University of Ghana h ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES WASTE VALORISATION: EXPLORING WASTE PLASTIC BOTTLES MANAGEMENT IN AYAWASO WEST SUB-METROPOLITAN AREA, ACCRA BY SIKA OCLOO (10362400) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DEGREE JUNE, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that, to the best of my knowledge , it contains no material previously published by another person nor material which has been accepted for the award of any degree of at any University, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the text. ………………………………….. SIKA OCLOO (CANDIDATE) DATE…………………………… …………………………………..... ……………………………………… MARTIN OTENG-ABABIO (PHD) TED ANNANG (PHD) (PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) (CO-SUPERVISOR) DATE……………………………… DATE……………………………….. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my mother for her love and support through this entire academic journey. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank the Lord God Almighty for being my strength and provider through this programme and bringing me thus far. Secondly, I would like to appreciate the support, encouragement and continuing advice offered by my supervisors, Dr. Martin Oteng-Ababio of the Department of Geography and Resource Development and Dr. Ted Annang of the Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies through the entire period. Their guidance has been invaluable, without which this study would not have been completed. I would also like to thank the staff of the Ayawaso West Sub-Metro District Council Office, particularly Mr. Okai of the Environmental Health Department for being helpful and providing me with information regarding the Sub-Metro, their assistance cannot be underestimated. I would also like to thank Mr. Lambert Faabeluon of the Environmental Protection Agency, for his openness and willingness to share information and suggestions which have indeed added value to this report. I would also like to thank the plastic bottle vendors who cooperated enough to share information about their trade. This work would have been impossible without their cooperation. I would also like to acknowledge all the respondents who took time out of their busy schedules to fill out my questionnaires, their willingness to share their opinions have enriched this work. I would also like to thank Mr. Edusei of the Soil Science Department of the Faculty of Agriculture and Consumer Sciences for assisting me with the microbiological analysis and also Abass for helping me with data inputting and statistical analyses. Their input and technical advice made the work a lot easier. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To my family and friends, for encouraging me when the road seemed so long and unending, I would like to express my profound gratitude. Their advice and motivation throughout the entire two years made all the difficult times seem worthwhile. To my course mates, for being supportive, for being willing to share their knowledge and for sharing in the challenges and the joys of the programme, it would not have been the same without you. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Management of waste in the Accra Metropolitan Area has been a very expensive venture for the Assembly over the years, yet coverage is still very low. Compounding the problem is the recent introduction of plastic products such as sachet water, whose waste are littered about the city daily. Bottled water, which has been on the market for years now, has always been a preserve of the rich. However, with the recent reports of falling sachet water quality, the bottled water industry appears to be expanding with more Ghanaian consumers patronizing the product. Managing the waste bottles therefore has the potential to become as challenging as the sachet water problem if sustainable solutions are not mapped out early. This study sought to look at the socio- demographic factors that are influencing the shift towards bottled water usage and also to assess the level of microbial contamination on waste bottles sold on the market to reusers. The study further sought to assess the possible management options available for the waste bottles. The results of the study showed that income level was the only socio-demographic variable that had a significant influence on bottled water patronage. This was attributed to the fact that bottled water is seen as safer and more hygienic than sachet water by most Ghanaians irrespective of their educational level, age or employment status. Media reports of unhygienic operations of illegal sachet water producers was given as the main reason for this perception. Income was the only limiting factor since bottled water is about eight times the price of an equal volume of sachet water. Thus as income levels in Ghana continue to rise, patronage of bottled water is expected to increase proportionally. Microbiological analysis of the used bottles from the markets revealed 60% of the bottles were contaminated with total coliforms and 40% of the bottles with faecal coliforms. The study proposed recycling as the best option for managing the bottles since reuse as it is currently practiced has serious public health implications and formalizing it would not be a financially viable option. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………………..i DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………..ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………………..iii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………………..v TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………………vi LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………………………x LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………………….....xi LIST OF APPENDICES…………….…………………………………………………………...xii LIST OF ACRONYMS…………………………………………………………………………..xiii CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Solid Waste Management in the Developed World .............................................................. 1 1.2 The Solid Waste Situation in the Developing World............................................................ 3 1.3 The Solid Waste Situation in Ghana ..................................................................................... 5 1.4 Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................ 8 1.5 Main Study Objective ......................................................................................................... 10 1.5.1 Specific Objectives .................................................................................................. 10 1.6 Research Hypotheses .......................................................................................................... 10 1.7 Study Rationale ................................................................................................................... 10 1.8 Organization of the Study ................