of the Marine Drive Tourism Investment Project Site at Osu. The study adopted Archaeological excavations and qualitative approach as the major sources of the data collection processes. Both primary and secondary data were collected and analysed. Primary data was collected by the use of unstructured and semi-structured interviews, observations and focus group discussions. These techniques were deployed in collecting primary data from members of the community, traditional authority, opinion leaders, the general public and the representative of the descendants of the Europeans who occupied the research area. Observations of cultural practices, archival research and use of photography were also undertaken to complement the primary data. The assessment of documents on proposals, literature and development interventions previously undertaken at Osu were also assessed as secondary data. Semi-structured interviews were conducted based on purposive sampling. Preliminary field visits and interviews were used to identify community social groupings for focus group discussions. These were constituted by not less than six individuals to afford good control of the focus group University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 discussions. Chapter Four of this research presents a deeper interrogation of the methodological approaches of this research. 1.8. Significance of Study The research has broadened the discourse on the history of the Osu people in their encounters with local and foreign people at Osu. Through excavations of valuable cultural materials have been retrieved and preserved which otherwise would have been destroyed by the ongoing coastal development activity. Through interpretation of the retrieved tangible and intangible resources, the project has given new insight into the Trans-Atlantic trade, inter-regional interactions and the Osu legacies for the future generation. The result of the research has also increased our knowledge on shared Ghanaian-European heritage and history and aided the discourse on historical archaeology. It has enhanced the application of salvage archaeology in areas of development in Ghana and contributed to the discourse on salvage archaeology in Ghana, as well. Another importance of this study is that, it will lead to tourism development in the sense that the documented legacies of encounters (including Christiansborg Castle, the Ritcher house, Wulff house and the other slave post) will help project Osu on a global scale. As a result, the people in the diaspora and the African continent will visit Osu to see some of these legacies where enslaved people were kept before they were sent to the Americas. It will also make the people want to preserve their history and heritage resources. 1.9.Organization of Chapters The study is presented in eight chapters. Chapter One outlined the background of the thesis. Chapter Two reviewed literature related to the research area and the people inhabiting the research area. This review was in two parts. The first, discussed the migration and settlement histories of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 the Osu people before the arrival of Europeans while the second focused on early intra-regional trade with neighbouring polities, the European arrival and the post-colonial period. Chapter Three outlined the conceptual frameworks used to undertake the study. These included historical archaeology, culture contact studies, material culture studies and development-led archaeology. Chapter Four comprehensively discussed the research methods and approaches used to derive data for the study. Surface survey and archaeological excavation constituted the main research methods used. This was complemented by archival and library research and ethnographic research. It also discussed the strengths and limitations of these research methods as sources of data. Chapter Five was divided into three parts. The first discussed the physical environment of the research area under the following subheadings; climate, vegetation and soil, relief and drainage systems, rainfall patterns, temperature and humidity. The second section briefly outlined the contemporary economic, social, political and cultural settings at Osu. Attention was given to the changes and continuity in the built environment over time. It finally highlighted the development plan of the Marine Drive Initiative. Chapter Six focused on the salvage archaeological excavations at the research site. It outlined previous archaeological works at Osu, highlighting the nature of the archaeological survey and the excavation techniques used. It also engrossed on the number of trenches excavated and the systematic description of the excavation processes. It discussed the nature of the stratigraphy and findings from the excavations at the Locus B site. Chapter Seven comprised an in-depth analysis of cultural materials recovered from the excavations at the research area. The materials included; European imported goods and local materials University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 manufactured on-site or acquired from nearby communities. The chapter discussed their historical backgrounds, their techniques of manufacture, their possible primary and secondary uses, and how the materials shaped interactions between the people of Osu and the Europeans. Chapter Eight delineated the findings of the research in three parts. The first part looked at the interpretation and discussion of all the materials recovered through the use of various research methods to answer the research questions and illustrated how the objectives were achieved. The second section summarized the findings and the third section presented the conclusions from the research and makes recommendation and fundamental limitations of the study and provides directions for future research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF LITERATURE ASSOCIATED WITH THE SETTLEMENT HISTORIES OF OSU 2.1. Introduction This chapter, which reviews the contextual literature on varying themes and concepts of this thesis, is divided into two related parts. The first part highlights the histories of origin, migration and settlement of the Osu people within the broader Ga historiography. The second part reviews the historical literature on the African-European encounters focusing on their social and economic interactions within the research area. This division helps to provide structure to the chapter, gives insights into the African-European encounters, and facilitates the identification of knowledge gaps that this thesis will address. Overall, chapter 2 provides the framework for historicizing Osu within the identified legacies of the encounters in the current built environment. 