University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
REGIONAL INSTITUTE FOR POPULATION STUDIES 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
 
 
LAND `OWNERSHIP ARRANGEMENTS, FOOD SECURITY AND FOOD 
CONSUMPTION PATTERNS IN THE AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF RURAL 
GHANA 
 
BY 
LOIS ANTWI-BOADI 
(10636568) 
 
 
THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA 
POPULATION STUDIES DEGREE 
 
 
JULY, 2018 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
DECLARATION 
I, LOIS ANTWI-BOADI, hereby declare that, with the exception of literature duly acknowledged 
by means of referencing, this dissertation is the result of my own original research undertaken with 
the guidance of my supervisor and that this dissertation, neither in part nor in whole has been 
presented elsewhere for the award of another degree. I, therefore, accept responsibility for any 
errors found in this work. 
 
 
 
 
Signed…………………..   Date: …………………… 
Lois Antwi-Boadi 
10636568 
(Student) 
 
Supervisor…………………..   Date: …………………… 
Benjamin Delali Dovie 
 
 
I 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
ABSTRACT 
Food insecurity remains a global health challenge especially for poor areas in developing 
countries. One of the ways through which access to food can be boosted for the rural dwellers is 
through access to land, as agriculture is the leading source of income for agricultural-based 
economies. Little attention, however, has been given to how land ownership arrangements of rural 
dwellers can affect their food security in Ghana. The study therefore examined the relationship 
between land ownership arrangements (owned, rented, or rent-free lands) and food security using 
household dietary diversity as a measure for the latter. Based on previous studies, dietary diversity 
was measured by categorizing households on the basis of a composite index score on unique food 
groups consumed into low and high dietary diversity. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were 
then used to examine the effects of dietary diversity on land ownership arrangements, as well as 
other socio-demographic and physical characteristics of households. The data source was the 
Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Dataset by the Regional Institute for 
Population Studies (2016) which sampled 559 households in in four agro-ecological zones of rural 
Ghana. Results showed that age, occupation and educational level of the household head, as well 
as the number of daily meals of the household were significant predictors of high household dietary 
diversity. However, the agro-ecological zone, sex, status (marital and migration) of the household 
head, along with the land ownership arrangements and use of irrigation facilities by the household 
were not significant predictors of household dietary diversity. The study therefore did not establish 
any relationship between land ownership arrangements and dietary diversity (the measure of food 
security). The study recommends that external factors which may influence food security should 
be extensively studied in rural Ghana in order to improve individual and household dietary 
diversity. 
II 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
DEDICATION 
I dedicate this work to my late mother, Agnes Antwi-Boadi. You will forever be in my heart! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
III 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
I am grateful to the Most High Good for His unending favor, grace and mercy. This work would 
not have been possible had it not been for His guidance and protection. My profound gratitude also 
goes to my supervisor, Dr. Benjamin Delali Dovie for his immense guidance, advice and support 
throughout this research period. I would also like to acknowledge the Regional Institute for 
Population Studies (RIPS) for making the data source (Climate Change, Women in Agriculture 
and Food Security) available for this study. 
 
My heartfelt thanks go to the RIPS family, especially my colleagues and PhD candidates for your 
support. I am also thankful to Prof. Samuel Nii Ardey Codjoe, Dr. Mumuni Abu and Dr. (Mrs) 
Faustina Frempong Ainguah for their insightful guidance throughout the research period. I am also 
thankful to my family, Mr. Emmanuel Antwi-Boadi, Mrs. Sylvia Antwi-Britwum and Mr. 
Ebenezer Antwi-Boadi for the encouragement, love and support which led to the success of my 
academic journey. My appreciation also goes Jonathan Antwi Hagan for his immense contribution 
to my academic pursuit.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
IV 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
DECLARATION....................................................................................................................... I 
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................II 
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... III 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... IV 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ......................................................................................................... V 
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ VIII 
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. IX 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................. X 
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 
1.1. Background of the Study ...............................................................................................1 
1.2. Problem Statement ........................................................................................................6 
1.3. Rationale of the Study ...................................................................................................9 
1.4. Research Objectives .................................................................................................... 11 
1.5. Organisation of the Study ............................................................................................ 11 
CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................... 12 
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 12 
2.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 12 
2.1. Issues on Land ............................................................................................................ 12 
2.2. Issues on Land Tenure ................................................................................................ 15 
2.2.1. Security of Land Tenure ....................................................................................... 16 
V 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.3. Access to Land ............................................................................................................ 17 
2.3.1. Land Tenure Categorisation ................................................................................. 19 
2.4. Land characteristics: The Case of Ghana ..................................................................... 20 
2.5. Food Security .............................................................................................................. 21 
2.5.1. Household Dietary Diversity ................................................................................ 24 
2.6. Linkage between Land Tenure and Food Security ....................................................... 26 
2.7. Factors Affecting Access to Food ................................................................................ 28 
2.8. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework ...................................................................... 31 
2.8.1. Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................ 31 
2.8.2. Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................ 33 
2.9. Hypotheses ................................................................................................................. 36 
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................ 37 
METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................................. 37 
3.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 37 
3.1. Data Source ................................................................................................................ 37 
3.2. Study Area .................................................................................................................. 38 
3.3. Research Design ......................................................................................................... 39 
3.4. Sampling Design ......................................................................................................... 39 
3.5. Sample size ................................................................................................................. 40 
3.6. Unit of Analysis and Measurement of Variables .......................................................... 40 
3.6.1. Unit of Analysis ................................................................................................... 40 
3.6.2. Household Dietary Diversity ................................................................................ 40 
3.6.3. Control Variables ................................................................................................. 42 
3.7. Method of Analysis ..................................................................................................... 43 
3.8. Background Characteristics of Respondents ................................................................ 45 
3.9. Limitations of the Study .............................................................................................. 47 
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................... 48 
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF 
RESPONDENTS AND DIETARY DIVERSITY (FOOD SECURITY) ............................... 48 
VI 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
4.0. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 48 
4.1. Land Ownership Arrangements in the Agro-ecological Zones of Rural Ghana ............ 48 
4.2. Access to Land and Household Dietary Diversity in Rural Ghana ............................... 51 
4.3. Factors Affecting Household Dietary Diversity in Rural Ghana................................... 53 
4.3.1. Age and HDD ...................................................................................................... 53 
4.3.2. Sex and HDD ....................................................................................................... 55 
4.3.3. Education and HDD ............................................................................................. 56 
4.3.4. Marital Status and HDD ....................................................................................... 58 
4.3.5. Occupation and HDD ........................................................................................... 59 
4.3.6. Agro-ecological zones and HDD .......................................................................... 61 
4.3.7. Household Size and HDD .................................................................................... 63 
4.3.8. Migration Status and HDD ................................................................................... 64 
4.3.9. Adoption and Use of Irrigation Facilities by HDD................................................ 65 
4.3.10. Meals per Day and HDD ...................................................................................... 66 
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................... 76 
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ........................................... 76 
5.0. Summary of Findings .................................................................................................. 76 
5.1. Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 77 
5.2. Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 79 
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 81 
 
 
 
 
 
VII 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1. 1 Prevalence of Undernourishment in the World by Region (2010-2016) .....................6 
 
Figure 2. 1 Percentage Distributions of Agricultural Lands (1961-2015) ................................... 13 
Figure 2. 2 Prevalence of Malnourishment in the World, 2000-2016 ......................................... 23 
Figure 2. 3 Food Security, Livelihoods and Nutrition Framework ............................................. 32 
Figure 2. 4 Conceptual Framework showing the Relationship between Land Ownership 
Arrangements and Food Security............................................................................................... 35 
 
Figure 4. 1 Percentage Distribution of Access to Land in the Agro-ecological Zones................. 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
VIII 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 2. 1 Land Tenure Arrangements and Access .................................................................... 19 
Table 2. 2 Food Groups used for HDDS .................................................................................... 25 
 
Table 3. 1 Percentage Consumption of Food Groups ................................................................. 41 
Table 3. 2 Distribution of Respondents by Age, Household Size, Meals per Day and Dietary 
Diversity Score ......................................................................................................................... 46 
Table 3. 3 Distribution of Respondents by Categorized Household Head, Household and Farm 
Characteristics ........................................................................................................................... 46 
 
Table 4. 1 Land Tenure Arrangements and HDD ....................................................................... 52 
 
Table 4.3. 1 Household Food Security by Age ........................................................................... 54 
Table 4.3. 2 HDD by Sex of Household Head ........................................................................... 55 
Table 4.3. 3 HDD by Educational Level of Household Head ..................................................... 57 
Table 4.3. 4 HDD by Marital Status of Household Head............................................................ 58 
Table 4.3. 5 HDD by Occupation of Household Head ............................................................... 60 
Table 4.3. 6 HDD by Agro-ecological Zone of Household Head ............................................... 61 
Table 4.3. 7 HDD by Household Size ........................................................................................ 63 
Table 4.3. 8 HDD by Migration Status of Household Head ....................................................... 64 
Table 4.3. 9 HDD by Household’s Adoption and Use of Irrigation Facilities ............................. 65 
Table 4.3. 10 Size of Farm and HDD......................................................................................... 66 
Table 4.3. 11 Logistic Regression Model of HDD and by Independent Variable in Rural Ghana
 ................................................................................................................................................. 67 
Table 4.3. 12 Logistic Regression Model of HDD and Selected Indicators among Rural Farming 
Households in Ghana (2016) ..................................................................................................... 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
IX 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS  
DD- Dietary Diversity 
HDD- Household Dietary Diversity 
HDDS- Household Dietary Diversity Score 
FAO- Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations 
IFAD- International Fund for Agricultural Development 
UNICEF- United Nations Children’s Fund 
WHO- World Health Organisation  
WFP- World Food Programme 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
X 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1.Background of the Study 
The responsiveness of world leaders to food security has undoubtedly earned it a top priority as 
evidenced in yearly global updates and policies geared towards the reduction and/or elimination 
of food insecurity (Clapp & Murphy, 2013; FAO, IFAD and UNICEF, 2017; Food and Agriculture 
Organization, 2011a; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2010). It is 
estimated that about 10 percent of the world, thus one in every nine people, are food insecure 
(FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO, 2018). Increased occurrence of food insecurity globally 
have been attributed to the rapid rates of growth in urbanisation, food prices, births, and demand 
for agricultural lands (Muraoka, Jin, & Jayne, 2014). This has led to challenges such as starvation, 
conflicts, under and malnutrition among others (Sasson, 2012) in every region in the world. 
However, the African continent faces the most pressing situation with almost 30 percent of its 
populace experiencing food insecurity (FAO et al., 2018).  
 
Most of the issues of malnourishment recorded in Africa are found within the sub-Saharan Africa 
region. In 2017, about 34 percent of sub-Saharan Africans were food insecure with the middle and 
eastern parts of the region facing the worst experiences. Western Africa, which was comparatively 
better off, according to FAO et al. (2018), has witnessed a significant upstick with a rise from 21.9 
percent in 2015 to 29.5 percent of the food insecure in 2017. The higher numbers in Western Africa 
have been attributed to the prevalence of droughts, increasing food prices, and rapid population 
growth (FAO et al., 2018). In Ghana, where the study is situated, the FAO et al. (2018) record a 
1 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
9.3 percent and 6.1 percent prevalences of undernourishment and food insecurity respectively. 
From 2015 to 2017, about 2.2 million of Ghanaians faced severe food insecurity (FAO et al., 2018). 
The increase in the numbers have led to governments in both developed and developing countries 
prioritizing food security in their policies. 
 
Food security “exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to 
sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active 
and healthy life” (World Food Summit (1996) as cited by FAO, 2006, p. 1; Food and Agriculture 
Organization of the United Nations, 2010, p. 8). From this definition, four dimensions can be 
noted. There is food availability, which looks at making sufficient food quantities available, whilst 
considering its quality and supply (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 
2010). The second dimension is food access which gives individuals and households resources 
needed to acquire foods that are nutritious (FAO IFAD UNICEF, 2017; Food and Agriculture 
Organization of the United Nations, 2010). The third dimension is the use of food to meet the 
needs of individuals physiologically. The last dimension, food stability, is a relatively new 
dimension and focuses on ensuring that people have access to food all the time, and thus combines 
food access and food availability (FAO, 2006). As such the last dimension may differ between 
regions and place of residence even in a given country.  
 
The four dimensions of food security comprise of numerous indicators and measures, all of which 
are geared towards assessing that people are food secure through improved dietary intake and 
adequate nutrients (FAO, 2011). Based on the objectives of a study and the limitations of the data 
used, researchers have employed different ways to measure food security. In some studies, a 
2 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
combination of the measures is used for a proper assessment of the food security status of an area. 
These measures for households include hunger scale, food insecurity and access scale, dietary 
diversity score among others (Kennedy et al., 2010; Labadarios et al., 2011; Leroy, Ruel, Frongillo, 
Harris, & Ballard, 2015; Waswa, Jordan, Herrmann, Krawinkel, & Keding, 2014). In other cases, 
there has been the use of a single measure as a proxy measure of food security (Ochieng, Afari-
Sefa, Lukumay, & Dubois, 2017; Taruvinga, Muchenje, & Mushunje, 2013).  
 
Out of these measures, Household Dietary Diversity (HDD), has proven to be one of the more 
accurate measures of food security for individuals and households (Swindale & Bilinsky, 2006; 
Vakili, Abedi, Sharifi, & Hosseini, 2013). Dietary diversity relates to the adequacy reflected in 
nutrient intake and balanced diets due to the consumption of some unique food groups (FAO, 
2011). As such, HDD reflects food availability, accessibility and consumption as well as utilization 
(FAO, 2014a) and is also useful under circumstances where data for the measurement of food 
security is limited for households.  
 
In Ghana, there have been several policies geared at increasing food security. Agriculture is the 
mainstay of the Ghanaian economy (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013), and it has been the prospect 
through which governments over the years seek to improve access to food. One of the most recent 
programmes, Medium-Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan (METASIP) from 2011 to 2015 
(Babu & Blom, 2017), seeks to use agricultural production to boost structural transformation 
economic growth and food security in Ghana. Also, the 2018 Budget Statement of the Government 
of Ghana, seeks to increase food security to food through an improvement in agricultural 
3 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
production which would create more jobs and ultimately make the country food secure (Ministry 
of Finance, 2017). Improving dietary diversity could therefore achieve this goal.  
 
The rural poor have also been the target of policies over the years in Ghana. This is because rural 
areas employ a higher proportion of agricultural workers in the country, who are also the most 
malnourished and food insecure (Ghana Statistical Service, 2013). To achieve this, inputs aimed 
at improving food production, access, utilization and reduction of food wastage (FAO IFAD 
UNICEF, 2017). The inputs would also have to consider socio-economic and political factors 
which could improve or worsen vulnerabilities of individuals and households. For agricultural-
based economies, one the most important inputs would be the ability to gain access to agricultural 
lands.  
 
Land has been important  in the production of food and wealth for all countries (Godfray et al., 
2010). In 2015, the World Bank estimated that over 37 per cent of the world’s land was used for 
agriculture; over 42 per cent of which is in sub-Sahara Africa (The World Bank, 2015). In 2015, 
however, over 153 million individuals in sub-Saharan Africa suffered from severe food insecurity. 
In rain-fed agricultural regions, such as sub-Saharan Africa, land issues are of utmost concern as 
it is the most important element that makes food accessible for its populace (Kiptot, Franzel, & 
Degrande, 2014). It is therefore imperative to make land available and accessible to all, as it has 
constructive effects on food security and ultimately, empowerment of women, agricultural output, 
nutrition, and other sustainable outcomes of development (Bremner, 2012; Miggiano, Taylor, & 
Mauro, 2010; Muraoka et al., 2014). 
 
