UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 

 

CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES 

 

 

LABOUR MOBILITY AND DEVELOPMENT AMONG THE DAGAABA 

(DAGARA) OF THE NANDOM TRADITIONAL AREA. 

 

 

BY 

 

ZAMEKUU PETER CLAVER 

(10091404) 

 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITYOF GHANA, 

LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 

THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN MIGRATION 

STUDIES 

 

 

 

 

JULY, 2013

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DECLARATION 

 
I, ZAMEKUU PETER CLAVER declare that this thesis with the exception of quotations and 

references contained in published works which have all been identified and acknowledged, is 

entirely my own original work and it has not been submitted in part or whole for another degree 

elsewhere. 

 

 

STUDENT’S NAME:                                    -------------------------------------- 

 

STUDENT’S SIGNATURE:                          ---------------------------------------- 

 

DATE;                                                            ------------------------------------- 

 

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CERTIFICATION 

I declare that the preparation of this study was supervised in accordance with the 

guidelines on research work as laid down by the University of Ghana Handbook 

for Graduate Studies Part I. Except references which are duly acknowledged, I 

accept responsibility for any errors in the work. 

 

Student……………….. 

 

Date……………………. 

 

ZAMEKUU PETER CLAVER 

 

 

Supervisor………………. 

 

Date……………………… 

 

DR. (MRS.) DELALI BADASU 

 

 

                                                    

 

 

 

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DEDICATION 

I dedicate this work to my dear late father Mr. Zamekuu Sylvanus, and my dearest wife Eunice 

for her support and prayers during challenging moments of my studies and the support of the 

entire Zamekuu family. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

A lot of people deserve my humble gratitude and appreciation. However, I will commence by 

thanking God almighty whose immeasurable mercies and loving kindness empowered me to 

withstand and endure all the challenges I encountered in the production of this piece of work. 

I would like to register my sincerest gratitude to my indefatigable supervisor, DR. (MRS.) 

DELALI BADASU who’s constructive and diagnostic objective suggestions provided me the 

needed assistance to complete this work. 

I equally express my sincere gratitude to all the Lecturers and Staff of Centre for Migration 

Studies, University of Ghana, especially the Course Coordinator Dr. Teye for their advice and 

support. 

 

This acknowledgement will be incomplete without my indebtedness to my better half Mrs. 

Zamekuu Eunice Naazig, co-workers: Martin Drofenu and Alottey, my reliable research 

assistants John Bosco Zamekuu and Aabe-Inir Pontianus  and Gregory Banambo for their 

support, prayers and encouragement in the realization of this work. 

 

I am finally grateful to all friends especially Eric Dalinpuo who provided me with the necessary 

information at the right moment and time and many others in different ways to make this work 

come to fruition. 

 
 

 

 

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ABSTRACT 

This study examined labour migration and associated development in the Nandom Traditional 

Area. The objective of the study was to find out whether labour migration is an option for 

improved livelihoods and development in the Nandom Traditional Area. Both returned migrants 

at Nandom and migrants at destination, Accra were interviewed. The field work was undertaken 

in two areas, namely Accra Metropolis and Nandom District. Mixed research method was used. 

Data was collected from both primary and secondary sources. A questionnaire and an in-depth 

interview guide were the instruments used for the study. A total of 40 returned migrants and 14 

migrants at destination were interviewed at Nandom and Accra respectively. The study found out 

that Dagaaba labour migrants migrate due to various reasons such as poverty, lack of jobs 

especially the off farming season, lack of social facilities and infrastructure among others and 

labour migration generally has positive effects on household’s livelihood in Nandom due to the 

inflow of remittances. It was observed from the study that, policy makers on migration and 

livelihood tend to ignore the agricultural labour migration especially during off-farming period 

as a critical issue in development planning. The study also recommends that government should 

consider irrigation in the area to curb labour migration during the dry season. Improved 

infrastructure, in terms of health facilities, roads, schools, potable water will help bridge the gaps 

in development between Nandom and the destination area Accra and other potential ones in other 

parts of Ghana which usually attract the youth. This is because the loss of human resources from 

the area as a result of migration does not seem to be compensated by the benefits of migration. 

The departure of the youth affects their livelihoods positively. Results of the study revealed that 

migrants were predominantly males, with a relatively smaller but increasing number of women 

over the years. Based on the findings, the study argues for the introduction of more poverty 

reduction strategies in the area that will reduce the incidence of migration in the area. 

 

 

 

 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENT 

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i 

CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii 

DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv 

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v 

TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................................. vi 

LIST OF MAPS .............................................................................................................................. x 

LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi 

LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ xii 

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... xiii 

 

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 

Background of the Study ................................................................................................................ 1 

1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 3 

1.3 Research Question and Objectives............................................................................................ 4 

1.3.1 General Research Question .................................................................................................... 4 

1.3.2 Specific Questions ................................................................................................................. 5 

1.4 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................. 5 

1.4.1 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................ 5 

1.5 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................... 6 

1.6 Organization of the work .......................................................................................................... 6 

 

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 8 

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REVIEW OF RELATED LTERATURE ....................................................................................... 8 

2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 8 

2.2 Historical Background of Dagaaba Labour Migration ............................................................. 9 

2.3 Environmental Push and Pull Factors of Labour Migration ................................................... 10 

2.4 Reasons for Dagaaba Out-Migration: ..................................................................................... 13 

2.5 Benefits of Dagaaba Labour Migration on Rural Households ................................................ 16 

2. 5.1 Livelihoods ......................................................................................................................... 16 

2.5.2 Investment and Development .............................................................................................. 17 

2. 5.3 Farming ............................................................................................................................... 17 

2.6 Policy Implications of Labour Migration, the case of SADA ................................................ 18 

 

CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 20 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................. 20 

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 20 

3.2 The Study Area ....................................................................................................................... 20 

3.3 The Research Approach .......................................................................................................... 22 

3.3.1 The Mixed Methodology ..................................................................................................... 23 

3.4 Identifying Participants ........................................................................................................... 24 

3.5 The Study population .............................................................................................................. 25 

3.6 Sources of Data ....................................................................................................................... 26 

3.6.1 Primary Source of Data Collection ...................................................................................... 26 

3.6.2 Secondary Sources of Data Collection ................................................................................ 27 

3.7 Data Collection Method .......................................................................................................... 27 

3.7.1 Instruments ........................................................................................................................... 27 

3.7.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................................. 28 

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3.8 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................................... 28 

3.9 Ethical Consideration .............................................................................................................. 29 

3.10 Challenges/Limitations during Data Collection .................................................................... 30 

 

CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 32 

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DAGAABA MIGRANTS ..................... 32 

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 32 

4.2 Age of Respondents ................................................................................................................ 32 

4.1.2 Sex of Returned and Current Migrants ................................................................................ 33 

4.1.3 Level of Education of Respondents ..................................................................................... 34 

4.1.5 Religion ................................................................................................................................ 36 

4.2 Main Occupation of Respondents at Place of Origin .............................................................. 38 

4.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 40 

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 41 

MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT ....................................................................................... 41 

5.1    Decision Making Issues ....................................................................................................... 41 

5.2 Factors Associated with Labour Migration ............................................................................. 43 

5.3 The Push and Pull Factors: ..................................................................................................... 44 

5.4   Contributions of Migrants to Development .......................................................................... 44 

5.4.1 Economic Contributions of migrants to development. ........................................................ 45 

5.4.2 Remittances .......................................................................................................................... 45 

5.4.3 Non-Economic Contribution ................................................................................................ 47 

5.4 The Agricultural Sector Problems .......................................................................................... 48 

5.5 General Observation in the Nandom Traditional Area. .......................................................... 49 

5.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 49 

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CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 51 

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................. 51 

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 51 

6.2 Summary of the Main Findings. ............................................................................................. 51 

6.3 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 52 

6.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 52 

6.4.1 Job creation .......................................................................................................................... 52 

6.4.2 Poverty reduction strategies (SADA) .................................................................................. 53 

6.4.3 Improved Agriculture........................................................................................................... 53 

 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 54 

Letter of Consent........................................................................................................................... 62 

INTERVIEW GUIDE (INSTRUMENT)   FOR THE RESEARCH ............................................ 64 

 

 

 

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LIST OF MAPS 

 
Map 3.1: Map of Ghana indicating the Research Area…………………..22   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 4.1 Age Distribution of returned and current migrants ……………………..…….. 33 

Figure 4.2 Distribution of sex of the respondents at place of origin……………….……… 34 

Figure 4.3 Religious affiliations at origin………………………………………………….. 37 

 Figure 5.1 subsistence farming in Nandom  ………………………………………..…… 47 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES 

 