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………........13 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Municipal Solid Waste: Character and Composition.......................................................... 12 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2 Current Municipal Solid Waste Management (SWM) Practices ........................................ 16 2.3 Plastics: Types, Characteristics and their Wastes ............................................................... 19 2.3.1 Types and Characteristics ........................................................................................ 19 2.3.2 Plastic Waste ............................................................................................................ 20 2.3.3 Types of Plastic Waste ............................................................................................. 22 2.3.4 Management of Plastic Waste.................................................................................. 23 2.3.5 Environmental Impacts of Plastic Waste ................................................................. 25 2.4 The Bottled Water Industry ................................................................................................ 26 2.5 Conceptual Framework for the Study ................................................................................. 34 2.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 37 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS………………………………………39 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 38 3.1 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 38 3.2 Sampling Methods .............................................................................................................. 43 3.2.1 The Pattern of Plastic Bottle Usage in Study Area .................................................. 44 3.2.1.1 Sampling tool ........................................................................................................ 44 3.2.1.2 Sample size ........................................................................................................... 44 3.2.1.3 Sampling Technique ............................................................................................. 45 3.2.1.4 Questionnaire Analysis ......................................................................................... 45 3.2.1.5 Challenges to Questionnaire Administration ........................................................ 45 3.2.2 To determine the microbiological quality of reused bottles .................................... 46 3.2.2.1 Sample Size ........................................................................................................... 47 3.2.2.2 Sampling Locations............................................................................................... 47 3.2.2.3 Laboratory Analysis .............................................................................................. 48 3.3 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 50 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR: PATTERNS IN BOTTLED WATER USAGE AND MICROBIOLOGICAL QUALITY ANALYSIS OF USED PLASTIC BOTTLES……………………………………………………………...52 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 52 4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Water Packaging Preferences of Respondents ... 52 4.1.1 Gender and Age Distribution of Respondents ......................................................... 55 4.1.2 Educational Level of Respondents .......................................................................... 58 4.1.3 Employment Status and Income of Respondents .................................................... 61 4.1.4 Residential Areas Represented within the Sub-Metro ............................................. 65 4.2 Microbial Load on Reused Plastic Bottles Sold in the Markets ......................................... 70 4.3 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 82 CHAPTER FIVE: ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR WASTE PLASTIC BOTTLES…………………………………………………..……83 5.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 83 5.1 Disposal Practices of Respondents ..................................................................................... 83 5.2 Status of Current Waste Management System from the perspective of Respondents ........ 86 5.3 Respondent’s Opinion on Management Options of Plastic Bottles .................................... 91 5.4 The Practicality of Management Options Proposed by Respondents in the Ghana ........... 92 5.4.1 Assessment of Plastic Bottle Recycling as a Management System in Ghana ........ 93 5.4.2 Assessment of Plastic Bottle Reuse as a Management System in Ghana ................ 95 5.5 Findings of the Comparative Assessment of Recycling and Reuse in Accra ..................... 96 5.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................... 97 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS…………...99 6.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 99 6.1 Summary of the Study ........................................................................................................ 99 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 103 6.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 105 6.4 Opportunities for Further Research .................................................................................. 106 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………107 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary of Results on Studies Addressing Sachet Water Quality ....................................... 30 Table 2: Major Bottling Companies in Ghana ...................................................................................... 31 Table 3: Number of Bottled and Sachet Water Producers in Ghana by Regions ................................. 31 Table 4: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents .............................................................. 53 Table 5: Waste Collection System Indicated by Respondents .............................................................. 87 Table 6: Respondents’ Opinion about the Efficiency of their Waste Collection System ..................... 88 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1: Percentage of plastic waste stream over a period of 30 years ............................................ 22 Figure 2-2: Annual Global consumption of Bottled Water .................................................................. 27 Figure 2-3: Percentage of Population Patronizing Packaged Water from 1998 – 2008 ...................... 28 Figure 2-4: The Pathway to Efficient Management of Plastic Bottles ................................................. 35 Figure 3-1: Sub-Metros in Accra Metropolitan Area .......................................................................... 