University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) WOMEN’S SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EXPERIENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A CASE STUDY OF AWUTU SENYA EAST BY: BRIGHT KOFI ADDAI THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES JULY 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Bright Kofi Addai, hereby declare that, except for the references to other work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation “Women’s Socio Demographic Characteristic and their Experience of Domestic Violence” is the outcome of my own independent investigation. …………………………………….. ……………………….. Bright Kofi Addai Date (Student) ……………………………….. ……………………… Dr. Nana Akua Anyidoho Date (Supervisor) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my family for standing by me throughout the challenging periods of my study. This study is also dedicated to my best friend and partner, Miss. Anna Achea-Obuobi for her immense support in making this study a success. This work is also dedicated to all women battling with domestic violence. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, I thank the almighty God for the many ways he has guided and bestowed his blessings on me during my studies. My sincere thank you goes to my family especially the Asamoahs, Ntis and Debrahs family for their encouragement and contributions towards the completion of this course. I also wish to express my appreciation to Miss. Anna Achea-Obuobi and all my course mates who in one way or the other assisted me in making this work a success. My profound gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Nana Akua Anyidoho, whose guidance and expertise have been brought to bear on this research. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome DOVVSU Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit HIV Human Immune Deficiency Virus IPV Intimate Partner Violence ISSER Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research NCCE National Council for Civic Education NNEDV National Network to End Domestic Violence NGO Non-Governmental Organization UNR United Nations Report UN United Nations UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WAJU Women and Juvenile Unit WHO World Health Organization GHS Ghana Cedis vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Summary description of respondents’ background information……...….………44 Table 4.2: Types of domestic violence ever experienced by respondents……….....…..……47 Table 4.3: Correlation coefficient of demographic characteristics and Domestic Violence...49 Table 4.4: Age and Domestic Violence experienced by respondents……..…………….….51 Table 4.5: Relationship between formal educational status of respondents and Domestic Violence………………………………………………………………………..…………….52 Table 4.6: Employment Status and Domestic Violence Experienced by Respondents……...53 Table 4.7: Relationship status and Domestic Violence…………………………...…………56 Table 4.8: Preferred Intervention to Reduce Domestic Violence ...........................................61 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Weekly Earning and Domestic Violence………………………………………….54 Figure 2: Residential Location of Respondents and Domestic Violence…………………...55 Figure 3. Respondents who have Experienced Domestic Violence……………………........56 Figure 4: Proportion of Respondents who Reported Violence meted against them ……...…57 Figure 5: Individuals Victims of Domestic Violence Report to………………………..........59 Figure 6: Respondents Awareness to the mandate of DOVVSU……………..…..…………60 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Domestic violence is a universal problem found in all societies around the world. Victims feel reluctant to speak of it in public. This is because of the shame and stigmatization associated with it. The focus of this study was to investigate women’s socio-demographic characteristics and their experience of domestic violence using Awutu Senya East District as a case study. The research employed a quantitative approach which administered close ended questionnaire to 120 women above age 18 years selected from the district. Using descriptive statistical analysis, it was found that physical abuse was the commonest form of abuse. The least reported form of domestic abuse among the sample was economic and psychological abuse. Using Multivariate Pearson Correlation analysis with a significance value of 0.05, the study found that respondents’ income, education, relationship status and employment status were not associated with domestic violence. However, age was correlated with domestic violence; older women were less likely to face domestic violence compared to younger women. Some victims felt reluctant to report issues of domestic violence, however the study found that 53 percent of respondents who have experienced abuse said they reported violence meted to them. Out of the abused respondents (12.5 percent), 76.5 percent reported the abuse to their relatives. The study also found that 40 percent of the study respondents opted for education as the best intervention to reduce domestic abuse. The study recommended that the Awutu Senya East District Assembly, National Council for Civic Education (NCCE), and Non-Governmental Organizations intensify their campaign to encourage more women to engage in economic activities, go to school to improve their status in society. This will reduce domestic violence. Public awareness creation that ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh domestic violence is a criminal act and perpetrators are liable to be arrested is also recommended. x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ………………………………………………………………………………….ii Dedication ……………………………………………………………………….…………...iii Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………....iv List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………...……………......v List of Tables………………………………………………………………………….……...vi List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………..vii Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………..……viii Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………..x CHAPTER ONE: ……………………………………………………………………………1 1.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………….………….……1 1.1 Background of study..………………………………………………………………. ……1 1.2 Problem Statement…………………………………………………………………...……4 1.3 Objective of the Study….……………………………….…………………………...……8 1.4 Research Questions…………………………………………………………………..……8 1.5 Rationale of the Study...…………………………………………………........……….......9 1.6 Limitation of the study……………...…………………..…………………..……….. ..….9 1.7 Organization of the study………………………………………………………………..10 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW…..………………………………………...11 2.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………11 2.1 What is Domestic Violence?...……………………………………...……………………11 2.2 The Root of Domestic Violence…………………………………………………….…...15 2.3 Prevalence of Domestic Violence ……………………...………………..………………16 2.4 Examination of Different Forms of Violence…………………………………………....20 2.4.1 Physical Violence…………...……………………………………………………….…20 2.4.2 Psychological violence…………………………………………………………………20 2.4.3 Economic Abuse…………………………………………………………………….…21 2.5 Demographic factors and Domestic Violence………………………………………...…22 2.5.1 Age and Domestic Violence……………………………………………………...……22 2.5.2 Education and Domestic Violence……………………………………………..………24 2.5.3 Income Status and Domestic Violence…….…………………………………..………26 2.5.4 Relationship Status and Domestic Violence.…………………………………………..27 2.6 Women Response to Domestic Violence……………………………………….……….30 2.7 Interventions to Reduce Domestic Violence……………………………………………..31 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………………………33 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...33 3.1 Profile and Characteristics of Study Area……………………………………………...33 3.1.1 Location and Size…………………….……………………………………………......33 3.1.2 Population Distribution…….…………………………………………….…………….34 3.1.3 Employment Status……..………………………………………………...……………34 3.1.4 Gender Base Violence….………………………………………………………………34 3.2 Data Sources……………...….……………………………………………………..…..35 3.2.1 Research Design…..……………………………………………………………………35 3.2.2 Study Site…………….……………………………………………………………...…35 3.2.3 Data Sources…………………………………………………………………………...35 3.2.4 Target Population…………….………………………………………..……………….36 3.2.5 Sampling Design and composition…………………………………………..………...36 3.2.6 Method of Data Collection……………………………………………………………..37 3.2.7 Instrument for Data Collection …………………………………………………..…....38 3.2.8 Method of Data Analysis... …………………………………….………………….…..40 3.2.8.1 Objective I………………………………………………………..…………..………40 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.8.2 Objective II ………………………………………………………….…………..…..40 3.2.8.3 Objective III…………………………………………………………………....…….40 3.2.8.4 Objective IV…....………...…………………………………………………….…….41 3.3 Ethical Considerations…………………………………..………………………….……41 3.4 Limitations of the study………………………………..………………………….….….41 CHAPTER FOUR ………...………………………………………………….…….………43 4.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………...43 4.1 Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics …….…………………………….………...43 4.2 Types of Violence Experienced by Respondents (Part One Results) …………..……….46 4.3 Respondents Demographic Characteristics and Domestic Violence…….…………... …48 4.4 Respondents Response to Domestic Violence…………………………………………...57 4.5 Reporting of Domestic Violence………………………………………………………...58 4.6 The Target of reports of Domestic Violence………………………………………….....59 4.7 Interventions to Reduce Domestic Violence………………..……………………………60 Part Two: Discussion of Research Findings…………………….………….…….………62 4.9 Discussions………………………………………………………………………………62 xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE…………………………………………………………….……………..66 5.0 Summary…………….……………....……………………………………….......………66 5.1 Conclusion ………..….…………………………………………...…………..…………66 5.2 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………..67 REFERENCES.......................................................................................................................71 APPENDIX 1 - QUESTIONNAIRES..................................................................................78 xv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction This introductory chapter of the thesis contains the background to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study and the research questions. Justification of the study, definition of concepts, limitations of the study and the general layout of the report are also included in this chapter. 1.1 Background of Study According to Marium (2014), domestic violence is the coercive and aggressive behavior of adults or adolescents against their intimate partners. Domestic violence takes place within the context of domestic setting such as homes and families, hence the name “domestic violence”. In 2002 report, the World Health Organization stated that “no community or society is untouched by violence” (WHO, 2002). In other words, domestic violence is a universal problem found in all societies around the world (Brown, 2013). It is estimated that about 1.6 million people globally die as a result of violence while many are injured and hurt (WHO, 2005). Domestic violence is experienced by both men and women globally (WHO, 2002). However, violence against women is the most pervasive yet least recognized human rights violation in the world (Ellsberg, Heise and Gottmoeller, 2002). According to the UN Secretary- General, Ban Ki Moon, “violence against women continues to persist as one of the most heinous, systematic and prevalent human rights abuses in the world. It is a threat to all women and an obstacle to all our efforts for development, peace, and gender equality in all societies” 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (United Nations, 2007). The violence includes methodical use of threats, exploitation, and physical violence, sexual, verbal, and psychological attacks. Through these strategies of violence, abusers seek to put fear in and dominate their partners and to take control over the family environment (Ellsberg et al., 2002). The concept of domestic violence is mostly associated with physical abuse, which often is not the truth, this is because the effect is not always visible. Domestic violence can be physical, psychological/emotional, social, economic or religious abuse (Aihie, 2009; WHO, 2012). From above, it is clear that domestic violence does not only always involve physical abuse with its visible impact such as bruises. Some common forms of domestic violence against women include hitting with fists, punching, verbal abuse, isolation, humiliation, neglect, pushing, kicking, acid throwing, sexual assault, homicide and female genital mutilation (NCEA, 2015). Studies have shown that domestic violence is not only limited to the poor but also occurs among the rich (Agbitor, 2012). According to the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (2015), about 35 percent of women around the world have been victims of domestic violence at least once in their lifetime. According to the study, perpetrators of domestic violence were found to be either intimate partners or non- partners. In Ghana, the prevalence of domestic violence can be attributed to some cultural norms which legitimize the abuse of women by men (Antwi and Dapaah, 2010). As a result, most women feel reluctant to speak in public about the abuse they face. In spite of this challenge, some women still manage to report abuse to certain institutions and individuals such as the police, church leaders, family members and friends (Okunola and Ojo, 2012). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Domestic violence against women can be attributed to unequal power relations between men and women which result in discrimination and violence (ISSER, 2014). Global attempts to combat abuse against women has led to the promulgation of the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women and the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). According to the CEDAW (1991 and 2005) reports, women in Ghana are considered inferior to men and this has become the basis for subjecting women to abuse. Domestic violence therefore exists within all the ethnic groups in Ghana. The reports also indicate that it is widely accepted in Ghanaian society that husbands can punish their wives and women as a means of correcting them. In Ghana, women are mostly blamed for causing domestic violence through provocations, naggings and through display of stereotypical female ways (Cantalupo, Vollendorf, Shines and Park, 2006). Globally, in spite of the negative consequence of domestic violence, it is hardly labeled as a social problem but rather a private issue that needs to be resolved by the victims, abusers and their families (Marium, 2014). Studies done in other parts of the world indicate that law enforcement agencies also contribute to the prevalence of domestic violence when they show a lack of concern or willingness to resolve issues of domestic violence (Marium, 2014). In 2002, WHO studies showed that domestic violence is not only caused by cultural norms but also by excessive alcohol consumption. There is therefore no reason to explain the cause and prevalence of domestic violence globally. My study seeks to find out how women’s demographic characteristics influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Problem Statement The Beijing Platform for Action held in 1995 concluded that violence against women is a concern to all and must be addressed. The platform also stated that violence against women is very common and yet unnoticed. Studies have found that domestic violence is one of the causes of the problems women have with their health and it lowers their self-esteem (Ellsberg and Heise, 2005). According to the 2014 Awutu Senya District medium term development plan, there is a serious problem of gender-based violence in their municipality. The severity of the problem, according to them, led to the establishment of a Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU) to reduce the spread of domestic violence in the district. Studies conducted by Callie (2001) and Derry and Diedong (2014), suggest that socio-demographic factors such as age, employment, region, educational status and marital status influence the likelihood that women will experience domestic violence). The findings further reveal that socio-demographic characteristics of married couples such as employment status, rural residence, religious affiliation, alcohol use, and educational attainment influence women’s likelihood of experiencing domestic violence (Derry and Diedong, 2014). There is a relationship between women’s socio demographic characteristics and the probability of women experiencing domestic violence (Callie 2001; Derry and Diedong, 2014). Thus, women’s age, income status, educational status and relationship status influence whether or not they are likely to experience domestic violence. However, the findings are not conclusive. In terms of age, there are mixed findings in literature studies, Ackah (2012) found out that domestic violence is high among women aged 40 years and above. Marium (2014) also found that women’s age can influence the likelihood of a woman experiencing domestic violence. Studies conducted in other parts of the world revealed that females who fall within 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the age group of 16 - 24 have the highest risk of experiencing domestic violence (Weisburd, Telep, Hinkle and Eck, 2010). However, the study conducted in Yilo the krobo district of Ghana by Ackah (2012), showed that women above the age of 40 years are rather more likely to experience domestic violence compared to younger women. There is therefore a contradiction between Ackah’s (2012) findings and that of Weisburd et al. (2010). Similarly, in terms of education, there is an inconclusiveness in literature on the probability of a woman experiencing domestic violence on account of her educational status. This is because some studies have found that there is a relationship between women’s educational status and the likelihood of experiencing domestic violence while others found the reverse to be true. For instance, Rapp, Khan, Zoch, Pollmann and Krammer (2013) revealed that educational status of women influence the likelihood of women experiencing domestic violence, while Naughan and Mohtasham (1998) finding were otherwise. The World Bank (2006) report has also revealed that education does not automatically lower the incidence of women experiencing domestic violence. According to the report, the rate of domestic violence between those with higher education and lower education is similar. The report however clarified that women with lower levels of education are more likely to have experienced domestic violence than uneducated women (World Bank, 2016). Marium (2014) also found that women’s educational level influences their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence which is in line with that of Rapp et al. (2013), but in contradiction to the findings of Naughan and Mohtasham (1998) and the World Bank (2006). This contradiction calls for a study to find out if women’s educational status influences their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence, and that is what this study also seeks to find out. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In terms of income and domestic violence, some studies have also found that lower income women were frequent victims of domestic violence as compared to women in higher income categories (Weisburd et al., 2010). Semahegn and Mengistie (2015) also found a significant association between domestic violence against women and women’s income level, education status, residence and religious status. Also according to Marium (2014), a female with secondary level education but with high income earning is less likely to experience domestic violence. Bhattacharyya, Bedi and Chhachhi (2009) also found that women with lower income status are more likely to experience domestic violence. This shows inconclusiveness as to whether income status does influence women’s likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. In terms of relationship status, studies have shown that relationship status of women influences their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence (Oudekerk, Blachman-Demner and Mulford, 2014; Leaman and Gee, 2006). Other studies also suggest that relationship status does not have a direct relation on a woman’s experience of domestic violence (Ambert, 2004). Contrary to perception among people who view cohabitation as a safeguard to avoid violence that comes along with marital relationships because of its free entry and free exit nature. Studies carried out in other part of the world shows that cohabiting unions are more likely to be involved in violence compared even to marital relationship (American College of Pediatricians, 2015; Ambert, 2004). Thus, studies have shown that older cohabitating couples significantly experience less domestic violence compared to other marriages. According to Kenney and McLanahan (2006) cohabitation does not have any relationship with domestic violence and that cohabitates do enjoy a stable relationship compared to some marriages. Halliday and Lucas (2010) also found that older cohabitating couples enjoy higher levels of 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stability and quality in their relationship compared with younger cohabiters or other marriage couples. This is because older cohabitates see cohabitation as an alternative to marriage. The contradictory results and inconclusiveness of literature surrounding the probability of women experiencing domestic violence by reason of demographic characteristics (age, income status, relationship status and education) and the availability of few research on the topic calls for empirical research to guide policy formation. 1.3 Objectives of the study The overall objective of this study is to investigate women’s experience of domestic violence in the Awutu Senya District. The specific objectives include the following: 1. Identify the types of violence experienced by women. 2. Investigate the relationship between women’s demographic characteristics and their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. 3. Describe the response of women to domestic violence. 4. Recommend interventions to reducing Domestic Violence within the Awutu Senya District. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Questions 1. What are the types of violence experienced by women? 2. What demographic factors influence women’s experience of domestic violence within the Awutu Senya East district? 3. How do women respond when they experience domestic violence? 4. What are some the necessary interventions to combat Domestic Violence within the Awutu Senya District? 1.5 Rationale for the Study The rationale for this study is to find out the influence of demographic characteristics (age, income, educational and relationship status) on women’s likelihood of experiencing domestic violence and to find out which demographic factor sub group is at highest risk of experiencing domestic violence. This work is worthy of study because of the impact of domestic violence on women which includes health problems such as unwanted pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and psychological problems such as depression, disorder, post- traumatic stress disorder and even death (Campbell, 2002; Ellsberg, 2006). Insight from this study will inform policy makers both in government and non- governmental organization of the demographic to target in an attempt to reduce domestic violence incidence within the district and the country at large. Knowledge from this study will also be useful in understanding the nature and complexity of domestic violence in the development process. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.6 Limitations of the Study Considering the subject matter of study, it was difficult for the respondents to be forthcoming with responses to some of the questions. This is because they found some of the questions too probing. Also, because issues of domestic violence are treated as a private matter; the respondents were not comfortable narrating some of their experiences so there was a likelihood that some respondents may have hidden sensitive and vital information that could have contributed to the findings of the study. Furthermore, because of the fear of stigmatization some respondents were skeptical about opening up for fear of their identities being exposed. However, the researcher and the interpreter assured the people of the confidentiality of the information they gave. This lengthened the period for data collections and hence the period stipulated for the completion of the entire work. 1.7 Organization of the Study The study is divided into five Chapters. Chapter One captures the introduction of the subject under discussion. It gives a brief background to the study; the problem statements, rationale of the study, objectives, justification, research questions, methodology and organization of the study. Chapter Two deals basically with review of literature on domestic violence against women. Chapter Three discusses the profile of the study area including the demographic features of the area, economic activities of the area, occupations within the study area and methodology. It also looked at the methods used for data analysis in the study. Chapter Four presents the analysis and interpretations of the findings. Chapter Five provides recommendations based on the findings of the study and conclusion. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter looks at both theoretical and empirical literature about domestic violence and demographic factors, causes and prevalence of domestic violence. 2.1 What is Domestic Violence? The 1993 conference on Human Rights and the Declaration on the Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women showed the world’s attempt to fight against domestic violence as a universal problem. The conclusion of the conference was that violence against women is not a private issue but an issue of public health and human right concern, and has to be eliminated from society (Gonzalez, 2010). Violence against women is linked to unequal power relations between men and women which has resulted in women subordination to men (ISSER, 2014). Though men also fall victim to domestic violence. The act is mostly perpetrated by men against women (Chireshe, 2015). The report of the World Health Organization (2009) defines violence as the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, mal-development or deprivation. Thus, violence can be said to be an intentional act which is intended to physically hurt another person (Rayner, 2013). Based on the above definition of violence, it can be said that violence is intentional and has the tendency to hurt or injure an individual. From a broader perspective violence against women 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh can be said to refer to any act of gender-based violence that will results or likely to end in physical, sexual, psychological threat or suffering to women, including threats of act such as, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life (Kishor and Johnson, 2004). Kishor and Johnson, 2004 definition of violence is very broad and captures non-physical impact of violence in the form of psychological impact and the fact that it can take place both in public and private lives. This definition also takes domestic violence from the private domain mostly associated with it to the public domain to include non- physical aspect of domestic violence such psychological abuse. According to Chhikara, Jakhar, Malik, Singla and Dhattarwal (2013) domestic violence is a cruel treatment by an individual against another in a relationship. According to them, the motive of perpetrators of domestic violence is to maintain power and control over their victims. Domestic violence is known by other names such as partner abuse, women battery, marital assaults, wife abuse, wife beating, conjugal violence which are often used transposable (Ganley, 1995). The different names associated with the act shows different circumstances under which the act occur. Available literature revealed that though women are more vulnerable to domestic violence the act can happen to anyone irrespective of age, race, sexual orientation, religion and even married couples (Chhikara et al, 2013). Though the concept of domestic violence lacks universal definition, studies have indicated a number of themes that run through many of the definitions of the term. Thus, any definition of the term domestic violence is likely to contain themes such as physical violence, sexual violence and emotional/psychological violence (Rayner, 2013). The term domestic violence is known by other names such as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence or 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intimate partner violence (Alokan, 2013). The term “domestic” means it takes place within the family settings (Mitchell, 2011). Doors (2006) on the other hand defines domestic violence to mean aggressive way of acting which