Table 4.1 Age of distribution of returned and current migrants  ………………….……… 32 

Table 4.3 Sex distribution of returned and current migrants……………………………… 34 

Table 4.4 level of education of returned and current migrants………….……………..….. 35 

Table 4.5: Marital status of Returned and Current  Migrants………..……………………. 36 

Table 4.9 Religious Affiliation of Respondents at origin………………………………….. 37 

Table 4.10 Occupation at place of origin……………………………………………….….. 39 

Table 4.11 Main Occupation of respondents at destination (Accra)……………………… 40 

Table 5.1 Type of support received by migrants before migration……………………….. 42 

Table 5.2 Job Accessibility at Destination…………………………………………………. 43 

 

                
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 

 

GPRS: II Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper II 

GYEEDA: Ghana Youth Employment, and Entrepreneurial Development Authority 

JHS: Junior High School 

MU: Migration Unit 

NGO: Non-Governmental Organization 

NMB: Migration Management Bureau 

NYEP:  National Youth Employment Programme  

SADA: Savannah Accelerated   Development Authority 

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences  or Statistical Product and Service Solutions  

PITO: Locally brewed beer from maize 

 

 

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CHAPTER ONE 

Background of the Study 

1.1 Introduction  

Migration is a complex global phenomenon which has become increasingly rampant over these 

past years, with the movement of migrants occurring not just within national boundaries but 

across borders as international migrants.  Whereas movements for some are done on temporary 

basis others are somewhat permanent. (Adepoju, 2000).Some migrants are forced to move as 

displaced persons or refugees. Most migrants move in search of greener pastures. They come 

from different economic backgrounds; some with high levels of financial and human capital and 

others not well endowed. (Sriskandarajah, 2005)  Irrespective of their economic background both 

the rich and the poor usually move in search of greener pastures. Migrants usually move from 

regions where economic opportunities are lacking or limited. In the West African sub-region, 

migration is considered a way of life, with West Africans having always exhibited a high 

tendency to migrate. (Adepoju, 2000). Before the advent of European colonialism, the sub-region 

had witnessed different kinds of population distribution and re-distribution. The motivations for 

migration changed as the economy and the society at large became diversified. (Anarfi et al., 

2003).Paradoxically, colonialism itself constituted migration from the global north to the global 

south in search of territories, space, resources, and new opportunities for economic expansion on 

the part of colonial powers (Beyani, 2008).  

Human migration has long been considered an important element of population dynamics which 

can have significant consequences on both areas of origin and destination. (Yaro, 2008). In most 

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countries, employment opportunities and developmental changes have been concentrated in few 

areas, especially in major cities, leaving the rural areas to either undergo little growth or have felt 

the backwash effects of development elsewhere (Hirschman, 1958; Myrdal, 1957). 

In Ghana, people have always moved from one region to another or from city to city or from one 

village to another in search of wage employment or better living conditions. The Upper West 

Region (UWR) of Ghana together with the Upper East and Northern regions have served as a 

reservoir of labour for the southern part of the country for most part of the twentieth century 

(Abdul-Korah, 2008).  In this contemporary area, one can find at least three or more generations 

of Dagaaba migrants in many communities in the country. According to Abul-Korah, (2008), 

some of the factors that compelled northerners and for the purpose of this research Dagaaba  to 

migrate to the south in search of wage labour include overpopulation, taxation, lack of resources, 

and “bright light” (electricity).  However, the phenomenon of labour mobility among the 

Dagaaba and specifically those from the Nandom Traditional Area has taken a new dimension as 

the factors indicated above are unable to explain the underlying reasons for this phenomenon 

which has intensified in this contemporary era. 

Ghana remains an agrarian economy with about 54.2% of the population engaged in agriculture     

(Ghana statistical Service, 2010, Accra) much of which is subsistence in nature even though the 

sector has been very significant in the economic development process of the country since 

colonial days. Since independence in 1957, the manner in which development has been pursued 

has not been very different from that of the colonial times. Infrastructural development (roads 

and railways) and the initial provision of social services were all concentrated in the southern 

sector considered as the resource rich areas while the north was deliberately neglected for the 

purpose of serving as a labour basket for the mines and cocoa farms. Energetic men from the 

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north were drawn by compulsion to work in these sectors but a new trend of voluntary migration 

to the cocoa and mining regions to work for money emerged when forced labour by the 

colonialists was abolished in 1936 (Abdul-Korah, 2006). As at now, even though technological 

revolution in the mining and cocoa sectors (use of insecticides) makes unskilled labour 

unattractive to these sectors, as it used to be, migration into the southern sector in general 

believed to offer lots of opportunities for livelihood and the cocoa and mining regions in 

particular continue unabated. (Van der Geest, 2011). 

1.2 Problem Statement 

Migration from the north to the south of Ghana is an old phenomenon which according to Black 

et al. (2006) cited by Awumbila et al. (2008) is fuelled by infertile soils and the absence of social 

amenities and infrastructure in that part of the country. 

The main economic activity of the Upper West Region of Ghana which play host to the Dagaaba 

the major ethnic group is predominantly subsistence agriculture. In their quest to guarantee their 

livelihood, both men and women alike have resorted to seasonal labour  migration to the 

southern parts of the country mostly to the Brong Ahafo, Ashanti, Western, and the Greater 

Accra Regions where the men engage themselves in paid labour, charcoal burning, mining and 

security jobs in the cities while the women either remain back home to raise the children and 

ensure the survival of the family or move along with their husbands to these destinations. Others 

too stay in the towns and cities doing menial jobs like head portage and domestic services. 

For many decades, this phenomenon has remained an important source of income to several 

households in the Nandom Traditional Area. So pronounced is the trend that some communities 

or families appear deserted with only the elderly and children remaining or left behind when 

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most of the active labour force migrate. These families are virtually rendered economically 

inactive following the exodus which is mostly at the end of the rainy season for as long as they 

are away until they possibly return at the beginning of another rainy season. Even more serious is 

the fact that the phenomenon has come to stay among the Dagaaba and seen by most illiterate 

rural farmers as a life-time adventure that any young male or young female growing up must 

undertake. This trend has caught up with even children at basic level of education who see it as a 

more rewarding thing to do rather than continuing with their education. ( Anarfi & kwankye, 

2003) 

This situation does not only give a picture of the extent to which poverty has engulfed the area 

but tends to create a lasting cycle of poverty with grave consequences. This is because parents 

are compelled under such circumstances to deny their children education since hitherto; they 

were school drop outs themselves. These dropouts may grow up earning less income, thus 

perpetuating the poverty cycle in the area and thus facilitate further migration. (Ravallion, 2008). 

 However, migration in the Nandom Traditional Area has not been entirely negative. 

Remittances from migrants have made contributions to the development in the area.  

 

1.3 Research Question and Objectives. 

1.3.1 General Research Question 

Does labour migration contribute to the socio-economic development of the Nandom Traditional 

Area? 

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1.3.2 Specific Questions 

      The specific objectives include the following: 

1. What are the push and pull factors associated with Dagaaba  labour  migration? 

2. Has migration improved the living conditions of the Dagaaba  labour migration? 

3. Has migration contributed to the basic physical development of the Nandom Traditional 

Area? 

4. What policies should be considered in this phenomenon especially with the involvement of 

SADA? 

5. How can the adverse effects of migration in the Nandom Traditional Area be managed? 

1.4 Objectives of the Study 

The general objective of the study was to examine the contributions of migration to the socio-

economic development of the Nandom Traditional Area. 

1.4.1 Specific Objectives  

1. To describe the socio-demographic characteristics of the Dagaaba return and current 

migrants interviewed.  

2. To identify the factors at the place of origin and destinations that account for the decision 

of the Dagaaba to migrate. 

3. To examine how migration has affected the lives of the Dagaaba households in the 

Nandom traditional Area. 

4. To establish the extent to which migration of the Dagaaba labour has benefitted the 

Nandom traditional area in terms of basic physical development. 

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5. To make policy recommendations based on the findings. 

1.5 Significance of the Study  

Even though labour migration from the northern to the southern parts of Ghana has been 

tremendous, the literature available indicates that, there has little focus in the relationship 

between migration and development in general and among the Dagaaba. There has been more 

attention on the migration of girls into the cities as head porters mainly because of its socio-

economic implications on the urban centres (see for instance Awumbila et al 2008 & Anarfi et al 

2007), and the effects on the migrant girls. 

Little work on contribution of internal migration to the development of Nandom has been done. 

Meanwhile, Nandom has been a major out-migration area in northern Ghana. The present study 

therefore fills the gap in the knowledge on internal migration and development nexus specifically 

among the Dagaaba in the Nandom Traditional Area. 

It can also contribute to policy adoption on the migration development nexus by the government 

as it seeks to make migration a component of development planning. The government is already 

in the process of adopting a policy. 

1.6 Organization of the work 

The study is presented in five chapters. The first chapter gives the background of the study. It 

deals with the introduction, statement of the problem, objectives, and the justification of the 

study. 

The second chapter reviews the literature on migration of Dagaaba outside the upper west region. 