2.2.Migration and Settlement Histories of the Ga People Kok (1997: 20) is of the view that defining migration (especially internal migration) is very controversial because the idea of ‘migration’ can be applied to situations where people travel “over some distance” or situations where the movement is localized or does not involve a change of residence. Kok, therefore, offers a precise definition that emphasizes the element of boundary crossing as a main ingredient in the definition. He notes that migration should be seen as “the crossing of the boundary of a predefined spatial unit by one or more persons involved in a change of residence”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Applying Kok’s migration types model to the Ga origins, I identify three broad migration narratives by scholars of Ga development, namely ‘the Niger River narrative, the Nile River narrative, and the indigeneity (‘Indigenous Origin’) narrative. The Niger River and the Nile River narratives emphasize the external origin of the Ga people. The main proponent of the Niger River narrative is Carl Reindorf who proposed (1895:13) that the Ga and Dangme were originally one people who migrated together from their original location between Oyo (in Nigeria) and Dahomey (Benin). He notes that: The origin of the Adangme tribe, as traditionally narrated is said to be a country which lie in the interior to Oyo (in Ga: Ayo) on the north and Dahome on the south. They travelled between the two powerful kingdoms, and being joined by other tribes, settled at Hwatshi. After a short stay there, they resumed their march to Tuwo, and attacked several tribes on their way, till they reached the plain of Tagologo near Lolovo. As these emigrants had no King, but every tribe had its own priest or headman, they found it very easy to separate from the main body, and so dispersed. A portion stayed at Hwatshi and Tuwo, whiles the other travelled towards the south and settled at Hume and different places, such as Noweyo (Anayosi), those are the Osudoku people; others went to Angula, Ada and Akra. However, Rheindorf’s theory of Ga origins is problematic as there are no traces of many of the locations and place names mentioned by Reindorf. Besides being spoken in the areas settled by the Anlo, the Ada and the Osudoku people currently, there are no traces of the Ga language being spoken in the Niger river area or Oyo. In addition, this narrative does not suggest a timeline for the alleged migration from the Niger River basin to the current location. Moreover, there is no material evidence from the identified places mentioned that has similarities with the current Ga material culture (such as local pottery). Above all, the narrative’s assertions that the various priest of the Ga deities led the migrant groups to different locations in the Ga area is not substantiated by convincing evidence. Nor does Rheindorf’s narrative offer the reason for the migration or the means of migration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 The second migration theory, The Nile River narrative, proposed by Amartey (1991:13-14) posits that; The Ga people once lived along the eastern part of River Nile around 1250- 1700 BCE and were part of the Nubians that left Egypt after being freed from slavery. From Egypt, they sojourned in Nigeria, where they separated into two, one group moving to ancient Benin and the other towards Ife in Yoruba- land. The group that moved to Yoruba later moved to Dahomey, then to Togo and settled at Aneho before eventually moving to their present location on the Gold Coast”. The limitation of this assertion is that, he did not mention how they traversed from the eastern part of the Nile River because if they did by foot, it is not feasible considering the climatic condition of the desert and accessibility to water. However, there is no archaeological evidence suggesting that the Ga people migrated from such a place. He also did not state the reason for their movement from Nubia. Field (1937: 142) and Henderson-Quartey (2001:70-72) support Reindorf and Amartey’s claim of the external origins of the Ga people arguing that upon arriving in Nigeria the migrant group (Ga people) broke up, with the main body of migrants continuing further while another group remained in Nigeria. It is unsurprising, therefore, that most Ga people trace their origin to Ife in Nigeria. Anquandah (1992: 74) rejects the two external origins theories. Instead, based on oral evidence collected during his research in the Accra plains, he suggests an internal origins narrative that posits the Ga Dangme originally settled at Lorlorvor … the cradle of the Ga Dangme. In other words, the Ga people were part of an original Dangme group that migrated from Osudoku (in Dangme land) to their current coastal locations. Biveridge (2010: 54) and other scholars (Boahen 1977: 94; Dakubu 1976: 32 & 34; and Quaye 1972: 12-16) support Anquandah’s view that the Ga University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 people have been living in their current locations in Ghana since the middle of the Iron Age (500 BC). Boahen (1977: 94) viewing from a linguistic perspective, has questioned the validity of these traditions stating that, except for the Ewe language, it is only in Ghana that the Ga and Dangme languages are spoken. It is therefore in Ghana that these languages evolved and nowhere else. He argued that it takes at least 1000 years for a language to break off from a parent language to develop into a language of its own. Some of the traditions asserts that small Guan tribes like Asebu and Esti were already settled on the coast before the Ga arrival (Biveridge 1988: 24). Although the Ga people are believed to have a common ancestry each Ga town has its migration story. For instance, the people from Teshie claim in their oral tradition to have migrated from a town called Boma on the shores of the Congo River. Those from Labadi claim they migrated from Boney Island off the coast of Nigeria. Even Though there are no archaeological evidence to support these narratives it is clear that names of some places like Benin and Aneho have featured predominantly in the Ga migration stories of most scholars of Ga history. It is worth noting that Ewe speakers according to these traditions were an integral part of the migrant groups that journey from Benin in Nigeria through Aneho and finally to their present locations at the coast and other parts of Ghana (Kilson 1971: 22). The Osu people also trace their ancestry to external origins and that they were part of the ancestral clans that migrated from Nigeria (precisely Ile Ife). Other notable towns mentioned as towns where they temporarily settled in their migration routes were Agoue, Kpedromede in Benin and Aneho in Togo (www.theosustool.org ). Other narratives intimate that they crossed the Volta River and thereafter split up in smaller groups. It is worthy to note that the modern Osu township is distinct from Old Osu especially, the four main quarters namely, Kinkawe, Ashinte, Alata and Anohor were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.theosustool.org/ 16 the four quarters that replaced the quarters of Danish Osu (Odotei 1991:63; Wellington 2011, 2007) located North and West of the Christiansborg Castle. This can be attributed to the British bombardment in the Nineteenth Century which saw the destruction of the original quarters and relocation to their current area. According to traditions, the settlements is an ancient town that relied on fishing, farming. Other fewer subsistence practices were hunting and salt production (Odotei, 1995; 60). Their early interactions with Europeans resulted in increased trade and cultural changes which is evidenced in the architecture of Old Osu. European names like Richter, Wulff, Cochrane, Bannaman and Engmann also attest to these interactions and were probably the result of intermarriages between Europeans and the people of Osu (Wellington 2014). The above discussion on the origin and migration of the Ga people has revealed that the migration history of people is a complex phenomenon of diverse nature and character (Falola and Usman 2009:1). Early Subsistence Behaviour of Ga Coastal Settlers The migration of the Ga people into coastal Accra led to changes in their cultural lifeways. Ga coastal dwellers engaged in several activities. Among such activities/occupations were fishing, farming, hunting, and trading. For instance, Odotei (1991) asserted that the Ga coastal dwellers are predominantly fish traders who traded with inland communities for forest goods like gold, timber and ivory before the coming of Europeans. Similarly, the claim of Ga people engaging in trading activities is attested to by C. Robertson (1984). In her work, ‘Socio-economic History of Women and Class in Accra', she asserted that Ga women dominate trading in imported manufactured products, farm produce and the sale of fish. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 It is well to note that documentary sources from travellers and archaeological investigations of scholars like Ozanne (1962), Anquandah (1999) and Boachie-Ansah (2009) have proved the existence of large urban towns like Akra (Accra), Osudoku, Ayawaso, Osu, Teshie, La and Tema during the Sixteenth Century. These urban towns traded with each other before the arrival of Europeans. Akra (Accra) became a major market for local and foreign commercial goods sold at the coast. During the trade, several inland markets were created. One of them was the market at Abonse, which was set up to trade in goods from the forest regions in exchange for coastal commodities. For instance, Kilson (1971), citing Wilks (n.d) asserted that the Ga people engaged in trade with other towns and that in the 17th Century, the King of Accra had control over the Abonse market; a market that existed in the forest region of Ghana together with the market at Larteh. The king of Accra permitted any trader from the interior to come there (the Abonse market) in safety to barter their goods. Such visitors were not allowed to proceed beyond Abonse. The Accra/Ga people controlled trade from Abonse to Ayawaso (the Accra capital) and from there to the coast. Not only did the Ga people trade in legitimate goods such as fish, gold, and other farm produce among themselves but also with the Europeans in the Sixteenth Century (Kilson 1971). They traded with European nationals like the Dutch, English, Swedes, Danes, and British. The evidence of their trade is exemplified by the existence of forts and castles at some Ga Coastal settlements. Among such were Forts Crevecoeur (the present Ussher Fort), James Fort and Christiansborg Castle. Trading activities were very intensive and developed into trade in enslaved people together with the Europeans. Marion Kilson (1971: 158-159) further argued that the Ga people were involved in domestic slavery and the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Apart from trade, the Ga coastal dwellers engaged in other service works. This was made possible as a result of the introduction of Western education by the colonial administration. Field (1937: 196) asserted that Osu has a long tradition of Christianity and literacy. Hauser (2004) opines that Osu is among the numerous towns that witnessed the introduction of Western education by the colonial government. This is based on the fact that the Basel missionaries in the mid-19th century introduced the study of the Gã language and culture at their school in Osu (Hauser 2004:229). That is, Osu was an educational hub in the Gold Coast during the 19th century. As a result, educated/literate Ga people had the opportunity to work with Europeans as interpreters and brokers in the castle and coastal markets (Kilson 1971:15). 2.3. History of African-European Encounters on the Gold Coast The presence of Europeans on the Guinea Coast and the Gold Coast marked the beginning of West Africa and Ghana’s incorporation into the global economic system (Boahen 1980: 107). The quest for precious minerals such as gold and alternative routes to the Far East pushed Portuguese explorers towards the west coast of Africa (Boahen 1980: 107). The people of Elmina played the first host to them as they came to trade European goods for local goods on the Gold coast. King John II of Portugal, in 1481, dispatched Don Diego d'Azambuja, with a force of 700 men, to the Gold Coast. He landed at Elmina and built the Castle of St. George, despite the opposition from Karamansa, the King of Fetu (Afutu), then the powerful state in Fante (Van Dantzig 1976). The discovery of America by Columbus and the commencement of the West African slave trade attracted other nations to visit the Guinea Coast. After the Portuguese, the Dutch followed to the Gold Coast. They built Fort Nassau at Moore and settled at other coastal towns (Reindorf 1895:14). The English followed, and King Edward IV. proposed to establish themselves in these regions but were restrained by fear of infringing the rights of Portugal under the Pope's grant. In the latter part University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 of Edward IV reign, private English adventurers traded on the Coast, and the first commercial voyage from England to Guinea was performed in 1536 leading to the establishment of Fort Koromante (Cormantine) in 1624 (van Dantzig 1976). Cape Coast Castle (the Castle at Cabo Corso) was built in 1652 by the Swedes. The foundation was laid by its commandant, Isaac Miville, a Swiss from Basel. The first name of the Castle was "Carolus-burg" (Charles'fort). In 1658 it was taken by the enterprising Heinrich Karloff, a native of Sweden, then in the service of the Danes (Reindorf 1897:14). The Danes built the forts Fredericksburg near Cape Coast and Christiansborg near Osu in 1654 (Barbot 1732: 433; Reindof 1895: 14,15), as well as those at Anomabo and Takoradi. In the same year, the Danish African Company obtained the privilege of trading on the West Coast from King Frederick III of Denmark and Norway. However, Immanuel Schmid, the successor of Karloff surrendered the Castle of Cabo Corso and those in Anomabo and Osu to the Dutch in 1659 (Ankoma 2014; Van Dantzig 1976; Wellington 2017). News of the discovery of gold quickly spread in Europe and the Castilians were the first to compete with the Portuguese on the Gold Coast. Several clashes ensued between these two powers subsequently “forcing” the Portuguese to propose to King Caramansa, sovereign of Elmina, to build a fort there to secure for them the gold trade. In the Seventeenth Century, the Portuguese sailed to the coast of Accra and Osu. According to Reindorf (1895: 15) when the Portuguese journeyed to Osu, they may have brought Fante servants who must have told them, the place is Nkran. As foreigners, they could not pronounce it so properly, but called it "Akra" (which the English spell Accra). As their name designates, they must have been a very numerous and powerful wandering tribe who very easily subdued the aborigines (Reindorf 1897: 13). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 The years following the granting of this request saw the recruitment and relocation of large numbers of expatriate Portuguese craftsmen and soldiers to Elmina to commence construction of a trade station that they named Castle Sao Jorge, after a Portuguese patron saint in 1482. They also imported large quantities of red bricks, roofing slates, doors, plaster, wooden beams, rafters and window arches from Portugal. The original design of Castle Sao Jorge bore structural similarities to the crusaders’ castles in the Middle East. The similarities have led to suggestions from some scholars like Boahen (1980: 106), Stride and Ifeka (1986: 176) that trade may not have constituted their only focus and that propagation of the gospel to the natives in places where they had established forts and castles was another reason. The Portuguese built two additional trade posts in the early sixteenth century in the rich gold bearing areas along the banks of the Ankobra River at Axim (1508), and the Pra River at Shama (1550) to tap gold resources there (DeCorse 2001). Other Europeans like the Dutch, English, Swedes, Danes and French began trading on the Gold Coast after the mid-sixteenth century and like the Portuguese, they also constructed trade stations at different locations to secure exclusive trade rights with the indigenes occupying those areas. The States-General of the Kingdom of the Netherlands for example, ordered the construction of its first trade station named Fort Nassau at Moree in 1612, and followed up in 1621 with the setting up of the Dutch West India Company (WIC) to facilitate and control Dutch trade on the Gold Coast. They halted Portuguese hegemony by “kicking them” out of Elmina in 1637 and Axim in 1642, and taking over their possessions there. The Dutch followed up by building more forts elsewhere on the Gold Coast to secure a stronger foothold in the region. In 1717, they acquired all Brandenburg possessions on the Gold Coast (Van Dantzig 1980: 12 - 13). By 1642, the Dutch had dominated all the trade west of Elmina, and came close to controlling the Atlantic Trade on the entire Gold Coast by 1674. Dutch success on the Gold Coast can be attributed University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 to the fact that the capture and sale of enslaved people had become an exceedingly profitable enterprise (Anquandah 2007: 28; Boahen 1980: 107 – 108; Fage 1967: 396 – 402). The English, Danes, Brandenburgers and French also gained significant commercial in-roads during this period with the building of their trade factories several of which were located on hillocks to facilitate easy monitoring of the surrounding community as well as see in-coming vessels of nations they deemed competitors (Boahen 1980: 110; Lawrence 1963: 25 – 27; Van Dantzig 1980: 21 – 52). Like the Dutch, the English and Brandenburgers also established national charter companies to secure their economic interest and promote trade with the indigenes. The English initially set up the Company of Adventurers Trading to Africa which went bankrupt after only a few years of operation. The Committee of Merchants Trading to Africa was quickly incorporated to trade on behalf of the English but was itself liquidated and reconstituted into the Royal Africa Company (RAC) with the injection of more capital (Lawrence 1963: 25 – 27; Van Dantzig 1980: 21 – 52). The Brandenburgers on their part formed the Brandenburger Company while the Danes established the Danish West India Company and the Guinea Company. The French followed in 1687 with a trade post at Assini and Komenda. The French’s stay on the Gold Coast was, however, short-lived because of two factors: severe competition from the Dutch and English, and their inability to establish a sound working rapport with the local peoples. The Danes focused their attention on the eastern coastal belt, a region Europeans severally referred to as “Allampey” after the Adangme ethnic group who occupied the area (Barbot 1732: 57). They first built Christiansborg Castle, one of the three most imposing fortifications on the Gold Coast. They followed with a few small forts including Fort Kongestein (Ada) and Fort Yernon (Prampram). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 The encounters between the Africans and Europeans on the coast resulted in the presence of forts and castles along the coast of Ghana. These are tangible manifestations of the past presence of Europeans in Ghana. For instance, in the writings of Inga Merkyte and Klavs Randsborg (2012) on Danish Castles, Forts and Plantations in Ghana the Archaeological Evidence, attests to this claim. In their writing, they averred that Danish activities on the Gold Coast (now Ghana) have left tangible remains in the form of forts and castles such as the Christiansborg Castle (Accra); Fort Fredenzburg at Old Ningo; and Fort Prinsenstein at Keta (Merkyte and Randsborg 2012:317- 318). Not only did the people of Accra engage in coastal trading activities with the Europeans, but they also engaged in anti-slavery activities on the Gold Coast during the latter part of the 18th century (Akurang-Parry 2004; Parker 1963). 2.4. History of Coastal Trade and Economic Interactions on the Gold Coast Trading on the Gold Coast was intensified between the people living on the Coast and other inland towns like Akyem and Akwamu and later Asante before the arrival of Europeans in the Sixteenth Century. European arrival also led to legitimate trade between the local people and Europeans. For instance, when the Portuguese first arrived on the coast, they exchanged foreign goods such as tobacco, alcoholic beverages, European and Indian textiles, variety of metal products, guns and gunpowder, smoking pipes, glass beads and ceramics among others, for local goods like gold, ivory and food crops (DeCorse 2001). According to Fage (1967: 4), “their first trade in gold was pursued at Samma”. Van Dantzig (1980: 4) however asserts that it occurred around the bank of the Pra River. The trade in gold at Elmina quickly spread to outlying coastal settlements because of intense interest in the new manufactured goods from Portugal. The activities of the Portuguese during the early contact period was not only limited to trade. This is because ‘The Inquiricao’, (one of the earliest written documents of the Portuguese in 1499) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 asserted that they also officially engaged the services of natives who were assigned as staff at Elmina Castle. According to Anquandah (2007: 26), Portuguese royal regulations during that period allowed their top officials to make payments of gold to subordinate staff instead of providing them with statutory “service slaves”. Several early European writers (Barbot 1732; Bosman 1705) posit that Elmina soon developed into an important market centre. Van Dantzig (1980: 19 - 20) and Anquandah (2007: 28), argue that several other coastal markets such as Cape Coast, Anomabo, Kormantin, Winneba, Moure and Accra expanded and developed to become bustling grand-scale commercial hubs and ports for some of the coastal Chiefdoms which had their capitals located inland or elsewhere on the coast. For example, the state of “Great Accra” and its principal market Abonse were located inland but its port of trade was on the coast of Accra. Daaku (1970: 11) and Boahen (1980: 108) note that gold exported annually amounted to about £10,000. Therefore, various