4 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
The World Bank (2015) and Ghana Statistical Service (2013) have estimated that about 69 per 
cent of the total land mass in Ghana is suitable for agriculture; and this could be the reason for 
which 45 per cent of the population (70 per cent of which are in rural areas) are involved in 
agriculture. Although there are other income earning opportunities, it is undeniable that land and 
its tenure predominantly play an active role especially in the rural Ghanaian economy (Ghana 
Statistical Service (GSS), 2014).  
 
Land tenure arrangements for any farming individual or household is closely linked to their ability 
to be food secure, through the improvement in their nutrition and dietary diversity. In some 
situations, people who own land are more able to produce and consume food when compared to 
others renting it (Koirala, Mishra, & Mohanty, 2016) whiles in other situations, the opposite 
remains due to tenure insecurity (Codjoe, 2006) especially with respect to the agro-ecological zone 
of a given area. As food security has various dimensions, other factors could affect how individuals 
and households have access to food. The household head characteristics such as sex (Doss, 
Summerfield, & Tsikata, 2014; Kiptot et al., 2014), occupation and educational statuses as well as 
the age (Delvaux & Paloma, 2018), marital status (Doss et al., 2014), and migration status (Codjoe, 
2006) have been known to have effects on a household’s food security. In addition to this, 
household characteristics such as the household size (Codjoe, Okutu, & Abu, 2016), agro-
ecological zone (Waswa et al., 2014), number of meals consumed by a household per day (Leroy 
et al.,2015), and the use of irrigation facilities (Miggiano et al., 2010) could influence the capability 
of households in gaining access to and utilising food.  
 
5 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Although numerous factors affect food security in households, rural farming households in the 
agro-ecological zones of Ghana, who depend mostly on rain-fed agriculture, and are also poor 
would need access to land if food security is to be achieved. Based on this premise, the study 
examined how land ownership arrangements in the different agro-ecological zones of rural Ghana 
influences dietary diversity, which is a proxy measure of food security.  
 
1.2.Problem Statement  
Hunger and malnourishment have become a worldwide problem affecting the poor and vulnerable 
in society (FAO IFAD UNICEF, 2017). Although food insecurity is a global problem, developing 
countries (especially in sub-Saharan Africa in recent years) seem to be the most challenged among 
the different regions (Figure 1.1.).  
Figure 1. 1 Prevalence of Undernourishment in the World by Region (2010-2016) 
 
*Projected value for 2016 
Source: FAO et al. (2017) 
6 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Although sub-Saharan Africa is faced with the most widespread prevalence of undernourishment, 
some variations are noted. It is evident from Figure 1.1 that the Western part of sub-Saharan Africa 
(where Ghana is located) is better off when compared to the Eastern and Middle Regions. 
However, there is still much to be done if food security is to be eliminated. Ghana has generally 
been a food secure country, although there are small but unknown proportions of the population 
that are food insecure in every region (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007). To eliminate food 
insecurity, the poor have been targeted, most of which are in the rural areas. As agriculture is the 
main employer of most of these rural poor, securing access to land could be a pathway to reducing 
food insecurity (Babu & Blom, 2017; Badami & Ramankutty, 2015; Muraoka et al., 2014). Several 
studies exist on the importance of land to food security (Badami & Ramankutty, 2015; Doss et al., 
2014; Gardi, Panagos, Van Liedekerke, Bosco, & De Brogniez, 2015; Muraoka et al., 2014), yet 
the intricate relationship between access to land and food security among farming households in 
the various agro-ecological zones of rural Ghana has not been extensively studied at the national 
level. Also, there is limited knowledge on the factors affecting the ways through which rural 
farming households access food in Ghana. 
 
Ghana has a total surface area of about 238,535 square kilometres, of which 21 per cent (50,092 
km2 of the total area) was arable land in 2014 (The World Bank, 2015). In urban localities, loans 
are used mainly to purchase lands (82%) and housing (73%) (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 
2014). These lands are increasingly being used for residential, commercial, or other purposes that 
are not agricultural, even in rural areas (Cobbinah & Niminga-Beka, 2017). Changing ownership 
arrangements to land to favour the wealthy in the era of population growth could lead to decreased 
7 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
food availability, accessibility and utilization for poor rural dwellers that depend on agriculture for 
sustenance. 
 
In rural areas, however, agricultural lands are being used as guarantee to secure loans mainly for 
Agricultural inputs (81%) and agricultural equipment (70) (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 
2014). This could lead to further food insecurity as lands used for food production may be lost 
when loans are not paid off. Food insecurity and its associated problems would then be heightened 
for poor rural farmers who may not have other income earning opportunities. Some problems 
associated with food insecurity or a low dietary diversity include infant mortality and child 
diseases, as well as malnutrition among men and women, with the worse cases among rural 
households (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), Ghana Health Service (GHS), & ICF International, 
2015). Without nutritious or balanced diets, child development could be retarded, as wasting, 
stunting and underweight increases whiles chronic and non-communicable diseases also increase 
(Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) et al., 2015).  
 
In rural Ghana, it is estimated that the men and women in their reproductive ages are relatively 
thin/underweight (7.4% of women and 11.1% of men) compared to their urban counterparts (5.2% 
of women and 9.2% of men) (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) et al., 2015). It is also estimated that 
Northern Region and Ashanti Region (regions where two of the study districts are located) have 
the highest under-5 mortality with the former experiencing the highest level of underweight among 
men and women in rural areas (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) et al., 2015). The Northern part of 
the country has been associated with increasing poverty and the decreased consumption of 
balanced diets which could explain the high levels of malnutrition in the region (Darfour & 
8 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Rosentrater, 2016). Generally, rural diets are usually based on starchy staples with inadequate 
vegetables, fruits and animal products which could lead to undernourishment and underweight 
(Taruvinga et al., 2013).   
 
To meet the micronutrient needs of households, there is the need to introduce foods with adequate 
nutrients into the diets of the rural poor farming households to reduce malnutrition. As such 
information on household dietary diversity could be used as a tool to assess, monitor and evaluate 
food security at individual and household levels (Swindale & Bilinsky, 2006). In the face of 
growing food insecurity, there is the need to know which tenure arrangements are available for 
rural farming households. This would aid in establishing the relationship between land and food 
security as well as other factors which affect the latter to contribute to the knowledge on reducing 
food insecurity in the rural areas of the various agro-ecological zones of the country. The study 
therefore examined land ownership arrangements and food security, emphasizing on dietary 
diversity as an indicator of the latter.  
 
1.3.Rationale of the Study 
Ghana is faced with both under-nutrition (mostly in rural areas), and over-nutrition (especially in 
urban areas). Food security can therefore be achieved with a thorough investigation of factors that 
affect access to food. For rural dwellers involved in agriculture, land could play an important role 
in reducing food insecurity through improved dietary diversity.  
 
Dietary diversity is an indicator of food security which looks at the quality of diet based on 
adequacy of nutrients and diet. If dietary diversity is high, it may lead to improved health in terms 
9 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
of reduced risk of infections and mortality (Taruvinga et al., 2013) and obesity (Codjoe et al., 
2016). Dietary diversity has been a problem for rural areas in developing countries due to their 
diets excluding animal proteins, vegetables and fruits (Taruvinga et al., 2013). An understanding 
on the linkage between land and dietary diversity would assist in contributing knowledge on ways 
through which food security could be improved for the populace.    
 
The Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan (METASIP) is one of the recent 
comprehensive policies in Ghana which aims to boost food security through agriculture (Ministry 
of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), 2010). As access to agricultural lands is important to reducing 
food insecurity, there is the need to revisit access to land (land tenure arrangements) and food in 
Ghana. Land rights highly affect farmers, especially those whose sole income and food stems from 
farming. Households involved in farming would thus be major beneficiaries if tenure arrangements 
in the various agro-ecological zones are added to the knowledge on land and food security in 
Ghana. With customary tenure as an important issue in Ghana, the study contributed to 
understanding why inaccessibility to land could affect food security. It also explored the 
arrangements available to rural farming households in their agro-ecological zones. Also, factors 
such as sex, occupation, education, age, marital and migration status of the household head, as 
well as irrigation use, agro-ecological zone, and number of meals consumed per day in the 
household would be examined in relation to food security (dietary diversity).  
 
This study therefore added to the knowledge on the role of land in addressing food security with 
respect to the dietary diversity of households in the different agro-ecological zones of rural Ghana. 
Attention has also been paid to the socio-economic and demographic differences of individuals 
10 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
with respect to food security. Access to land determines food production, access, and utilization, 
as well as wealth for farmers making it imperative to study land tenure arrangements and its 
relationship with food security in the various agro-ecological zones of Ghana. Also, the study used 
dietary diversity scores as a proxy measure of food security in the country.  
  
1.4.Research Objectives  
The study examined the relationship between land ownership arrangements and food security in 
the agro ecological zones of rural Ghana. This was achieved through the following specific 
objectives. 
1.1.1. To ascertain the different kinds of land tenure arrangements of households in the agro-
ecological zones in rural Ghana. 
1.1.2. To examine the relationship between land tenure arrangements and dietary diversity of 
households in rural Ghana. 
1.1.3. To explore the factors that affect household dietary diversity in rural Ghana. 
 
1.5.Organisation of the Study 
This study has been organised into five chapters. Chapter one looked at the study background, 
problem statement, rationale of the study and the study objectives. Chapter two reviews literature 
concerning land tenure arrangements and food security, in addition to a theoretical and conceptual 
framework. It also states the hypothesis. Chapter three examines the methodology adopted for the 
study whiles chapter four presents the results and discussions based on the objectives of the study. 
Chapter five summarizes the findings of the study with recommendations for further research.  
 
11 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
2.0.Introduction 
The problems associated with food insecurity are endless, the worst of which is its contribution to 
causing malnourishment and death through hunger. In 2013, 1 in 10 people were living on less 
than $1.90 daily, with about half of the extreme poor in sub-Sahara Africa (The World Bank, 
2016). The FAO also estimated that about 815 million people suffered from food insecurity in 
2016 as against 777 million people in 2015. As the poor are mostly rural farmers in sub-Saharan 
Africa, it is important to understand the factors that affect their food security (FAO et al., 2017).  
 
Agricultural lands are primary to improving food security in rural households whose main activity 
is agriculture, and so this study reviewed literature on the linkages between land tenure and food 
security as well as factors that affect households’ food security. Details on the concepts of land 
tenure, with a brief overview of the system of land tenure in Ghana are studied. This was followed 
by the relationships between land tenure and food security. Also the factors that serve as motivators 
and/or impediments to farmers in accessing food were considered. The section concluded with a 
theoretical and conceptual framework, as well as the hypotheses to the study. 
 
2.1.Issues on Land  
The earth surface that has not been covered by water permanently is referred to as land or dry land. 
The importance of land cannot be surpassed, as the prosperity and survival of human beings have 
a connection to the land (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & United 
Nations Environment Programme, 1997). Its value increases with time and as such can be used for 
12 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
natural resource exploitation, agriculture and habitat among others. In many societies, land serves 
as a source of wealth, status, security, and recognition, in addition to it being a productive asset 
(Alemu, 2015; Rao, 2011). Its distribution and ownership vary as its management and inheritance 
differ across boundaries.  
 
Agricultural lands are needed for food production, which is critical for human survival. Its 
exploitation and use have increased worldwide over the years. Figure 2.1 shows the distribution 
of agricultural lands worldwide.  
 
Figure 2. 1 Percentage Distributions of Agricultural Lands (1961-2015) 
 
Source: World Bank (2015) 
 
13 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
From Figure 2.1 it can be noted that the use of agricultural lands has increased in different regions 
over the years. The ownership and distribution of lands has increased over the years, even into 
areas previously not used due to population growth. Agricultural land use reached its peak in 2001 
and has decreased slightly over the years. This could be due to the changes to which the land is 
put to (Cobbinah & Niminga-Beka, 2017). The different uses to which land is put are residential, 
commercial and agricultural purposes among others (Cobbinah & Niminga-Beka, 2017). These 
purposes yield their intended results when the distribution and management of land is done without 
discrimination. 
 
Lands cannot be used for its various purposes without granting access to individuals and groups. 
Such access differs across cultures. In some societies, such as communist and socialist states, lands 
are state-vested whereas societies marked by conflicting interests between the private and state 
institutions manage their lands on the basis of clans (Rao, 2011). A study done in peri-urban areas 
of the Atwima Nwabiagya District Assembly and the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly in Ghana 
showed that the increasing use of lands for commercial and residential purposes have led to 
farmlands (the income generating source) being abandoned (Amoateng, Cobbinah, & Owusu-
Adade, 2013). For farmers who may not have access to land, food security may be worsened. 
Power to accessing lands in the hands of the few could lead to discrimination and even conflict 
(Huggins, 2010), and so it is important to consider the role of land tenure arrangements in reducing 
the unwanted effects of improper arrangements on access to land. 
 
 
 
14 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.2.Issues on Land Tenure 
There are both vast and complex researches on land tenure as a result of the differences in tenure 
systems globally (Ghebru & Holden, 2013). Such variations lead to researchers of land tenure 
specializing in different areas of interest. The system of land tenure, as defined by society, is used 
to determine the relationship between people and their lands (Alemu, 2015). To achieve stability, 
the importance of tenure security with respect to the political, social and economic structures of 
society should be ensured. For land tenure to be secure, governments may expropriate lands, with 
the assurance of promoting the management and conservation of land (Ministry of Food and 
Agriculture (MOFA), 2010). In the case of Ghana, land tenure management systems have failed 
to improve land investments (Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), 2010). 
 
Land tenure intersects with development strategies such as housing and food security based on 
certain interests. In some situations, the government has the ultimate power to land allocation and 
reallocation, as has sometimes been the case of Ghana (Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, 
2017). There may also be interests overlapping between several parties. As such, the same land 
parcel would be shared with different rights to all parties (Food and Agriculture Organization, 
2002). Members of a community may also have common rights to a parcel of land, but problems 
arise when competing interests to land lead to land disputes as evidenced in the growing 
populations of sub-Sahara Africa (Peters, 2009).  
 
The purposes to which land can be put, and for that matter land is secured, disadvantages the poor 
and results in food insecurity in society  (Miggiano et al., 2010). In many areas, the poor are not 
able to access land due to tenure insecurity. For smallholder farmers, who are the poorest in the 
15 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
sub-region, land tenure insecurity affects both their productivity and food security. The 
arrangement of land tenure also worsens their plight as it could determine the crops grown, and 
whatever happens to the land on which they farm (Muraoka et al., 2014). Land tenure can also 
exert influence on the willingness of farmers to produce and invest in land.  
 
2.2.1.  Security of Land Tenure 
When a person is secure in terms of their tenure to land, it implies that such a person believes in 
their right to a parcel of land, and can reap all benefits associated with the land (Holden & Ghebru, 
2016). In some areas in sub-Saharan Africa where land is kept under customary tenure, the state- 
although claiming to be the ‘owner’ of the land- is not the custodian (Behrman, Meinzen-dick, & 
Quisumbing, 2012). Chiefs are rather often the landholders, keeping lands in custody for their 
people. In other tenure systems, men hold the rights to land, with women accessing land as a result 
of their relations to the men (Alemu, 2015). Although women may have much more rights under 
statutory law, such rights are limited in implementation putting women at a disadvantage 
(Behrman et al., 2012). All these affect the food security of individuals in the community 
dependent on land, especially agricultural land for their survival.  
 