It provides a background on what is happening globally as far as labour mobility is concerned, in 

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West Africa, and the upper West region. It also discusses the impact of the Dagaaba labour 

mobility on agricultural labour and development in general in the Nandom Traditional Area 

 The third chapter is dedicated to the research methodology employed for the study 

Chapter four presents the socio-demographic characteristics of Dagaaba migrants. 

Chapter five presents the findings on migration and development associated with Dagaaba labour 

migration in the Nandom Traditional Area. It is devoted on the impact of remittances on 

development in the area.  

Chapter six which is the last chapter summarizes the main findings of the study, conclusions, and 

recommendations which highlight policy implications and areas for further research  

                                 

                                     

 

                                                 

 

 

 

                                             

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CHAPTER TWO 

REVIEW OF RELATED LTERATURE 

2.1 Introduction 

Over the years, labour mobility has become an important issue in migration both internationally 

and internally. According to Oderth (2002) cited by Yaro, (2008) labour migration has shaped 

the nature of both the receiving and places of origin more than any other phenomenon in human 

geography.  The Upper West Region (UWR) of Ghana and for that matter the Dagaaba have 

served as a reservoir of labour for the southern part of the country for most of the twentieth 

century and today one can find at least three generations of migrants in any given community 

whose experiences both mirror and differ substantially from migrants in other parts of Africa. 

(Nabila, 1986) Attempts to explain this phenomenon have centered on theories of over 

population, taxation, lack of resources, and “bright lights,” (electricity) which compelled 

Dagaaba to migrate to the south in search of wage work. (Abdul-Korah, 2008).  
 

This chapter seeks to review related literature that explains how labour mobility has affected the 

Dagaaba in general in the Upper West region of Ghana and with particular interest and reference 

to the Dagaaba (Dagara) in the Nandom Traditional Area.  The chapter therefore examines some 

important themes on labour migration in line with the objectives of the study, which included the 

historical background of Dagaaba labour migration, the environmental push and pull factors of 

labour, migration, the potential benefits of migration to the sending source, the reasons for 

migrating and some policy implications of labour migration, especially with the implementation 

of the SADA programme in northern Ghana.  

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2.2 Historical Background of Dagaaba Labour Migration 

According to Liebenow, (1986 & Bell, 1986) cited in Twumasi-Ankrah, (1995) the past few 

decades have witnessed a rapid pace of urban population concentration in developing countries 

of Africa and elsewhere. While the roots of Dagaaba migration to southern Ghana can be traced 

to the pre-colonial past, the imposition of colonial rule and the establishment of a capitalist 

economy in the Gold Coast led to the incorporation of the Northern Territories and its people 

into the colonial and international economies. The Dagaaba like other people in the northern 

territories were required to contribute their labour resources to colonial interests in the mines, 

plantations and other sectors of the economy mainly in the southern parts of the country. As 

such, the first batch of state-sponsored recruited labourers from the Northwestern Province (now 

UWR) was sent to the mines at Tarkwa in 1909 (Abdul-Korah, 2008).  

 

Migration among the Dagaaba in pre-colonial time was as a result of internecine warfare, and the 

need for virgin land due to population explosion. (Songsore & Denkabe, 1995) The literature 

available points to a number of factors accounting for the independent movement of the Dagaaba 

to the south in search for wage work.  

 

The Dagara migration system is part of a larger pattern of North-South migration in Ghana. 

 According to the 2000 population census, (GSS, 2002a) about four out of ten Dagara people (36 

%) are living in Southern Ghana. More than half of them (51%) reside in the Brong Ahafo 

Region. Within the Brong Ahafo Region, Wenchi District is the most popular destination of 

Dagara migrants. (Kees van der Geest, 2011).  

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It is often argued that the North-South migration system of the Dagara was initiated by colonial 

coercion in the first decades of the 20th century. (Songsore & Denkabe, 1995).  In pre-colonial 

times, before the advent of the modern migration system, Dagara people moved over shorter 

distances, mainly in search of fertile land and to escape conflict, oppressive rulers and slave 

raiders. Human mobility in this era has been described as a tradition of local migration by many 

and long-distance migration by, a minority of warriors and traders. In the 18th and 19th century, 

voluntary migration over longer distances was impeded by conflict and insecurity resulting from 

the wars between the Ashanti, the Gonja and the Dagomba and the related activities of slave 

raiders. (Ibid) 

 

Therefore, this migration among the Dagaara is not new, but many observers expect it to 

intensify due to a number of factors including, population growth, urbanization and regional 

economic disparities which lead to unbalanced development. Hence, changes in the regional 

distribution of people through migration can have profound impacts on the economy in migrant 

source and destination areas. 

2.3 Environmental Push and Pull Factors of Labour Migration 

Poorly endowed districts in Northern Ghana tend to experience more out-migration than districts 

with a more benign natural environment (Kees van der Geest, 2008). However, no evidence was 

found that North-South migration increased in a period of more pronounced environmental stress 

in the 1970s and early 1980s. Out-migration rates rather declined and many migrants actually 

returned to the North. (Ibid). In this period in Ghana’s migration history, economic crisis and 

political turmoil played a more decisive role than environmental factors. Literature on labour 

migration showed that scarcity of fertile land in the Upper West Region and the availability of 

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fertile land in the Brong Ahafo Region were the prime reason for Dagara internal migration 

(Ibid). Also, literature has it that people with higher education from less endowed regions are 

most likely to migrate to a well-endowed region, which is the case of the Dagaara migrants 

found especially in Accra and Kumasi (Dalinpuo, 2013). Sudden-onset environmental stresses, 

like drought-triggered famine or floods, were not mentioned. However, there is substantive 

evidence that Dagaara were forced to migrate because of acute food security problems in the 

North. 

 

Kees van der Geest (2008) argued that most of the Dagara migration to the Brong Ahafo Region 

was part of a larger, proactive household strategy to reduce pressure on land at home and to 

benefit from better farming opportunities in the forest-savanna transition zone. It is obvious that 

one important environmental push and pull factor which induced migration is the structural agro-

ecological differences between Northern Ghana and Southern Ghana than environmental 

degradation and disaster. 

 

Ecologically, this migration flow involves a movement from the interior savannah with one rainy 

season to the forest-savannah zone with two rainy seasons. In political-economic terms the 

movement is from a poor and underdeveloped periphery to a semi-peripheral food crop frontier. 

Kees van der Geest (2008) identified three types of migration among the Dagaaba which are the 

seasonal labour migration, long-term and return migration. The seasonal migration is associated 

with migration where the people after exhausting their only farming season, have to travel to the 

southern part of Ghana to work for economic gains and return home during the next farming 

season. So every season after farming, the people migrate. It is interesting to note that, this 

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phenomenon also enabled majority of Dagara students to pay their school fees and attain higher 

education. Long-term migration has to do with people who migrate due to their jobs relocation or 

in search of skilled labour. These people are mostly found in big cities such as Accra and Kumasi 

and the mining areas of Tarkwa and Obuasi. As the term implies, these people stay for a 

considerable number of years in the destination areas. Return migrants are people who migrate 

for some period of time, and then return to their home areas. This could be within or outside the 

home country.  

 

Sparsely vegetated districts in Ghana are more likely to have migration deficits (more out-

migration than in-migration) as in the case of northern Ghana, and districts with abundant 

vegetation are more likely to have a migration surplus as what is currently being experienced by 

Ghana’s largest cities with influx of migrants especially from the three northern regions of 

Ghana. This is an indication that the availability of natural resources is a determinant of 

migration in Ghana. Out-migration seems to relieve pressure on natural resources while in-

migration increases it. (Kees van der Geest, 2011). 

 

In the North-South migration system, environmental push factors play an important role in 

explaining labour migration and the major pull factors are low population density and good   

physical conditions for agriculture at the destinations. In the principal destination regions of 

migrants from the North (Ashanti and Brong Ahafo) no evidence of a negative impact of 

migration on vegetation cover is recorded. A possible explanation is that settler farmers from the 

North predominantly cultivate the fallow lands of native people who tend to shift their 

livelihoods to non-farm occupations (Ibid). 

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In the same vain, migration to the national capital Accra – environmental factors do not play a 

major role, apparently, the pull factors could be observed clearly as search for better jobs as there 

are inadequate job opportunities in the sending source, better amenities in terms of education, 

health, and general infrastructural development. Also the desire to stay in a city is among the pull 

factors of migrants from the north especially the Dagaabas. 

2.4 Reasons for Dagaaba Out-Migration:   

Migration is generally selective of the young, versatile, or better educated of the community. 

This in a way creates a sort of “brain drain” on rural populations. Ghana like many other 

developing countries suffers from problem of uneven development and distribution of basic 

social amenities between rural and urban centres (Twumasi-Ankrah, 1995). In the regional and 

capital cities, facilities for higher education, quality health care, major sports and entertainment 

facilities, and telecommunication services are available. The building of better and quality roads 

and transportation networks have facilitated labour migration from rural areas. 