39 Figure 3-2: Map of Ayawaso West Sub-Metro of Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) .......................... 41 Figure 4-1: A Comparison of the Ages of the Respondents with their Packaging Preferences ........... 56 Figure 4-2: Comparison of Educational Level of Respondents with Packaging Preferences .............. 59 Figure 4-3: Comparison of Employment Status of Respondents with Packaging Preferences ............ 62 Figure 4-4: Comparison of Income Levels of Respondents with Packaging Preferences .................... 64 Figure 4-5: Residential area versus Packaging Preference ................................................................... 67 Figure 4-6: Percentage of Bottles Positive for the Presence of Microbiological Organisms ............... 71 Figure 4-7: Contamination Levels on Bottles Directly from Home ..................................................... 74 Figure 4-8: A Comparison of Percentage of Bottles positive for Total Coliforms from Three Markets ............................................................................................................................... 75 Figure 4-9: Percentage of Bottles Contaminated with Faecal Coliforms from Three Markets ........... 75 Figure 4-10: A Comparison of Total Coliform results with US EPA Standards and Ghana Standard Authority Standards ............................................................................................. 79 Figure 4-11: A Comparison of Faecal Coliform results with US EPA Standards and Ghana Standard Authority Standards ............................................................................................. 80 Figure 5-1: Disposal Practices of Respondents .................................................................................... 84 Figure 5-2: Respondents Opinion on the Best Way to Manage Plastic Bottles.................................... 91 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1: List of Bottled and Sachet Water Producers Registered with the Food and Drugs Authority (Ghana) .......................................................................................................... 120 Appendix 2: Questionnaire Administered to Respondents ................................................................. 155 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS 3R’s – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle AMA – Accra Metropolitan Assembly CFSR – Centre for Fuel Studies Research CHF – Cooperative Housing Foundation CPCB – Central Pollution Control Board DESSAP – District Environmental Sanitation Strategy Action Plan EC – European Commission EC DG ENV - European Commission Directorate General of Environment EEA – European Environment Agency EPA – Environmental Protection Agency ETC/SCP – European Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production EU – European Union FDA – Food and Drugs Authority GCLME – Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem GLSS – Ghana Living Standards Survey GSA – Ghana Standards Authority GSS – Ghana Statistical Service HACCP – Hazard Critical Control Points HDPE – High Density Polyethylene IRIN – Integrated Regional Information Networks LDPE – Low Density Polyethylene MSW – Municipal Solid Waste NESSAP – National Environmental Sanitation Strategy Action Plan PET - Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PP - Polypropylene PS - Polystyrene PVC - Polyvinyl chloride SPSS – Statistical Package for Social Sciences UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme UNSD – United Nations Statistics Division U.S. – United States US EPA – United States Environmental Protection Agency WHO – World Health Organization Zoomlion AKTP – Zoomlion Africa Knowledge Transfer Partnerships xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction Over the years, urbanization, industrialization and continuous economic growth have occurred worldwide. These processes have resulted in technological advancements, lifestyle changes and a general modernization of society as a whole. As a consequence, waste generation has increased both in type and volume (UNEP, 2009). Notably, the composition and volume of waste differs from low-income countries to high-income countries affecting the management choices in different parts of the globe. The main reasons why the waste characteristics vary are cooking and eating habits, social and economic factors, recycling and reuse, architecture and climate and geography. Notwithstanding, sustainable management of solid waste is a major problem for both national and local governments all over the world (Keynote, 2007). 1.1 Solid Waste Management in the Developed World In the developed world such as the European Union (EU), over 3 billion tonnes of waste is generated annually comprising an increasingly complex mix of materials including plastics, metals and hazardous materials making waste management more and more complicated. The main waste management systems practiced in the EU are landfilling and incineration both having negative environmental impact (EEA, 2013). The impacts of landfilling include loss of land area resources, methane gas production which is a potent greenhouse gas, leachate production, which sometimes contain hazardous chemicals and heavy metals which runoff into nearby waterbodies, seep into groundwater and contaminate soils. Recognizing the serious impacts associated with this management method, the EU drafted legislations in 1995 covering all member states that govern 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the use of landfills and these included reducing amount of waste landfilled and ensuring that methane generated at landfill sites are captured and used for energy production. This has made a significant difference, encouraging the closure of thousands of substandard landfills all over member states and reducing the amount of waste landfilled in the EU by about 25% since 1995 (EEA, 2013). The EU has also set standards for incineration which require that emission levels be restricted and recovery of heat generated as well as ensuring energy efficiency of the incineration plants. This has lead to a doubling of primary energy production from waste in the EU since 1995 (EEA, 2013). Prevention, Reuse and Recycling are the preferred management options in the EU thus member states through education and awareness campaigns, policies encouraging reuse and recycling targets for various materials have reduced the level of waste landfilled and incinerated. In spite of these interventions however, 67% of waste generated in the EU are still landfilled or incinerated. In the United States, solid waste generation has increased by 65% since 1980 to about 250 million tonnes per year. The most common form of waste management is disposal in landfills with 54% of total solid waste generated in the United States being landfilled and these landfills in the U.S. were