may be physical, sexual, psychological or economic employed by an individual against the partner. This definition takes into account the physical, psychological and economic dimension of domestic violence. The types or forms of domestic violence are not only limited to physical but can be psychological, sexual or economic. The various forms of domestic violence do not occur in isolation but are interrelated. Physical abuse often precedes the other forms of abuse (The Body Shop/UNICEF, 2006). Other forms of domestic violence include social abuse and spiritual abuse which are mostly not included in many studies (Aihie, 2009; Taylor, 2006). Social abuse according to Taylor (2006) occurs when women with domestic violence experience are separated and prevented from contacting family members, colleagues or support group or service. Such acts are considered domestic violence because they are caused by unequal power relations between men and women, and are harmful to women. Spiritual abuse can be defined as preventing a person from engaging in his/her spiritual or religious practices or using one’s religious belief to manipulate, dominate or control him/her. This situation is mostly found in Africa where religion is of much priority (Aihie, 2009). Beaulaurier, Seff and Newman (2008) argue that the thought of domestic violence often associated with only physical assaults with bruises but that is not the case. Just because a woman is not battered and bruised does not mean she is not being abused. Such acts are referred to as non-physical abuse. Restricting domestic violence to only physical abuse narrows the true identity of the act. This is because available literature revealed that aside physical abuse there 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are also psychological, social, economic and even religious dimensions to domestic violence (Doors, 2006). One is likely to think that physical abuse is of more impact than psychological abuse. Studies by Sackett and Saunders (1999) confirm that the impact of psychological abuse exceeds the impact of physical abuse. In a sample of 234 women victims of physical and emotional abuse to find out which abuse is more painful, 72 percent of the sample said emotional abuse is far greater than physical abuse. Examples of non-physical abuse include acts such as using threats coercions to make victims commit suicide or withdraw a charge press against an individual, using intimidation to make victims afraid or using isolation to manipulate or control victims or preventing victims from securing jobs and name-calling (Beaulaurier et al., 2008). Domestic violence is not new in Ghana. The establishment of the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unite (DOVVSU), formerly called Women and Juvenile Unit (WAJU), is an indication of the existence and prevalence of domestic violence in Ghana. The unit is tasked with the responsibility of tackling violence in the domestic settings in Ghana and ensuring the enforcement and implementation of the Domestic Violence Act, 2007 (Act 732) (Agbitor, 2012). The literature review could not take a position as to a standard definition of domestic violence. However for the purpose of this study the focus will be on the definition given by Doors (2006) which defines domestic violence to mean aggressive way of acting which may be physical, sexual, psychological or economic and is employed by an individual against the partner. This definition is considered because it covers the basic dimension of domestic violence which is physical, psychological, and economic. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 The Root of Domestic Violence There is no single explanation to why individuals engage in violent acts. Violence is a complex phenomenon which is rooted in many factors (WHO, 2002). There are a number of theories that have tried to explain the root cause of domestic violence. Among these is the theory of patriarchy. Patriarchy is a tool that has facilitated domestic violence. According to the theory women’s subordination to men is as a result of differences between men and women that have influenced people’s thinking pattern to socially legitimize structures in favor of men (Baffour, 2012). According to Sultana (2011) patriarchy is based on the perception that men are born to dominate women naturally and rejects any attempt that tries to change women’s subordination status. There is also a historical explanation of women’s vulnerability to domestic violence which relates the prevalence of domestic violence to events in history. Historically it is believed that violence against women can be linked to historical periods where women were the property of men (Alokan, 2013). The historical explanation of violence against women is facilitated in some societies by high bride price payments which makes some men consider women as their property (Marium, 2014). The theory further argues that because women were seen as men’s property, gender roles favored men making women subordinate to them (Alokan, 2013). Other theories also argue that abuse in relationships is a choice and it is a learned behavior. This is because of certain beliefs and attitudes that studies have found to be common to perpetrators of domestic violence. These include beliefs that men have the right to do what 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they want to women, women belong to men and the belief that a man has to control his partner (Center for Relationship Abuse Awareness, 2015). 2.3 Prevalence of Domestic Violence Domestic violence exists in all societies around the world (Fantuzzo and Mohr, 1999). People all over the world experience domestic violence in diverse ways (Aihie, 2009). Women in developed nations are not immune to domestic violence. A 2000 publication by UNICEF estimated that about 25 percent of women in the United Kingdom (random sample from one district) have been victim of physical abuse while 28 percent of women in The United States of America report experiencing as least one form of physical violence from their partner. Statistics also indicate that in Japan 59 percent of women sampled reported of being a victim of physical abuse by their partners while 20 percent of women New Zealand reported being hit or physically abused by their partner while 20 percent women in Switzerland reported physical assault (UNICEF, 2000). These statistics shows that domestic violence exist around the world and that developed nations are not even excluded from its prevalence. Third world countries are not immune from domestic violence. Studies have shown that domestic violence prevails in developing nations and it is justified in some cultures while other cultures condemn it (Raday, 2003). According to Aihie (2009) about 25 percent of women in Darker and Kaolack in Senegal are victims of physical violence. It is estimated by the report of UNICEF (2000) that about 42 percent of women in one district in Kenya reported being beaten by a partner while about 58 percent reported being beaten often or sometimes. According to the same report about 41 percent of women in Uganda and 32 percent of women in Zimbabwe report being beaten physically by their partner (UNICEF, 2000). The above 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh statistics shows that domestic violence cut across nations and even continents. According to Amnesty International (2007) there is a high level of violence against women in Nigeria. Aihie (2009) stated that about two-third of women in Nigeria have experienced domestic violence in the form of physical, sexual and psychological abuse. The study also revealed some women are able to break the culture of silence while some do not. About 60 percent of domestic violence victims resort to family members for support while three-quarter of women in general seeks family support. However these three-quarter of women that seek family support to come out or address domestic violence are asked or advised to remain silent about the matter (private matter) and endure the violence (Aihie, 2009). In Ghana, 1 in 6 women confirmed being victims of male violence while 1 in 3 women confirmed that domestic violence is a common experience and have experienced physical abuse before from their partner. Women in Ghana are subject to physical abuse based on factors such as disobedience (refusing to have sex with male partners, females coming home late, not washing, etc.), issues around money (women’s refusal to pay debt, food shortage, refusing or asking men for money often and issue of household maintenance) and misplacing things (Prah, 2000). According to the Ghana Demographic and Health Survey 2008 report, domestic violence also takes place among females between the ages 15 and above. Thus, about 36.6 percent of women age 15-49 reported being victims of physical violence since age 15 whiles 15 percent of women reported experienced forced sex. In Ghana, majority of Domestic Violence (DV) victims that report domestic violence cases are women. Between 1999 and 2010, about 109,784 cases of domestic violence were reported in Ghana (ISSER, 2014). The most common types of abuse practice in Ghana include incest, rape of children and adult women, sexual harassment, child marriage, wife-beating, female genital mutilation, fetish 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh slavery, female religious bondage, widowhood rites and assault and witchcraft accusations (Africanus, Diedong and Derry, 2014; Sakyi, 2012). It should be noted that Ghana is among the West Africa countries which recorded high level of domestic violence (Sakyi, 2012). A study by ISSER (2014) affirms the severity of domestic violence by arguing that both males and females in Ghana are three times higher to experience physical, emotional, sexual, economic and psychological abuse. This means even men are not exempted from experiencing domestic violence. The prevalence of domestic violence in Ghana can be attributed to little understanding on the part of Ghanaians of the negative impact of domestic violence on the country’s socio-economic development (Africanus et al., 2014). Though, both men and women experience domestic violence, available literature indicates that the act is mostly perpetrated by male against females (WHO, 2012). Men in this category include husbands, intimate partners and fathers (Aihie, 2009). Studies by Aihie (2009) and Bartels (2010) also found that about 98 percent of domestic violence perpetrators are males. To believe that perpetrators of domestic violence are only intimate partners as stated by Aihie (2009) will be erroneous. This is because perpetrators of domestic violence are not only limited to intimate partners but also non-partners (Antwi and Dapaah, 2010). ISSER (2004) found that perpetrators of domestic violence specifically sexual violence are mostly men that are in position of trust over the woman. From the study by ISSER (2004) could it be that perpetrators of domestic violence position of trust explains why victims feel reluctant to report domestic violence abuse to authorities? Further research can be done to probe into it. Perpetrators of domestic violence may include people like husband, boyfriend, father-in-law, step fathers, brothers, uncle, supervisors, teachers, community leaders and even strangers, sons or older relatives (ISSER, 2004; UNICEF, 2000; Collymore, 2000). 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Drawing from the literature physical abuse is the most prevalent compared to other types of abuse both in developed and developing countries (Aihie, 2009; WHO, 2012). This study is yet to find out if such is the case within Awutu Senya East. The literature motivated the researcher that domestic violence is a social problem and not a private matter which needs to be studied to acquire more knowledge on the subject matter so as to reduce it. This study through the recommendations will add to already existing knowledge about domestic violence, increase society understands of the subject and through the recommendation of the study help reduce the prevalence of the domestic violence. 2.4 Examination of Different Forms of Domestic Violence Out of the various forms of abuse outlined in the literature the most common abuse mostly experienced by women in Ghana were selected for the study. These are categorized under psychological, economic and physical. 2.4.1 Physical Violence In Ghana especially in the three northern regions physical violence especially wife assaults constitute the least form of physical violence women experience (Africanus et al., 2014). Domestic violence commonly experience by women in Ghana includes beating, forced sexual intercourse, burns, threat with weapon, beating, slapping, pushing/punching, and kicking (Africanus et al., 2014). According to Ghana’s Domestic Violence Act, (2007 Act 732) “physical abuse, namely physical assault is the use of physical force against another person including the forcible confinement or detention of another person and the deprivation of another person of access to 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adequate food, water, clothing, shelter, rest, or subjecting another person to torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment”. Physical abuse is the commonest form of domestic violence (Taylor, 2006; Aihie, 2009). 2.4.2 Psychological or Emotional abuse Psychological or emotional abuse according to Burrill, Roberts and Thornberry (2010) entails acts such as being insulted or made to feel bad about herself, being belittled or humiliated in front of others, being scared by the male perpetrator by the way the male partner looked at her, by yelling, by smashing things, by having the male partner threaten to hurt someone she cared about, harassment, degrading comments, threatening with divorce or intentions of taking another wife. Examples of psychological abuse common in Ghana include but are not limited to the following: threatening, disrespect for women such as the unilateral termination of relationship without consideration, male partner refusal to eat woman’s food or have sex with wife, shouting at partners, name calling, isolation from friends and family, husband and intimate partner coming home with another lady (Antwi and Dapaah, 2010; Coker-Appiah and Cusack, 1999). According to Antwi and Dapaah (2010) because Ghana does not have adequate clinical psychologists to handle psychologically abused women; victims of psychological abuse resort to religious leaders to provide them with spiritual support through regular prayer sessions and counseling. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.3 Economic Abuse Economic abuse is an abusive mechanism employed by abuser to exert influence over their victims so as to control them in a relationship. Financial abuse becomes dominant when the victim attempts to leave the relationship. Thus, when perpetrators realize victims attempt to leave the relationship, perpetrators use economic abuse to the disadvantage of their victims for because they will not have the capacity to be independent without them (perpetrators), thereby staying in the relationship in spite of the abuse (NNEDV, 2007). Examples of economic abuse against women include preventing women from keeping a job, stealing from the woman victim, defrauding woman victim of money or assets, exploiting the woman victim finances or property for personal gain, and requiring justification for any money a woman spends (Aihie, 2009; NNEDV, 2007). 2.5 Demographic Factors and Domestic Violence 2.5.1 Age and Domestic Violence Women’s relative age is an important risk factor of domestic abuse. While some studies are of the view that women’s age influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence others are also of the view that age of women do not influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. According to Anderson (1997) and Semahegn and Mengistie (2015), there is a strong relationship between women’s age and domestic violence. This is also supported by Darteh and Amo (2012) who also found that age is a factor that can determine or influence the likelihood of a woman experiencing domestic violence. Darteh and Amo (2012) went further to argue that domestic violence specifically emotional abuse has a relationship with women’s age. This means that the age of a woman can determine their likelihood of experiencing 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh domestic violence. In their study, they found that 33 percent of women respondents attest to experiencing emotional abuse by their intimate partners. The study also found that women who fall between the ages of 35 - 39 years were at a greater risk of being abused by their partners. Darteh and Amo (2012) confirmed a strong relationship between women age and domestic violence. Another study conducted in the Yilo krobo district of Ghana by Ackah (2012) also revealed that older women (above the age of 40 years) rather stand at a greater risk of experiencing domestic violence. Though the study brings to light the fact the older women also stand the chance of experiencing domestic violence, it failed to establish whether the age of women have a direct relationship with domestic violence. Wilke and Vinto (2005) in their study also found something similar to that of Darteh and Amo (2012). According to them, women above 60 years are also more likely to experience domestic violence compared to younger women below 40 years. The reason is because, younger women stand the chance of having greater level of knowledge about domestic violence and services available to help them. In spite of the interesting findings from the literature review, the study failed to find out if there is a relationship between women’s age and domestic violence (Wilke and Vinto, 2005). Chowdhury and Morium (2015) in their study also found no relationship between women’s age and domestic violence. According to Chatha, Ahmad and Sheikh (2014) women’s age does not have any relationship with domestic violence though it may influence the likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. Drawing from the various perspectives it can be concluded that age of women has a relationship with domestic violence (Semahegn and Mengistie, 2015; Anderson, 1997; Darteh and Amo, 2012). It is however yet to be determined based on the outcome of this research, if the age of women in the sample study area also has a relationship with domestic violence. Also, 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from the literature there is variation as to which age group is more vulnerable to domestic violence. This study also seeks to find out of the study sample which age group is more vulnerable to domestic violence. 2.5.2 Education and Domestic Violence In terms of education and domestic violence there are mixed findings. Anderson (1997), Semahegn and Mengistie (2015) found a strong relationship between women’s educational status and their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. What this means is that the educational status of women strongly influences the possibility of a woman experiencing domestic violence. Chatha et al. (2014) and WHO (2002) further explained that women with a higher educational status are less likely to experience domestic violence compared to women with a lower income earnings. In other words women with lower levels of education and the uneducated are more likely to experience domestic violence compared to the higher educated women. According to the study it is believed that women in such category with little or no education tend to accept abuse compared to the highly educated women. For instance in Benin, about 51 percent of women interviewed with no educational background agreed that it is acceptable for a man to abuse the wife while 39 percent of women with primary education also agreed that it is acceptable for men to beat or hit the wife. However the number fell when it got to women with secondary education only 20 percent accept husbands beating wives as appropriate (United Nations, 2015). From the Benin study it can be seen that more women without formal educational background (51 percent) accept abuse to be legitimate compare to secondary level educated women (20 percent) and lower educated (primary) women (39 percent) accept abuse to be legitimate. This indicates that lower educated 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and uneducated women are likely to experience domestic abuse compared to the highly educated women. A study conducted in Rwanda also confirmed the fact the women with no education and lower education are more likely to experience domestic abuse. In the study 46 percent of women with no education accept physical punishment of women as appropriate while 36 and 17 percent of women with primary and secondary education respectively are of the view that it is appropriate for men to punish women (United Nations, 2015). Just like the Benin study, the Rwandan study also shows a fall in the acceptance of women punishment as women education level increases. This indicates how women’s educational level influences their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. However, studies done in other parts of the world suggest that a woman’s educational status does not automatically influence their experience of domestic violence but rather other factors work to make education influence domestic violence (World Bank, 2006; Naughan and Mohtasham, 1998; Pambe, Gnoumou and Kabore, 2013). While it mostly assume that women’s education can influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence studies by Avotri and Walter (2001) and De Rose et al. (2002) and Amoakohene (2004) found that women’s educational status does not influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. This is due to cultural factor where irrespective how highly educated a woman is, she is still considered inferior to a man (Africanus et al., 2014). From the literature review it can be concluded that there are mixed findings as to whether women’s educational status influence their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence or not. While some are of the view that the educational status of women has a relationship with domestic violence (Chatha et al., 2014; United Nation, 2015) others such as 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the World Bank (2006) and Pambe et al. (2013) also found otherwise. It is however yet to be determined based on the outcome of this research, if the study respondents’ educational status has a relationship with domestic violence. 2.5.3 Income Status and Domestic Violence Domestic violence is not only confined to lower income status women but women with high income status are also at risk of experiencing domestic violence (Renzetti, 2009). The Resource Theory links individual economic status to domestic violence. According to the resource theory, individuals (both men and women) who have fewer socioeconomic resources compared with their partners will be more likely to perpetrate domestic violence as a means to gain power within the relationship (Anderson, 1997). There are a number of theories that have tried to establish a link between domestic violence and income status. An example of these theories is the Male Backlash theory. According to the Male Backlash theory, as women’s income status/level increases, violence against them should increase. This is because the increase in income will make her more independent of the husband and society as a whole. This however stands in conflict with society’s culturally prescribed norms of female dependency on male and male dominance. Wife’s independence from husband (man) due to increase in income status will mean a challenge to a society’s culturally prescribed norm or system of male dominance and female dependence (Farré, 2013). This is the case when the man is economically disadvantaged compared to the woman. Violence therefore becomes an alternative means for a man to reinstate his authority over his wife. There is a contradiction between Nash Bargaining Model and the Male Backlash theory. According to Nash Bargaining theory, as a woman’s income or wages increases, her 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bargaining power increase which lowers her likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. Thus while the Nash Bargaining model sees an inverse relationship between women’s income level and the likelihood of experiencing domestic violence the backlash theory argues that there is positive relationship between women’s economic status and domestic violence. According to Chatha et al. (2014) women with very low income status tend to become overly dependent on their husbands to sustain their livelihood and this is a major cause of quarrels between women and their partners. The overdependence of the women gives their partners the liberty to behave violently towards them (Coker and Cusack, 1999). If women can be economically empowered to engage in meaningful economic activities to reduce the dependence of women on men, domestic violence against women will be reduced (WHO, 2012). However, studies have also shown that high income status women are more likely to report psychological pressure or abuse compared to lower or poor group of women (Antwi and Dapaah, 2010). 2.5.4 Relationship Status and Domestic Violence In terms of relationship status there is inconclusiveness as to whether women’s relationship status influences their likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. Studies done in other parts of the world found that women’s relationship status be it marital, dating, cohabitation, divorce or widow has a relationship with women domestic violence (Leaman and Gee, 2006; Oudekerk et al., 2014). This is supported by Anderson (1997) who also found a strong relationship between women relationship status and domestic violence. Anderson found that cohabiting couples are more likely to engage in domestic violence while a study conducted 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh by Ambert (2005) found otherwise. Ambert (2005) found that relationship status does not have direct relationship on women’s experience of domestic violence. Dating violence is more common among dating adolescent partners than among married couples. Reasons for such high dating violence among adolescent includes, adolescent inexperience in relationship matters, adolescent-girl wrong mindset that their worth is dependent on their dating boyfriend or partner. (Leaman and Gee, 2006). Dating is a period in a relationship associated with fun and romance. In South Africa 42 percent of females aged 13 - 23 years reported experiencing physical dating violence. Dating violence has reached global recognition such that a study conducted by WHO (2012) found that about 29 percent of university students have experienced physical assaults from their dating partners each year in a relationship (WHO, 2012). Dating violence can be explained as intimate partner violence that occurs in the context of a heterosexual dating (Barkhuizen, 2011). Marital abuse such as marital rape exists in Ghana. The laws in the country are silent on the issue of marital abuse such as rape. Marital rape is accepted mostly in the northern region of Ghana because women are seen as inferior compared to men and customary laws are even silent on it. Marital abuse such as wife beating also continue to persist and in some cases justifiable and accepted (Achampong, 2010). According to Achampong (2010) about 10.1 percent of men and 19.9 percent of women considered it not wrong for a man to beat the wife if she refuses to have sex with him. Marital abuse is also known as spousal abuse (Baffour, 2012). In spite of the abuse some women still choose to remain in abusive marital relationships. Factors that influence women to remain in abusive marital relationships include economic potential of abusive partner, educational status of woman, intensity and frequency of violence she experienced, and occupational status (Renzetti, 2009). Amongst women who are subjected 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to intense and frequent violence, educated women with high income status are more likely to terminate their relationship compared to women with low educational background and low income (Baffour, 2012). Comparative studies have shown that cohabiters experience more relationship violence than married partners (Bulanda and Brown 2007). Bulanda and Brown (2007) further argued that isolation puts cohabiters in a platform to receive less social support and social control thereby making them more vulnerable to relationship violence compared to married couples. The high rate of violence among cohabiters can be explained by weaker commitment on the parts of cohabitates compared to the married. From the literature review it can be concluded that there are mixed findings. While some are of the view that relationship status of women has a relationship with domestic violence (Leaman and Gee, 2006, Oudekerk et al., 2014) others like Ambert (2005) also found otherwise. It is therefore yet to be determined based on the outcome of this research, if the study sample relationship status has a relationship with domestic violence. 