The causes of migration are usually explained by using two broad categories, namely, push and 

pull factors. For example, people of a certain area may be pushed off by poverty to move 

towards a town for employment, while a better employment or higher education facility may pull 

people to avail these opportunities. People’s decision to migrate from one place to another 

therefore, may be influenced by both economic and non-economic factors within the household 

(Todaro, 1969). In Ghana as it exists in other African countries, the disparities in the distribution 

of resources help explain this phenomenon. 

Labour migration is also explained by the neoclassical economics approach in terms of economic 

disparities – and particularly wages differentials – between regions and/or nations. As a rational 

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individual the migrant notices these disparities and decides to take advantage of them. Based on 

this approach, the “push and pull” framework  mentioned earlier was established:  It says  that 

migration is the result of either push factors, which put pressure on people to leave their (poor) 

place of origin, and pull factors inherent to destinations, which attract those people to work in 

these places. Applied to the Dagaaba labour migration dynamics, push factors are poverty, 

abundance in labour force and unemployment. The lack of prestige for farm work, the social 

degradation and stigma associated with rural living, and unavailability of social amenities in the 

rural areas have affected the educated and uneducated alike. Youth unemployment is a 

particularly strong push factor (International Organisation of Migration, 2007). 

Most of the rural-urban migrants of today move in response to the “push” from the vagaries of 

rural living and the “pull” of western industry, commence and “bright light” of urban areas. 

(Abdul-Korah, 2008; Caldwell, 1969 & Frazier, 1961) cited in Twumansi- Ankrah,( 1995). The 

educated person according to Caldwell (1969) is perceived as someone who belongs to the city. 

The Neoclassical Approach alone, however, does not cover all aspects of labour migration, 

especially when it comes to the unit of decision-making as well as social factors for migrating. 

Therefore, the IOM introduced the micro analyses such as the New Economics of Labour 

Migration (NELM).  They state that labour migration is a choice that is collectively taken by the 

migrants’ households. Migration is therefore a family strategy which takes into account a range 

of economic, social, political and cultural factors. It is important to note that absolute income is 

not the only decisive factor in the household strategy. Another important element is what is 

called “relative deprivation” that means the income position compared to other households in the 

village. Therefore, when a family is aware of increased income of other families due to labour 

migration, it might feel relatively deprived and consequently decide to send members of their 

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own family into migration (IOM, 2007). This actually is the case of the ever increasing issue of 

female head porters in Accra popularly known as “Kaya yei”. 

Abdul-Korah (2008) in his article “Labour Migration among the Dagaaba in the Upper West 

Region of Ghana”, did indicate that social factors such as witchcraft, domestic dispute, and the 

desire to escape parental control or elderly relatives, induced some Dagaaba people to migrate 

and seek a livelihood away from home. According to Bannerman-Richter (1982) cited in 

Twumasi- Ankrah, (1995), in Ghana as in other parts of West Africa, all the ethnic groups share 

the same witchcraft beliefs and attitudes in various shades and forms. 

The need to obtain money for bride-price is often cited as one of the most important causes of 

labour migration in African societies. Schapera, (1947 ) Watson, (1958), Mbatha, (1960) cited in 

Abdul-Korah, (2008). Among the Dagaabas, it is one of the most important reasons why young 

men migrate to the south especially to farming communities like the Brong Ahafo to work for 

money to pay the dowry of their wives. In the past, it was the duty of the parents  to dowry the 

wives of their sons, but the trend has changed of late and a potential suitor  has to look for  

money on his own to dowry his wife. There used to be family property in the form of cattle that 

were meant for this purpose but they are no longer available.  Migration enables the young 

unmarried men earn some money to pay the bride-price and bear the cost associated with 

wedding ceremonies. It also helps the young ladies to acquire some of the basic things needed to 

marry. Some people also migrate because of adventure. They just want to know other places 

besides their home towns.  

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2.5 Benefits of Dagaaba Labour Migration on Rural Households 

2. 5.1 Livelihoods  

Kees van der Geest, (2011) indicated that widespread poverty in Northern Ghana and the 

prospect of escaping poverty by moving to  the more developed southern part of the country are 

the principal causes of migration from Northern Ghana. Poor agro-ecological conditions, lack of 

non-farm income opportunities, a long history of governmental neglect and unequal development 

are some of the root causes of poverty in Northern Ghana. Building on that, however, migration 

for many rural families in Nandom is a livelihood strategy. Since most of them are dependent on 

agriculture as the only source of income, migration is a new way to diversify their income 

sources. What is clear, nevertheless, is that labour migration is an important part in rural 

livelihoods. In most cases, the money a family obtains from out migration exceeds the money 

they make from agriculture at the origin. Dagaaba in Nandom are mostly farmers who depend 

solely on rain fed agriculture and apparently yield or harvest from their farms hardly take them 

throughout the year and so they have to migrate basically to earn  money to be able to buy food 

for the family at home. This was clearly observed in 1983 (the hunger season) when most of the 

abled-bodied men travelled to the south to acquire food for the sustenance of their families. 

According to Kees, (2011) for most Dagara in the Brong Ahafo Region migration was part of a 

larger, proactive household strategy to reduce pressure on land at home and to benefit from better 

farming opportunities in the forest-savanna transition zone and also to be able to remit home by 

sending food and other livelihoods enhancing items. He indicated that seasonal migration 

contributed positively to food and livelihood security. 

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2.5.2 Investment and Development   

 In order to analyse the development impact of remittances, the following categories of 

investment are proposed: Productive investment (agriculture, land, business creation, and 

savings), consumptive investment (consumer goods, house-building and improvement) and 

investment in human capital (health, education). In previous research on labour migration, it is 

commonly understood that productive investment and investment in human capital are the most 

beneficial types of investment for development. Songsore & Denkabe,(1995). In rural Nandom, 

it is clear that the biggest part of remittances is spent on consumptive investment:  People are 

covering every-day needs, constructing and improving their houses, buying bicycles and 

motorbikes and entertainment devices like tape recorders television sets and DVD players, 

celebrating feasts, and repaying debts with remittances. (Van der Geest, 2011). In recent times, 

migrants’ especially long term migrants are investing at their places of origin ranging from 

building projects, paying school fees, and providing for the health needs of their people at home. 

Many migrants are able to afford the cost of tractor services to ply their lands, buy fertilizers to 

improve their agriculture. Migration thus is seen as an investment in recent times and probably 

the only clear source of bringing development to these deprived areas. 

2. 5.3 Farming 

Nandom is predominantly an agricultural economy, and therefore, the impact of labour migration 

on agricultural development should be given much attention. With a population density of about 

one hundred inhabitants per square kilometre, land is relatively scarce in the Nandom Area. 

Fallow periods are short and agricultural productivity is low. A common perception is that 

without migration, there would not be enough land to sustain the population, which would result 

in more hunger, poverty and conflict (Kees van der Geest, 2011). 

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Understanding where the region is situated in the transition zone in terms of intensive land use 

will help understand the impact of out-migration on agricultural development. Out-migration 

principally has a positive effect on farm sizes and agricultural output. Another potentially 

positive effect of return migration is that most of the return migrants do acquire new farming 

techniques at the place of destination which enable them to become agents of change because 

they contribute to increase yield. There is also a positive connection between road network and 

agricultural development.  

2.6 Policy Implications of Labour Migration, the case of SADA 

Although Ghana does not have an explicit migration policy, it has introduced several initiatives 

to deal with specific migration issues. For example, the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy 

Paper II (GPRS II) identifies the Ghanaian Diaspora as a potential source of funding, (Asare, 

2012). These initiatives basically are targeted at international migrants but policies to deal with 

internal migration especially the north-south migration are lacking. Though past governments 

have made efforts by introducing pro-poor programmes in the north, these have not helped in 

curbing labour migration in the region. This is probably due to the implementation and 

management of these programmes. The Northern Growth and Poverty programme is such 

initiative. The introduction of Savannah Accelerated Development Authority (SADA) is another 

initiative intended to curb north-south migration by providing jobs to curb the north-south 

migration and also to help bridge the development gap between the north and south. 

Nevertheless, these initiatives often lack government political will and commitment and remain 

uncoordinated. According to Asare (2012) these initiatives are sponsored by various donors and 

implemented by different ministries. This can result in duplication and incoherence in the 

government’s approach to migration. The creation of a National Migration Bureau (NMB) inter-

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ministerial team/steering committee, later renamed Migration Unit (MU), under the auspices of 

the Ministry of Interior is an important step towards addressing these issues. An important task 

of the inter-ministerial MU team is to formulate a comprehensive national migration policy, so 

that the fragmented legal framework governing migration could be streamlined. A fully fledged 

national migration policy would also facilitate ongoing efforts to mainstream migration into 

development plans. 

 

Thus, the challenge for policy makers is how to regulate and govern migration in a manner that 

leads to a “win-win-win” situation for all the actors concerned – regions of origin and destination 

and migrants themselves (Ibid). One of the main data gaps which remains a big challenge to 

government is the absence of accurate statistics on the number of migrants especially from the 

north living in Accra. This could inform government the extent of the challenge and to 

effectively find remedy to the situation. 