the third largest source of anthropogenic methane (CH4) in 2010 (US EPA, 2011). Recycling and composting systems manage about 34.1% of solid waste generated in the United States. Curbside recycling programmes which have increased about three times since 1990, serve about 71% of people in the U.S. (US EPA, 2011). The focus in the U.S. now is to reduce the amount of waste generated in the first place and also boost recycling rates thus many municipalities have implemented programs such as reuse centers, 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh food rescue and incentives such as Pay-As-You-Throw programs designed to reduce the volume of waste disposed off per household. Many states have deposit laws that encourage the return of empty containers for refunds (US EPA, 2010). From the foregoing, it is discernable that, countries in the developed world have developed waste management systems which ensure efficient waste collection, storage, transportation and disposal while minimizing the impact of disposal on the environment. There is also emphasis on waste sorting, recycling and re-use including other practices which help to save waste management costs as well as further reducing the impact on the environment (Ukpong & Udofia, 2011). This is not the case in many developing countries. 1.2 The Solid Waste Situation in the Developing World In the developing world, solid waste management is becoming a major public health and environmental concern. Solid waste management is one of the most difficult environmental problems in the urban centres of developing countries, where services are often grossly deficient, especially within low-income settlements. Often these low-income settlements comprise a sizable proportion of the city’s area and population (UN-Habitat, 2010b). The public sector is unable to deliver services effectively and monitoring of the private sector is limited thus illegal dumping of both domestic and industrial waste is quite common. The difficulty in providing a level of service commensurate with demand is typically due to institutional, technical and financial constraints at national and local government levels, as well as in the private sector (UN-Habitat, 2010b). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Nigeria, for instance, most state capitals and other large cities are littered with solid waste despite the presence of state and local government-owned waste management companies as well as private waste collectors (Ukpong and Udofia, 2011). In India, there is limited house-to-house collection and very old vehicles are used in waste collection. Although lots of significant efforts have been made in the last few decades in many developing countries supported technically and financially by developed countries and international organizations, substantial reforms in the management of solid waste have still not been attained (Khatib, 2011). In developing countries, it is common for municipalities to spend 20-50 percent of their available recurrent budget on solid waste management. Yet, it is also common that 30-60 percent of all the urban solid waste remain uncollected and less than 50 percent of the population is served (World Bank, 2012). In some cases, as much as 80 percent of the collection and transport equipment is out of service, in need of repair or maintenance (World Bank, 2012). At best solid waste is collected and dumped at dumpsites, wetlands, water bodies or open space areas. Part of the solid waste is sometimes burnt openly to reduce the waste volume. These practices have adverse impacts on the environment and causing long-term public health problems. Dumps are invaded by waste pickers and animals which scatter the wastes and the wastes serve as breeding grounds for disease vectors, primarily flies and rats. Leachate from decomposing garbage percolates into soil and nearby water sources, and the resultant contamination of food, water and soil can have serious environmental consequences. Uncollected refuse also finds its way into open drains; which become blocked causing flooding during rain, 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and the dammed-up stagnant water encourages the breeding of mosquitoes resulting in turn in many cases of malaria. 1.3 The Solid Waste Situation in Ghana In Ghana, the Environmental Health Sanitation Directorate of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, NESSAP (2010) estimated that the average daily waste generation per capita was 0.75kg for municipal and metropolitan areas and 0.45kg for other small towns. The difference in waste generated per capita is linked to lifestyle differences. In small towns most of the waste generated is mostly organic and would be fed to livestock and food and drink containers reused for other household purposes (UN-Habitat, 2010b). In contrast, such waste generated in the towns and cities are mostly disposed of in the bins for collection. Therefore based on a population of about 4.01million (GSS, 2012), the Greater Accra Region alone generates approximately 1.09 million tonnes of waste annually. Recent studies have shown that, high population growth and its associated increase in urbanization and economic activities in Accra have made the impact of the society’s solid waste very noticeable. Currently, it is said that the Accra Metropolitan Assembly spends GH¢ 450,000 a month with an extra GH¢240,000.00 spent maintaining the landfill sites (Oteng-Ababio, 2010). This amount does not however cater for about 30% of solid waste in the metropolis that is littered or dumped on streets, in gutters and nearby water bodies (EPA, 2002). With these high levels of expenditure and low coverage rate, there is a need to re-evaluate the management systems in place such as to improve efficiency, sustainability and increase savings that can be used for other equally important competing developmental projects. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to the UN-Habitat (2010a) the main objective of an efficient service should be minimization of solid waste collection costs, together with provision of an adequate and regular service to all target areas. In order to do this, one aspect of solid waste that should be critically evaluated is the waste characteristics. This would help determine which management systems would be most cost effective and what types of collection systems that must be put in place. It has been shown that with appropriate segregation and recycling systems, significant quantities of waste can be diverted from landfills and converted into resource (UNEP, 2009). In Accra, however, citywide waste composition data collection has been very limited. In most cases, projections have drawn on waste audit conducted by AMA in 1994. More recent waste characterization studies carried out have been limited in scale (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2012). A waste audit carried out by Zoomlion at the major dumpsites in Accra in 2010 showed that Organics - 40.3%, Plastics – 19.7%, Paper – 7.0% had the highest composition in the waste generated in Accra (Zoomlion-AKTP, 2012). Of the three, waste plastics have increased rapidly over the past decade and have proved most problematic to manage over the years as they do not degrade easily and hence occupy space landfills, remain in the environment when littered about and choke up gutters and run-off into water bodies (Fobil and Hogarh, 2006). In Ghana, studies by Fobil and Hogarh (2006) revealed that the use of plastic has been adopted as a more hygienic mode of packaging food, beverages and other products to replace the existing cultural packaging methods such as leaf wrappings, brown paper, cups etc. in cities and towns. Over the past two decades, Ghanaians have developed an insatiable taste for sachet water which is 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seen as more portable and can easily be carried from one place to another. There is also a perception that sachet water is cleaner and more mineralized than tap water (Wienaah, 2007). At the same time, the waste from the used sachets form a major proportion of the plastic waste generated throughout the country and these sachets are littered on streets and gutters due to poor solid waste management practices in the country (Stoler et al., 2012). Over the last few years, investigations conducted by the Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) and research institutions on sachet water from some companies have presented results that tend to question the safety of some of the water (Addo et al., 2009). The infiltration of water producers, who have not been certified by the FDA, has compromised some of the water found on the market. Accordingly, bottled water has over the years been promoted by experts as an alternative to help reduce the waste generated by the sachet water use (EPA, 2002). With the growing wariness of the quality of sachet water, more Ghanaians are turning to bottled water which is perceived to be of a higher quality than sachet water. A study conducted by Obiri-Danso et al. (2003) showed that bottled water on the Ghanaian market is of good microbiological quality while the quality of some factory bagged sachet and hand-filled/hand-tied polythene-bagged drinking water did not meet WHO standards for drinking water (WHO, 2011). It is also important to state that in recent times, beverage companies in the country that used to offer their drinks only in refillable glass bottles now offer the option of the same drinks in disposable plastic bottles. Although this option is more expensive it is also apparently becoming increasingly popular with the Ghanaian public. New beverage companies are also springing up offering affordable drinks packaged in plastic bottles (Source: Market Survey). 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is important to state that though formal recycling of plastics has a recent history, the reuse of waste plastic has been informally experienced for a long time. Used plastic bottles in Ghana have always been sought after for reuse in homes and by traders. They are reused as containers for palm oil, locally prepared drinks, ‘iced kenkey’ etc. The bottles have thus been limited in the waste stream because they are picked and sold for reuse (Fobil and Hogarh, 2006). With the seemingly growing patronage of plastic bottled beverage, the rate of production of waste bottles may exceed the reuse needs which will invariably lead to an increase of plastic bottles in the waste stream making the need for alternative options quite imperative and imminent. 1.4 Statement of Problem Over the years, the plastic waste from sachet water has become a serious problem in Ghana especially in the urban areas (Fobil and Hogarh, 2006). Government authorities are still grappling not only with the increasing volume generated, but also the product continues to change in form and type (Stoler et al., 2012). Recent years have seen increasing generation of plastic bottles. The upsurge in plastic usage has added to the problem of waste management due to the lack of appropriate institutional arrangements to tackle the problem. As at now, waste separation at the household level is not part of the vocabulary of any of the district assemblies. Those who indulge in waste separation do so voluntarily for the perceived financial gains. Thus, all waste generated are lumped together. The current practice where wastes are lumped together have serious consequences environmentally and healthwise. For example, greater quantities of the plastics end up in the 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dumpsites. Meanwhile, it is known that plastics are non-biodegradable and according to Finkelstein (2008) plastics can take up to 450 years to decompose. Additionally, when littered the plastics choke drains, degrade soil quality and are washed into nearby waterbodies where they degrade the quality of the water body. The choked drains also do not only result in incessant flooding, but they tend to become the breeding grounds for the anopheles mosquitoes responsible for the transmission of the malaria parasite. More importantly, some of the waste plastic bottles generated are reused in homes, by traders and small scale beverage producers. Such informal reuse of plastic bottles, collected from among household waste, most likely contaminated, evince serious health concerns. It must be stated that though the idea of reuse of waste plastic bottles is commendable and is in tandem with tenets of proper waste management, the current system for the reuse of the plastic bottles is quite problematic. To begin with there is currently paucity of data on the quantity of waste plastic bottles generated within the Accra Metropolis. Additionally, in the reuse process, it is not known the state in which the bottles are used as there are no standards for the sanitization of the bottles for reuse. Currently, no institution monitors and regulates the hygienic state before such bottles are used either to sell in the markets or within the neighbourhood. The microbial load on the reused bottles is unknown which can be a recipe for disaster and needs urgent policy intervention which cannot emanate from empirical vacuum. This study attempts to fill this literature deficiency using the situation in Ayawaso West Sub- metropolitan Area in Accra as a case study. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Main Study Objective The main objective of this study is to evaluate the waste plastic bottle situation in the Ayawaso West Sub-metro with the view to propose practical and sustainable management options. 