Access to land could be measured per land, individual or group level. When conflicts arise, it could 
be due to one party feeling insecure to their access to land (Almeida & Wassel, 2016). Such 
insecurities limiting access to land could stem from law enforcements, customs, possession 
duration, power structure, and the land’s value among others (Holden & Ghebru, 2016). Land 
tenure insecurity in hindering access to land may be based on perceptions of past events, future 
expectations and legal information about land rights (Ma, 2013).  
16 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
Land right documents for the use of specific land units may assure individuals of their rights to 
access land especially when such documents show some form of protection and social recognition 
(LANDESA, 2012). These legal documents, may not guarantee full security of tenure as there are 
other factors such as the right’s duration, depth, width and legal restrictions (Quaye, Ampadu, & 
Onumah, 2014). When individuals do not have access to land, as a result of policy interventions, 
encroachments, etc., it affects their ability to make a living from the land. A strong security of 
tenure could increase the use of credit by putting up incentives to invest whiles enhancing the 
collateral land value (Peters, 2009). It is therefore imperative to analyse the time-varying measures 
associated with access or tenure of land. Knowledge of such measures may have impacts on food 
security and livelihood acquisition (Donkor & Owusu, 2014) 
 
2.3.Access to Land 
Creating access to land is complex as it involves the use of several strategies. National 
governments, for instance can use systematic means through land reforms to access land (Lipton 
& Saghai, 2017). Also, land can be accessed through its purchase. In some cases, migrants may 
work on lands, accumulate capital and purchase such lands from the owners (Boateng, 2017). Also, 
individuals or groups can possess land for a period, through lease or rent.  
 
In Ghana, sharecropping (a form of land rent) is practised in many farming communities with the 
hope of the tenant (usually a migrant) getting a percentage of the produce or its income (Quaye et 
al., 2014). It therefore overlaps with rented land. In rural communities, land is usually inherited 
from parents. Inheritance is sometimes affected by lineage. Due to the cultural norms of a given 
17 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
society, especially in sub-Sahara Africa, an individual may inherit land through matrilineal or 
patrilineal inheritance (Berge, Kambewa, Munthali, & Wiig, 2014). In such a situation, women 
have been known to receive lesser land, although women in the matrilineal inheritance are better 
off when compared to their patrilineal counterparts (Duncan, 2010a). There may also be unofficial 
cases where lands may be subject to illegal squatting. Although risky, the squatter has access to 
the land for the period in which the actual owner is not available (Chileshe, 2005; Food and 
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations & United Nations Environment Programme, 
1997). 
 
The decline in the agricultural lands has been attributed to increasing population and urbanisation. 
In Ghana, these reasons have led to a limit in access to land and also changes in crop distribution 
spatially (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007). The production of Cocoa has shifted in the 
Brong Ahafo, Eastern, and Ashanti Regions to the Western Region with transitional zone having 
cassava replacing yam production (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007).  Land tenure 
insecurity is a problem in many African countries as issues such as unclear boundaries and lack of 
management of communal property exist (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, 2007). There are 
several factors which may limit and/or improve food security in any context. Some of these are 
social and demographic characteristics, whiles others are physical limitations.  
 
Among the factors that affect accessibility to land, being in the younger ages or below forty years 
(Jayne, Chamberlin, & Headey, 2014) could improve one’s access to land. Also, being married or 
in union as well as being female could hinder access to land (Alemu, 2015; Doss et al., 2014). 
Lands can also be accessed easily by individual in wealthier households (Rao, 2011), areas 
18 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
practising matrilineal inheritance (Almeida & Wassel, 2016), and in humid agro-ecological zones 
(Darfour & Rosentrater, 2016). In Ghana, land distribution, or even allocation, is different between 
migrants, native youth and natives (Quaye et al., 2014).  
 
2.3.1. Land Tenure Categorisation 
The ways through which land can be accessed can be officially grouped into four categories- state, 
communal, private and open access as shown in Table 2.1. (Food and Agriculture Organization, 
2002). Within these categorisations, there could be lands acquired through rent (including share 
cropping), rent-free lands (such as family lands) among others (Bartolini & Viaggi, 2013; Koirala 
et al., 2016) (Donkor & Owusu, 2014). These tenure arrangements could have implications on how 
owners or non-owners generate income (Jayne et al., 2014). 
 
Table 2. 1 Land Tenure Arrangements and Access 
Land Tenure How to gain Access to Land 
Arrangement 
Communal  Lands are assigned through common rights in a community. Chiefs 
transfer lands to family heads who distribute to family members. 
Lands cannot be accessed by non-members of the community 
Private Rights are assigned to private individuals or entities. Lands may thus 
be acquired through purchase, inheritance or gifts. Leasing and 
sharecropping could fall under such arrangement  
Open Access Everyone can make use of the land. It is common in grazing societies  
State Property rights are allocated to public sector authorities. These may 
include forest lands and other lands acquired to be used by the state  
Source: (Donkor & Owusu, 2014; Food and Agriculture Organization, 2002; Quaye et al., 2014)  
 
19 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.4.Land characteristics: The Case of Ghana  
Ghana has a total surface area of about 238,535 square kilometres, of which 21 per cent (50,092 
km2 of the total area) was arable land in 2014 (The World Bank, 2015). Most households are in 
need of land for various purposes, the most popular use of which is agriculture (Ghana Statistical 
Service (GSS), 2014). In Ghana, access to land is ultimately managed by the Lands Commission 
(Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, 2017).  
 
Agricultural lands are important as the agricultural sector is the mainstay of the Ghanaian 
economy. All land tenure arrangements proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation are 
practised in the country. In rural areas, however, access to land is mostly by inheritance, rent-free 
or purchase. One of the private land tenure arrangements for instance is the sharecropping system 
practised among farmers especially in the rainforest and transitional zones of the country. It is a 
customary tenancy in which arrangements of “abusa” and “abunu” are made between tenants and 
owners (Quaye et al., 2014). The former has the tenant taking two parts of the produce or income 
after sales whiles the latter has the tenant equally sharing the income with the owner (Djokoto & 
Opoku, 2010; Quaye, Ampadu, Onumah, & Titiati, 2015). This system is helpful as the landless 
are able to have access to land for farming, and thus make a living while producing food for their 
survival for a period of time. Also, the tenant can increase their productivity, and as such may be 
more food secured (Codjoe, 2006).  
 
 
 
20 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.5.Food Security 
Food security has become a worldwide problem, and has been associated with the concepts of 
poverty and vulnerability. When a household is poor and food insecure, a large share of their 
income is spent on food. To generate income for their food needs, their vulnerability would 
increase as they may use a larger portion of their resources. Vulnerability is therefore associated 
with food insecurity, which is being unable to meet food needs over time (FAO IFAD UNICEF, 
2017).   
 
Food security has also been defined as making foodstuffs available in “sufficient quantities and 
with the adequate nutritional qualities” (Sasson, 2012, p. 8). Also, providing access to food 
includes  both economic and physical food access that has the ability to meet the dietary needs of 
people, in addition to their preferences in terms of food (Ayifli, 2017). The existence of food 
security lies in people having an all-time access to safe, sufficient and nutritious foods to enable 
them live healthily. These concepts stem from the definition of food security provided by the Food 
and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations which states that “food security exists when 
all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious 
food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (FAO, 
2006, p. 1). From the definition, four dimensions have been drawn, that is, access, availability, 
stability and utilisation (FAO, 2014b).  
 
The first dimension, that is, availability considers food quality, quantity and diversity. Food 
availability is when there is sufficient food to meet the minimum requirements of consumption for 
everyone, every time. It addresses physical and economic food access with indicators such as 
21 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
sufficiency of the energy supply gained from the dietary intake; amount of calories resulting from 
tubers, roots and cereals; the average supplies of protein (including that from animal sources); and 
the average value gained from food production (FAO, 2014b). Food must therefore be present at 
the right time and place.  
 
The second dimension- accessibility relates to the degree of difficulty that people go through when 
obtaining the food from the market sources. It contains indicators including infrastructure such as 
transportation to the food source; physical access to food; food prices and income of the ones 
purchasing the food; and the frequency of undernourishment especially in children (FAO, 2014b). 
Use and stability go hand in hand. Use or utilisation of food considers the physical environment 
of the individual (non-food component) with issues such as the use of food through access to water, 
sanitation, adequate diet and even health care (FAO, 2006).   
 
The last dimension, stability, focuses on policy, natural and economic factors associated with food 
supply over time. Factors such as area of land being irrigated, dependency on cereals, fluctuations 
in the domestic supply of food, and incidence of political instability are some indicators used to 
measure the risk of food security under the dimension of stability (FAO, 2014b). From the 
aforementioned dimensions of food security, it can be noted that there are several indicators of 
food security. On one of the indicators, adequate diet for instance, households and individuals may 
not have adequate meals when food is not available or accessible. Also, stability cannot be 
achieved when consumption does not take place over a period of time.  
 
22 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Food insecurity is presently on the rise and as such should be reduced or eliminated if healthy life 
is to be achieved worldwide. Figure 2.2 shows the prevalence of malnourished people in the world 
between 2000 and 2016.  Food security though is a complex concept, and as such it is difficult to 
measure. For this reason, some proxy indicators could be used, one of which is the HDD. As a 
proxy measure of food security, the HDD could assist in measuring the food availability, 
accessibility and utilization and thus provide knowledge on who may be malnourished or food 
insecure. Malnourishment is steadily increasing (Figure 2.2), and this calls for the need to improve 
dietary diversity for the poor. The study therefore considered an indicator that encompasses the 
various components of food security.  
 
Figure 2. 2 Prevalence of Malnourishment in the World, 2000-2016 
 
Source: (FAO et al., 2017) 
 
 
 
23 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.5.1. Household Dietary Diversity 
One of the indicators of food security, which has proven to be an adequate measure of food 
availability, access and utilization, is the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). For food to 
be effectively utilized there is the need to ensure balance in every meal. The Household Dietary 
Diversity score accumulate scores of the unique food groups consumed by a household within a 
given period, usually 24 hours or 7 days (FAO, 2014a; Swindale & Bilinsky, 2006). A balanced 
diet has improved effects on the adequacy of calories and protein (both from animal and other 
sources). Its use is also related to the ease at which information can be gathered with improved 
accuracy for the examination of food security. 
 
In computing for the score, different food groups consumed are put together on the assumption 
that each household would consume at least one of the food groups. It is a better measure than 
computing just for the number of meals without adding up the diversities which contribute to a 
balanced diet. Dietary diversity has therefore provided a meaningful way of providing balanced 
diet in order to sustain a given population. The 12 food groups and their respective examples are 
shown in Table 2.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
24 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 2. 2 Food Groups used for HDDS 
FOOD GROUP EXAMPLES 
Cereals and Grains Corn, rice, sorghum, millet, wheat or other foods made from 
these (e.g. bread, porridge etc.) 
White Roots/Tubers/Plantain Potatoes, yam, cassava or other foods made from roots 
Vegetables Carrot, sweet potato, Cocoyam leaves and other Vitamin A 
rich vegetables and leaves 
Eggs  Eggs from chicken, duck, guinea fowl or any other egg 
Meats  Both flesh and organ meat from beef, pork game, chicken, 
insects or other animals 
Fruits  Mango, pawpaw or any other juice solely made from fruits 
Spices/Condiments/Beverages Salt, black pepper, soy sauce, coffee, tea, alcoholic 
beverages etc. 
Milk and Milk Products Cheese, yoghurt, milk or other milk products 
Fish/Sea Food Dried or fried fish or shellfish 
Sweets Honey, sugar, sweetened drinks, chocolates, cakes etc. 
Oils and Fats Butter, oil and fats added to food or used for cooking 
Legumes, Nuts and Seeds Dried beans, lentils, nuts or foods made from these such as 
peanut butter etc. 
 
 
Source: FAO (2010) 
 
 
25 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Other factors that affect food security especially among poor, rural farmers are age, sex of the 
household head, size of household and farm, educational level, off-farm activities, among others 
(Abu & Soom, 2016; FAO, 2014b). Although these factors are essential, granting farming 
households access to land could make a huge impact on improving their access to food through 
increased consumption of nutritious diets.  
 
2.6.Linkage between Land Tenure and Food Security 
Land and food security are fields which have been explored separately by different researchers. 
This is due to the vast variations in both fields (Doss et al., 2014). To form a relationship between 
access to land and food, there is the need to assess how access to land affects and is affected by 
food security. Addressing such a relationship can lead to improved food security, especially in 
Ghana, where this study is situated. 
 
Land tenure and food security have a linear relationship (Miggiano et al., 2010). Once access to 
land is gained by the farmer, food production and income generation follow, and then food 
consumption and nutrition enhancement (a measure of food security) becomes a result. One of the 
forms of access to land is through ownership/ freehold tenure rights. When landowners are allowed 
to have complete control over the use of land, they could improve their investment on the land 
(Holden & Otsuka, 2014). More investments into the land implies higher food production. Some 
countries have undertaken revolutionary reforms of their lands by making the lands (both state and 
individual) to be state or collectively farmed (Keswell & Carter, 2014). To counter frequent land 
redistributions, there has been the introduction of low cost land certificates. These reforms have 
26 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
led to a strengthening of the security of tenure, whiles improving productivity, investments, and 
ultimately food security (Deininger, Ali, & Alemu, 2011; Holden & Ghebru, 2016).  
 
Weak access to land or tenure insecurity may sometimes lead to poor land management, land 
degradation, and less land productivity which results in food insecurity. An increased productivity 
of about 40 per cent on farm plots with a land certificate when compared to plots without a 
certificate was found in Ethiopia (Holden, Deininger, & Ghebru, 2009) . It has also been found in 
the highlands of Ethiopia that the degradation of land and population growth has led to increasing 
food insecurity (Asefa & Zegeye, 2003). An increased population leads to pressure on the land 
which results in land scarcity. With scarcity, many of the people would intensify their use of land 
increasing market participation and economic development. These lead to an increased dietary 
diversity, which is a proxy measure of food security. However, such intensification could also lead 
to degradation of resources as found among migrants in the transitional agro-ecological zone of 
Ghana (Codjoe & Bilsborrow, 2011). Migrants have been engaging in land intensification 
techniques due to lack of ownership. As such this may lead to food insecurity over time. Access 
to land can therefore be deduced from this review to have a major impact on food security. 
 
Food security, or its lack thereof, could also have impacts on access to land. One of its 
manifestations lies in income of households and their nutritional status. Food security has resulted 
in nutritional deficiencies, especially among children in the developing world (FAO et al., 2017). 
In poor and hungry households, there is the tendency to choose to let go of assets which were 
otherwise a coping strategy in order to enhance consumption (Gebregziabher & Holden, 2011). 
27 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
When they sell their assets, lands inclusive, such households end up landless or without access to 
land, and even livelihoods.  
 
When families are faced with food insecurity, they may also migrate to seek greener pastures 
leading to a loss of on-farm labour for farming communities. With no lands to produce and invest 
in, food insecurity may become a problem (Holden & Ghebru, 2016). Access to land indicates the 
welfare of any given household in agrarian economies that lack off-farm income generating 
activities. Access to land should be given equally in such areas as the landless are the most poor 
in these agrarian economies (Koirala et al., 2016).  
 
2.7.Factors Affecting Access to Food 
There are several factors that affect food security (dietary diversity) especially among poor, rural 
farming households. The most important of these is having access to land, whether rented or 
owned. In some cases, land owners are able to produce and consume more food as compared to 
those renting the land (Koirala et al., 2016). In other cases, those who rent land, due to the 
timeframe of rent, may ‘mine’ the land and thus acquire more food (Codjoe, 2006). However there 
are other physical, social and economic factors that could either improve or hinder food security 
and nutrition of households. These include the sex, age, occupation, education, migration and 
marital statuses of household heads, as well as the household size, agro-ecological zone, irrigation 
use among others.  
 
The sex of a household head is critical to ensuring the food security of a household (Doss et al., 
2014). Both sexes should be given equality in access to resources, but in most cases, it is to the 
28 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
disadvantage of women (Alemu, 2015). In developing countries, the increase in women’s access 
to land increases food production from 2.5 per cent to 4 per cent, whiles reducing the malnourished 
by 5 per cent (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011b). But with such gendered access to 
resources, female headed households are food insecure (Food and Agriculture Organization, 
2011a). Such is the problem in Ghanaian agriculture. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture in 
Ghana considers gender inequality as a constraint to Ghanaian Agriculture (Ministry of Food and 
Agriculture (MOFA), 2010). Such discrimination of women has led to limited dietary diversity in 
their households, and thus food insecurity (Codjoe et al., 2016). 
 