 

                             

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER THREE 

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Introduction 

This chapter seeks to illustrate the research methods used for this study. The locations of the 

study area and the research approach used are described as well as the various sources of data. 

The research instruments used are principally questionnaires and in-depth interviews. Issues 

pertaining to data analysis are also discussed in this chapter. 

3.2 The Study Area 

The study was conducted in Nandom which is a newly created district in the Upper West Region 

and four suburbs in the Accra Metropolis, namely; Nima, Adenta,  Madina  and  La. Accra is the 

capital of the Greater Accra Region. Nima, Adenta , Madina, and La have a good concentration 

of Dagaaba migrants hence the choice of these suburbs.  Nandom on the other hand is a newly 

created district carved out of the Lawra district in 2012. It is located in the northwestern part of 

Ghana and shares border with the southwestern part of Burkina Faso. Linguistically, the people 

are referred to as “Dagara however, Dagaaba which is the generic name for the ethnic group was 

employed. Dagaaba means a descendant of the Mole-Dagbane group which also includes the 

Mossi, Dagomba,  Frafra,  Mamprusi,  Wala among others. According to Van der  Geest  (2011), 

the origin of this ethnic group is subject to considerable debate. 

Nandom is characterized by one rainy season with an annual rainfall of about 750 to 1050mm. 

The rainy season starts around May through to October and the dry season from November to 

April. The climatic conditions and vegetation types are classified under dry savanna, the area’s 

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environmental conditions are highly influenced by its proximity to the Sahara desert which 

account for the poor soil type and dry weather condition. 

The economic activity which is predominant in the region is Agriculture; it employs about eighty 

percent of the population in the region. With one main farming season, and as agriculture in 

Ghana largely depends on rainfall patterns, the area relies on the rains for cultivation. The main 

crops grown in the region on subsistence bases include maize, millet, cowpeas, groundnut, 

sorghum, cassava, rice and yam are. The people mostly use labour intensive methods of farming 

with simple farm tools and implements. 

 Nandom or the Upper West Region as a whole has been behind its southern peers in terms of 

development for far too long. It is also viewed deprived with limited natural resources to fuel its 

development process. The south can boast of coastal resource, good soil, with rich mineral and 

forest resources that account for the attractiveness to colonial masters and investors now. 

Therefore developments in modern infrastructure and economic activities have been centrally 

focused in the south which may be attributed to the frequent out migration there. 

The destination area (Accra) is the nation’s capital which is a cosmopolitan city. The city 

dwellers are made up of indigenes (Gas) and foreigners made up of Ghanaians from other 

regions and foreign nationals.  

 Recent trend of out migration involves more of younger females unlike in the past which was 

been dominated by independent males migrants. The female numbers from the north have been 

increasing dramatically and this has taken centre stage of recent research in internal migration. 

Both males and females move to the cities, mostly without any special skills and work in menial 

jobs as head porters, and some of the males use trucks in their work (Hashim, 2007). 

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Figure 3.1 A map of Ghana showing the study areas  

     NANDOM 

  

     Source:  maps of world. Com 

 

3.3 The Research Approach 

The main purpose of the study was to identify the factors at origin and destination areas that 

account for the decision of the Dagaaba agricultural labour to migrate and also to find out how 

labour migration has affected the lives and development of the people at the place of origin. To 

achieve this, the study used mixed-methods approach which combines quantitative and 

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qualitative methods (Tashakkori and Teddlie 1998). According to Greene et al. (1989), one of 

the purposes or rationales for conducting mixed method research is expansion. That is seeking to 

expand the breath and range of research by using different methods for different enquiry 

components. Broadening the scope of the study also involves the inclusion of more participants.  

3.3.1 The Mixed Methodology 

Over the years several scholars have debated the essence of combining qualitative and 

quantitative approaches in a single research study.  According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie 

(2004), cited by Dalinpuo (2013) for more than a century, the advocates of quantitative and 

qualitative research paradigms have engaged in ardent dispute. While some researchers argue for 

the enormous benefit to be derived by combining the two paradigms, some also are of the view 

that the two are not compatible and cannot be combined. In recent times, the argument for mixed 

methods research (the combined use of quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study) 

has become an increasingly popular approach in the fields of sociology, psychology, education 

and health sciences.  

According to Johnson and Onwuegbuzie  (2004), cited by Harwell (2011), mixed methods 

research is an attempt to legitimate the use of multiple approaches in answering research 

questions, rather than restricting or constraining researchers’ choices (that is, it rejects 

dogmatism). It is an expansive and creative form of research, not a limiting form of research. It is 

inclusive, pluralistic, and complementary, and it suggests that researchers take an eclectic 

approach to method selection and the thinking about and conduct of research. With the mixed 

methods approach to research, researchers incorporate methods of collecting or analyzing data 

from the quantitative and qualitative research approaches in a single research study (Creswell, 

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2003; Johnson & Onwuegbuzie). In other words, researchers collect or analyze not only 

numerical data, which is customary for quantitative research, but also narrative data, which is the 

norm for qualitative research in order to address the research question(s) defined for a particular 

research study.  

 

Creswell (2006) has made strong arguments for mixed methods research that offset the 

weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative research as follows; that mixed methods research 

provides more comprehensive evidence for studying a research problem than either quantitative 

or qualitative research alone. Researchers are given permission to use all of the tools of data 

collection available rather than being restricted to the types of data collection typically associated 

with qualitative research or quantitative research.  Mixed methods research helps answer 

questions that cannot be answered by qualitative or quantitative approaches alone. The choice of 

mixed method for the present study was based on its advantages over the use of only one 

method.  It facilitates comparison of the quantitative and qualitative data set to produce validated 

conclusions. 

3.4 Identifying Participants 

A number of sampling techniques were employed to sample out the research participants. One of 

such techniques was the convenience sampling. This included the selection of communities that 

are close for easy transportation and accessibility. In this convenience sampling approach, 

members of the population were chosen based on their relative ease of access. Purposive 

sampling technique was also used to sample out only return migrants for the study. Purposive 

sampling also known as judgmental sampling allows the researcher to exercise his/her own 

judgment to select population members whom the researcher considers can give the desired and 

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accurate information Dalinpuo, (2013). Purposive sampling is considered as the most important 

kind of non-probability sampling that can help the researcher identify the primary participants. In 

order to get those with experience relating to the phenomenon to be researched, a purposive 

sampling method was adopted to gain access to the respondents. 

 

Locating the respondents for the study therefore was not difficult because of the following 

reasons: the researcher speaks the native language and means of transport to move from 

community to community was easy as a motorbike was provided to move around and with the 

help of research assistants.  

3.5 The Study population 

Issues of migration have become a matter of concern to researchers, governments, policy makers 

among others in recent times. Historically in Ghana the most common inter-regional migration is 

the north-south migration, where people migrate from the north to the south for employment in 

the mines, and agricultural sector mainly and also for all kinds of jobs in the informal sector 

especially in recent times. Accra happens to be the major destination of these migrants. 

Therefore the entire population of the Nandom Traditional Area which is a major source of 

north-south migration was targeted for the study. Brutu, Nabugangn, Konyugangn, Tome, 

Danko, and Ketuo were selected communities in the Nandom Traditional Area while Maamobi, 

Nima, Madina, and La were the suburbs of Accra selected.  However, for the purpose of field 

work, some communities in Nandom District were identified for the study. As indicated earlier, 

the choice of these communities was basically related to the sending and receiving sources of 

migrants. 

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3.6 Sources of Data 

The study used both primary and secondary sources to collect the data about relation between 

labour mobility, and development among the Dagaaba in the Nandom Traditional Area. Since 

there was a wide range of literature on the Dagaaba north-south migration and inadequate 

academic journals on their contribution to development, it was necessary to conduct field work 

and gather primary data. These sources were used to support and substantiate migration and 

development among the Dagaaba in Nandom. 

3.6.1 Primary Source of Data Collection 

The distinction between primary and secondary sources of data collection can sometimes be 

ambiguous. An individual document may be a primary source in one context and a secondary 

source in another context. Time is the defining element, for example, a recent newspaper article 

is not usually a primary source, but a newspaper article from the past, for example, in the 1860’s 

may be a primary source for civil war research. 

 

Primary data is data which is collected by the researchers themselves. This kind of data is new, 

original research information. Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to 

what actually happened. A primary source reflects the individual viewpoint of a participant or 

observer. For the present study, primary data was collected through the use of questionnaires and 

in-depth interviews. This source enabled the researcher to collect original information and also to 

be able to cross check and compare with the secondary sources. 

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3.6.2 Secondary Sources of Data Collection 

Secondary data is using information that has already been produced by other people. Secondary 

sources are usually reviewed in order to analyse, interpret and define the research problem. 