2.6 Women’s Response to Domestic Violence According to Semahegn and Mengistie (2005) and WHO (2005) most women who experience domestic violence choose not to seek help but remain silent and endure the pain of abuse. Those who are able to break the silence often report abuse to family members, local elders and religious leaders. According to WHO (2005) report, women failed to report abuse due to fear of future consequence after reporting and the shame of stigmatization. The report also found that more women do not report abuse meted against them. According to the WHO (2005) about 39 percent of physical violent victim were found not to report while very few 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh women ran to formal agencies and institutions for support. Example of such institutions include the police, health services and the courts. Between 55 and 95 percent of abused women choose not to report abuse to formal institutions (religious authorities, local elders, police, Legal services, NGOs,) for help. Most women report only when the abuse becomes severe (WHO 2005). Drawing from the various perspectives it can be concluded that women respond to domestic violence differently. Women remaining silent were found to be predominant in the literature which suggests that most women experiencing domestic violence choose not to report to anyone. It can also be concluded that the few women who report abuse meted against them report to family members or religious leaders (Semahegn and Mengistie, 2005). However, it is yet to be determined based on this study whether the abused women in the sample study report violence meted against them and whom they report to. Thus, respondents will be asked to identify if they report abuse and who they report to. 2.7 Intervention to Reduce Domestic Violence Various sectors of the society have a part to play to help prevent or reduce domestic violence (WHO, 2012). According to the World Health Organization (2012) interventions to prevent domestic violence can be categorized under three main themes, which are primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. Primary prevention refers to measures or activities aim at lowering the rate of partner violence at a community level thus stopping violence against women from happening in in the first place. This includes measures to change behavioral patterns with cultural backing, such as the idea that sex is a man’s right in marriage, that a man 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has a right to physically discipline a woman for “incorrect” behavior, that physical violence is an acceptable way to resolve conflict in a relationship. Secondary prevention focuses on reducing the rate of repeat violence among women already abused, and includes counseling, public awareness creation, economic empowerment of abused victims. Tertiary prevention measures refer to efforts to mitigate or reduce the negative impacts of violence that has already occurred. Examples of tertiary prevention measures include expanding domestic violence victim’s access to emergency contraception, sexually transmitted disease treatment and post- exposure prophylaxis to prevent HIV to minimize further negative consequences of the rape. According to Taylor (2006), actions to mitigate domestic violence can be grouped into two mainly proactive measures and reactive measures. Proactive measures according to Taylor (2006) are attempts to reduce domestic violence through measures such as policies, awareness creation, preventions and education. Proactive measure focus on preventing domestic violence from occurring at the early stage. Reactive measures on the other hand refer to measures taken after the occurrence of domestic violence (Taylor, 2006). These include police reprimand, taking a victim or perpetrator into custody or registration by police, court verdict with reprimand, and the imposition of restrictive order by police or prosecutor to protect the victims form the abuser. Court resolution, police or prosecutor taking a victim into custody (Ulaanbaatar, 2003). Drawing from the various perspectives it can be concluded that awareness creation offers the best possible solution to incidence of domestic violence. It is however yet to be determined based on the outcome of this research, which of these categories of interventions women were most likely to resort to. Thus, respondents will be asked to identify best alternative intervention to help reduce domestic violence. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter details the methodology used to execute the study. This included the research approach and design, the population, sample and sampling technique, instrumentation, ethical consideration and data analysis techniques employed in the study. The study also gives details of the profile of the study areas. 3.1 Profile and Character of Study Area The Awutu Senya East Municipal Assembly (ASEMA) is one of the newly created Municipalities in the Central Region. The Municipality was carved out of the former Awutu Senya District in 2012 and established as a Municipality by Legislative Instrument (L.I) 2025 with Kasoa as its capital. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census (2010 PHC), the total population in the Municipality stood at 108,422. This is about 4.9 percent of the Central region’s population. The Awutu Senya East Municipality is mainly urban. According to the 2010 Population and Housing Census the Municipality has few rural settlements. 3.1.1 Location and size Awutu Senya East Municipal is located in the Eastern part of the Central Region. It shares common boundaries with Ga South Municipal Assembly (in the Greater Accra Region) at the East, Awutu Senya District at the North and Gomoa East District at the West and South 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respectively. The Municipality covers a total land area of about 108.004 sq. km, about 1.1 percent of the total land area of the Central Region. Kasoa, the Municipal capital, is located at the South-Eastern part, about 31 km from Accra, the national capital. Major settlements of the municipal are Opeikuma, Adam Nana, Kpormertey, Ofaakor, Akweley, Walantu and Zongo. 3.1.2 Population distribution According to 2010 Population Census the Municipality has a population of about 108,422. The male population is 48.1 percent while the female population is 51.9 percent of the total population of the Municipality. The sex ratio for the municipal is 92.8 meaning, for every 100 females there are about 93 males. A total of 17,577 females of the population are married while 1618 females of the population are divorced. Also 1,728, females the population are widows ( District Development plan, 2014) 3.1.3 Employment sector The highest proportion of the employed population is found in the private informal sector representing 81.9 percent with least being in other organization. The rest are public (government) (5.3 percent), private formal (12.2 percent), semi-public (0.1 percent) and NGO’s (0.3%) (District Medium Term Development Plan, 2014). 3.1.4 Gender Based Violence (GBV) According to the district medium term development plan (2014), there is a serious problem of Gender Based Violence in Awutu Senya East Municipality. The severity of the 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh problem called for a public outcry. The Government responded by establishing the Domestic Violence Victims Services Unit (DOVVSU) within the district to protect victims. In 2009, 102 cases were reported in the Municipality and many more cases go unreported. 3.2 DATA SOURCE 3.2.1 Research Design The study used the Quantitative research methodology. This methodology was employed based on the objective of testing for a relationship between women’s experience of domestic violence and their demographic characteristics such as age, relationship status, educational status and income status were collected using a questionnaire. 3.2.2 Study Site Study areas within Awutu Senya East District selected for the study were Beach Drive Estate (urban) and Anomaawobi (rural). These study areas were chosen because they represent different patterns of settlement within the district. Thus, respondents were purposively chosen from these two areas in order to get a fair representation of the spatial classification of the municipality into rural and urban by the Municipal Assembly. 3.2.3 Data Sources The study relied on primary data to provide answers to the research questions and objectives. Secondary data that relates specifically to the subject under studied was also obtained from published journal articles and credible internet sources. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.4 Target population The target population were females between the ages 18 years and above. Respondents were females because the literature shows that they were more vulnerable to domestic violence than their male counterparts. The age limit was set at 18 because it is the age at which someone is legally an adult. 3.2.5 Sampling design and sample composition A sample size of 120 was used for the study. The size of the sample was based on constraints that includes limited time for final submission of the research report but was sufficiently large to allow for statistical analysis. In other to avoid bias and to get a more appropriate picture of how domestic violence is distributed within Awutu Senya east district. The District residential location was taken into consideration with regards to the selection of the respondents from across two areas (urban and rural). Multi-stage sampling method with four sampling methods–cluster sampling, criteria sampling, snow ball and availability sampling were adopted. Cluster sampling was used to select and group the study areas under rural and urban settlements. This was done in other to do a comparative analysis of the study samples. Respondents were selected from rural and urban settlements and questionnaires were administered. Criteria sampling was employed to select respondents. Thus, respondent’s eligibility to participate in the study had to be 18 years and above and residents of the community so that the study reflected the views of sample residents and not outsiders. Snowball was also used to reach respondents when necessary. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Availability sampling was used to pick respondents who were willing and available to answer the study questionnaires. The demographic characteristics of the respondents include background information about the respondents in relation to their age, income, religion, employment status among others. Samples for the study consist of married women, females with dating partners, widows, cohabitating partners who are 18 years and above. Out of the 120 respondents sampled for the study, the mean age was 30 years while their minimum and maximum ages were 20 years and 52 years respectively. Respondents had spent an average of 9 years in their relationship with their partners. Those who were formally married constituted about 50.8 percent followed by 30.8 percent of those who were dating their partners but were not formally married. The proportion of the respondents without any formal educational training was 26.7 percent. Also, the same percentage of respondents had tertiary education experience. This includes those with first degree, higher national diploma certificate as well as nurses and teacher trainees. 3.2.6 Data collection Administration of questionnaire took one week and four days to complete. At Beach Drive Estate, questionnaires were handed over to respondents by the researcher to be answered by them and collected afterwards. Some respondents took their questionnaire home to answer them while others answered theirs in the presence of the researcher. Questionnaires taken home were later collected by the researcher. In both location of study, questionnaires were administered in homes, churches, shops centers and the farms. At Beach Drive Estate, respondents did not have challenges answering the questionnaire because most of them were 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh literate. Three respondents within Beach Drive Estate requested that the researcher read the set of questions in the questionnaire as they give their answers verbally. This was because they wanted to participate in the study though they were busy doing something. At Anomawobi, most questionnaires were administered with the help of a translator. This is because some respondents in Anomawobi were non-literate in English though they may have had basic education. Thus, majority of respondents in Anomawobi at the time of the study could not communicate in English language but in Twi and Guan. The translator translated questions in the survey into Twi and Guan for respondents to give their answer as it applied to them. He then translated respondent’s response to the questionnaire which was in either Twi or Guan back to the researcher in English. The researcher then ticked respondent’s answers after listening to respondent’s answers as narrated by the translator. 3.2.7 Instrument for data collection A structured questionnaire was employed as a data collection instrument because of the need to test relationships as stated in the research objective. The use of the structured questionnaire was also to guide respondents to respond within the thematic scope of the research. This tool was also preferred because of time constraints as respondents were involved in their various social and economic activities and did not have much time at their disposal. The research instrument (survey questionnaire) is divided into three parts under three objectives. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Part one of the questionnaire consists of questions that answer objective one of the research question. It captured information on the socio-demographic background of respondents and that of their partners such as age, location, income status, employment status, educational status and relationship status. Demographic characteristic such as “relationship type” has five sub-categories namely, marital relationship, cohabitation, widow, divorced or dating relationships which respondents are to choose from. Part two of the questionnaire consists of questions which provide answers to the type of violence experienced by respondents. Respondents are to select as many as applies to their situation. The violent acts were categorized under physical, emotional and economic violence. Part three of the questionnaire consists of questions that answer objective three and four of the study. Objective three of the study describes women’s response to domestic violence. Respondents were to select how they respond to domestic violence. Thus, whether they report abuse experienced or not and to whom they report. Part four takes a look at interventions to reduce domestic violence. Respondents were presented with various options to reduce domestic violence (base on literature) and are to select the one they consider more appropriate to reduce domestic violence. 