Age and occupation of the household head could also be influential in ensuring a high dietary 
diversity of the household. In Nigeria, ageing has been significant in the increase of the likelihood 
and frequency of food insecurity. Younger household heads are therefore better off when 
compared to the older household heads (Delvaux & Paloma, 2018). The case is different for 
Zambians. In a study by Jayne et al. (2014), they found that most farmers acquire farmlands after 
the age of forty as they are able to save more during the latter ages, boost their food security and 
acquire more lands. In rural farming households, the occupation of the household head could be 
important in providing direct or indirect access to food. A household engaged in gainful 
employment may have the income to purchase food and property (Abu & Soom, 2016). Farmers, 
for instance, may also have access to food as a result of their work being directly involved with 
food. Farming household heads with diversified income sources would also be more food secure 
as compared to their counterparts with a single income source (Delvaux & Paloma, 2018).  
 
29 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
The educational, marital and migration status of the household head could also influence their food 
security status. A married household head is more likely to be food insecure especially when living 
with the partner (Hanson, Sobal, & Frongillo, 2007). Migrant farmers may not have access to 
resources and when they rent lands, they may not produce and consume more food due to lack of 
ownership (Koirala et al., 2016).  Education also provides insight into healthy living. As such 
highly educated individuals are more likely to be food secure as compared to those with little to 
no education (Codjoe et al., 2016).  
 
Other factors concerning the household, such as the household size could also influence dietary 
diversity (Abu & Soom, 2016; FAO, 2014b). Larger household sizes may imply that there are 
more mouths to feed and as such are less food secure than smaller household sizes (Mensah, James 
and Tuffour, 2013). An additional benefit of education is allowing or giving the farming household 
an option of adopting appropriate technology geared towards the effective utilisation of land. 
When households are advanced in knowledge on farming, they are more likely to adopt technology 
to enhance their food security, even as they invest efficiently into land (Miggiano et al., 2010).  
 
The agro-ecological zone of a household could determine how food secure the household is. In 
Kenya, Waswa et al. (2014) found that dry zones were more food secure. Humid zones however 
experienced food insecurity. According to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (2007, 2010), the 
agro-ecological zones recognised in the country are the rain-forest, forest-savannah transition, 
semi-deciduous forest, Guinea savannah, Sudan savannah and coastal savannah. These zones 
could lead to challenges in agricultural production (especially in the Guinea and Sudan Savannah) 
in the country especially for rural areas that are dependent on rain-fed agriculture. It could therefore 
30 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
be the reason for high food insecurity levels in the Northern part of the country (Darfour & 
Rosentrater, 2016; Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) et al., 2015). However, the availability and 
abundance of non-timber forest products in these two agro-ecological zones could lead to 
improved DD. When households experience food shortages, less than three meals per day may be 
consumed and thus food insecurity worsens (Leroy et al., 2015). Although these factors are 
essential, permitting households to gain access to land could make a huge impact on improving 
their food security through increased consumption of nutritious diets.  
 
2.8.Theoretical and Conceptual Framework 
2.8.1. Theoretical Framework 
The concept of food security is complex with its interrelationships geared towards improving the 
nutritional status of individuals and households. One of the frameworks that consider food security 
and nutrition is the concept of Food Security, Livelihoods and Nutrition (2006) provided by the 
Food and Agriculture Organisation. The framework shows a linkage between the major factors 
that affect food security and its components. From the framework, there are several socio-
economic, institutional, cultural and natural environmental factors that can lead to food security or 
insecurity. These factors have a direct impact on the components of food security at the national 
level. For instance, a country’s natural resource endowment-of which land is included- could affect 
its ability to make food available, stable and accessible through various means shown in Figure 
2.3. When a country or government puts in place the necessary resources to make food secure, 
households are the next recipients. The food security in a country has the tendency to affect the 
assets, activities and livelihood strategies of households. This ultimately affects the consumption 
and utilization of food (dietary diversity) at the household and individual levels. Thus, household 
31 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
dietary diversity could be affected leading to malnourishment and food insecurity. For this reason, 
the framework on Food Security, Livelihoods and Nutrition was used as the theoretical framework 
to guide the study. 
 
Figure 2. 3 Food Security, Livelihoods and Nutrition Framework 
 
Source: FAO (2006) 
32 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
From the framework, it can be noted that food security has influences depending on the context 
one finds him or herself. For instance, rural populations may be more likely to be food insecure 
through low dietary diversity as a result of the lack of access to natural resources, technology, 
education and markets. In a growing population, access to land is important, especially if farmers 
(usually located in the rural areas of developing countries) are to increase their productivity for 
food security to be achieved. As food security aims at improving the nutritional status of any given 
population, consumption and utilization of food is necessary. This is because, for food to be 
utilized, there must be availability and accessibility. For this reason, the conceptual framework 
shown in Figure 2.4 would consider food utilization (dietary diversity) as the outcome variable. 
 
2.8.2. Conceptual Framework 
Based on the framework provided by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (2006), the study 
adopted a conceptual framework which considers access to land through land tenure arrangements 
of rural farming households. Basically, rural farmers may gain access to land either through 
ownership (inheritance and purchase), rent (which includes sharecropping) or rent-free access in 
the study. Such access to land for a rural farming household could either boost or hinder food 
security.  In this study, household dietary diversity scores (being low or high) for a farming 
household is used as the proxy measure to food security. Access to land therefore has a direct 
relationship with household dietary diversity. 
 
Also, food security in the Ghanaian context could be affected by some factors controlling its effect 
on HDD. These controlling factors could be the household’s socio-demographic, physical and 
33 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
economic characteristics. Malnourishment affects all age groups, especially the aged category. 
According to the FAO (2017), one of the fastest growing age groups over the next few decades 
would be the aged group. Without the strength and assistance, they are more likely to be food 
insecure. Also, several studies have shown that the women are at a disadvantage in terms of income 
and access to land (Alemu, 2015; Doss et al., 2014). For this reason, they are more likely to suffer 
from food insecurities as compared to their male counterparts. Other social factors such as 
education and marriage could also play a role in an individual’s ability to gain access to food. In 
terms of schooling, individuals with access to schools and higher educational attainments are able 
to acquire knowledge on nutrition and are thus able to access healthier diet options. White-collared 
jobs which are well paying also make use of educated individuals. With a higher income, one is 
able to access food for a healthier life. In terms of marriage, Hanson et al. (2007) note that 
household heads who are married and living with their partners are more likely to be food secure. 
This could be a result of both partners putting together funds from their respective occupations and 
getting a higher income to afford the different food groups. For farmers who are married, additional 
hands on the farm would imply much productivity. As noted by Koirala et al. (2016), migrant 
farmers are usually unable to be productive as they cannot acquire lands. As such, their dietary 
diversity is bound to be low. 
 
Other household and farm characteristics could also influence dietary diversity include household 
size; agro-ecological zone; use of irrigation facilities; and meals consumed per day. Households 
that are of larger sizes may have more mouths to feed and as such may be less food secure than 
smaller household sizes (Mensah et al., 2013). Humid agro-ecological zones are also more likely 
to be food secure than savannah zones (Ajani, 2010).  Use of irrigation facilities could also affect 
34 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
farm productivity and thus food security. With increase in income, farmers with increase the 
number of meals consumed in a day and be well nourished (Leroy et al., 2015). These factors could 
influence the capability of households in gaining access to and utilization of food. When these 
factors affect access to food, implications are made on food security which is indicated by HDD. 
The conceptual framework is shown through Figure 2.4. 
 
Figure 2. 4 Conceptual Framework showing the Relationship between Land Ownership 
Arrangements and Food Security 
 
Source: Author’s Construct (2018) 
 
35 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
2.9.Hypotheses  
The study hypothesises that  
i. Households with rented lands are less likely to have a low DD as compared to 
households owning lands. 
ii. Household heads with no schooling are less likely to have a high DD as compared to 
household heads with some education.  
iii. Female household heads are more likely to have a low DD as compared to male 
household heads. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
36 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY  
3.0.Introduction  
The section on research methodology discusses the methods used in the study. It comprises of the 
data sources, study area, research and sampling design and size, measurement of the variables of 
interest, unit of analysis, and the analysis method. The chapter then ended with the limitations of 
the study.  
3.1.Data Source 
The study used the Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data set collected 
by the Regional Institute for Population Studies in four regions of Ghana. The aim of the study 
was to examine women’s contribution to food security across four ecological zones in Ghana 
namely forest-savannah transition, savannah, forest and coastal zones. The selection of the agro-
ecological zones were purposely chosen for their involvement in agricultural activities. Although 
there are six known agro-ecological zones in Ghana (MOFA, 2010), there are some shared 
characteristics. For instance the Sudan and Guinea Savannah share a uni-modal rainfall which led 
to the selection of one, whereas the rainforest and deciduous forest zone share likely 
characteristics in terms of rainfall and vegetation. This led to the selection of four main agro-
ecological zones in Ghana. 
 
The information was gathered from both male and female heads in the various households. As 
both sexes could better report on the need to include women in agriculture, the sample included 
both sexes. The data collection focused on rural farming households in four districts across four 
regions in Ghana. These districts are Mfantseman, Techiman, Amansie West and Tolon. A total 
37 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
of sixteen farming communities (four in each district) were selected. Households were then 
randomly selected in the various districts The survey put together several research interests on 
migration, climate variability and climate change, land use, and food security. The Climate 
Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security data was a cross sectional data collection. 
 
3.2.Study Area 
Ghana is a country in West Africa, with a total population of 24,658,823 persons in 2010 (GSS, 
2013). The country has become one of the leading countries in sub-Saharan Africa in terms of 
economic growth and development. The selected study areas are located in the Central, Brong 
Ahafo, Ashanti and Northern Regions of the country.  
 
Mfantseman Municipality is located in the Central Region of Ghana with about 144,332 persons 
(GSS, 2014). About 35 per cent of its population live in rural areas with three of ten of households 
involved in farming. Its proximity to the sea has also boosted its fish production. The rural 
communities selected from the Municipal were Kormantse, Biriwa (both of which are also fishing 
communities), Akobima and Dominase. These communities are found in the Coastal Savannah 
of Ghana. The Techiman Municipality is in the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana, one of the most 
notable farming regions in Ghana. It has a population of 147,788 persons with about 36 percent 
of its population in rural areas. Almost half of its populace are involved in agriculture, along with 
a large proportion of migrant farmers. Access to land for the vulnerable has therefore become 
crucial in the municipal (GSS, 2014). The communities selected in the Municipal (transitional 
zone) were Nsuta, Nkwaeso, Tadieso and Hansua.  
 
38 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
The Amansie West District of the Ashanti Region had a population of 134,331 in 2010 (GSS, 
2014). With over 74 per cent of its population involved in agriculture, farming has become a 
major source of employment. In the rural areas, seven out of ten households are involved in 
agriculture. Most of the farmers though work as smallholder farmers. Moseaso, Manso Atwede, 
Manso Dominase and Manso Kwahu were the communities selected for the forest savannah 
region. The last of the study areas is the Tolon District in the Northern Region of Ghana. With a 
total population of 72,990, the district has served as a hub for farmers, employing over 92 per 
cent of its populace. With over 96 per cent of the farmers in rural areas of the Sudan savannah, 
access to land is necessary for the district. The communities selected for the study were Tingoli, 
Tunayili, Koblimagu and Kukuonayili.  
3.3.Research Design 
A cross sectional design was used in the study of Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and 
Food Security. Households were selected to estimate the linkages between the variables and 
outcomes of interest. As the dependent and independent variables were studied at one point in 
time, it would not be conclusive on the cause and effect relationship. 
3.4.Sampling Design 
Based on their classification as agricultural districts in the 2010 Population and Housing Census 
report by the Ghana Statistical Service, four communities per district were chosen. These 
communities were selected on the basis of the proportion of individuals engaged in crop farming 
as well as food market availability in or near the communities. The selection of enumeration areas 
in the selected districts was based on the updated 2010 Population and Housing Census 
enumeration area map by the Ghana Statistical Service. A random sampling was then used to list 
households in the enumeration areas.  
39 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
3.5.Sample size 
After the selection of the enumeration areas (EAs) in the various districts, a household listing was 
done in each of the selected EAs. The purpose was to identify women who were in the households 
that were involved in agriculture. After the listing, all households with women involved in 
agriculture in the EAs were selected and a sample was drawn from these households. A total of 35 
female farmers per community were targeted and 560 interviews were completed in all 16 
communities in the agro-ecological zones selected for the study. For the purpose of the study, 
however, households and household heads were sampled.  
 
3.6.Unit of Analysis and Measurement of Variables  
3.6.1. Unit of Analysis 
The unit of analysis for the purpose of the study was at the household level. All households and 
household heads, i.e. both males and females were used for the study. This is because, in rural 
areas, household headship plays a major role in the distribution of food in the household. They 
therefore make an impact on the activities of the household. The answered questions relating to 
the linkages between access to land and dietary diversity were used for analysis. 
 
3.6.2. Household Dietary Diversity 
Dietary diversity seeks to measure the individual groups of food consumed by households over a 
seven day or 24-hour recall period, depending on the interest of the researcher (FAO, 2014a). The 
climate change, women in agriculture and food security dataset used a 24-hour recall period to 
capture food security in and outside the home, irrespective of the time within which the meals were 
40 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
consumed. Twelve standardized food groups were then created using the HDDS from 0 to 12. The 
standardized food groups proposed by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United 
Nations were used (FAO, 2014a). The proportions of households with the various scores on the 
food groups is shown in Table 3.1. 
 
Table 3. 1 Percentage Consumption of Food Groups 
FOOD GROUP PERCENTAGE  
Cereals  88.9 
White Roots and Tubers 63.0 
Fruits  87.5 
Vegetables 24.9 
Meat 21.1 
Eggs 7.5 
Fresh or Dry Fish 88.0 
Beans/Peas/Nuts 12.2 
Milk Products 7.9 
Fats/Oils 54.2 
Sugar/Honey 34.9 
Coffee/Tea 20.6 
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security (2016) 
 
It can be gathered from Table 3.1 that most protein based products (meat, eggs, beans, and milk) 
were not consumed as much by the respondents as the carbohydrate based products were. This is 
a typical situation in rural areas and has been known to lead to their malnourishment (Taruvinga 
et al., 2013).  
 
The HDDS was created by scoring and summing up the food groups consumed by individuals or 
households over the recall period. It is based on the assumption that households should consume 
at least one of these food groups over a time period. Also, a dichotomous response for each food 
41 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
group is created (Yes-1 and No-0). For the purpose of the study, the sum of the various foods 
consumed over the 24-hour period used in the study was categorized into two. Consumption of 
five or below food groups (0-5) showed that the household relatively did not have as much access 
to food as those who had above five did out of the twelve food groups (FAO, 201). These were 
thus represented as low dietary diversity (0-5) and high dietary diversity (above 5).  
 
Access to land is the independent variable being measured. The question asked was:  What is the 
type of tenure system on your land? The responses given were categorized as: 1= Owned Land, 
2= Rented Land, and 3=Rent-free Land. 
 
3.6.3. Control Variables 
All control variables for the study were measured as categorical variables for the bivariate analysis 
but, household size, and number of meals consumed in a day were left as continuous variables at 
the multivariate stage of analysis.  
 
For the household head characteristics, sex of the household head was measured as a dichotomous 
variable, female and male. Age of the household head was categorized for both bivariate analysis 
and multivariate analysis. Age, although continuous would be categorized to gain knowledge of 
the age groups that experience dietary diversities. The categories were 20 to 29 years, 30 to 39 
years, 40 to 49 years, 50 to 59 years, and the elderly population who are 60 and above. Educational 
level of the respondents were grouped into those with no formal education, respondents who had 
attained pre-school/primary education, respondents with a Junior Secondary School (JSS), Junior 
High School (JHS), or Middle School Leaving Certificate. The Senior Secondary School or Senior 
42 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
High School qualification followed, with Higher education being the last group. Respondents in 
union were grouped against those not in union (marital status). Migration status was measured 
using whether the respondent was born in the community of study and were thus categorized either 
as indigenes or migrants. In the farming communities, available occupations ranged from those 
not working, to farmers only, respondents into both farming and non-farming opportunities and 
then respondents who are not farmers.  
 