Finding out about research that has already been conducted helps to form new research 

questions. The secondary sources for the present study include publications of the Ghana 

Statistical Service (GSS), books and magazines on migration, the Internet search on migration, 

newspaper publications as well as unpublished materials. 

3.7 Data Collection Method 

The research questions and objectives of the study show that the nature of the data needed and 

for the analysis required a combination of the methods of both quantitative and qualitative 

approaches. This is because some of the data were quantitative in nature and could best be 

obtained through questionnaires while other data were qualitative and also could be obtained 

through the means of interviews. The study, therefore, employed interviews and questionnaires, 

complementing the strengths of the two methods to improve the quality of the data. 

3.7.1 Instruments 

In each study area, the researcher administered questionnaires that were made up of both closed 

and opened-ended questions to 60 respondents which consisted of 20 migrants in Accra and 40 

returned migrants in the Nandom Traditional Area respectively. The questionnaires have 4 

sections: 

 

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Section One is on Socio-Demographic profile, Section Two: the Migration Process and 

experience, Section Three: Economic Reintegration, and Section Four:  Social Reintegration of 

return migrants. 

 

In-depth interview was employed to get data from respondents. It is a useful way of collecting 

qualitative data because the technique is ‘introspective’ and allows respondents to report on 

themselves, their views, beliefs, practices, interactions and concerns Dalinpuo, ( 2013). With 

interviews, many people are willing to respond than when they have to fill out questionnaires. 

The advantages of interviews are that; personal contact with participants might elicit richer and 

more detailed responses. It provides excellent opportunity to probe and explore questions, and 

finally, participants do not need to be able to read and write their responses. 

3.7.2 Interviews 

In examining the relation between labour mobility, and development among the Dagaaba in the 

Nandom traditional area, in-depth interviews were held with some return migrants in the 

Nandom traditional area. The in-depth interviews were generally unstructured and depending on 

the responses, probing questions were asked for clarification or to solicit further information.  

During the interviews, the researcher sought the consent of participants to audio-record the 

proceedings as they responded to the questions for transcription. This, the researcher explained 

would save time and the recordings would be used for academic purposes only.  

3.8 Data Analysis 

During the field work, the questionnaires administered were structured and therefore needed 

direct recording, interviews on the other hand were audio-recorded and notes were also taken. 

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After each field visit, reports were written down based on the field notes and the transcription of 

the recordings. These were later compiled together as the research report. According to 

Panneerselvam (2004), after data is collected, proper tools and techniques should be used for 

classification and analysis of the data. The researcher therefore used descriptive and inferential 

tools and techniques to analyze and present the data. The analysis and interpretation of the data 

aimed at making reading simple by reducing complex human beings to a few identifying words 

on a page. Based on the findings, the data were interpreted and discussed in relation to the 

objective of the study. 

 

Data was analysed using the Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) and Excel. The 

choice of these packages was due to their suitability as tools for social scientists. In the analysis, 

percentages, frequencies, charts and graphs were drawn from the descriptive values. The results 

from the SPSS were used to present the demographic characteristics of respondents. Basically, 

data analysis involved the use of descriptive tools to summarise and present statistical 

information to support quantitative data collected 

3.9 Ethical Consideration 

In considering ethics of data collection in social sciences, the researcher  chose the path of 

renowned researchers such as Christians, (2000) cited in Gallagher (2005) who gave four 

guidelines or principles for abjuring to ethics when doing research. 

1. “Informed consent”; where subjects must agree voluntarily to participate and the agreement 

must be based on full and open information 

 

 

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2. “Deception”; which is about deliberate misrepresentation during the research process 

3.“Privacy and confidentiality”; to safeguard participants’ against unwanted exposure and be 

made public only behind a shield of anonymity and consequently no one deserves harm or 

embarrassment as a result of insensitive research practices. 

4. “Accuracy”; where information so gathered is reported accurately and not misreported. 

All these steps were taken into consideration during the data collection process. Consent of the 

migrants and return migrants was sought. They were informed about the purpose of the research, 

the design and tools were all explained to their understanding and their right to participate and 

not to participate in the research. Consent was sought for audio-recording of some of the 

responses and overall, the information that was collected was meant for the purpose of academic 

work only. They were therefore assured of their anonymity and confidentiality in the research. 

The consent letter read and explained to participants can be seen in the Appendix.  

3.10 Challenges/Limitations during Data Collection 

There were a number of challenges faced during the field work.  

One significant problem that was encountered was the difficulty of getting participants for the 

study. The research was conducted at the time which coincided with the farming season of the 

Dagaabas and participants were busy on their farms and did not have time for the interviews. 

However, interviews were scheduled in the evenings and sometimes in the night just to get 

participants to be able to respond as they would have returned from their farms. 

In Accra, for example, respondents did not have the time as they were also engaged in their work 

and so the researcher had to chase and follow them on several occasions to get the questionnaires 

filled. 

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Due to the limited time frame for the data collection, and the fact that the respondents’ locations 

are far apart, Nandom and Accra, only the minimum number of interviews required for analysis 

was conducted. 54 returned migrants in Nandom and 14 migrants in Accra were interviewed.  

 

                                             

                                       

 

 

 

  

 

 

                                  

                                 

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CHAPTER FOUR 

SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DAGAABA MIGRANTS 

4.1 Introduction 

This chapter is on the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. It covers their sex, 

age, religion, level of education and occupation.  These are important for the study because they 

are variables that explain the migration process and the contribution of Dagaaba migrants to the 

development of the area.  

4.2 Age of Respondents 

All the respondents in the study were heads of households or their spouses and their sons and 

daughters. All the participants were from the Nandom district of the Upper West region and 

spoke “Dagaare” language. Some of the respondents at the place of destination (Accra) were 

either second generation or third generation migrants.  

The age of the household heads who participated in the study at the place of origin ranged 

between 40 and 70yrs. Among the 54 people interviewed, majorities (72%) were 40 years and 

above. (9%) were aged between 20 and 29 years, and (19%) were between the ages of 30-39.  

Table 4.1 Age of distribution of returned and current migrants  

AGE            Returned  
Number              percentage 

             Current   
Number              percentage 

20-29 5 9 2 14.3 
30-39 10 19 5 35.7 
40+ 39 72 7 50 
TOTAL 54 100 14 100 

Source: Field work June (2013) 

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In all 54 people responded to the interview. 5 people representing  9% were between the ages of  

20-29 and 10 people representing 19% were between the ages of 30-39, while respondents who 

were 40 years and above were 39 representing 72%. 

Figure 4.1 Age Distribution of returned and current migrants  

 

Source: Field survey data (2013) 

4.1.2 Sex of Returned and Current Migrants 

Sex is an important variable when it comes to migration studies, especially labour migration. 

Migration can be sex selective. In the present study, attempt was made to include both sexes 

even though anecdotal information indicates that more males than females have been migrating 

from the Nandom Traditional Area 

The data collected revealed that male respondents (33) constituted the majority representing 61% 

while females were 21 representing 39%. Basically, the labour migrants from the Nandom 

traditional area are farmers who migrate to farming communities in the Brong Ahafo region to 

labour for money. This is an exercise for males and not for females and that accounted for the 

large percentage of those interviewed. It is also an indication that more males migrate than 

women, migrate from this area. According to Kees van der Geest (2011), the migration trend has 

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changed and is still changing as more females are also migrating now. The proportion of (38%) 

of female returned migrants in the study population at the distribution is a significant sign of 

change. 

Table 4.2 Sex distribution of returned and current migrants 

Sex           Returned 
Number               Percentage 

             Current 
Number               Percentage 

 
 

Male 33 61 9 64 
Female 21 39 5 36 
Total 54 100 14 100 
Source: Field survey data (2013) 

 

Figure 4.2 Distribution of sex of the respondents at place of origin 

 

Source: Field Survey data (2013) 

4.1.3 Level of Education of Respondents 

The educational characteristics of respondents of both returned migrants and migrants at 

destination were sought and the following tables present the results. 

 

 

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Table 4.3 level of education of Returned and Current migrants 

Level of education              Returned 
Number                           percentage 

            Current 
Number             percentage 

 
 

No Education  12 30.8 0 0 
Primary  9 23 0 0 
JHS/Middle school 16 41 1 7.1 
Tech/Voc/Commercial 1 2.5 2 14.2 
SHS/O’ Level 1 2.5 0 0 
Post Sec/Poly/Agric/Nursing 0 0 3 21.4 
Undergraduate  0 0 3 21.4 
Postgraduate  0 0 5 35.7 
TOTAL 39 100 14 100 
Source: field survey data (2013) 

 

The majority of the returned migrants from the Nandom traditional area have little or no 

education. This finding is not surprising as majority of these people are peasant farmers and 

seasonal migrants.  As high as 30.8% of the people interviewed never went to school at the 

destination, while 41% attained middle school or JHS level.  

On the other hand, a high percentage (88%) of migrants at the place of destination (Accra) have 

post-secondary and above. 