1.5.1 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of this study are to: i. Assess the influence of socio-demographic factors on patronage of plastic bottles by residents in the Ayawaso West Sub-metro. ii. Determine the microbiological quality of bottles reused for local beverages (first reuse). iii. Assess the management options (based on 3R’s – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) 1.6 Research Hypotheses The hypotheses which will guide the study are as follows: i. Patronage of bottled beverages in Ayawaso West is independent of socio-economic and educational level. ii. A significant proportion of waste bottles generated in the Ayawaso West Sub-metro are reused at home. iii. Bottles reused for food are not microbiologically safe. 1.7 Study Rationale Over the past decade, sachet water has become an important source of drinking water for most Ghanaians. However, the sachet water industry has come under attack in recent times over doubts of water quality as well as the waste the sector generates. Reports from studies carried out on the quality of sachet water have produced results indicating microbial contamination in some of the 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh samples. Bottled water has been seen as a more hygienic option in comparison to sachet water and its patronage has been on the increase in recent times. Although, this shift may be positive in providing a reliable source of drinking water as well as reducing waste sachet generation, currently there is no formal management system in place for waste plastic bottles. There is however an informal management system in place which involves the retrieval and reuse of the bottles by market women and small scale local beverage producers. The microbial load and hence health implications of reusing these bottles are unknown and thus poses a risk to consumers. The bottles not reused are littered about, choke up gutters, run off into water bodies or end up in landfills where they occupy space. This study is important to generate data towards developing a management plan as early as possible to forestall current or potential problems this type of waste might pose in future. Data from this study will serve as a baseline and a reference point for future studies. 1.8 Organization of the Study This study is presented in six (6) chapters. Chapter one presents a general introduction to the study, outlining the problem, the study objectives, hypotheses and study rationale. Chapter two is essentially the review of the available literature on solid waste with emphasis on plastic waste. Chapter three presents some background information on the study area and outlines the various methods employed in carrying out the research. Chapters four and five are the analytical chapters in which various aspects of data collected from the field are examined and discussed in detail. Chapter six concludes with a summary of the major findings, conclusions and some recommendations for policy consideration. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter provides a literary review of the solid waste situation both at the international and national level, the contribution of plastic products to the solid waste problem and management options promoted over the years by experts. The chapter also examines the bottled water industry and how it has evolved in Ghana. The main purpose of this review is to provide a theoretical framework for this research, and show where the research fits in the existing body of knowledge as well as identify some of the gaps in existing knowledge. 2.1 Municipal Solid Waste: Character and Composition According to Article 2.1 of the Basel Convention 1992, wastes are “…substances or objects which are disposed or are intended to be disposed or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of national laws…” (UNEP, 1992). The United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) (2007) further defines wastes as “….materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the generator has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled or reused at the place of generation are excluded…” According to European Topic Centre on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ETC/SCP) (2009), waste types include, municipal solid waste (including commercial and household), 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh industrial (including manufacturing), hazardous waste, construction and demolition waste, mining waste, waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), biodegradable municipal waste, packaging waste, End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) and Tyres, and Agricultural waste. Plastic bottles are generated on the household and commercial level and therefore fall within the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) category of waste. Over the years a variety of descriptions reflecting different waste compositions have been used as definitions for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in different countries. Schubeler (1996) defined municipal solid waste to include refuse from households, non- hazardous solid waste from industrial, commercial and institutional establishments (including hospitals), market waste, yard waste and street sweepings. Strange (2002) stated that the definition of MSW varies but typically includes waste arising from private households to that collected by or on behalf of local authorities from any source. Strange (2002) further states that depending on the country, the definition can include some or all of household wastes, household hazardous wastes, bulky wastes derived from households, street sweepings and litter, parks and garden wastes. The US EPA (2011) described MSW as everyday items that we throw away such as packaging, grass clippings, food scraps, bottles, furniture, clothing, appliances etc. that come from homes, offices, schools, hospitals and businesses. Eurostat (2012) also states that the definition for MSW varies in different countries, a reflection of diverse waste management practices. Eurostat (2012) therefore defined MSW as waste mainly produced by households though similar wastes can be generated from other sources such as offices, areas of commerce and public institution. In the United Kingdom MSW until 2011 was defined as waste materials 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh generated in homes, schools, shops and small businesses provided it was collected by a local authority or companies working for a local authority (Fewtrell, 2012). Even though the definitions vary the key element that each has is that MSW results from activities of everyday life whether at home, work, school or in other locations. The Eurostat (2012) definition embodies this without being limited by specific examples and for the purpose of study will be the working definition for MSW. It has been established that MSW is mainly generated from daily activities of humans. MSW generation rate is therefore one of the main aspects that influences