The household characteristics considered household size as a continuous variable at the 
multivariate stage of analysis, but categorised the respondents into sizes from 1 to 4, 5 to 8, and 
more than 8 members. The four agro-ecological zones for the study were used, which are the 
Guinea Savannah, Coastal Savannah, Rainforest, and the Transition Zone. Use of irrigation as well 
as meals per day were dichotomous and grouped as either ‘yes’ or ‘no’ for the former and ‘less 
than three meals’ or ‘three or more meals’ for the latter.  
 
3.7.Method of Analysis 
This study presented results from secondary data on the relationship between land ownership 
arrangements and food security, using HDD as a measure of the latter. An understanding of such 
a relationship assists in adding knowledge to literature on land tenure and food security (HDD) in 
agro-ecological zones. For this reason, three analytical levels were used for the analysis- 
univariate, bivariate and multivariate.  
  
The study used the Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 23 for the analysis of data. To 
present the results of the objectives of the study, the bivariate analysis compared the relationship 
43 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
between the independent and dependent variable and went further to establish the association 
between the variables. This was done with the assistance of chi-square test of association. As both 
the dependent and independent variables are categorised, the chi-square test brings out the 
strengths of the associations between the variables. 
 
A binary logistic regression analysis was used at the multivariate level. The analysis for the 
examination of the association between access to land, as well as factors affecting household 
dietary diversity (low or high dietary diversity) as an indicator of food security was done. 
Associating land ownership status and HDD helps to demonstrate land tenure as an alternative for 
enhancing food security among farmers in rural Ghana.  
 
As the dependent variable is categorical with 2 categories (low dietary diversity and high dietary 
diversity), the binary logistic regression analysis was used with the land tenure arrangements of 
the rural farming households as the independent variable and socio-economic and physical 
characteristics such as age, sex, marital status, occupation, education, agro-ecological zone, 
household size, migration status, and irrigation use as control variables. These help in explaining 
how food is accessed by rural farming households in Ghana.  
 
The logistic regression model considers the log of the odds ratio (or exponential β) which was the 
ratio of households with low or high dietary diversity, expressed as a function of the predictor 
variable. When β is positive, there is a likelihood increase in the dietary diversity in relation to the 
reference category (Ref). A negative β also shows a likelihood reduction in dietary diversity 
44 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
households with regards to the reference category. When the β coefficient is zero, there is an 
indication of no change with regards to the reference category.  
 
It can be expressed mathematically as follows:  
𝑝
ln = β1𝑥1 + β2𝑥2 + β3𝑥3……….β 𝑥  1−𝑝 𝑛 𝑛
where,   
β1 I = 0 up to n are logistic co-efficients  
𝑥1, I = 0 up to n are the independent variables  
p = probability of success  
e = base of natural logarithms  
 
The logistic regression is fitted for all rural farming households to determine the factors that 
influence their food security (low or high dietary diversity). The model estimates the probability 
that a farming household at a given time will be having less or more food groups consumed. In the 
logistic regression analysis, access to land is the independent variable whereas food security 
(HDD) is the dependent variable. The physical, demographic and socio-economic factors are the 
control variables. 
 
3.8.Background Characteristics of Respondents 
This section presents the proportions of respondents in the independent, control and dependent 
variables used. The purpose of the univariate analysis is to observe variations among the factors 
considered in the study. Table 3.2 considers the descriptions of the continuous variables in the 
study, while Table 3.3 looks at the categorical variables in the study.  
45 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 3. 2 Distribution of Respondents by Age, Household Size, Meals per Day and Dietary 
Diversity Score 
Variable  Number Mean Standard Deviation Minimum Maximum 
Age 559 50.21 13.56 23 90 
Household Size 559 4.93 2.75 1 29 
Meals Per Day 559 2.66 0.60 1 7 
Dietary Diversity 559  5.11 1.83 0  12 
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Dataset (2016) 
 
From Table 3.2, the range of the ages of the household heads is 67 years, with a median of 49 
years. Majority of the respondents were thus in their middle ages to the aged category. The average 
household size was about 5, with some households having 29 persons. However, majority of the 
households had 4 persons. Concerning dietary diversity, some households reported that they had 
not consumed any of the food groups within 24 hours, whereas others had consumed up to all 12 
food groups. The average number of food groups consumed was however 5 food groups.  
 
Table 3. 3 Distribution of Respondents by Categorized Household Head, Household and Farm 
Characteristics  
Variable Frequency  Percent 
Land Tenure Arrangement  Owned Land 439 78.5 
Rented Land 80 14.3 
Rent-Free Land 40 7.2 
Sex Male 359 64.2 
Female 200 35.8 
Education No Schooling 299 53.5 
Pre-school/Primary 88 15.7 
JSS/JHS/Middle School 145 25.9 
SSS/SHS 14 2.5 
Higher Education 13 2.3 
46 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Variable Frequency  Percent 
Marital Status In Union 385 68.9 
Not in Union 174 31.1 
Occupation Farming Only 340 60.8 
Farming and Non-Farming 189 33.8 
Non-Farming Only 30 5.4 
Migration Status Migrant 134 24.0 
Indigene 425 76.0 
Agro-ecological Zone Guinea Savannah 140 25.0 
Rainforest 139 24.9 
Transition Zone 140 25.0 
Coastal Savannah 140 25.0 
Irrigation Use Yes 29 5.2 
No 530 94.8  
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Dataset 
(2016) 
 
3.9.Limitations of the Study 
The study was limited by the lack of data on a standard measure of food security and so 
interpretation of the results was done with caution. Also, the use of HDD as a proxy measure to 
food security could be flawed. Using a 24-hour recall period as proxies for intake of diets 
habitually may not be a true reflection of household consumption. Also, seasonality could affect 
food access and as such the availability of food in the household may present a different situation 
at the time of data collection when compared to different periods in the year. Notwithstanding 
these limitations, the results of the study are still useful in the evaluation of food security in rural 
Ghana.  
47 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BACKGROUND CHARACTERISTICS OF 
RESPONDENTS AND DIETARY DIVERSITY (FOOD SECURITY) 
4.0.Introduction 
This chapter presents the analysis of the study. The first section focuses land tenure arrangements 
in the agro-ecological zones of the rural households. This is followed by the relationship between 
land tenure arrangements and dietary diversity of the households. Another section focuses on the 
factors affecting household dietary diversity in Ghana. The section also presents the variations in 
the relationship between the independent variables (age, sex, educational, migration, marital, and 
occupational statuses of household heads as well as the agro-ecological zone, household size, 
meals per day and adoption and use of irrigation facilities by households) and the dependent 
variable (Household Dietary Diversity as a measure of food security) as a fulfilment of the third 
objective. This study made use of all foods that have been consumed in or outside the home over 
the 24-hour period preceding the survey.  
 
4.1.Land Ownership Arrangements in the Agro-ecological Zones of Rural Ghana 
Land ownership arrangements are important in determining how households, especially those in 
rural areas, ensure their productivity and wellbeing (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2002). 
To strengthen and improve the use of resources, it has been recommended that agro-ecological 
zonings should be used as an appropriate tool of land management (Food and Agriculture 
Organization, 2002). The study therefore sought to examine the linkages between land ownership 
48 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
arrangements and agro-ecological zones of rural farming households. Figure 4.1 shows the 
distribution of land tenure arrangements among rural farming households in the four agro-
ecological zones. From the Table, access to land is gained through ownership (by inheritance and 
purchase), rent (including sharecropping), and rent-free. 
Figure 4. 1 Percentage Distribution of Access to Land in the Agro-ecological Zones 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The Chi Square analysis showed a significant association between access to land and the agro-
ecological zones of rural Ghana (χ2 = 87.462; p< 0.001). As such, land ownership arrangements 
were dependent on the agro-ecological zones of the rural farming households. In all, over 78% of 
the households across the rural areas owned land. Land ownership has proven to be important for 
poor rural farmers in sub-Saharan Africa as it can determine their willingness to invest in the land 
49 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
(Muraoka et al., 2014). When the rural poor, who are mostly agricultural workers, thus do not own 
land, their dietary diversity and food security reduces (Ochieng et al., 2017).  
 
The distribution of land ownership differed across the agro-ecological zones, with the Guinea 
Savannah having the highest portion of land owners (30.8%). The Guinea Savannah zone of Ghana 
has been characterised by communal land ownership, with high proportions of households either 
owning lands through inheritance or working on family lands (Muniru, 2013). The purchase of 
land is cumbersome as it requires a consensus and this deters land purchase or sales of family lands 
(Muniru, 2013). Also, none of the households in the Guinea Savannah rented lands. The Guinea 
Savannah is a dry agro-ecological zone with a single rainfall regime. A household dependent on 
agriculture for income would therefore logically opt for more humid zones to benefit from double 
rainfall maxima (two rainfall peaks) to engage in agriculture more profitably.  
 
It can also be noted from Figure 4.1 that the transition agro-ecological zone also benefitted from 
all four land ownership arrangements, with the highest proportion of households making use of 
rented lands. The transition agro-ecological zone, due to its location benefits from higher dietary 
diversity. The zone is characterised by a variety of crops grown and the needed soil and climate 
suitable for agriculture (Codjoe & Bilsborrow, 2011). There is therefore a stream of migrants, both 
from the Northern and Southern part of the country, in the zone making use of rented lands.  
 
The forest zone and coastal savannah together represent over 50 per cent of agricultural households 
in Ghana (Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), 2014). As such, they also had proportions of 
50 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
households in all four land ownership arrangements. The Coastal Savannah however topped the 
proportions of households making use of rent-free lands. It could be inferred that as an area with 
high proportions of migrants, the lands in the Coastal Savannah are highly sought after and as such 
is difficult to purchase. Large family sizes may therefore make use of agricultural lands as an 
income earning opportunity. Family lands (rent-free) therefore abound in such areas. The 
rainforest zone however differs, with relatively larger proportions either owning or renting lands. 
Known as a humid and fertile zone, lands are usually owned and rented out to migrants 
occasionally. Also, lands belonging to families are not qualified as rent-free since all claim 
ownership of the land. This could explain the high proportions of owned and rented lands in the 
rainforest zone. 
 
4.2.Access to Land and Household Dietary Diversity in Rural Ghana 
Access to land has proven to be significant in influencing food security and dietary diversity of 
households (Cock, Haese, Vink, & Rooyen, 2015; Harris-Fry et al., 2015; Thorne-Lyman et al., 
2010). As the main independent variable for the study, it is imperative if a rural farming household 
is to be food secure. The study therefore sought to examine the relationship between access to land 
and Household Dietary Diversity, which is a proxy measure of food security. The results of the 
association between land ownership arrangements and household dietary diversity are presented 
in Table 4.1. 
 
 
 
51 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 4. 1 Land Tenure Arrangements and HDD 
Land Tenure Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
Arrangement 
 % % Frequency 
Owned Land 62.2 37.8 439 
Rented Land 62.5 37.5 80 
Rent-free Land 70.0 30.0 40 
Total  62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=0.961 P value= 0.618 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The chi-square test shows that there is no association between the land tenure arrangement and 
food security of a household. The association between access to land and food security is not 
significant and this could be due to other social, demographic and economic factors which may 
exert influence on both variables (Almeida & Wassel, 2016; Doss et al., 2014).  
 
Generally all household heads, with their respective land ownership arrangements experienced a 
low dietary diversity. However, household heads who had access to land either through inheritance 
or purchase had a slightly higher dietary diversity as compared to those who rented and use lands 
without paying rents. Also, the lowest dietary diversity was noted among household heads with 
rent-free lands. Making use of lands without ownership has implications. Such lands could be 
taken ownership of at any point in time. Smallholder farmers who may therefore use such lands 
may not be able to invest towards the productivity of the land. With limited productivity, food 
52 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
availability, and consumption reduces leading to food insecurity. Without the linkage due to 
generally low dietary diversity, access to and ownership of land does not guarantee a reduction or 
elimination of food insecurity as argued by FAO et al. (2017) and Silpakar (2008). 
 
4.3.Factors Affecting Household Dietary Diversity in Rural Ghana 
There are several household head, household and farm characteristics that influence access to food 
(Almeida & Wassel, 2016; Doss et al., 2014; Quaye et al., 2014), and thus, it is important to 
examine the relationship between such variables and food security. These factors include, but are 
not limited to, the household head’s age, sex, educational level, marital status, occupation, and 
migration status. For the household, factors such as the agro-ecological zone in which the 
household is located, household size could also influence productivity and dietary diversity. Other 
farm characteristics of importance include the size of one’s farm, adoption and use of irrigation 
facilities, and ability to employ labour by the household on the farm.  
 
4.3.1. Age and HDD 
The study sought to find the association between the age of the household and food security in the 
agro-ecological zones of rural Ghana (Table 4.3.1). 
 
 
 
 
 
53 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 4.3. 1 Household Food Security by Age 
Age Groups Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
 % % Frequency 
20-29 56.0 44.0 25 
30-39 57.0 43.0 100 
40-49 51.6 48.4  159 
50-59 74.4 25.6 121  
60 + 70.1 29.9 154  
Total  62.8  37.2  559  
 χ2=21.000 P value=0.000 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
Age has been proven to be one of the important variables in demography that is associated with 
access to land and food. According to Jayne et al. (2014), the acquisition of lands for farming 
household heads in Zambia increases after the age of 40 as they are more able to save money 
accumulated from previous years of work. Farmers, in different age groups have different dietary 
needs and thus consume accordingly.  
 
From Table 4.3.1, the age of the household head showed a significant association with household 
dietary diversity over the 24-hour period preceding the survey. Household heads in their forties 
had the highest dietary diversity (49%). Generally, household heads below the age of fifty had a 
relatively high proportion having a more diversified diet. Younger household heads are more able 
to diversify their income sources as they have the strength to, and as such earn a higher income to 
improve their food security (Delvaux & Paloma, 2018). However, the elderly could be more 
54 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
vulnerable in terms of nutrition as their finances are usually limited (Lo, Chang, Lee, & Wahlqvist, 
2012). It can therefore be concluded that respondents above the age of 50 are more likely to have 
a lower dietary diversity as compared to the counterparts below 50 years.  
 
4.3.2. Sex and HDD 
Several studies have proven that gender has a limiting influence on enhancing access to land and 
food security (Doss et al., 2014; FAO IFAD UNICEF, 2017). Food security has been to the 
disadvantage of women and has thus noted as a major constraint to Ghanaian agriculture (Ministry 
of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), 2010). This is because, females have a minimal access to land 
and resources needed to boost their food security (Delvaux & Paloma, 2018). In developing 
countries, food production (an aspect of food security) can be boosted from 2.5 per cent to 4 per 
cent, whiles reducing the malnourished by 5 per cent (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011b) 
if women are included in matters relating to food. It was therefore imperative to find out whether 
female headed households in the agro-ecological zones of rural Ghana are better off when 
compared to their male counterparts. Table 4.3.2 shows a distribution of the household heads by 
sex and food security. 
Table 4.3. 2 HDD by Sex of Household Head 
Sex  Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity  Total 
 % % Frequency 
Male  58.5 41.5 359 
Female  70.5 29.5 200 
Total  62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=7.922 P value=0.005 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security 
Dataset (2016) 
55 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
The chi-square test of association shows that there is a statistical association between sex of the 
household head and their DD. From Table 4.3.2, a higher proportion of the male household heads 
were more diversified in their dietary intake as compared to their female counterparts. These 
results are similar to the findings of Doss et al. (2014) on farmers which posit that women are less 
likely to be food secure as compared to men.  
 