4.1.4 Marital Status  

Marriage is an important determinant of adulthood and independence.  At the place of origin, 

close to 6 out of every 10 (57.5%) were married. Almost a quarter (25%) was formerly married 

(divorced, separated, and widowed). 

 

 

 

 

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Table 4.4: Marital status of Returned and Current Migrants 

MARITAL STATUS        Returned 
Number     
Percentage 

        Current 
Number    
Percentage 

Single  4 10 2 14 
Married  23 57.5 9 64 
Consensual  0 0 2 14 
Divorced  3 7.5 0 0 
Separated  5 12.5 0 0 
Widowed  2 5 1 8 
No response 3 7.5 0 0 
TOTAL 40 100 14 100 
Source: Field survey data (2013) 

 

At the place of destination, (78%) majority were in marital union, married (64); or living in 

consensual union.  

Marriage is a very important component of the family system in Nandom. However, most family 

units in Nandom have only one wife because polygyny is not widely practiced in the villages. As 

a result women often have the right to live in their father’s, brother’s or mother’s house. These 

facts combine to deprive them of any incentive to tolerate the presence of co-wives in their 

residential group. Polygyny is less prevalent now in the Ghanaian society because of inroads into 

Christianity and also because many men cannot afford to pay more than one bride price 

(Dugbazah, 2007). 

4.1.5 Religion 

Religion plays a major role in the lives of Ghanaians, and constitutes a very important part of 

rural life in Nandom. The findings of the study show that people from the six villages at the 

place of origin and also at the destination area are mainly affiliated to the Christian religion. 

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Christianity is the most practiced religion across the two areas.  A small percentage of the 

population in the villages also practices African traditional religion and Islam. Among the 

households surveyed at the place of origin, 52 of respondents are Catholics representing (96.2%) 

and 1 person practices traditional religion and also one other participant Moslem. Further 

discussions with participants revealed that there are other villagers who practice traditional 

religion sometimes simultaneously with Christianity. However, this is not acceptable and a 

church member can be punished or banned from taking communion if it becomes public 

knowledge that he/she practices traditional religion simultaneously with Christianity. 

Table 4.5 Religious Affiliation of Respondents at origin 

RELIGION NUMBER PERCENTAGE 
Christianity  52 96.2 
Islam  1 1.9 
Traditional religion 1 1.9 
TOTAL 54 100 
Source: Field Survey data (2013) 
 

Figure 4.5 Religious affiliations at origin 

.96.2% 

1.9% 1.9% 

RELIGION 

CHRISTIANITY

ISLAM

TRADITIONAL

 

Source: Field Survey data (2013) 

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4.2 Main Occupation of Respondents at Place of Origin 

In agricultural communities, relations within the family and in the rural community dominate the 

social life. Hence resources such as land, labour and capital tend to be mobilized within these 

communal units. The stability and success of the rural household, therefore, rests largely on its 

ability to organize agricultural resources and provide for its members, since social status is 

determined by success in farming (Kaufert, 1976 cited in Dugbazah, 2007). As indicated earlier 

in the study, Nandom is a predominantly agricultural area, with farming being the major 

occupation in the villages. 

Majority of the research participants indicated that agriculture was the primary source of their 

livelihood. Most of the households surveyed undertake farming mostly on smallholdings; with 

the farms ranging from small gardens to medium subsistent types and relatively large farms.  

Farming comprises the cultivation of food staples such as corn, yam, millet, rice and beans, as 

well as vegetables such as pepper, okra and garden eggs.  

Another agricultural activity is livestock rearing, which involves animals such as sheep, goats, 

fowls, guinea fowls, cattle, and pigs. The data revealed that about 90 % of the respondents at the 

place of origin kept these animals mentioned. These are generally kept under varying free-range 

or confined conditions. There is also very limited small-scale industrial activity including 

weaving. 

Although land exists in relative abundance in Nandom, the villagers are unable to farm large 

portions due to the lack of capital. There is also illiteracy, lack of social amenities, lack of 

alternative employment opportunities and lack of access to inputs as well as  high costs of inputs 

(for example credit, fertilizer, land labour) among others. As a result of the above factors, 

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income from agriculture, which is the primary occupation, tends to be inadequate in meeting the 

needs of the Nandom communities. Due to this inadequacy, most households are compelled to 

engage in secondary occupations, which are a combination of farm and non-farm activities.  

Table 4.6 Occupation at place of origin 

Occupation Before 
migration 
(Number) 

Percentage At 
destination 
( Number) 

percentage After 
return 
(number) 

 
percentage 

Agriculture 21 
 

50 
 

14 33.3 19 45.2 

Education 
 

6 14.2 7 16.6 2 4.7 

Construction 1 
 

2.3 
 

5 11.9 4 9.5 

Transport, 
storage, & 
communicati
on 

1 2.3 5 11.9 1 2.3 

Trade (whole 
sale & retail) 

1 2.3 4 9.5 2 4.7 

Unemployme
nt 

6 14.2 0 0 6 14.2 

Others 
 

6 
 
 
 

14.2 
 
 

7 16.6 8 19 
 

Total 42  
 
 

100 42 100 42 100 

Source: Field survey data (2013) 

 

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Table 4.7 Main Occupation of respondents at destination (Accra) 

Occupation Before migration Number Percentage Occupation 
at destination 

Percentage 

Agriculture 
 

0 0 0 0 

Education 
 

9 64.2 5 35.7 

Construction 
 

1 7.1 1 7.1 

Transport, Storage & 
communication 

2 14.2 2 14.2 

Unemployed 1 
 

7.1 0 0 

Others 1 
 

7.1 6 42.8 

Total 
 

14 
 

100 14 100 

Source: Field Survey, (2013) 

4.3 Conclusion 

The chapter provided an analysis and understanding of the material gathered from the field 

survey and interviews. The chapter discussed the characteristics of Dagaaba  labour  migrants, 

both return and those still at the place of destination. It was discovered that Dagaaba  labour 

migrants are willing to return to their place of origin after some point in time.                                      

                                    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER FIVE 

 MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT 

5.1    Decision Making Issues 

In Ghana, migration results from a complex set of implicit and explicit negotiations that occur 

within the household. More often than not, the decision to migrate is made on rational 

justifications so that a household can maximize the expected gains (Anarfi et al., 2003) cited in 

Dugbazah,( 2007).  

The study shows that in Nandom the decision to migrate is not only made by family members 

but also by individuals acting on their own. The data indicated that other people also played a 

role in their decision to migrate such as former school mates, friends, migrants at place of 

destination among others.  Household usually invest in an individual through education who has 

the greatest potential to support the household in terms of remittances ( Dugbazah, 2007). For 

these household migration is not just about an individual choice of physical relocation, it is often 

a decision about who stays at home farming and who migrates to earn wages. Adepoju (1995: 47, 

cited in Dugbazah, 2007), describes this decision-making process as follows:  

 “In maximizing household resource allocation and utilization, senior members of the 

family decide who should migrate just in the same way they decide what piece of land 

should be cultivated, and who should be sent to school.” 

Out of 40 return migrants, (62.5%) indicated that the family was part of the decision making to 

migrate and (37.5%) answered in the negative. Eighteen (45%) received support from the family 

to travel, (27.5%) received support from friend s, (7.5%) received support from migrants at the 

place of destination and (20%) did not receive support from anybody. Refer to table 5.1 

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Networks play a critical role in determining migration patterns. They tend to increase the 

likelihood of migration (Gottlieb, 1987, Winters et al., 2001) and tend to attract potential 

migrants to the same geographical area or destination of migrants. (Bartel, 1989, Dunlevy, 1991)  

Migrants’ networks can facilitate migration in different ways: through provision of information 

on the migration process; destination areas and jobs and assistance with integration after arrival. 

Networks can also finance the cost of migration of new migrants from the origin. 

 Friends and family network of previous migrants encourage migration (Gottlieb, 1987, 

Grossman, 1999). Community networks, former school mates and migrants at destination among 

others also encourage migration. 

Nandom has witnessed generations of migrants. It should be expected that a choice of migration 

has gone on over the years. Migration has therefore, been a norm for the young people 

Table 5.1 Type of support received by migrants before migration 

Type of support Percentage 

Family 45 

Friends 27.5 

Migrants at destination 7.5 

Nobody 20 

Former sch. Mates 0 

Others 0 

Total 100 

Source: field work, June (2013) 

Among the help received out of 36 return migrants, (52.7%) received financial support, (44.4%) 

mentioned prayers and others (2.7%).  