3.2.8 Method of Data Analysis 3.2.8.1 Objective I Objective one looked at the types of violence experienced by the respondents. The various forms of domestic violence were categorized under physical, economic and 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh psychological abuse. A descriptive statistics table was used to denote the types of violence commonly experienced by the respondents in the study area. This was further ranked based on the highest to lowest scores. 3.2.8.2 Objective II Under this objective, demographic characteristics of women (age, income status, educational status and relationship type, residential location and religion) were used as independent variables to their relationship with domestic violence experienced by the respondents. A Multivariate Pearson Correlation Analysis at a significant alpha value of 0.05 was used. The rationale was to test the relationship between demographic factors and the various types of violence experienced by respondents. 3.2.8.3 Objective III Objective three analyzed women’s response to domestic violence; that is, whether or not they report abuse they experience and who they choose to report to. This was presented in a pie chart. 3.2.8.4 Objective IV Key factors that can reduce domestic violence based on data obtained from the respondents were analyzed. This was presented using descriptive tables. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Ethical Considerations As domestic violence is an issue that is extremely personal and sensitive, it was quite clear that the research needed to be conducted with respect and sensitivity for those involved. The respondents for the study were adequately informed and their consent was sought. In addition, respondents were assured of confidentiality because their names were not recorded as part of the data collected. 3.4 Limitations of the Study Considering the subject matter of the study, it required caution in soliciting for responses. It was, however, difficult for the respondents to respond to some of the questions. This is because they found some of the questions to be too probing. Also because issues of domestic violence are treated as a private topic, the respondents did not find it comfortable narrating some of their experiences so there was a possibility of the respondents hiding sensitive and vital information that could have contributed to the findings of the study. Another limitation of the study was that the researcher and his interpreter being male inhibited some respondents from contributing to the study. Furthermore, for fear of stigmatization and their identities being exposed, some respondents were skeptical about opening up. However, the researcher and his interpreter assured the people of the confidentiality of the information they gave. This lengthened the period for data collections and hence the period stipulated for the completion of the entire work. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction This chapter consists of four sections. It begins with a descriptive summary of the demographic characteristics of respondents including their age, relationship status, religion and income. The second section looks at the types of violence experienced and peculiar to the respondents in the study area. The third presents the relationship between respondent’s demographic characteristics and their likely exposure to domestic violence. This relationship analysis is done using Pearson Correlation Test of significance at 5 percent significance level. The final section provides possible interventions to reduce domestic violence in the study area. 4.1 Respondents Demographic Characteristics The demographic characteristics of the respondents provide background information about the respondents in relation to their age, income, religion, employment status among others. Table 4.1 indicate that the mean age of the sample was 30 years while their minimum and maximum ages were 20 years and 52 years respectively. This implies that the respondents were eligible to participate in the study. It was further found that respondents have spent an average of 9 years in their relationship with their partners. Those who were formally married constituted about 51 percent (50.8 percent) followed by 30.8 percent of those who were dating their partners but were not formally married. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With regards to educational status, the proportion of the respondents without any level of formal education was 26.7 percent. Also, same percentage of respondents had tertiary education experience. This includes those with first degree, higher national diploma certificate as well as nurses and teacher trainees. Table 4.1: Summary description of respondents’ background information Variable Mean Minimum Maximum 1. Age of respondents 30 years 20 years 52 years 2. Respondents years in relationship 9 years 1 year 40 years 3. Age of respondent’s partner 40 years 25 years 67 years 4. Weekly earnings by respondents Ghs 55.0 Ghs 20.0 Ghs 500.0 Categorical socio-demographic variables Variable Frequency Percentage (%) 5. Formal education experience None 32 26.7% Primary/Junior High School 29 24.1% Secondary/ O Level 10 8.3% Vocational/Technical 8 6.7% Tertiary (Degree, HND, Diploma) 32 26.7% Total 120 100% 6. Relationship status Formally married 61 50.8% 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cohabiting 1 0.8% Dating 37 30.8% Widow 13 10.8% Divorced 8 6.7% Total 120 100% 7. Religious background Muslim 14 11.7% Christian 106 88.3% Total 120 100% 8. Employment status of respondents Employed (regular salaried/wage worker) 20 16.7% Self-employed with employees 4 3.3% Self-employed without employee 60 50% Unemployed 22 18.3% Student 14 11.7% Total 120 100% Proportion of respondents ever experience abuse at home 0.125 12.5% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Table 4.1 also shows the mean age of the respondents’ partners was 35 years. This excludes those who were widows and divorced. Thus, the average age difference between respondents and their partners was 5 years. With regards to religious background, 88.3 percent of the respondents were Christians while 11.7 percent were Muslims. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analysis of employment status of respondents shows that 50 percent were self- employed without employees followed by 18.3 percent unemployed. Only 16.7 percent of the respondents were regular salaried workers. Respondents in this category were however smaller than the percentage of those with tertiary level educational experience (26.7 percent). This implies that not all the respondents with tertiary education experience were regular salaried workers. The results further depict the occupational distribution of the Awutu Senya East Municipality in general with more residents being self-employed without employees. Average weekly income earned by the respondents was found to be Ghs 55.00. However about 9 percent (9.2%) of the respondents earned weekly income of Ghs 500.00. These were mainly the self- employed with employees and some regular salaried workers. Part One: RESULTS 4. 2 Types of Violence Experience by Respondents The study found that the proportion of respondents who reported ever experiencing abuse at home by their partners was 15 out of the 120 respondents, representing 12.5 percent of the sample. In terms of incidence of abuse, physical abuse was ranked first. From Table 4.1, it can be seen that physical abuse such as forced sexual intercourse and beating were ranked 1st and 2nd respectively. While the questionnaire was structured, respondents sometimes explained their answers informally. In informal interviews, they attributed these physical abuses to cultural factors which give men the right to have sex with the wife as he wills. Other forms of abuse reported by the respondents were restriction of movement and association with friends (5.8 percent), restriction of work (4.2 percent) and being threatened with weapons by partners (5 percent). Some of the respondents however refused to comment 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh about the forms of abuse experienced by them. The reasons given were that they were marital issues that could not be disclosed to third parties. Table 4.2: Types of domestic violence ever experienced by respondents. Types of physical abuse experienced Frequency Percentage Rank Beatings, kicks, slaps, Yes 9 7.5% 2nd punches by partner No 111 92.5% Forced sexual Yes 15 12.5% 1st intercourse by partner No 105 87.5% Threatened with a Yes 6 5% 4th weapon by partner No 111 92.5% PSYCHOLOGICAL ABUSE Humiliated at home by Yes 4 3.3% 6th partner No 116 96.7% Others: restrictions Yes 7 5.8% 3rd and calling of names No 113 94.2% ECONOMIC ABUSE Restriction to work Yes 5 4.2% 5th No 115 95.8% Does not provide Yes 3 2.5% 7th economic needs No 117 97.5% Proportion of respondents ever experienced abuse at 0.125 12.5% home Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analysis of the forms of domestic violence commonly experienced by the respondents indicates that the least common form of domestic abuse in the sample relates to economic and psychological abuse. From Table 4.2, it can be seen that economic abuse (where respondents were denied basic needs) and psychological abuse (where respondents were humiliated) were ranked 7th and 6th respectively. Respondents who suffered from restriction to work were also ranked 5th. About 96 percent of the respondents enjoyed economic freedom with regards to restriction to work and about 97 percent said they have not suffered any humiliation from their partners. However the results show that domestic violence is not completely eliminated among the sample because some women still suffer it. 4.3 Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics and Domestic Violence. A Pearson correlation coefficient test was conducted to measure the extent to which respondents’ demographic characteristics correlates with their exposure to domestic violence. The coefficient test result is indicated in Table 4.3. From Table 4.3 it can be inferred that educational status of respondents negatively correlates with their domestic violence experience (r = -0.101) and is not significant (p-value = 0.252). This implies that the educational status of respondents does not correlates with forms of domestic violence. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Correlation coefficient of demographic characteristics and domestic violence DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Pearson Corr. R P-Value Educational status -0.101 0.252 Employment status 0.038 0.680 Age of respondents -0.159 0.041* Location of respondents -0.076 0.412 Religious background 0.020 0.832 Income -0.039 0.671 **Significant at 0.05 Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Further analysis showed weak positive relationship between employment status of respondents and their likely exposure to domestic violence (r = 0.038). However, the correlation between employment status of respondents and their experience of domestic violence was not significant (p-value = 0.680). Nonetheless, some of the respondents who admitted to have witnessed domestic violence indicated that such occurrence usually took place at night when they were back from work. According to them, stress from work often fuelled such verbal and physical abuse and violence at home. It can also be inferred from Table 4.3 that the relationship between age of respondents and experience of domestic violence is negative (r = -0.159) but significant (p-value = 0.041). The negative relationship means that experience of domestic violence decreased with age among the respondents. Thus, the older respondents were less likely to face domestic violence 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh at home. The question that resonates from this finding is that if older women are less likely to face domestic violence then what exposes younger women to domestic violence? Providing answers to this question will require further studies in the future. The religious background of respondents also had positive but weak relationship with domestic violence (r = 0.020). However, the effect of the relation is insignificant (p-value = 0.832). The same is true of the relationship between residential location of respondents and their likely exposure to domestic violence except the relationship is negative. Similarly, income of respondents had a negative correlation with domestic violence and was insignificant (p-value = 0.671). Drawing from the Pearson correlation results, it can be said that only age of respondents as a demographic variable had a significant effect on domestic violence based on the sample selected for the study. Table 4.4: Age and domestic violence experienced by respondents EXPERIENCED DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Age of respondents Yes No Total Percentage 18-22 years 0 7 7 5.8% 23-27 years 0 16 16 13.3% 28-32 years 0 11 11 9.2% 33-37 years 0 19 19 15.9% 38-42 years 2 15 17 14.2% 43-47 years 1 9 10 8.3% 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48-52 years 8 7 15 12.5% 53-57 years 4 3 7 5.8% 58-62 years 0 8 8 6.7% 63-67 years 0 6 6 5.0% 68-72 years 0 3 3 2.5% 73-77 years 0 1 1 0.8% Total 15 105 120 100% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Further analysis of how age of the respondents relates with domestic violence experienced by the respondents is indicated in Table 4.3, which shows that 12.5% of the respondents within the ages of 38 and 57 years have experienced domestic violence while those below and above same age range had no experience of domestic violence. Table 4.5: Relationship between formal education and status of respondents and domestic violence EXPERIENCED PHYSICAL ABUSE Total Formal educational experience Yes Percentage No Percentage Percentage Without formal education 7 5.8% 23 19.2% 25% With formal education 8 6.7% 82 68.3% 75% Total (N = 120) 15 105 Experienced psychological abuse Formal educational experience Yes Percentage No Percentage Total Without formal education 0 0 30 25% 25% With formal education 4 3.3% 86 71.2% 75% E xperienced economic abuse Formal educational experience Yes Percentage No Percentage Total Without formal education 0 0 30 