Generally, though, women are less likely to be diversified in their diets as compared to men 
(Codjoe et al., 2016). This is due to a limited income, occupational and educational access (Codjoe 
et al., 2016) as a result of the gendered roles assigned to women making them more vulnerable and 
less access to food, especially when they do not have access to agricultural lands (Doss et al., 2014; 
Food and Agriculture Organization, 2011a). These roles include women seeking employment from 
more care-related and less muscular jobs which may not earn them a high income (Food and 
Agriculture Organization, 2011b; FAO et al., 2018). It can therefore be concluded that female 
household heads are less likely to have a high dietary diversity as compared to their male 
counterparts (Mbwana et al., 2016). 
 
4.3.3. Education and HDD 
Another important socio-economic variable that could affect an individual’s food security is their 
educational level. Education aids in skill and nutritional knowledge acquisition, whilst enhancing 
values and beliefs of society. It is integral to human existence and could affect the ability of 
individuals in being food secure. Table 4.3.3 shows the DD of household heads by their educational 
level. 
56 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 4.3. 3 HDD by Educational Level of Household Head 
Educational Level Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
 % % Frequency 
No Schooling 64.9 35.1 299 
Pre-School/ Primary 65.9 34.1 88 
JSS/JHS/Middle School 60.0 40.0 145 
SSS/SHS 57.1 42.9 14 
Higher 30.8 69.2 13 
Total  62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=7.306 P value=0.121 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The chi-square test establishes that there is no association between educational level and HDD. A 
majority of the respondents in the selected rural areas had no schooling (53%) and this could reflect 
in their lower dietary diversities. Although the results show no significant association, some 
variations can be noted among the household heads.  
 
From the Table, household heads with higher education had the highest proportion of high dietary 
diversity (69.2%), whereas household heads with pre-school/primary education had the lowest 
proportion of low dietary diversity (34.1%). Household heads without schooling were 
comparatively better than those with pre-school education, although their dietary diversity was 
low. With pre-school/primary education, one may not have the needed knowledge and skillset for 
an improved life or nutrition and this could explain why they are worse off. A similar principle 
applies to household heads without any schooling. Nutrition education is important and attained 
57 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
as one progresses up the education ladder (Akerele et al., 2017; Taruvinga et al., 2013). It is 
therefore necessary to attain a higher level of education to access the knowledge and information 
needed to improve one’s health and nutrition. This explains why household heads who are go 
higher on the educational ladder experience a more diversified diet, especially for those who had 
attained post-senior high school education (Cock et al., 2015).  
 
4.3.4. Marital Status and HDD 
In rural Ghana, the study sought to examine the association between marital status and dietary 
diversity of households. Table 4.3.4 displays the household dietary diversity according to the 
marital status of the household heads. 
 
Table 4.3. 4 HDD by Marital Status of Household Head 
Marital Status Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
 % % Frequency 
In Union 60.0 40.0 385 
Not in Union 69.0 31.0 174 
Total  62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=4.123 P value=0.042 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
From Table 4.3.4, household heads in union had a slightly higher proportion having a more 
diversified diet as compared to their counterparts who are not in union (never married, 
58 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
divorced/separated, and widowed). According to Baltissen and Betsema (2016), the land 
ownership rights of women are usually secured through marriage. For this reason, most women 
are able to gain access to land when married especially in rural areas.  
 
In rural Ghana, marriage has been a major source of land (especially for women) and also improves 
productivity on the farm  (Duncan, 2010b). Spouses may be able to provide support on farms, thus 
enhancing the food security status of the household (Quaye et al., 2014).  Farming household heads 
in union are therefore better able to enhance their consumption as production increases, enabling 
them to be more diversified in their diets as compared to their unmarried counterparts. From the 
study, it can be noted that household heads who are married are likely to have a higher dietary 
diversity, and thus food security, as compared to their unmarried counterparts.  
 
4.3.5. Occupation and HDD 
The main occupation of a household head could influence their dietary diversity, in addition to that 
of their households. Rural farming household heads engaged in more than one income earning 
opportunity may have enough income to sustain food security in their households. Table 4.3.5 
provides a summary of the dietary diversity of household heads by their occupations.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
59 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 4.3. 5 HDD by Occupation of Household Head 
Occupation  Low Dietary High Dietary Diversity Total 
Diversity 
 % % Frequency 
Farming only 66.2 33.8 340 
Farming and non-farming 58.2 41.8 189 
Non-farming only 53.3 46.7 30 
Total  62.8 37.2  559  
 χ2=4.521 P value=0.104 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The chi-square test of association shows no statistically significant association between occupation 
and HDD. Occupation of rural household heads has been noted to be one of the key influences of 
dietary diversity. This is due to its association with income and ultimate wealth (MOFA, 2010) 
and thus food security. Poor rural household heads who are usually farmers face difficulties in 
gaining access to the resources needed to improve productivity, and are thus food insecure.  
 
From Table 4.3.5, it is worth noting, however, that household heads engaged in farming only have 
the highest proportion of low dietary diversity. An improvement is noted among household heads 
with off-farm income earning opportunities in addition to their on-farm income. When farmers are 
able to acquire more income from both on-farm and off-farm activities, they can improve their 
access to food through investments in their farming activities (Jayne et al., 2014). As such, having 
more than one source of income implied that a household would have a more diversified diet. It 
can also be noted that non-farming household heads had the highest proportion of high dietary 
60 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
diversity. Non-farming income earning opportunities may be associated with higher educational 
level and thus higher income, which could lead to better dietary diversity. This is similar to the 
findings of GSS (2013) and MOFA (2010), that farmers are worse off and poor as compared to 
other occupations. 
 
4.3.6. Agro-ecological zones and HDD 
The agro-ecological zone in which a farm is located could have major influences on the food 
security of the household. Table 4.3.6 shows the dietary diversity among household heads in the 
four agro-ecological zones of the study. 
Table 4.3. 6 HDD by Agro-ecological Zone of Household Head 
Agro-ecological Zone Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
 % % Frequency 
Rainforest  66.2 33.8 139 
Coastal Savannah 69.3  30.7  140 
Transition Zone  62.9   37.1   140   
Guinea Savannah 52.9   47.1  140  
Total  62.8  37.2  559  
 χ2=9.127  P value=0.028  
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data set 
(2016) 
 
The chi-square test of association shows a significantly strong association between agro-ecological 
zones of household heads and their dietary diversity. From the Table, household heads with farms 
in the Guinea Savannah, a relatively dry location, had the highest dietary diversity. Such findings 
are in line with that of Waswa et al. (2014). In their study on Food Security in Western Kenya, it 
61 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
was found that households in dry zones experienced less hunger than those in humid zones. This 
was attributed to more assistance being offered by Government and non-Governmental 
Organizations for residents of such areas. In Ghana, the northern part of the country has been noted 
to receive the largest support from foreign and local donors due to the high rate of poverty.  This 
could explain why the household heads in the Guinea Savannah consumed more food groups 
(47.1%). It is also noteworthy that respondents in Savannah locations are able to cultivate diverse 
food crops to be sold in the southern part of the country. Usually, there is an abundance of non-
timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Guinea Savannah zone (Ahenkan & Boon, 2011). They can 
thus store their food crops for future use as their adaptation to having a single rainfall regime. Also, 
out- migration mostly occurs in the zone and as such, families may receive remittances which 
could be used to boost the household dietary diversity (Food and Agriculture Organization of the 
United Nations, 2010) 
 
Also, household heads in the Coastal Savannah experienced the lowest dietary diversity, followed 
by household heads in the Rainforest Zone. In the Coastal areas of Ghana, fishing is usually the 
main occupation due to their proximity to the sea (Akuffo and Quagraine, 2019). Crop farmers 
may not be able to cultivate as much as noted by Pollard, Kirk and Cade (2002). They also noted 
that the Coastal Savannah is one of the areas with drier climates, as such rainfall variability and 
increased temperatures often lead to decreased output of food as well as income. Although the 
forest zone could ideally be one of the most important food hubs in the country (Christian et al., 
2015), lower dietary diversity was noted. As earlier found, such areas are usually rented out to 
migrants. Household heads farming in such areas may therefore not be able to produce as much 
62 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
for consumption and income due to lack of ownership and smaller parcels of lands being used by 
families.  
 
4.3.7. Household Size and HDD 
The size of a household could have impacts on how food secure that household is. Table 4.3.7 
shows the household sizes and their corresponding dietary diversity statuses. 
Table 4.3. 7 HDD by Household Size  
Household Size Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
 % % Frequency 
1-4 members 67.8 32.2 283 
5-8 members 58.2 41.8 232 
9+ members 54.5 45.5  44 
Total  62.8  37.2  559  
 χ2=6.476  P value=0.039 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The chi-square test shows an association between household size and food security. As such, 
having more than more members in a household determines the status of food security of a 
household. The findings are not similar to that of Cock et al. (2015) who suggest that household 
heads with smaller household sizes are able to ensure their food security. When households are 
larger, a higher number of persons have a limited access to food as there are more mouths to feed 
(Mensah et al., 2013). In this study, however, larger household sizes have higher proportions of 
better dietary diversity. This could be attributed to such households being located in the Guinea 
Savannah where non-timber forest products are in abundance. Also, Codjoe (2006) notes that 
63 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
larger household sizes may be able to increase their production with the availability of a larger on-
farm labour size. As such, larger household sizes may have an improved dietary diversity.  
 
4.3.8. Migration Status and HDD 
The status of a household head in terms of migration could have an influence on their ability to 
gain access to land, whilst ensuring their food security.  For this reason, the study sought to seek 
out the association between migration status of a household head and the food security of the 
household. Table 4.3.8 shows dietary diversity by migration status of household heads.  
Table 4.3. 8 HDD by Migration Status of Household Head 
Migration Status Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total  
 %  % Frequency 
Migrant   64.2  35.8 134 
Indigene 62.4  37.6 425 
Total  62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=0.145 P value=0.703 
Source: Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data 
set (2016) 
 
The chi-square test shows no association between migration status of household heads and their 
HDD. Migrant farmers, as a result of tenure insecurity, in some cases are able to mechanize 
agriculture and as such produce more food and ultimately ensure their food security, as compared 
to indigenes (Codjoe, 2006). As such, they may be able to be as food secure as indigenes of a 
community. However, Barron, Thame and Herrero (2013) in studying the drivers and challenges 
for food security found that migrants may have a limited access to food as the destination areas 
may be more food insecure. It can be noted from Table 4.3.8 that farming household heads that 
64 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
are indigenes had a slightly higher proportion with a more diversified diet as compared to migrant 
household heads.  
  
4.3.9. Adoption and Use of Irrigation Facilities by HDD 
Table 4.3.9 shows the patterns of adoption and use irrigation facilities by household heads with 
respect to their HDD status.  
 
Table 4.3. 9 HDD by Household’s Adoption and Use of Irrigation Facilities 
Irrigation use Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
% % Frequency 
Yes 58.6 41.4 29 
No 63.0 37.0 530 
Total 62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=0.228  P value=0.633   
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data set 
(2016) 
 
From Table 4.3.9, the p-value for irrigation use is not significant. As such there is no association 
between a household head’s adoption and use of irrigational facilities and their dietary diversity. 
However, it can be noted from the table that over 41 per cent of households using irrigation had a 
higher dietary diversity, as against 37 per cent of households that do not use irrigation. Irrigational 
facilities are important to improving production of food. The food security of households however 
entails several factors and this could explain why the association is not significant. This finding 
differs from that of Asefa and Zegeye (2003) who posit that for farmers to be food secure, they 
must use technology (including irrigation facilities) in Ethiopia. 
65 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
4.3.10. Meals per Day and HDD 
Table 4.3.10 shows the association between the average number of meals consumed in a day and 
the HDDS. Household perception of sufficient food quantity could affect the dietary diversity of 
the household. In experiencing food shortages, households may reduce their daily required foods.  
Table 4.3. 10 Meals per Day and HDD 
Meals Per Day Low Dietary Diversity High Dietary Diversity Total 
Percent Percent Frequency 
Less than 3 77.9 22.1 208 
3 or more 53.8 46.2 351 
Total 62.8 37.2 559 
 χ2=32.302  P value=0.000  
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data set 
(2016) 
 
There is a significant association between the number of meals consumed in a household and their 
dietary diversity. From the table, almost 78 per cent of households consuming less than three meals 
in a day had a lower dietary diversity as opposed to those consuming three or more meals each 
day. Households with a perceived lack of sufficient food may cut down portion and thus may 
experience hunger due to lower income. For this reason, households with lower consumption (less 
than three-squared meals) may be less food secure (Leroy et al., 2015). When certain food groups 
are excessively consumed, without balancing the diets, households could increase their risk of 
diseases through obesity.    
 
66 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
4.3.1.1.Interrelationships among Factors affecting HDD 
This section focuses on examining the effect of access to land on household dietary diversity (food 
security) whiles controlling for physical and socio-demographic characteristics of the households 
with a binary logistic regression model. Table 4.3.11 and Table 4.3.12 considers the estimated 
coefficients and statistics predicted by the binary logistic model on the variables of interest. 
 
The first model (Table 4.3.11) uses a binary logistic regression model with HDD as the outcome 
variable to analyse the effect of the main predictor variable (land ownership arrangements). In the 
table, the Exp (β) and the significance of the relationship between the variables are shown. 
 
Table 4.3. 11 Logistic Regression Model of HDD and by Independent Variable in Rural Ghana 
Land Ownership Arrangements Significance  Exp (β) 
Owned Land 0.621  
Rent-Free Land 0.330 0.71 [0.35, 1.42] 
Rented Land 0..253 0.99 [0.60, 1.61] 
   
Model chi-square 0.989 Df=2 
Significance  P-value=0.610  
Nagelkerke R-Square 0.002  
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Dataset (2016) 
 
A Nagelkerke R-Square of 0.002 implies that approximately 0.2 per cent of the variation in high 
DD is explained by the household’s land ownership arrangement. This implies that HDD used in 
67 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
the study as a proxy measure of food security could have numerous factors which may serve as an 
explanations to the variations in DD. The results of the analysis however show that land ownership 
arrangement does not have any statistically significant effect on food security (Household Dietary 
Diversity).  
 
Some linkages can be noted, however from the table. For instance, households with rented lands 
were 0.99 times less likely to be food secured as compared to those who own land. A similar 
finding applies to households making use of rent-free lands (either family lands, or squatting etc.). 
Such households were 0.71 times less likely to be food secured. As important as food security is, 
security of tenure for households becomes a priority as ownership gives households the 
opportunity to grow diverse crops, and harvest them for themselves. According to Codjoe (2006), 
such households can efficiently work on their lands in order to increase their produce. With the 
produce, they can sell more crops, earn higher incomes are live comfortably. A higher income does 
not only ensure food security; it also provides households with the opportunity to go into more 
intensive and mechanized agricultural practices which increases land output or crop yield, although 
it could also lead to degradation.  
 
For rural dwellers, land ownership could thus serve as a means to improve food production and 
utilization, as well as storage. According to Koirala et al. (2016), when farmers make use of rented 
lands, owners are the ones to determine the extent to which the land can be put to use. For tenants 
or sharecroppers, this could be problematic especially when the farmer has no alternative income 
earning opportunity. This could explain the incidence of low dietary diversity among households 
making use of rented lands. In some forms of land rent, such as sharecropping, yields are shared 
68 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
between the owner and tenant, leading to a further decline in food consumption especially for 
farmers with small farm sizes. Koirala et al. (2016) note that such farmers may rather use their 
income from their share to purchase items deemed more important than food, leading to lower 
food consumption and malnourishment.  
 