European nations struggled to gain permanent footholds on the Gold Coast to exploit the opportunities created by the coastal trade. In the end, three survived, the Danish-Norwegians, Dutch and English. By the end of the seventeenth century, these three European nations conducted their trading activities from their headquarters at Christiansborg (Osu), Elmina and Cape Coast. Each respectively functioned as a coordinating nucleus that controlled a number of trade stations (Bredwa-Mensah 1999:28). European contacts facilitated the emergence and growth of settlements and states along the coast and the forts and castles. Towns of varying sizes such as Osu, James Town, Ussher town, Cape Coast and Elmina developed around the fort while in the hinterland, sizeable towns like Abonse and Ayawaso also developed (Daaku 1970: 11). Danish trade during the sixteenth century was inconsequential when compared to the Dutch and English because of the antagonism of Akwamu, overlords of the eastern coastal plain where the Danish forts were located. However, after the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 demise of the Akwamu Empire, Danish trade revived and expanded significantly. They consequently built more trade factories at Teshie, Trubreku and Keta until 1792 when slavery was abolished in Denmark. Up to the early eighteenth century, the eastern Accra coastal stretch was considered of little commercial value by Europeans primarily because little gold passed through its hinterland to the coast. The rise of Akwamu in the late eighteenth century and its emerging role as an important supplier of enslaved people began to attract European traders and interloper captains to the area. The Dutch were the first to move into that area and built two small trade lodges at Kpone and Tema. The English also intermittently occupied a small trade post at Tema. The period after 1650 witnessed intense commercial rivalries and turmoil between contending European nations operating on the Gold Coast. Several trade and territorial rivalries sometimes erupted into war and armed conflicts culminating in loss of lives and properties for the feuding parties (Van Dantzig, 1980: 21 – 32). Occasionally, it extended off-shore to acts of piracy on each other’s ships and crews. In some instances, conflicts developed into full-scale conflagrations and massacres which were vigorously prosecuted outside the Gold Coast. For example, the English in 1664 no longer willing to tolerate Dutch molestations of their traders sent two strong fleets against Dutch colonies and settlements in America and Africa which resulted in heavy losses. On another occasion, the English Admiral Holmes overrun and captured Dutch forts at Goree, Takoradi and Shama; and two trade lodges in Sierra Leone, Anomabo and Egya. The Dutch countered with the capture of the English headquarters at ‘Kormantin’. Several English plantations along the banks of the Surinam River in Guyana, an English colony were also intentionally set ablaze and destroyed (Van Dantzig 1980: 33 – 34). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 It is worth noting that the various ethno-linguistic groups which settled along the coastal Gold Coast were allied to different European nations operating there and were often quick to support their European allies in times of conflict. The Ahanta and Nzema for instance were allied to the English and Dutch respectively while to the east, the Dangme and the people of Accra were allied to the Danes and Dutch respectively. Trade in gold and other local products continued until the late seventeenth century when it shifted to the trade in enslaved people which became the main trade items exported from the region. The slave trade became an integral part of the Trans-Atlantic Trade network in addition to gold, ivory and palm oil during the establishment of plantations in the West Indies and America (Daaku 1970: 19). Mantse Okaikoi (King of Ga Mashie) wanted to have a monopoly in Accra over the slave trade between 1673 and 1677. He, therefore, prevented merchants from the forest kingdoms from having direct access to European forts on the coast. He made a law that all contact between the Europeans and other kingdoms should be conducted through Ga middlemen at the market town of Abonse (Nuno-Amanfo 2015). The Akwamu, Akyem, Asante and Denkyira, the main forest trading kingdoms became furious and mounted a series of slave raids on Accra and war which led to the defeat of the Ga armies in 1677. King Okaikoi was captured and beheaded because the kinsmen and Asafo leaders betrayed him. They did this based on the view that the king and his father allowed Europeans to establish permanent structures on the coast after they initially destroyed the one built by the Portuguese who they expelled from Accra. This initiative destroyed the unity among the Ga. Okaikoi’s son succeeded his father until 1680 when the Akwamu conquered the Ga. Ayawaso (the then capital of the Ga state) was left in ruin and its inhabitants were chased into exile with some enslaved (Anquandah 1999). As a result, the Akwamus got into direct contact with the Europeans and controlled the trade routes into Accra. After some time, the Akwamu realized University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 the Ga people were more experienced in negotiating with Europeans so they later permitted them (the Ga) to trade again as middlemen between them (Akyems and Europeans). The enslaved people were used in local goldmines, and as head porters to transport imported merchandise like textiles, alcoholic beverages and metal goods inland. According to Anquandah (2007: 27), about 10,000 enslaved West Africans were sent from the Gold Coast from 1490 – 1630. During this period of the slave trade, there arose the need for labour at the plantations in the Americas. The Europeans exported people from the African coast against their wish to work as labourers with the help of ethnic heads and chiefs who kidnapped and sold people to European counterparts. These enslaved men were put in chains in the dungeons of the fortification at the coast (Christainsborg) before they were finally transported to the Americas. Enslaved people were sent to the islands of St. Thomas, St. John and St. Croix to be used as soldiers, cultivators and canoe-men to transport goods and slaves to merchant ships (Anquandah 1999; Odotei 1991; Wellington and Biveridge 2014: 184). After several protests for the abolishment of slavery, the plantation owners realized most of these crops like sugarcane, tobacco and rice could thrive on African soil. This led to the establishment of plantations by the Danes on the Gold Coast. Some of these plantations included Fredriksnopel (1788) at Akuapem Hills, Frederikssted at Dodowa (1792), Frederiksberg at Kuku Hills (1797), Fredericksgave at Abokobi (1831) among others. Some of the crops that were cultivated included coffee, plantain, cassava, maize and dye plant (Adams 1875: 39; Bredwa Mensah 2002: 57-59; Decorse 1987: 27-32; Dickson 1971:129). The slave trade lasted until the nineteenth century with renewed interest in cash crops and other legitimate goods. This led to the protest for the abolishment of the slave trade. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 The first half of the nineteenth century saw a drastic change in coastal Accra. The Danes abolished the slave trade in 1803, the British in 1807 and the Dutch in 1840. Some events in Europe led to the abolishment of the slave trade. The first was as a result of the numerous slave revolts that were happening wherever slavery was practiced. Also, the French Revolution spread the idea that all men were created equal and entitled to be free. The beginning of the Industrial Revolution that saw the reduction in the use of forced and unpaid labour in the factory system, was another factor. Finally, the replacement of sailing ships reduced the time of crossing the Atlantic and therefore changed the terms of credit finances for the Trans-Atlantic trade. This was so because, it came to the realization that the tropical crops could also be cultivated on the Gold Coast hence it was unproductive to transport slaves to the Americas (Adams 1875: 39; Dickson 1971:129). Between 1850 and 1872, the British bought all Dutch and Danish properties of interest on the Gold Coast and outlawed slavery in Accra in 1875. All children born after the abolishment of the slave trade were entitled to freedom. Enslaved people who also wanted to be free had to request for certificate of freedom to be freed from their masters (DeCorse 1987: 27-32). Legitimate goods such as gold, and palm oil were introduced into the international commerce. These were sent to Europe and the oil used as lubricants, fuel and for making soap. Akuapem and Krobo in the Gold Coast became the main oil producers which was sent to the port at Amedeka (an inland trade port along the Volta River) to be transported to the coast of Accra (Darko-Yeboah 2016). James Town merchants became prominent oil traders and James Town the export center. Palm oil exports were replaced by rubber and cocoa export in the late 1800s. It can be argued that interactions that existed or occurred among people who settled along the coast (in this case the Ga people) have contributed to a large extent in shaping the culture, history, and heritage of the present day people in this case the Ga society of which the people of Osu are part. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 2.5.Post European/Atlantic Contact Period and the Legacies of Encounters at Osu The interactions that existed or occurred among the Ga people who settled along the coast have contributed to a large extent in shaping the culture, history, and heritage of the present day Osu society. The contact between Europeans and Osu people led to the expansion of trade and hybridization of culture of the people of Osu. This can be seen in the built environment and architecture of Osu. Some legacies of Afro-European encounters identified during the ethnographic studies include, the Christiansbog Castle, Richter House/ Richter Fort, Nii-Okantey Shikatse We, the Basel Mission legacies (Osu Salem and Presbyterian church) and the Frederichs Mind/The Wulff House. In addition, the community has several other Trans-Atlantic slave trade relics. These include the tamarind tree-lined Danish Alley, slave market (locally called ‘Awusai Atso’) and many accounted descendants of Danish mulattos (Yankholmes, Akyeampong, & Dei, 2009). In the same manner, the presence of forts and castles are tangible evidence of European presence in Ghana. The writings of Inga Merkyte and Klavs Randsborg (2012: 317-318) attests to this claim. In their writing, they asserted that Danish activities on Gold Coast (now Ghana) have left tangible remains in the form of fort and castles. These tangible legacies of the Ga-European encounters are further examined below. a. Christiansborg Castle Built by the Swedes in 1652 as Fort Frederiksborg at Osu, it served as a trading-post and lodge with permission from the Ga King Okaikoi. Later the Danish-Norwegians rebuilt it in 1660 and developed it into a castle (Christiansborg Castle), named after the king of Denmark (Ellis 1893; Romer 2000). In 1661 it served as a Danish slave emporium and became the headquarters of the Danish Trans-Atlantic slave trade. It comprised residence for staff, warehouse, a chapel, a school University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 and dungeons for criminals and captives. It also incorporated a cemetery, placement of vital cisterns and a place of refuge for the Osu inhabitants in times of war. In 1685, Christiansborg Castle became the headquarters of the Danes. The castle became vital to Denmark’s economy from 1688-1747. Along with nine other forts and lodges, it enabled Denmark to acquire a near monopoly of the trade on the West African coast. In 1850 Christiansborg Castle was sold to the British by the Danes and became the seat of British administration (Map 2.1). It also offered protection to British officials from local riots (Anquandah 1999; Lawrence 1963; Wellington and Biveridge 2014: 183). The relevance of Christiansborg Castle in the socio- economic and political economy of Osu cannot be over-emphasized. In spite of its commercial unprofitability after the mid-Nineteenth century, it was still indispensable to the British and was never abandoned. Map 2.1: Map of Osu showing the plan of Christiansborg by Ray Kea (1883) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Christiansborg Castle was renamed as Osu Castle and served as the headquarters of the first post- independence government in 1957. It was used as the seat of government by the Late presidents J.J. Rawlings and John Evans Atta Mills. Today, though it is no longer the seat of government, it has been labelled a world heritage site by UNESCO and is protected (Hove 2018: 260; Rask 2009:76). The Castle now serves as a tourist site and a museum has been created inside furnished with materials excavated from the site (Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1: East and West view of the current condition of the Christiansborg Castle b. Richter House/ Richter Fort The Richter House, also known as the Richter Fort, was built by Johan Emmanuel Richter. It is a 19th century slave trade residential facility. Johan was a Danish merchant in slaves and served as a commandant of Fort Fredensborg at Ningo between 1804-1816. Justesen (2003: 97-98) noted that Johan also served in the position of Governor for a brief period (December 1816 to July 1817). He traded in palm oil and gold and before his death, he put up the Richter house which came to be known as Richter Fort (Nuno-Armartefio 2010). Wellington (2011;207-215) noted that, this building was initially named “Barbara House”. Anna Barbara was the name of his wife. He was noted to have had numerous children with other women. The building was later changed to Richter University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Fort. The Fort is large, surrounded by storehouses, bastions and connecting walls (Justesen 2003: 127). Information obtained through oral accounts suggested that the Fort served as a centre for social activities and hosted people like President MaClean and Dokuaa (a former Queen of Akyem Abuakwa). After the death of Johan Richter, the fort was bequeathed to his children; Heinrich and Christian Richter who were mulattos. Heinrich became a powerful merchant who also traded slaves. At one point, the fort held about 400 Asante slaves meant for shipment. Wellington (2011: 207-215) further asserted that due to the