25% 25% With formal education 5 4.2% 85 70.8% 75% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study found some variations with regards to how formal educational status of respondents relates with the forms of domestic violence experienced. Table 4.5 shows that respondents with formal education who had ever experienced physical abuse were 6.7 percent whiles those without formal education but had ever experienced physical abuse were 5.8 percent. It was found that those without formal education have experienced no psychological abuse unlike those with formal education (3.3 percent). Also, those with formal education who had experienced economic abuse including restriction to work by their partners were 4.2 percent. Table 4.6: Employment status and domestic violence experienced by respondents EXPERIENCED DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Employment status Yes No Frequency Percentage Employed salary or wage worker 3 17 20 16.7% (2.5%) (14.2%) Self-employed with employee 0 4 4 3.3% (3.3%) Self-employed without employee 8 52 60 50% (6.7%) (43.3%) Unemployed Housewife 4 18 22 18.3% (3.3%) (15%) Student 0 14 14 11.7% 11.7% Total 15 105 120 100% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 From Table 4.6 it can be inferred that employment status of respondents affects their experience of domestic violence. It was found the 6.7 percent of the sample representing those 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh who were self-employed without employees, had experienced domestic violence followed by those unemployed housewives (3.3 percent). None of the respondents who were students at the time of the field interview had experienced domestic violence Figure 1: Weekly Earnings and Domestic Violence 45.00% 40.00% 39.20% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% Yes 20.80% No 15.00% 15.00% 10.00% 12.50% 5.00% 5.80% 3.30% 1.70% 1.70% 0.00% No income Below Ghs 500 Ghs 500 -1000 Above Ghs 1000 Respondents' weekly earnings Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 From Figure 1, respondents who earned weekly income below Ghs 500.00 and have experienced domestic violence were 5.8 percent followed by those who earned no income (3.3 percent). The proportion of those who earned no income represents those who were unemployed housewives at the time of the field interview. 50 Proportion of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2: Residential location of respondents and domestic violence 50.00% 45.00% 46.70% 40.00% 40.80% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% Anomaawobi 20.00% 15.00% Beach drive estate 10.00% 5.00% 9.20% 3.30% 0.00% Yes No Yes/No to domestic violence experiences Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 About 9 percent (9.2 percent) of the respondents selected from Anomaawobi have experienced domestic violence. This was higher than 3.3 percent of those selected from Beach drive estate. It thus means that based on the sample, those selected from Anomaawobi have more people with domestic violence experiences than those selected from Beach drive estate. 51 Proportion of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7: Relationship status and domestic violence experience by respondents EXPERIENCE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE Relationship status Yes No Total Percentage Married 1 60 61 50.8% (0.8%) (50%) Cohabitation 0 1 1 0.8% - (0.8%) Dating 9 28 37 30.8% (7.5%) (23.3%) Divorced 4 4 8 6.7% (3.3%) (3.3%) Widow 0 13 13 10.8% - (10.8%) Total 15 105 120 100% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Analysis of how respondents’ relationship status relates with domestic violence indicates that 3.3 percent of the sample who were divorced have experienced domestic violence. The proportion represents the total number of divorced respondents. Only one respondent (0.8 percent) out of the 61 who were married had experienced domestic violence while 7.5 percent of those who were dating had experienced domestic violence. Based on the sample indicated in Table 4.7, the statistics indicate that dating couples constituted majority of those who have experienced domestic violence. Also, none of the respondents who were cohabiting and widowed had experienced domestic violence. 4.4 Respondents Response to Domestic Violence. This section presents the proportion of respondent who have experienced domestic violence. It also depicts respondents who have not experienced domestic violence. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3: Respondents who have experienced domestic violence 12.5% 87.5% 1 2 Source: Field data, June 2016 Figure 3 shows proportion of respondent who have experienced domestic violence compared to those who have not. It can be inferred that 12.5 % of the respondent (15 out of 120 respondents) have experienced domestic violence while 87.5 percent of them said they have not experienced domestic violence. 4.5: Reporting of Domestic Violence This section presents on the proportion of abused respondents who reported domestic violence meted against them. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.0: Proportion of Abused Respondents who reported abuse meted against them 46.7 53.3 yes no Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Figure 4 shows the proportion of abused respondents who reported violence meted against them. Out of the 12.5 percent (representing 15 respondents) respondents who have said they have experience domestic violence 53 percent said they reported violence meted against them whiles about 46.7 percent said they did not report abuse committed against them. 4.6: The Target of Reports of Domestic Violence This section shows the class of persons abused respondents report violence meted against them to. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.0: Persons to Whom Victims Report Abuse 5.9 5.9 11.8 76.5 Chief/ Elders Family/ Relatives Friends Church leaders Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 Figure 5 shows that more respondents who have experienced domestic violence (76.5 percent) report abuse meted against them to family /relatives. This was followed by those who report to friends (11.8 percent). It can be inferred that women who have experienced domestic violence report abuse committed against them report more to family /relatives (76.5) than to church leaders (5.9 percent) and chief/elders (5.9). 4.7: Interventions to Reduce Domestic Violence This section presents on respondents awareness of domestic violence. The study sought to find out if respondents were aware of the mandate of the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unite (DOVVSU). 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 6: Respondents Awareness of the Mandate of DOVVSU No 47% Yes 53% Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 As part of assessing the awareness of domestic violence interventions, respondents were asked if they knew the mandate of DOVVSU. It was revealed that only 53 percent knew about DOVVSU as an institution mandated by law to help solve domestic violence cases. Most of such respondents were those who have had secondary and tertiary education experience. The remaining 47 percent had no idea about the mandate of DOVVSU. Table 4.8: Preferred intervention to reduce Domestic Violence Frequency Percent Encourage and promote education of women 48 40.0 Awareness creation about domestic violence 35 29.2 Equal work and income opportunities for women 31 25.8 Establishing more DOVVSU in our community 6 5.0 Total 120 100.0 Source: Author’s data, June, 2016 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8 shows the proportion of respondents who gave different opinion with regards to how domestic violent cases could be minimized. 40 percent said giving women more education will help reduce domestic violence. This was followed by awareness creation (29 percent). About 26 percent (25.8 percent) of the respondents on the other hand argued that affirmative action for women to have equal access to employment opportunities will reduce their tendencies of been violated . From Table 4.7, it can be inferred that most respondents had less confidence in the functioning of DOVVSU as an appropriate intervention for addressing domestic violence except for 5 percent of the respondents who thought otherwise. Part Two: Discussion of Research Findings 4.9 DISCUSSION This study investigated women’s demographic characteristics and their experience of domestic violence in the Awutu Senya East District. This section consists of discussion, conclusion and finally recommendations. The first objective of the study was to identity the type of violence experience by female respondents. The study found that 12.5 percent of respondents experience domestic violence. Domestic violence though very low among the sample areas but it is not eliminated and this is comparable to what was found by WHO (2005). Physical abuse in the form of forced sexual intercourse and beating was the commonest form of violence experienced by respondents. This affirms a study done by Aihie (2009) and Africanus et al. (2014) which found that physical violence is the commonest of all the forms 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of violence. Specifically, beating, kicking and slapping were also found by Africanus et al. (2014) as the commonest form of physical violence and this was affirmed by the study. The high rate of sexual abuse in the form of forced sexual intercourse can be due to perception that men have unlimited sexual right to women (UNICEF, 2000). Other forms of violence such as restriction of women’s movement and association with friends (5.8 percent), restriction of work (4.2 percent) and the use of threat by partners (5 percent) were also found. Economic and psychological abuses were the least form of abuse found among the study sample. The second objective was to find out the relationship between incidence of domestic violence to respondent’s demographic characteristics such as educational status, age, relationship status, income status, location and employment status. The study found that educational status of respondents has no correlation with domestic violence in the study area. This finding contradicts what was found by Anderson (1997), Semahegn and Mengistie (2015) and Rapp et al. (2013) but validates that of Naughan and Mohtasham (1998) who found no relationship between women’s educational status and domestic violence. This study also analyzed the relation between women’s employment status and domestic violence and found that respondents employment status do not correlate with domestic violence. Age of respondents was found to correlate with domestic violence and this affirms a study by Callie (2001) and Derry and Diedong (2014) which found that age has a relationship to domestic violence and can influence women’s likelihood of experience domestic violence. The study found that with increase in age there is a decrease in likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. Thus the older respondents were less likely to face 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh domestic violence at home. The study found that women age 48 years and older experienced domestic violence than those younger than 48 years. This is comparable to the findings by Ackah (2012) which found that older women who are forty years and older are more likely to experience domestic violence. According to Ambert (2005) couples in marital relationship are more likely to experience domestic abuse compared to couples in cohabitation relationship and this contradicts the finding of this study. The study found that the respondent in marital relationship (0.8 percent) experienced domestic abuse compare to those in cohabitation (0 percent). This therefore validate finding by Ambert (2005). From the study it can be said that only age of respondents as a demographic factor correlates with domestic violence. The study also sought to find out the best interventions to reduce domestic violence. The study found that some respondents do not report abuse meted against them. The study found that more of the respondent report abuse experienced to their family members or relatives (11 percent). Literature available shows that more women who are abused choose to remain silent about it (Semahegn and Mengistie, 2005; WHO, 2005). This study contradicts such findings. According to this study more respondents who have experienced domestic violence reported abuse meted against them. About 53.7 percent of the sample who have experienced domestic violence said they reported abuse committed against them while 46.7 percent said they do not report abuse to anyone. Reasons why more of the sample were able to report abuse could be attributed to the fact that they are not afraid of future consequence after reporting, shame associated with domestic violence or stigmatization (WHO, 2005). Respondent’s refusal to report abuse can also be attributed to cultural norms where men have the right to discipline women or wives as a way of correcting them (Antwi and Dapaah, 2010). 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The unwillingness of respondents to report abuse can also be due to the fact the domestic violence is mostly considered a private matter and shameful to talk about (Gonzalez, 2010). About 58 and 11. 8 percent of respondents reported to church authorities and trusted friends respectively. According to Antwi and Dapaah (2010), because Ghana does not have enough clinical physiologist to handle psychologically abused women, female victims of domestic violence turn to religious leaders to provide them with spiritual support through prayer session and counseling. Majority of the sample linked the cause of domestic violence to culture (WHO, 2012). The study went further to find out the best means to reduce domestic violence. Buckle, Simpson, Berger and Metcalfe (2014) found that educating women is one of the best means to reduce domestic violence and this was affirmed by the study as majority of the study respondents opted for education (40 percent) as the best means to reduce domestic violence while 26 percent of women respondents agree that allowing women to work to earn their own money can help reduce domestic violence. Allowing women to work to earn their own money as a mechanism to reduce domestic violence affirms recommendation by the WHO (2012). From the analysis it can be inferred that most respondents had less confidence in the functioning of DOVVSU as an appropriate intervention for addressing domestic violence except for 5 percent of the respondents. The question that arises out of this finding is if respondents do not trust a public agency like DOVVSU as an appropriate institution responsible to solve domestic violence, could it be that the institution itself has lost focus or because the respondents do not really know much about what the institution does. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Summary The study sought to find out women demographic characteristics that make them vulnerable to domestic violence. Literature available indicate that domestic violence is prevalent in the world and Ghana is not exempted. Multivariate Pearson correlation analysis at a significant alpha value of 0.05 was used. The average mean for the study was 30 years, physical abuse was ranked first among the types of violence experience by respondents. Age of respondent were found to have a negative relationship with domestic violence and was a significant determinant of domestic violence. Majority (53 percent) of the samples agreed not to report abuse meted against them. This can be explained by stigmatization associated with being a victim of domestic violence. Majority (76.5 percent) of the study sample agreed to report abuse meted against them to their relatives. 53 percent of the samples were aware of the mandate of DOVVSU while 47 percent were oblivious. Majority of the samples (48 percent) agreed that Domestic violence can be prevented by encouraging and promoting women education while about 6 percent agreed that the establishment of more DOVVSU in our community will be the best means of preventing domestic violence. 5.1 Conclusion The study found that women suffer from various forms of abuse such as beating, kicking, slapping, and restriction to work to denial of basic need by their male partners. Age was found to influence women likelihood of experiencing domestic violence. However, with a relatively small and non-representative sample, caution must be applied, as the findings may 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not be generalized to the whole population or district. Interventions such as increased public awareness and advocacy with the aim of reducing domestic violence among the study sample can reduce domestic violence. From the literature it is clear that domestic violence is a problem in the society and a complex issue not only in Ghana but in the world. More research needs to be done using different indicators to identify women’s demographic characteristics that make them vulnerable to domestic violence. This study is a contribution towards this goal. 5.2 Recommendations The researcher hopes that domestic violence among the sample can be reduced when these recommendations are taken into consideration and implemented Encourage more women to work to earn their own money Domestic violence can be reduced if more women are able to have access to employment to earn their own money. The Awutu Senya East District Assembly, National Council for Civic Education (NCCE), and Non-Governmental Organizations through awareness creation can encourage women to pursue more economic activities which can be either self-employed job or salary job. Encouraging women to work to earn their own money will reduce women’s dependence on men which has become a license for some men to abuse women. This will reduce victim’s vulnerability to forced sexual intercourse and physical abuse such as beating, kicking, slapping as found by the study analysis. Male partners through awareness creation should be made to understand the benefit of allowing women to work to support the family. Through the awareness creation male partners can understand and appreciate that the role of women is not only limited to reproduction but production. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Educating male partners through awareness creation to understand that society has progress from the days where women only perform reproductive role to current dispensation where women are performing economic or productive role to support families, nations and continents. This approach can further reduce domestic violence among the sample to its barest minimal. This is because the study finding found a negative relationship (-0.101) between educational status and domestic violence though the relationship is very weak (0.252). Public awareness creation should also focus on the fact that domestic violence is a crime and that perpetrators can be arrested. Encourage Advocacy Encouraging women’s education through advocacy will inform women to stand up for their rights. The domestic violence act can be used in advocacy that domestic violence is a crime which is punishable by law and unacceptable. This can reduce the influence of the culture of masculinity which according to Dapaah and Antwi (20120) support men beating women. The advocacy can be done by bodies such as the Awutu Senya East District Assembly, National Council for Civic Education (NCCE), and Non-governmental Organizations. Advocacy against negative cultural practice that promote physical and psychological abuse of Women. From the analysis it was found that the study sample perceived cultural practice as a major reason why some men subject the study sample to domestic abuse. The National Commission for Civic Education (NCCE), NGO’s and the Awutu Senya Municipality through advocacy can further reduce domestic violence in the sample study area by engaging in vibrant advocacy against negative cultural norms that subject women to abuse. Cultural norms that empower men to abuse women through advocacy should be challenged and condemned. The 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh advocacy will inform men that it is a crime to beat a woman and is punishable by law. Other cultural norms that also influence male partners of the study sample that gives them unlimited sexual rights to their partners at any time should also be addressed and condemned through advocacy. Programs to Prevent Dating Violence From the study findings, 7.5 percent of dating respondents reported of experiencing domestic violence. Practice such as safe dates can be adopted and promoted by NGO’s, the NCCE and the Municipal Assembly to reduce the prevalence of domestic violence among the study sample. Safe Dates is a dating violence prevention program aimed at reducing the prevalence of domestic violence within the society (Buckle et al., 2014). The programme can be conducted in schools, fun clubs, and unmarried religious associations, to help individuals who are dating to recognize the difference between caring or supportive relationships and controlling, manipulative or abusive relationships. This programme is expected to transform attitude, behavior and challenge negative norms regarding dating and gender roles. The programme will improve participant’s (both men and women) conflict resolution skills, and decrease dating abuse, victimization and perpetration. Equipping and Motivating the DOVVSU in Awutu Senya East Equipping and motivating the DOVVSU within the district will further reduce domestic violence in the municipality. From the study, it was found that out of the 12 percent of the study sample confirmed of experiencing physical abuse in the form of forced sexual intercourse and beating, slapping ,kicking were very dominant. Also the existence of the DOVVSU within the district as indicated by literature is an indication that domestic violence 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh prevails within the municipality. The researcher recommend that, the unit can be motivated by the municipality through annual appreciation of the unit, close collaboration between the municipality and the unit is necessary demonstrate how keen DOVVSU is to the municipality. It will make the unit feel appreciated. During a visits to the unit, the DOVVSU office were found to operate from a container supported by wooden structure. Appropriate building structure should be constructed for DOVVSU and furnished to enable them do their work in a more favorable environment. Computers and accessories can be provided to improve the unite data section. During one of the study field visit it was found that the unit at certain times don’t have stationaries and vehicle to enable them do their work effectively. Provision of stationaries and vehicles will motivate the unit to do their work effectively which will help reduce domestic violence among the study respondents 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REERENCES Achampong E. A. (2010). Marital rape–A women’s equality issue in Ghana. Faculty of Law, KNUST, Kumasi. Ackah M. (2012). The prevalence and causes of domestic violence in the Yilo Krobo District. http://197.255.68.203/handle/123456789/8965 Africanus D. L., Diedong A. L., Derry I. (2014). Domestic Violence against Women in Ghana: An Exploratory Study in Upper West Region, Ghana. 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Retrieved from http://www- who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendices WOMEN’S SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND THEIR EXPERIENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE: A CASE STUDY OF AWUTU SENYA EAST QUESTIONNAIRE OBJECTIVE TWO. WHAT DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ARE ASSOCIATED WITH WOMEN’S EXPERIENCE OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? Please tick where appropriate Q1. Date………..…/ ……………. / ………. Q2. Location…………………………………………………………………………………... Q3. Age………………………………………………………………………………………... Q4. Relationship status 1. Married [ ] 2. Cohabitation [ ] 3. Dating [ ] 4. Divorced [ ] 5. Widow [ ] Q5. How many years have you been in this relationship with your partner? ………………………………………………………………………………………… Q6. How much income do you make in a week? ………………………………………………………………………………………... Q7. Formal educational background 1. None [ ] 2. Primary [ ] 3. Middle Sch/JHS [ ] 4. SHS/O/A level [ ] 5. Vocational/Commercial [ ] 6.Teaching/Nursing [ ] 7. Polytechnic/University [ ] Q8. Religious Background 1. Traditionalist [ ] 2. No-faith/Atheist [ ] 3. Muslim [ ] 4. Christian [ ] 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q9. What is your employment status? 1. Employed salary or wage worker [ ] 2. Self-employed with employees [ ] 3. Self-employed without employees [ ] 4. Unemployed Unpaid worker/Housewife [ ] 5. Student [ ] Q10. Age of partner?................................................................................................................ Q11. Formal Educational background of patner? 1. None [ ] 2 Primary [ ] 3. Middle Sch./JHS [ ] 4. SHS/O/A level [ ] 5. Vocational/Commercial [ ] 6. Teaching/Nursing [ ] 7. Polytechnic/University [ ] Q12. Religious background of partner? 1. Traditionalist [ ] 2. Non-faith [ ] 3. Muslim [ ] 4. Christian [ ] Q13. What is the employment status of your partner? 1. Employed salary or wage worker [ ] 2. Self-employed with employees [ ] 3. Self-employed without employees [ ] 4. Unemployed [ ] 4. Student [ ] PART 2. OBJECTIVE 1 WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF VIOLENCE EXPERIENCED BY WOMEN? I am going to ask you about some situations. Please tick all that applies to your relationship with your partner? Which of these have you experienced / are you experiencing in your relationship? Yes No Q14.Physical Abuse. 1. He beats/beat or slaps/ kicks or punches you [ ] [ ] 2. He does/did force you to have sex [ ] [ ] 3. He stabs/stabbed you [ ] [ ] 4. He subjects/subjected you to burns on your body [ ] [ ] 5. He threatens/threatened you with a weapon [ ] [ ] 6. He strangls/strangled or choked you [ ] [ ] 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q15.Psychological Abuse 1 He insists/insisted you go out with his permission only [ ] [ ] 2. He calls/called you names [ ] [ ] 3. He does/did not allow me to visit family members of friends [ ] [ ] 4. He humiliates/ humiliated you before your fiends [ ] [ ] 5. He refuses/refused to eat your food [ ] [ ] 6. He comes/came home with a girlfriend [ ] [ ] Q16.Economic Abuse 1. He prevents/prevented you form accesing loans [ ] [ ] 2 He prevents/prevented you from securing a job or doing bussiness [ ] [ ] 3 He denies/denied you money ,food and basic needs [ ] [ ] 4 Stealing or destroying the victim’s personal belongings [ ] [ ] 5 Accountability of every money spent/given you [ ] [ ] 6 He takes/took financial decision for the family without informing you [ ] [ ] * If your responds to question 14 to 16 is “No” in all. Please skip question 17 to 20. OBJECTIVE THREEG WHAT ARE SOME OF THE INTERVENTION TO REDUCE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE? Q17. What do you think is the underlining reason for domestic-violence against women? Please tick the top two reasons. 1. Poverty or financial distress of woman [ ] 2. Low educational of woman [ ] 3. Unfaithfulness on the part of female partner [ ] 4. Effect of Alcohol/drugs on the male partner [ ] 5. Cultural or society’s influence on male partner [ ] 6. Other (specify)……………………….. [ ] 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q18. Do you report the violence meted out to you by your spouse/partner, to anyone/any agency? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] Q19. If yes, whom do you report to? 1. Police [ ] 2. Chief /elders [ ] 3. Family/Relatives [ ] 4. Friends [ ] 5. Church leaders [ ] 6. Other (specify)……………. Q20. What do you do after experiencing violence from you partner? 1. I keep myself indoors for some time [ ] 2. I do what he wants me to do [ ] 3. I apologize to him [ ] 4. I refuse sex from my spouse [ ] 5. Other (specify)……………….. [ ] Q21. Which of the following can help reduce domestic violence in your situation? 1. Try to settle issues with my husband. 2. Settle issues with the help of family members [ ] 3. Settle issues at the court [ ] 4. The Establishments of more DOVVSU Office [ ] 5. Equipping the DOVVSU Office to work effectively [ ] 5. Massive Public Awareness Creation [ ] 6. Other (specify)……………………………… [ ] Q22. What type(s) of punishment would you prescribe for those who perpetuate domestic violence against women? 1. They should be imprisoned [ ] 2. They should be made to compensate the victim [ ] 3. The marriage should be dissolved [ ] 4. The court should grant the victim a restraining/protection order [ ] 5. Other (specify)……………………………… [ ] Q23. Are you aware of domestic violence victim support unit (DOVVSU)? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] Q24. What do you think is the appropriate intervention against domestic violence? Tick only one. 1. Encouraging and promoting education of women [ ] 2. Women working to earn their own money [ ] 3. Establishing more DOVVSU in our communities [ ] 4. Awareness creation about domestic violence [ ] 5. Other (specify)……………………… [ ] Thank you 76