For households engaged in rent-free lands, problems of commitment arises. Without direct claim 
of ownership, farming households may not put in the needed effort to invest in the land (Silpakar, 
2008). Access to land, without investment, yields poorly further worsening the plight of 
households without the lands. Also, crops that may take years to cultivate and bring in more income 
may not be cultivated as tenants may be asked to give the land to its owner at any point in time. 
This could lead to poor food production and consumption in households making use of rent-free 
lands.  
 
It has been established in literature that although access to land is important, there is the need to 
examine other household head, household and farm characteristics that may play a role in food 
security. Although food security is complex and may be affected by numerous factors, socio-
demographic and other important factors could lead to either an improved or decreased dietary 
diversity. Table 4.3.12 considers all the predictors used in the conceptual framework to examine 
their relationship with dietary diversity. 
 
 
 
 
 
69 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Table 4.3. 12 Logistic Regression Model of HDD and Selected Indicators among Rural Farming 
Households in Ghana (2016) 
Indicator  OR 95% CI P-value 
Access to Land   
Owned (ref) 1.00  
Rent-free 0.63 [0.29, 1.38] 0.251 
Rented 1.06 [0.59, 1.91] 0.841 
Sex of Household Head   
Female (ref) 1.00  
Male 1.42 [0.67, 3.01] 0.355 
Age of Household Head   
20-29  1.81 [0.71, 4.63] 0.215 
30-39 1.52 [0.84, 2.75] 0.170 
40-49 2.09 [1.26, 3.49] 0.005 
50-59 0.79 [0.44, 1.41] 0.419 
60+ (ref) 1.00  
Occupation of Household Head   
Farming only (ref) 1.00  
Farming and non-farming 1.58 [1.04, 2.40] 0.031 
Non-farming only 1.62 [0.67, 3.87] 0.282 
Agro-ecological zone   
Coastal Savannah 0.69 [0.34, 1.39] 0.298 
Rainforest zone 0.59 [0.30, 1.63] 0.127 
Transition zone 0.95 [0.47, 1.92] 0.882 
Guinea Savannah (ref) 1.00  
Marital Status   
In Union (ref) 1.00  
Not in Union 1.46 [0.69, 3.08] 0.326 
   
 
 
70 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Indicator  OR 95% CI P-value 
Educational Level   
No schooling  0.20 [0.06, 0.74] 0.015 
Pre-school/Primary 0.22 [0.06, 0.83] 0.026 
JSS/JHS/Middle 0.26 [0.07, 0.95] 0.041 
SSS/SHS 0.31 [0.06, 1.66] 0.172 
Higher education (ref) 1.00  
Migration Status   
Migrant 0.98 [0.61, 1.57] 0.961 
Indigene (ref) 1.00  
Household size 1.71 [1.00, 1.16] 0.057 
Irrigation Use   
Yes (ref) 1.00  
No  0.99 [0.62, 1.58] 0.892 
Meals per day 1.81 [1.26, 2.59] 0.001 
   
Constant  -1.506 P-value =0.000 
Correct % prediction 68.2%  
Nagelkerke R2 14.1%   
Model χ2 (df) 61.031 (21)   
Source: Computed from Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Data set 
(2016) 
 
The overall model is strongly significant (P<0.001) and predicts 68.2% of the responses correctly. 
The model also produced a Nagelkerke R-squared value of 14.1%. The Nagelkerke R-Square 
implies that about 14 per cent of the variation in high dietary diversity in rural Ghana can be 
explained by the independent and control variables.  
 
71 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
From the table, it can be noted that although land ownership arrangements show no statistically 
significant relationship with dietary diversity, some changes are observed with the introduction of 
the control variables. From the table, households making use of rented farmlands were 1.05 times 
more likely to have a diversified diet as compared to those who owned land. However those 
making use of rent-free lands were 0.63 times less likely to be food secured. Although not similar 
to the findings of Koirala et al. (2016) and Jayne et al. (2014), there could be some possible 
explanations. Users of rented land, as a result of their lack of ownership, could have the time to 
engage in other income earning opportunities that could increase their ability to purchase the items 
needed in their communities. This could explain the slightly higher dietary diversity noted among 
renters. Landowners however, without other commitments may invest into the land. As climatic 
changes ensue, they are more likely to lose their crops leading to loss of income and difficulty in 
reinvesting into the land, leading to further impoverishment and food security. Those who rent 
land are however saved from further costs as they could rent other lands, whereas owners of the 
land may not be able to do so (FAO et al., 2018). The first hypothesis is however rejected as no 
statistical significance was noted in the relationship between land ownership arrangement and 
dietary diversity. 
 
From Table 4.3.12, only age, occupation and educational level of the household head, as well as 
the number of meals consumed per day of the household were statistically significant at p<0.05 
and would be interpreted.  
 
Age may play a role on the foods that individuals choose to consume, especially with reference to 
their health, taste and economic circumstances (Lo et al., 2012). With respect to dietary diversity, 
72 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
results showed that household heads from 20 to 49 had a higher dietary diversity for the 24 hours 
preceding the survey, than the aged household heads (60 and above). From Table 4.3.12, household 
heads from 20 to 29 years were 1.81 times more likely to be food secured as compared to household 
heads aged 60 and above. In the young ages, farmers may have the strength to work on their lands, 
take more risks and invest towards the success of their work (Delvaux and Paloma, 2018). Also, 
there is the strength to diversify their income sources in order to be more food secured. A similar 
principle applies to household heads from age 30 to 39 who were 1.52 times more likely to be food 
secured as compared to the elderly household heads.  
 
Household heads from age 40 to 49 years, however were twice more likely to be food secured, as 
compared to the aged category. According to Jayne et al. (2014), similar findings exist in Zambia. 
They attributed this to higher access to land among respondents aged 40 and above, giving them 
the opportunity to save money accumulated from previous years of work. Such household heads 
are thus more likely to be food secured. A decline was however noted among household heads in 
their fifties (50-59 years) who were 0.8 times less likely to be food secured. Nearing the aged 
category, strength decline and lack of resources could lead to a decline in nutrition status. Added 
to this, when support from relatives are limited, such household heads may not have the income to 
improve upon their diets. This could explain the decline in the dietary diversity of the elderly or 
household heads in their fifties as compared to the aged who may be supported by friends and 
relatives as the known age at which one retires in Ghana is 60 years. 
 
Household heads that have a diversified income source are more likely to be food secure when 
compared to their counterparts with a single income source. From Table 4.3.12, it can be noted 
73 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
that rural farming household heads who engage in both farming and non-farming income earning 
opportunities were 1.58 times more likely to have diversified diets as compared to those engaged 
in farming only. This is in line the findings of MOFA (2010) and GSS (2015) that the poorest and 
most food insecure population in Ghana are agricultural workers or farmers. This could also 
explain why non-farming household heads were 1.62 times more diversified in their diets as 
compared to farmers.  
 
Farming in rural areas, even with fertile lands, can be cumbersome without the needed resources 
such as technology and labour (especially for large farms). Without the necessary inputs, farmers 
may not be able to increase their crop yield especially in the face of increasing weather variability. 
Households that have more than one income source can therefore afford to purchase food, even if 
it is in smaller quantities. Households engaged in farming, although with more proximity to food, 
may not be able to purchase foods needed that are not cultivated by the household. There is 
therefore the need to engage in other income earning opportunities. This is similar to the findings 
of FAO (2017) as well as that of Delvaux & Paloma (2018) who suggest that diversifying rural 
income sources would aid in reducing hunger globally.  
 
Again, household heads with some level of education had a higher dietary diversity as compared 
to those with no schooling. From the table it can be noted that all household heads within the lower 
levels of education had a lower likelihood of being food secured as compared to those who attain 
higher education. Within the levels of education, household heads who had never been to school 
were 0.2 times less likely to be food secured as compared to those who had attained higher 
education. Also, JSS/JHS and SSS/SHS/Middle level of education experienced are 0.26, and 0.31 
74 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
times less likely to be diversified in their diet than household heads with higher education. Slight 
increases noted among those who attained pre-school/ primary education through to Senior 
Secondary/High School education show that the higher one is educated the more likely to be food 
secured. The study therefore fails to reject the second hypothesis as household heads with higher 
levels of schooling are more likely to be diversified in their diets as opposed to household heads 
with no schooling. 
 
This finding puts forward that encouraging education, to at least a completion of basic school 
(JSS/JHS/Middle) could influence knowledge and intake of adequate nutrients of individuals and 
households. An explanation to the slightly high dietary diversity among household heads with pre-
school/primary education could be that these rural household heads may be involved in relatively 
low income earning opportunities, although it is better than those with no schooling. Better 
employment opportunities are also associated with SSS/SHS and higher education which means 
better education on health and balanced diets in addition to purchasing power. As such, household 
heads with a higher education are more likely to have a high dietary diversity and be food secure 
than those with limited to no education (Codjoe et al., 2016).  
 
A household’s experience with food shortage and consumption could also affect their dietary 
diversity. In the study, the more meals consumed, the higher the likelihood of being food secured. 
This is similar to the findings of Leroy et al. (2015) who associate more meals consumed with 
higher food security. 
 
 
75 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 
5.0.Summary of Findings 
The objective of this study was to examine the relationship between access to land and food 
security in rural Ghana, with HDD as a measure of the latter. To achieve this, secondary data used 
was based on Household Dietary Diversity (dependent variable) and land ownership arrangements 
(independent variable). Also factors such as the sex, age, occupation, education, marital, and 
migration statuses of the household heads, as well as the household size, agro-ecological zone, 
food consumption per day and use of irrigation facilities by the households were controlled for. A 
binary logistic regression model was then employed to explore the relationship between food 
security and land ownership arrangements as well as the control variables. 
  
The specific objectives of the study included ascertaining the land tenure arrangements in the four 
agro-ecological zones in rural Ghana. Under this objective, it was found that the relationship was 
such that, the agro-ecological zone of a household determined the land tenure arrangement. As 
such, the rural households in the Guinea Savannah were made of households that owned land with 
the remaining making use of rent-free land. On the other hand, renters of land were mostly located 
in the Rainforest and Transition zone which are regions highly suitable for agriculture. Also the 
Transition zone had the highest percentage of rented lands, with the Coastal Savannah having the 
highest rent-free lands. Owned lands were also highly found among households in the Guinea 
Savannah. 
 
76 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
The second specific objective was to examine the linkage between tenure arrangements and dietary 
diversity of households in rural Ghana. Under this objective, it was found that the association and 
relationship was not significant. As such, having access to land (through tenure arrangements) did 
not ensure a higher dietary diversity of any given household. However, in terms of food security 
(HDD), households with rented lands were high on the rank with the binary logistic regression. 
Indigenes who may own land did not have a high dietary diversity as those who rent (mostly 
migrants) make use of the land efficiently and harness as much as they can due to lack of 
ownership. Households into rent-free lands also were the most likely to be food insecure in terms 
of dietary diversity as compared to households that own land.  
 
The third and final objective for the study was to explore the factors that affect food security. 
According to the Climate Change, Women in Agriculture and Food Security Dataset, there were 
four main factors that could affect a household’s food security. Household heads in their younger 
ages (20 to 49) were more likely to be food secured as compared to the elderly. Also, the higher 
one progresses up the educational ladder, the more likely he or she is to be food secured. Again, 
household heads involved in on and off farm income earning opportunities, as well as only off 
farm jobs were the most likely to be food secured as compared to farmers. Lastly, households 
consuming more meals in a day were more likely to be food secured in the four agro-ecological 
zones in rural Ghana.  
 
5.1.Conclusion  
In conclusion, household dietary diversity is an important measure of food security. Also, there is 
the need to include household characteristics in order to understand food security in households. 
77 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Improved food availability, access and utilization has numerous benefits for every country and the 
factors that affect it need to be well explored. In this study, an aspect of the ‘Food Security, 
Livelihood and Nutrition Framework’ by the FAO was examined. In the socio-economic context, 
vulnerability may worsen and from this perspective, the study sought to examine the linkage 
between land and food security. The focus of the study was on the land ownership arrangements, 
and dietary diversity of farming households in selected rural areas of Ghana. 
 
Besides the ‘land’ factor, other socio-demographic and economic characteristics were examined. 
These were developed into a conceptual framework and controlled for in the study. Using 
secondary data, household head, household and farm characteristics were examined for their 
linkages with dietary diversity (proxy measure of food security). Based on the results from the 
binary logistic regression, the study rejects the first hypothesis as there was relationship between 
dietary diversity and access to land.  
 
Food security is a complex concept comprising of several dimensions. As such, there may be other 
factors which may contribute to the dependent variable. These include a household’s proportion 
of farmland cultivated, type of place of residence, eating taboos and customs of the society, 
household wealth status, religious affiliation of the household head, perceptions of access and 
availability of food, and factors put forth in the Food Security, Livelihoods and Nutrition 
Framework, among others. These explain why there was no association or relationship between 
land ownership arrangements and dietary diversity of the household. 
 
78 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
The second hypothesis however is accepted as household heads with some level of education had 
a higher dietary diversity than those with no schooling. Education assists in providing information 
on nutrition and as such, household heads with some level of education (especially as the highest 
education) had a higher dietary diversity as compared to their counterparts with no education. Also, 
education is associated with better income earning opportunities and technology, all of which 
could improve purchasing power and food production and access for household heads with some 
level of education.  
 
Although female household heads were more likely to have a lower dietary diversity, the third 
hypothesis which considers the sex of the household head in relation to dietary diversity is also 
rejected. This is because, in examining the relationship between sex of the household head and 
dietary diversity, no statistically significant relationship emerged.  
  
5.2.Recommendations 
Based on the findings previously presented, it is imperative to explore better proxy measures to 
food security.  HDD may not provide evidence that food insecurity exists unless combined with 
other measures. When HDD is used alongside other food security measures, it may yield a 
substantive proxy measure to food security. Measures such as household hunger scale, household 
food insecurity and access scale among others could be used as composite measures to food 
security in rural Ghana.  
 
79 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
There is also the need to examine the external, trans-disciplinary factors that affect dietary diversity 
to improve the understanding of food security in Ghana. These factors include, but are not limited 
to culture, policies, climate and market conditions among others. When such factors are explored 
in poor zones such as rural and urban poor communities, it could yield a better understanding of 
nutrition and food security in the country. Again, a mixed methods approach could be used in this 
study to provide a better context to understanding the effect of land ownership arrangements on 
food security, which was not achieved in this study due to the lack of data on the subject. 
 