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Though (80%) had jobs at the place of destination, (17.5%) said it was very easy getting a job  

(15%) said getting a job was easy,  (20%) said somehow easy,  (22%) said it was difficult getting 

a job and lastly,  (25% ) said it was very difficult getting a job. It was also found out from the 

study that about (95%) of migrants at the place of destination are willing to return to their place 

of origin after retirement; as one respondent put it “home sweet home”. Refer to table 5.2 

Table 5.2 Job Accessibility at Destination 

Job accessibility Percentage 

Very easy 17.5 

Easy 15 

Somehow easy 20 

Difficult 22.5 

Very difficult 25 

Total 100 

Source: Field work, June (2013) 

 

5.2 Factors Associated with Labour Migration 

As noted earlier, the causes of migration are usually explained by using two broad categories, 

namely, push and pull factors respectively at the origin and destination. For example, people of a 

certain area may be pushed off by poverty to move towards a town for employment, while a 

better employment or higher education opportunities may pull people to avail themselves of 

these opportunities. People’s decision to migrate from one place to another therefore, may be 

influenced by both economic and non-economic factors within the household (Todaro, 1969). 

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5.3 The Push and Pull Factors: 

The following factors were mentioned by various proportions of the respondents at the origin as 

associated with the origin. Youth unemployment, (37.3%) poverty, (43.1%) unavailable social 

amenities (4%) and the need to get money for marriage and settle down (10.4%) and others 

(5.2%) as some of the push factor which compelled them to migrate mainly to the southern part 

of Ghana.  Dery, a 43 year old farmer from Konyugangn gives a vivid picture of the situation: 

“By the end of the farming season what do you expect us to be doing until another 

farming season comes? We can’t sell the little rice or corn we get to put money in our 

pockets. I can’t sell all my fowls to give chop money to my wife and also be drinking pito 

on credit. I have to find some work in the south. You know there is always job availability 

over there even if it is not plenty” (Dery, a 43 year old farmer from Konyugangn) 

From the discussion , many of the respondents preferred to travel to the south at the end of the 

rainy season to find job and earn a living instead of staying back home and be having problems 

with their spouses.  Beyuo, a 45 year old farmer from Tom, said this during the one of the group 

discussions: 

“I needed a new bicycle and money to dowry my wife. My father is dead and my uncles 

have sold all the cattle in the house. My uncles told me that I know the family situation; 

there is no money to support me dowry my wife. All the young boys here go to “jong” 

literally meaning (“farm land in the south”) and find money to marry and settle down. I 

there left for Wenchi and farmed there for two years before returning home. Now I’m 

happily married and have two kids”. ( Beyuo, a 45 year old farmer from Tom) 

5.4   Contributions of Migrants to Development  

Community development has been attributed to migrants’ contribution according to anecdotal 

information.  However, in Ghana, migrants’ contribution to development has been limited to 

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international migration. Both policy and research have concentrated mainly on international 

migration. There has been a large literature on the benefits from international labour migrants 

such as doctors, teachers, and other professionals to the development of their homelands Against 

this backdrop, the present study seeks to examine the contribution of  Dagaaba internal migrants 

to the development of Nandom. Their contributions were categorized into economic and non-

economic contributions.  

5.4.1 Economic Contributions of migrants to development. 

5.4.2 Remittances 

 The present study found out that, (90%) of the respondents (both returned and migrants in 

Accra) have been sending remittances back home. They have been designated for the following 

uses: to pay school fees, (33.1%) entertainment (12%) buying bicycles (32.5%) building houses, 

(15%) and others (7.4%). Some community members added that migrants invest in individuals or 

family by putting up buildings, and thus provide employment for community members, and also 

enhance the status or image of the villages. One household head sums it up: 

“Do you see this family house? It was built by my father some years back. During that 

time he used mud bricks and plastered it with cow dawn. But now with the rains the 

foundation began to erode and one section has given way. Thank God this happened 

when we had all gone to the farm and nobody for that matter got hurt. My eldest son in 

Accra, who works in one of the ministries, took a loan and has helped to build the house 

you see adjacent, with cement and solid foundation. We employed Iddrisu, the mason, in 

the village, and Eric the carpenter from Ko who brought their apprentices and they 

worked in restoring the house. Can you see the difference my son? Really beautiful isn’t 

it? “Naagmwin  barka”. (God, thank you) Now we can sleep without fear of the building 

collapsing on us. Now people respect us in the village because we have a cement house”. 

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                                                                               (Tuo, 46 years, from Nabugangn) 

A second generation migrant interviewed at Nima indicated that he contributes yearly (about one 

thousand Ghana cedi’s) in paying the school fees of some of his relatives back home. A large 

percentage of the interviewees (75%) said that, the asset acquired at their destinations helped 

their integration (65%) of them assessed themselves to be better off after migration. Out of the 

40 returned migrants (82.5%) almost two thirds said they maintained link with family and friends 

when they were migrants at their various destinations.    

Remittances help to expand businesses in agricultural products and construction materials in 

Nandom. Remittances usually constitute small payments sent by individual migrants to their 

relatives. 

Since remittances are person-to-person flows, they are well targeted to meet the needs of the 

recipient (World Bank 2004) and they have the ability to lift people out of poverty. 

 

Some of the remittances are spent on consumption goods such as food, clothing and health care. 

Money is also spent on improving housing and buying durable consumer goods, but generally 

only a small part is spent on investing in productive uses. 

 

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Figure 5.1 subsistence farming in Nandom   

 

Source: Field work June (2013) 
 

Farmers like Naab in figure 5.1 engage in food crop production. They are however poor because 

their produce is mainly for family consumption. The land is becoming scarce as population 

increases in the area. Modern technology for farming has not been introduced to any extent. 

SADA is government response to this situation. 

5.4.3 Non-Economic Contribution 

Skills acquisition at the place of destination is an important contribution by returned migrants in 

Nandom. Remittances helped generate savings, the major source of capital in the absence of 

institutional credit on easy terms 

Some (65.3%) of the return migrants in Nandom, acquired varieties of skills at the place of 

destination which have contributed to the development of the area. They mentioned skills in 

building, carpentry, cooking, weaving and more importantly the act of saving part of their 

earnings at the Nandom Rural Bank. Some (56%) also mentioned investment in modern 

agriculture to increase yield. Out of 41 respondents, 13 representing (31.7%) now use animal 

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traction, 10 representing (24.4%) use tractor services, and 18 of them representing (43.9%) 

continue to use the traditional hoe and cutlass.  Majority of the respondents admitted that 

migration has resulted in increased agricultural productivity. 

However, for a rural farming community like Nandom, the consequence of  labour  migration 

depends on the socio-cultural and economic context, age of migrant, position of migrant within 

the household, the agro-ecological environment, the type of migratory movement, whether it is 

temporary or permanent, and the employment possibilities  and the ability to send adequate 

remittances to maintain or improve  the level of farming prior to migration(Andersson, 2002:78-

79).   

5.4 The Agricultural Sector Problems 

Irrigation: the lack of irrigation in Nandom especially during the dry season is a factor which 

drives the youth to the south in search of wage work. This is because after the farming season, 

majority of the people remained idle. Dry season farming through irrigation can encourage the 

youth to remain at home and work.    

Credit and capital: Another problem associated with the agricultural sector in Nandom is the 

problem of credit and capital. The people find it difficult to get money and invest in their farming 

activity. Some of them intend to use the services of tractors and purchase fertilizers to increase 

yield but the lack of credit and capital makes it difficult if not impossible. The departure of the 

youth in search of wage work in the southern parts of Ghana reduces the labour force in Nandom 

as some of them remained for longer periods at the destination before returning. Some even leave 

their wife/wives and children behind. Bataar (2005) indicated that, malnutrition in Nandom 

partly due to absence of fathers who could produce food to their children or the family at large. 

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However, migration to other areas, especially in the cities without skills or personal development 

can post a danger to the migrants themselves.  

5.5 General Observation in the Nandom Traditional Area. 

There is a general transformation in terms of development in Nandom. Many bricks and mud 

houses have been replaced with blocks and cemented ones and much of this development is due 

to remittances from migration. This was corroborated by Tuo, a 46 year man, from Nabugangn in    

(5.4.2).  

The problem of drought and famine in Nandom associated with its proximity to the Sahara desert 

is alleviated as migrants at the place of destination buy food for households. 

Educational facilities have been improved in Nandom by Government supported by Dagaaba 

migrants. Brilliant but needy students are assisted with funds by some associations of Dagaaba 

migrants.  

5.6 Conclusion 

The main findings presented in this chapter are that Dagaaba  labour  migrants migrate  due to  

economic and non-economic factors, thus supporting the view of Todaro (1969), who said 

people’s decision to migrate from one place to another, may be influenced by both economic and 

non-economic factors within the household. The economic factors include extreme poverty, lack 

of jobs for the teaming youth, the need for money to pay bride prize and preparation towards 

marriage, among others. The non-economic factors include the search for better social facilities 

such as education, health just to mention but a few. 

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The findings also show that many returned migrants investment their earnings before returning 

home and even those migrants at their place of destination currently continue to contribute 

towards the development of their place of origin. The chapter also attempted to examine the 

decision making process of the migrants. The finding support Anarfi et al., 2003, which found 

that, more often than not, the decision to migrate is made on rational justifications so that a 

household can maximize expected gains. 

                                                     

            

 

           

 

                                                    

                                                    

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