large number of people in the Fort, Heinrich built an underground water cistern inside and outside the building to provide water for the people. The foreground of the fort also served as a slave market. A boulevard was developed linking the beach to the home to facilitate the conveyance of enslaved people from the fort to ships (Ankomah 2014: 19). During ethnographic research at Osu it was observed that the fort is currently occupied by people who claim to not know anything about it. Below is the current state of the fort (Figure 2.2 and 2.3). Figure 2.2: Current front view of stairs leading to the upper quarters of the Richter House University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Figure 2.3: Current floor of the courtyard of Richter House. Note the ‘Oware’ design c. Nii-Okantey Shikatse We According to Wellington (2011; 251-263), Nii-Okantey Shikatse We is a Nineteenth Century Danish stone trading house located at Osu Alata close to Nii Ampofo We. It was built by the Danish merchant, Jacobsen. Wellington (2011: 260) emphasized that the house was a typical stone house located within the Merchant quarter, north of the Christiansborg Castle. During Jacobson’s time, the house served as a residence for his family as well as a trade house. The first floor of the building was for the resident family. The house had a holding long-room with small high level vent holes, just like that at the Richter house, where slaves were held in transit for shipment. Wellington (2011; 260-263) mentioned an underground water cistern in the house which was fed with harvested rainwater from the roof. After Jacobsen’s death, the house was auctioned and bought by another Danish trader called H.C. Truelsen. Together with his mulatto wife, Truelsen lived and raised five daughters there. After his death, the house was again auctioned and bought by Heinrich Richter who also died. His son Johann Emmanuel Richter II inherited it and later sold it to a local Osu merchant named Nii Okantey Shikatse. He was a wealthy local trader who traded University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 in enslaved people and gold. He expanded the house and used it in housing both male and female slaves. From oral accounts collected during the ethnographic studies, the house is currently occupied by descendants of Nii Okantey who do not have any knowledge about the house and their forefathers. Figure 2.4 and 2.5 shows the current state of the house with a small building in the middle of the compound. It is believed to have been the entrance to the underground dungeon that held enslaved people before they were transported to the ships on the sea and sent to the Americas during the slave trade. Figure 2.4: Current front view of ‘Nii-Okantey Shikatse We’ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Figure 2.5: Water cistern located in the middle of ‘Nii-Okantey Shikatse We’ compound d. The Basel Mission Legacies (Osu Salem School and Presbyterian Church) According to Wellington (2011: 260) the Basel missionaries arrived at Osu in 1828. At the time of their arrival, there were several Danish, Dutch and British settlements interspersed along the shores of the Gold Coast. At that time, Christiansborg was occupied by the Danes. The first four Basel missionaries who arrived included three Germans (Karl Salbach, Gottlieb Holzwarth and Johannes Henke) and a Swiss called Johannes Schmidt. By 1831 all four had died and a new team was appointed to resume missionary work in 1832. The Basel missionaries had a difficult time trying to convert the local Osu people because the people were so entrenched in their traditional religious system (Wellington 2011: 260). Between 1828 and 1850, only fourteen adults were converted and baptized. The Osu church was founded in 1847. In 1850, Denmark ceded its possessions in the Gold Coast including that at Osu to the British. When the British took over, they imposed a poll tax on the native population in 1852 but the native people refused to pay. As a result, in 1854 the British Mission frigate H. M. Scourge University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 bombarded Osu (Anoma 2014: 21; Wellington 2011: 260). The Basel Mission church close to the Christiansborg Castle was damaged and left in ruins. The foundation of this can be seen in the area today (Figure 2.6). Figure 2.6: The ruins of the first Basel Mission church The writings on the cross reads; In Blessed memory of the early Basel Missionaries who first landed at Osu (Christiansborg) in 1828 and tragically died within months of arrival: and in commemoration of the site of the first Chapel of the Basel mission… Those gallant men made the ultimate sacrifice so that we might know and be drawn closer to God. May they rest in perfect peace! Mr and Mrs. W. R. Koranteng and Family on Behalf of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana: Osu Ebenezer Congregation, December 2002. In 1898, the church was relocated to the middle of the community within easy reach of worshipers (Figure 2.7). This is still in use today. It is popularly known as Osu Presbyterian Church in the community. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Figure 2.7: The Osu Presbyterian Church at the Salem Street, Osu The Osu Salem School was first built in 1865 by the Basel Mission in the heart of town to replace the Castle School for the Danish-Osu Mulatos (Willington 2011: 263-275). According to Wellington (2011: 265), the school was built after an initial one which was at Amangfom had been demolished by the British Bombardment in 1854. The development of the school was because the missionaries were afraid the new convents were going to return to their traditional practices when they left to their various home. For this reason, the missionaries put up a boarding school on a land which was acquired from the chief to house and train early converts (Anoma 2014: 21). The area was named Osu Salem or Christian Quarters. The school began with 34 boys and 7 girls. The admission of girls into the school was phased out when a separate girls school was built by the church; leaving the school to be purely for boys’ school. Today, the 1865 initial building has been abandoned (Figure 2.8 & 2.9) as a new block has been rebuilt into a modern building just opposite the old building. The school has trained and produced great strides and famous Old Boys University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 who have attained great heights in Ghana like Professor Wellington now; a retired Architect and the late Sir. Emmanuel Charles Quist; the First Speaker of the Legislative council among others. Figure 2.8: Front view of the abandoned Salem school compound Figure 2.9: Side view of the abandoned Salem school University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 e. Frederichs Minde/The Wulff House Frederichs Minde who is popularly known as the Wulff house is a colonial house built by a Danish Jew administrator called Wulff Joseph Wulff. The house is located on the northwest side of Castle Drive amidst four rows of houses near Christiansborg Castle. According to Winsens (2000), Wulff Joseph Wulff also worked for the Danish Board of Trade and served as a Reserve Assistant to the Governor during his absence. He later went into trade in palm oil and as a lawyer until