Also, the role of education of the rural households in increasing household dietary diversity and 
making households more food secure could be explored extensively. In the local assemblies, the 
importance of nutrition education could be established so that rural farming households, even 
without higher education, could get to know the benefits of consuming the various food groups.  . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
80 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
REFERENCES  
Abu, G. A., & Soom, A. (2016). Analysis of factors affecting food security in rural and urban 
farming households of Benue State, Nigeria. International Journal of Food and Agricultural 
Economics, 4(1), 55–68. 
Ahenkan, A., & Boon, E. (2011). Improving Nutrition and Health through Non-timber Forest 
Products in Ghana. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 29(2), 141–148. 
Akerele, D., Sanusi, R. A., Fadare, O. A., & Ashaolu, O. F. (2017). Factors influencing 
nutritional adequacy among rural households in Nigeria: How does dietary diversity stand 
among influencers?. Ecology of food and nutrition, 56(2), 187-203. 
Alemu, G. T. (2015). Women’s Land Use Right Policy and Household Food Security in Ethiopia: 
Review. International Journal of African and Asian Studies, 12, 56–66. 
Almeida, B., & Wassel, T. (2016). Survey on Access to Land, Tenure Security and Land Conflicts 
in Timor-Leste. 
Amoateng, P., Cobbinah, P. B., & Owusu-Adade, K. (2013). Managing physical development in 
peri-urban areas of Kumasi, Ghana: A case of Abuakwa. Journal of Urban and 
Environmental Engineering, 7(1), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.4090/juee.2013.v7n1.096109 
Asefa, S., & Zegeye, T. (2003). Rural Poverty, Food Insecurity and Environmental Degradation 
in Ethiopia: A Case Study from South Central Ethiopia. International Journal of Ethiopian 
Studies, 59–89. 
Ayifli, R. W. A. (2017). Food Security Challenges in Ghana. In Food Security and Sustainability 
(Vol. 8). Journal of Food Processing Technology. https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7110-C1-062 
Babu, S. C., & Blom, S. (2017). Strengthening and harmonizing food policy systems to achieve 
food security: A case study and lessons from Ghana, (February). Retrieved from 
81 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15738coll2/id/131071 
Badami, M. G., & Ramankutty, N. (2015). Urban agriculture and food security: A critique based 
on an assessment of urban land constraints. Global Food Security, 4, 8–15. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2014.10.003 
Bartolini, F., & Viaggi, D. (2013). The common agricultural policy and the determinants of 
changes in EU farm size. Land Use Policy, 31, 126–135. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2011.10.007 
Behrman, J., Meinzen-dick, R., & Quisumbing, A. (2012). The gender implications of large-scale 
land deals. The Journal of Peasant Studies, 39(1), 49–79. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2011.652621 
Berge, E., Kambewa, D., Munthali, A., & Wiig, H. (2014). Lineage and land reforms in Malawi: 
Do matrilineal and patrilineal landholding systems represent a problem for land reforms in 
Malawi? Land Use Policy, 41, 61–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.05.003 
Boateng, P. K. (2017). Land Access , Agricultural Land Use Changes and Narratives about Land 
Degradation in the Savannahs of Northeast Ghana during the Pre-Colonial and Colonial 
Periods. MDPI, 6(35), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci6010035 
Bourke-Martignoni, J. (n.d.). Rights of rural women. 
Bremner, J. (2012). Population and Food Security: Africa’s Challenge. 
Chileshe, R. A. (2005). LAND TENURE AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS IN ZAMBIA: CASE 
STUDIES OF KAMENA AND ST. JOSEPH. University of the Western Cape. 
Clapp, J., & Murphy, S. (2013). The G20 and Food Security: A Mismatch in Global Governance? 
Global Policy, 4(2), 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12039 
Cobbinah, P. B., & Niminga-Beka, R. (2017). Urbanisation in Ghana: Residential land use under 
82 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
siege in Kumasi central. Cities, 60(Part A), 388–401. 
Cock, N. De, Haese, M. D., Vink, N., & Rooyen, C. J. Van. (2015). Food security in rural areas of 
Limpopo province , South Africa. Food Security, 2013(5), 269–282. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-013-0247-y 
Codjoe, S. N. A. (2006). Migrant versus indigenous farmers . An analysis of factors affecting 
agricultural land use in the transi- tional agro-ecological zone of Ghana , 1984-2000. 
Geografisk Tidskrift-Danish Journal of Geography, 106(1), 103–113. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/00167223.2006.10649548 
Codjoe, S. N. A., & Bilsborrow, R. E. (2011). Are migrants exceptional resource degraders ? A 
study of agricultural households in Ghana. GeoJournal, 2012(77), 681–694. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-011-9417-7 
Codjoe, S. N. A., Okutu, D., & Abu, M. (2016). Urban Household Characteristics and Dietary 
Diversity : An Analysis of Food Security in Accra , Ghana. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 1–
17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572116631882 
Darfour, B., & Rosentrater, K. A. (2016). Agriculture and Food Security in Ghana. In Agricultural 
and Biosystems Engineering (pp. 1–11). https://doi.org/10.13031/aim.20162460507 
Deininger, K., Ali, D. A., & Alemu, T. (2011). Impacts of Land Certification on Tenure Security 
, Investment , and Land Market Participation : Evidence from Ethiopia. Land Economics, 
87(2), 312–334. 
Delvaux, P. A. G., & Paloma, S. G. y. (2018). Access to common resources and food security : 
Evidence from National Surveys in Nigeria. Food Security, 2018(10), 121–140. 
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-017-0757-0 
Djokoto, G., & Opoku, K. (2010). LAND TENURE IN GHANA: MAKING A CASE FOR 
83 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
INCORPORATION OF CUSTOMARY LAW IN LAND ADMINISTRATION AND AREAS OF 
INTERVENTION BY THE GROWING FOREST PARTNERSHIP. 
Donkor, E., & Owusu, V. (2014). Effects of land tenure systems on resource-use productivity and 
efficiency in Ghana’s rice industry. African Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 
9(4), 286–299. 
Doss, C., Summerfield, G., & Tsikata, D. (2014). Land, Gender, and Food Security. Feminist 
Economics, 20(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2014.895021 
Duncan, B. A. (2010a). Cocoa, Marriage, Labour and Land in Ghana: Some Matrilineal and 
Patrilineal Perspectives. Africa (Pre-2011), 80(2), 301–321. 
https://doi.org/10.3366/e0001972010001415 
Duncan, B. A. (2010b). COCOA , MARRIAGE , LABOUR AND LAND IN GHANA : SOME 
MATRILINEAL AND PATRILINEAL PERSPECTIVES. Journal of the International 
African Institute, 80(2), 302–321. https://doi.org/10.3366/E0001972010001415 
FAO. (2006). Food security. Policy Brief. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneb.2010.12.007 
FAO. (2011). Guidelines for measuring household and individual dietary diversity. Rome, Italy: 
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 
FAO. (2014a). Improving Diets and Nutrition: Food-Based Approaches. (B. Thompson & L. 
Amoroso, Eds.), Fao (Vol. 53). Rome, Italy: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the 
United Nations and CABI. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 
FAO. (2014b). The State of Food Insecurity in the World. Food and Agriculture Organization of 
the United Nations. Retrieved from http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/africa/corruption-
eats-into-somalias-food-aid 
FAO IFAD UNICEF, WFP. & WHO. (2017). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the 
84 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
World. Fao. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/  
FAO IFAD UNICEF WFP &WHO (2018). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 
2018. Building climate resilience for food security and Nutrition. Rome, FAO 
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2002). Land Tenure and Rural Development. FAO land 
tenure studies,. https://doi.org/9251048460 
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2011a). Fao at work 2010–2011. Women-Key to food 
security. 
Food and Agriculture Organization. (2011b). The state of food and agriculture: Women in 
agriculture. Closing the gender gap for development. Rome, Italy. 
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2010). The State of Food Insecurity in 
the World Addressing food insecurity in protracted crises 2010 Key messages. FAO. 
https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181b8666e 
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, & United Nations Environment 
Programme. (1997). Negotiating a sustainable future for land: Structural and institutional 
guidelines for land resources management in the 21st century. 
Gardi, C., Panagos, P., Van Liedekerke, M., Bosco, C., & De Brogniez, D. (2015). Land take and 
food security: assessment of land take on the agricultural production in Europe. Journal of 
Environmental Planning and Management, 58(5), 898–912. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2014.899490 
Gebregziabher, G., & Holden, S. T. (2011). Distress rentals and the land rental market as a safety 
net : contract choice evidence from Tigray , Ethiopia. International Association of 
Agricultural Economics, 42, 45–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-0862.2011.00551.x 
Ghana Statistical Service. (2013). 2010 Population & Housing Census: National Analytical 
85 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Report. Accra, Ghana. 
Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). (2014). Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6. Accra, Ghana. 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13398-014-0173-7.2 
Ghana Statistical Service (GSS), Ghana Health Service (GHS), & ICF International. (2015). 
Ghana Demographic and Health Survey, 2014. Rockville, Maryland, USA. 
Ghebru, H., & Holden, S. (2013). Links between Tenure Security and Food Security: Evidence 
from Ethiopia. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2343158 
Godfray, H. C. J., Beddington, J. R., Crute, I. R., Haddad, L., Lawrence, D., Muir, J. F., … 
Toulmin, C. (2010). Food Security : The Challenge of Feeding 9 Billion People. Science, 
327(5967), 812–818. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1126/science.1185383 
Hanson, K. L., Sobal, J., & Frongillo, E. a. (2007). Gender and marital status clarify associations 
between food insecurity and body weight. The Journal of Nutrition, 137(6), 1460–1465. 
Harris-Fry, H., Azad, K., Kuddus, A., Shaha, S., Nahar, B., Hossen, M., … Fottrell, E. (2015). 
Socio-economic determinants of household food security and women’s dietary diversity in 
rural Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 
33(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-015-0022-0 
Holden, S. T., Deininger, K., & Ghebru, H. (2009). IMPACTS OF LOW -COST LAND 
CERTIFICATION ON INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTIVITY. American Journal of Agr. 
Econ., 91(2), 359–373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8276.2008.01241.x 
Holden, S. T., & Ghebru, H. (2016). Land tenure reforms, tenure security and food security in poor 
agrarian economies: Causal linkages and research gaps. Global Food Security. Elsevier. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.07.002 
Holden, S. T., & Otsuka, K. (2014). The roles of land tenure reforms and land markets in the 
86 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
context of population growth and land use intensification in Africa. Food Policy, 48, 88–97. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.03.005 
Huggins, C. (2010). Land, Power and Identity: Roots of violent conflict in Eastern DRC. 
Jayne, T. S., Chamberlin, J., & Headey, D. D. (2014). Land pressures, the evolution of farming 
systems, and development strategies in Africa: A synthesis. Food Policy, 48, 1–17. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.05.014 
Kennedy, G., Berardo, A., Papavero, C., Horjus, P., Ballard, T., Dop, M., … Brouwer, I. D. (2010). 
Proxy measures of household food consumption for food security assessment and 
surveillance: Comparison of the household dietary diversity and food consumption scores. 
Public Health Nutrition, 13(12), 2010–2018. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898001000145X 
Keswell, M., & Carter, M. R. (2014). Poverty and land redistribution. Journal of Development 
Economics, 110(2014), 250–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.10.003 
Kiptot, E., Franzel, S., & Degrande, A. (2014). Gender, agroforestry and food security in Africa. 
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 6(1), 104–109. Retrieved December 20, 
2017 from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.10.019  
Koirala, K. H., Mishra, A., & Mohanty, S. (2016). Impact of land ownership on productivity and 
efficiency of rice farmers: The case of the Philippines. Land Use Policy, 50, 371–378. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2015.10.001 
Labadarios, D., McHiza, Z. J.-R., Steyn, N. P., Gericke, G., Maunder, E. M. W., Davids, Y. D., & 
Parker, W. (2011). Food security in South Africa: a review of national surveys. Bulletin of 
the World Health Organization, 89(12), 891–899. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.089243 
LANDESA. (2012). Land rights and food security. Retrieved January 1, 2018 from 
https://www.landesa.org/wp-content/uploads/Landesa-Issue-Brief-Land-Rights-and-Food-
87 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Security.pdf 
Leroy, J. L., Ruel, M., Frongillo, E. A., Harris, J., & Ballard, T. J. (2015). Measuring the food 
access dimension of food security: A critical review and mapping of indicators. Food and 
Nutrition Bulletin, 36(2), 167–195. https://doi.org/10.1177/0379572115587274 
Lipton, M., & Saghai, Y. (2017). Food security, farmland access ethics, and land reform. Global 
Food Security, 12(October 2015), 59–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2016.03.004 
Lo, Y. T., Chang, Y. H., Lee, M. S., & Wahlqvist, M. L. (2012). Dietary diversity and food 
expenditure as indicators of food security in older Taiwanese. Appetite, 58(1), 180–187. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.023 
Ma, X. (2013). Does Tenure Security Matter ? Rural Household Responses to Land Tenure 
Reforms in Northwest China. Wageningen University. 
Mbwana, H. A., Kinabo, J., Lambert, C., & Biesalski, H. K. (2016). Determinants of household 
dietary practices in rural Tanzania: Implications for nutrition interventions. Cogent Food & 
Agriculture, 2(1), 1224046. 
Mensah, O; James, A and Tuffour, T. (2013). Determinants of Household Food Security in the 
Sekyere-Afram Plains District of Ghana. Global Advanced Research Journal of Agricultural 
Science, 2(1), 34–40. 
Miggiano, L., Taylor, M., & Mauro, A. (2010). Links between land tenure security and food 
security. Framework, (April). 
Ministry of Finance. (2017). The Budget Statement of the Government of Ghana for the 2017 
Financial Year, 218. 
Ministry of Food and Agriculture. (2007). Ministry of Food and Agriculture. 
Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA). (2010). Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment 
88 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Plan. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10681-013-1029-5 
Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources. Land Bill (2017). 
Muniru, S. (2013). Gender and Access To Agricultural Resources in the Sudan and Guinea 
Savannah Ecological Zones in Ghana. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA. 
Muraoka, R., Jin, S., & Jayne, T. S. (2014). Land access, land rental and food security: Evidence 
from Kenya. Land Use Policy, 70, 611–622. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.10.045 
Ochieng, J., Afari-Sefa, V., Lukumay, P. J., & Dubois, T. (2017). Determinants of dietary diversity 
and the potential role of men in improving household nutrition in Tanzania. PLoS ONE, 
12(12), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189022 
Peters, P. E. (2009). Challenges in Land Tenure and Land Reform in Africa: Anthropological 
Contributions. World Development, 37(8), 1317–1325. 
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.021 
Pollard, J., Kirk, S. L., & Cade, J. E. (2002). Factors affecting food choice in relation to fruit and 
vegetable intake: a review. Nutrition research reviews, 15(2), 373-387. 
Quaye, W., Ampadu, R., & Onumah, J. A. (2014). Review of Existing Land Tenure Arrangements 
in Cocoa Growing Areas And their Implications for the Cocoa Sector in Ghana. 
Quaye, W., Ampadu, R., Onumah, J., & Titiati, A. (2015). Does the current land tenurial 
arrangement in Ghana incentivise adoption of environmentally sustainable cocoa production 
practices ? A case study of four selected cocoa growing districts in Ghana. African Journal 
of Science, Technology, Innovation and Development, 7(4), 265–275. 
https://doi.org/10.1080/20421338.2015.1082366 
Rao, N. (2011). Women’s Access to Land: An Asian Perspective. In Enabling rural women’s 
89 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
economic empowerment: institutions, opportunities and participation (pp. 1–20). 
Sasson, A. (2012). Food security for Africa : an urgent global challenge. Agriculture and Food 
Security, 1(2), 1–16. 
Silpakar, S. (2008). IMPLICATIONS OF LAND TENURE ON FOOD SUFFICIENCY IN DANG 
DISTRICT. 
Swindale, A., & Bilinsky, P. (2006). Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for measurement 
of household food access: Indicator guide. Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance …, 11. 
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004 
Taruvinga, A., Muchenje, V., & Mushunje, A. (2013). Determinants of rural household dietary 
diversity: The case of Amatole and Nyandeni districts, South Africa. International Journal 
of Development and Sustainability, 2(4), 2233–2247. Retrieved from http://isdsnet.com/ijds-
v2n4-4.pdf 
The World Bank. (2015). Agricultural Land (% of land area). Retrieved January 5, 2018, from 
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS 
The World Bank. (2016). Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality. Washington. 
DOI: 10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3 
Thorne-Lyman, A. L., Valpiani, N., Sun, K., Semba, R. D., Klotz, C. L., Kraemer, K., … Sari, M. 
(2010). Dietary Diversity in Rural Bangladesh. The Journal of Nutrition, (July), 1–7. 
https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.109.110809.of 
Vakili, M., Abedi, P., Sharifi, M., & Hosseini, M. (2013). Dietary Diversity and Its Related Factors 
among Adolescents: A Survey in Ahvaz-Iran. Global Journal of Health Science, 5(2), 181–
186. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v5n2p181 
Waswa, L. M., Jordan, I., Herrmann, J., Krawinkel, M. B., & Keding, G. B. (2014). Household 
90 
 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
Food Security and Dietary Diversity in Different Agro-ecological Zones in Western Kenya, 
2. 
World Bank. (2016). Poverty and Shared Prosperity 2016: Taking on Inequality. Washington, DC. 
https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0958-3 
 
 
91