its management. According to Keynote (2007) an estimated 2.02 billion tonnes of municipal solid waste was generated globally in 2006 representing an annual increase of 7% since 2003. The quantities of solid waste generated in highly developed countries range from 2.50kg - 1.99kg per capita per day with the least developed countries generating as low as 0.49kg per capita per day (Fewtrell, 2012). In Ghana, the Environmental Health Sanitation Directorate of the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development, NESSAP (2010) estimated that the average daily waste generation per capita is 0.75kg in metropolitan and municipal areas and 0.45kg for other small towns. The difference in waste generated per capita is linked to lifestyle differences. In small towns most of the waste generated is mostly organic and would be fed to livestock and food and drink containers reused for other household purposes (UN-Habitat, 2010b). In contrast, such waste generated in the towns and cities are mostly disposed of in the bins for collection. Therefore based on a 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh population of about 4.01 million (GSS, 2012), the Greater Accra Region alone generates approximately 1.09 million tonnes of waste annually (NESSAP, 2010). Another major aspect of MSW that determines the type of management system required is the composition of this type of waste. In all countries, MSW generally comprises five major categories of waste namely putrifiable waste, paper, plastic, metal and glass. The proportions of these categories in MSW however vary within the different countries. Low income countries tend to have the highest level of putrifiable waste proportion which gradually decreases as affluence increases in favour of less putrifiable waste such as paper and plastics (World Bank, 2012). In Accra, Ghana citywide waste composition data collection has been very limited. In most cases, projections have drawn on waste audit conducted by AMA in 1994. More recent waste characterization studies carried out have been limited in scale (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2012). Fobil et al. (2005) for instance based on the characterization of MSW from 30 homes from three different income zones concluded that MSW in Accra is primarily made up 60% organic material, the remainder consisting of paper, plastic, glass, metals and textiles. A waste audit carried out by Zoomlion at major dumpsites in Accra in 2010, showed that Organics - 40.3%, Plastics – 19.7%, Paper – 7.0% had highest composition in the waste generated in Accra (Zoomlion-AKTP, 2012). Based on these studies it can be concluded that there has been an approximate decrease of about 25% in organics within a period of five years. This decrease could be attributed to increasing modernization and urbanization in Accra. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Buenrostro et al. (2001), variables such as economic, cultural, climatic, geographical, demographic and social dimensions play a key role in the quantities and composition of MSW generated in different countries. According to Wienaah (2007), the quantity and composition of solid waste generated by a society is usually related to the cultural practices as well as the economic level of the population. Kreith (1994) further states that the factors that tend to increase the per capita and total amount of wastes as well as their constituents in waste stream include increased population, increased levels of affluence, changes in life style, changes in work patterns, new products, redesign of products, material substitution and changes in food processing and packaging methods. In the opinion of Strange (2002), apart from population density and economic prosperity, seasonality, housing standards and the presence of waste minimization initiatives are factors that also determine the composition of household waste. With such varied definitions for MSW and so many variables influencing the quantities and composition of waste in different countries, it is important to note that a management system in one country may not necessarily work for another country. The UN-Habitat (2010a) is therefore of the view that countries especially low-income and middle-income countries should develop their own models for modern waste management that fit their own local conditions rather than developing imperfect copies of waste management systems from the developed world. 2.2 Current Municipal Solid Waste Management (SWM) Practices According to Strange (2002) SWM in society has been a challenge for as long as people have gathered together in sufficient numbers to impose a stress on local resources. In the past, waste from homes and industries could be dealt with simply by hauling it to crude dumps where it could be buried, eaten by animals or burned. This practice still exists in some poor countries, however, 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh its effectiveness and sustainability remains questionable due to the changing nature of the character and volume of waste generated even in these poor countries. In spite of relatively lower generation rates solid waste management in developing countries is still highly underdeveloped (Badgie et al., 2012). Every year, governments of developing countries spend substantial resources on collection and disposal of waste but management system remains inadequate and expensive (World Bank, 2012). According to Guerrero et al. (2013) solid waste management is a challenge for the cities’ authorities in developing countries mainly due to the increasing generation of waste, the burden imposed on the municipal budget as a result of the high costs associated to its management, the lack of understanding over a diversity of factors that affect the different stages of waste management and linkages necessary to enable the entire handling system functioning. The main disposal options for municipal solid waste include disposal in a landfill and incineration. A modern properly engineered landfill is a large depression in the ground lined with synthetic liner and, in some state-of-the-art facilities, fitted leachate and/or methane collection equipment. Landfills are usually covered with soil and/or clay after they are filled (Ghosh and Hasan, 2010). Recycling and reuse are also other forms of municipal solid waste management which are more desirable environmentally. Recycling/reuse reduce the volume of solid waste that need to be disposed of and as a result helps to extend the lifespan of disposal facilities such as landfills (Ruzi, 2001). Generally, solid waste in Ghana is managed through landfills, incineration, recycling or reuse. However, the choice of management depends on the type of waste. MSW is mainly managed 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh through landfills in Accra. These landfills are primarily open dumps