he died in 1842. During my interview with Lesley Wulff-Cochrane, a descendant of Wulff Joseph Wulff in 2020, he gave me a document on the origin of the Wulff family. According to the document, Wulff Joseph Wulff was born in Randers, Denmark in 1809. He arrived at the Gold Coast at the age of twenty-six (26) years in 1836. He was sent to Christiansborg as punishment because he fell in love with a Danish Princess which was frowned upon. He settled and married Sarah Malm in 1837 and had three children. He kept a detailed dairy of his activities on the Coast from the time he arrived until his death in June 1842 at the age of 32. Fortunately, his dairy has survived and has been translated, edited and published together with his will by Carl Behrens (1917) in a book with the title “When Guinea was Danish”. He was discriminated against by his people for being a Jew. This made him love the Gold Coast and therefore decided to settle and build his family with his wife. He inscribed the name ‘FREDERICHS MINDE 1840 W.I. WULFF’ on his house after building (Figures 2.10 & 2.11). The house is very historic because it contains the mortal remains of the late Wulff Joseph Wulff and his daughter Wilhelmina Wulff (Pers. Com. with Leslie S.W. Cochrain, 21/07/2020). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Figure 2.10: The Wulff-Cochrane houses in view Figure 2.11: Researcher’s interview with Lesley Wulff-Cochrane University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 CHAPTER THREE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY 3.1. Introduction Four frameworks guided the study. They are; Historical Archaeology, Culture Contact Studies, Material Cultural Studies and Development-led Archaeology. These concepts were used to discuss issues of trade, Indigenous-European encounters at Osu and to understand the European and local material remains that occurred at the coast of Osu. European presence at the coast in the sixteenth century and their encounters with indigenous people promoted culture contact. Consequently, cultural objects and practices were exchanged and incorporated leading to acculturation and hybridisation of cultures. Contact, therefore, brings into play the agents involved as well as materials that were accepted and exchanged. The concepts, therefore, displays the connection and relationship between people, cultures, the environment and the results of the material cultural interactions and encounters. 3.2. Historical Archaeology The archaeological studies at the MDTIPS forms part of the discipline of historical archaeology. Historical archaeology emerged in the mid-Twentieth Century as a discipline in North America and spread worldwide. In Africa, the historical archaeology methods used include ethnography, written records and oral-historical accounts to complement archaeological excavations (DeCorse 2014). Contrary to this, the Americans restricted historical archaeology to archaeology carried out on the historic period site (when the writing system began). It also includes the studies of cultural remains of societies capable of recording their history (Deetz 1996: 5; Hall and Silliman 2006: 1; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 South 1977: 25). Orser (1996) and DeCorse (2014) assert that historical archaeology can be grouped into three categories; the study of a period, a research method and the analysis of the modern world. As a study of a period in the history of humanity, historical archaeology is viewed as the study of historical periods (that is, Medieval and post-medieval). Studies of these specific periods have been ongoing for years. However, Hall and Silliman (2006: 3) argue that “if archaeologists desist from thinking about periods rather than seeing archaeology as a process, the other specializations that use documentary sources will be seen as historical archaeology and therefore can be seen as a process rather than a period”. The use of documentary sources, ethnography, oral accounts, and findings from archaeological excavations together in Ghana, for instance, has helped locate historical sites. These include Fort Ruychaver (Posnansky and Van Dantzig 1976), Fort Crevecoeur (Anquandah 2000), Elmina Castle (DeCorse 2001), Fort Amsterdam (Boachie-Ansah 2006), Fort Anthony (Gyam 2008), Kpando German colonial sites (Apoh 2008), Fort Kongesten at Ada (Aryee 2014) and Fredrickgave Plantation at Dodowa (Abrampah 2017) among others. Most historical archaeology works have concentrated on the forts and castles in the southern part of Ghana except for those done in Northern Ghana by Stahl (2007), Kankpeyeng and Swanepoel (2013) among others. For instance, A.W. Lawrence (1963) surveyed several European forts and castles erected by various Europeans who settled on the Gold coast from the fifteenth to the nineteenth centuries. These included the Portuguese, Dutch, Danes and English. DeCorse (2001) also combined oral accounts, ethnography and extensive archaeological excavations at Elmina to bring to light the interactions between the Europeans and the local people at Elmina. However, the threats to these outposts in Ghana are overwhelming. These threats emanate from natural and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 human activities, including road construction, development activities, sea erosion and sand winning. Historical archaeology research in Ghana previously focused on European outposts and encounters, leading to the misconception that Africans did not have any history before the European presence. In recent times, Historical archaeology has been developed to include pre- Atlantic history with the use of oral traditions and ethnography from indigenous and local people which has led to the understanding of various themes, including ethnicity, socio-cultural and economic activities and the role of gender in African society. The history and construction of forts and castles, the communities that developed around these trade posts and their relevance in African-European encounters in coastal Ghana have received attention from some scholars including A.W. Lawrence (1960), Van Dantzing (1980), Anquandah (1999, 2006), Biveridge (2014), who have conducted some research into these fortifications and their surrounding communities. Most of these researches are general and focus on interpreting African-European lifeways (Anquandah 1992, 1997) which provide important clues to changes that occurred in African societies during the Atlantic period. This research therefore employed Historical archaeology methods to collect data from the indigenous people of Osu who lived around the Christiansborg Castle to understand the activities that ensued there and the encounter between the indigenous people of Osu and their European counterpart 3.3.Culture Contact Studies Culture contact is defined by Schortman and Urban (1998: 102) as “any instance of prolonged, direct exchanges among members of social unit who have divergent cultural background”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 Lightfoot (1995: 199) also defines it as “how indigenous people responded to European contact and colonialism and how the outcomes of these encounters influenced cultural development in postcolonial context”. Silliman (2005) on the other hand defined culture contact as the encounter and interaction b