without leachate or gas recovery systems. These landfills mostly consist of abandoned stone quarry sites, gouged natural depressions in the earth, or man-made holes in the ground. This type of landfilling is the preferred method of disposal by the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, because it is relatively affordable compared with setting up recycling/reuse system (Thompson, 2010). In spite of the seeming affordability of landfills, they have disadvantages that make it important to explore other more sustainable options. According to Kwawe (1995) and Botkin and Keller (2003) issues such as leachates in groundwater, unavailability of land and opposition of residents in areas proposed for landfills are among some of the disadvantages. Also Bogner et al. (2007) stated that methane emissions from landfills represent the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sector, contributing, around 700 metric tonnes of carbon dioxide. According to Kwawe (1995) experiences from London showed that by 1995 waste disposal trucks had to travel over 64 km outside Central London to dispose of waste because all the landfills were full and there was no longer available land within closer reach. Botkin and Keller (2003) also noted that at the rate waste was being generated in the USA, the country might soon ran out of landfill space. In Ghana, contrary to Tsiboe and Marbell observation in 2004 that the “Not in my Backyard” syndrome had not taken root in the country, in May 2004, residents of Kwabenya in Accra held a series of demonstrations at the World Bank Offices against a proposed landfill which was to be sited within their community which eventually contributed to the stalling of the project (Oteng- Ababio, 2011). The AMA is currently over-dependent on the landfill system, this system is however unsustainable and there is a need to look to explore other options available. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The composition of the waste generated could inform the direction of the choice of the management system(s). As mentioned earlier, organics, paper and plastics form the major constituents of Accra’s MSW. Critically, examining the options available for managing these components individually may be the key to unraveling the MSW management problem in Accra. This study will take a look at the options available for isolating and managing the plastic component of MSW in Accra taking into account the socio-demographic factors that are influencing the generation of these plastics and how these factors will further influence the success of managing these plastics. 2.3 Plastics: Types, Characteristics and their Wastes Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 11th edition, refers to plastics as “any of numerous organic synthetic or processed materials that are mostly…. polymers of high molecular weight and that can be molded, cast, extruded, drawn, or laminated into objects, films, or filaments.” Baird & Cann (2008) describe plastics as polymers, a very large molecule made up of smaller units called monomers which are joined together in a chain by a process called polymerization. All the raw materials (except chlorine) from which the plastics are currently made are obtained from crude oil. 2.3.1 Types and Characteristics Plastics are classified based on the polymers they are made from. The six major types of plastics that are commonly reprocessed are Polyethylene (PE) (High-density and Low-density), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) (UNEP, 2009). These six polymers are thermoplastic, meaning that with heat they can be 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh melted and reshaped over and over again. Apart from Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), all these types of plastics can be used in the bottling industry (Eubanks et al, 2009). Plastic is a relatively cheap, durable and versatile material. Plastic products have brought benefits to society in terms of economic activity, jobs and quality of life. Plastics can even help reduce energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in many circumstances, even in some packaging applications when compared to the alternatives (EC DG ENV, 2011). Enviros RIS (2001) further stated that plastics are used by virtually every end-use segment of the economy and that the unique attributes of plastics such as processability, light weight and corrosion resistance have led to the creation of new products, and plastics have also displaced paper, glass and metal from traditional applications. According to Palminsano and Pettigrew (1992), plastics were specifically designed to resist degradation and to be durable thus they are inert. This durability had been considered to be a positive attribute for plastics, but now is commonly perceived by society as a negative. 2.3.2 Plastic Waste Generally, plastic waste is the third major constituent of municipal waste in most cities after organics and paper (CFSR, 2011). In some cities, however, it is the second major constituent of municipal waste. The rapid increase in waste plastics worldwide has been attributed to growth in trade and industry and changing consumption patterns. The world’s annual consumption of plastic materials has increased from around 5 million tonnes in the 1950s to nearly 100 million tonnes (UNEP, 2009). The increase in consumption of plastic is not restricted to only the developed countries, cities in countries with low economic growth 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have also started producing more plastic waste due to increased use of plastic packaging, plastic shopping bags, PET bottles and other goods/appliances using plastic as the major component (UNEP, 2009). According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) of India (2007), there has been a tremendous rise in the usage of plastic disposables, such as packaging materials, house-hold consumer goods, automobiles, building containers, agriculture, electrical and electronics goods, health care products etc. and this coupled with the throwaway culture, lack of awareness and indifference among common people has lead to huge quantity of such waste on roads, pavements, gardens and parks, low-lying area, sewage drains, water bodies, along railway tracks and everywhere. In Ghana, the major plastic wastes generated in the country include plastic bottles, polythene bags, sachets and wrappers. Schweizer & Annoh in 1996 analysed the historical trend of plastic waste composition in the waste stream in Ghana. Their results showed that in 1979 the percentage by component was 1.4% and by 1993 it had risen to 4%. In 1996/97, the proportion of plastic waste in the waste stream was 5% (Archer et al., 1997) and by 1999/2000 its proportion increased to 8% (Fobil, 2000). Currently, it is estimated that 1,980 tonnes (about 17% of total waste generated) of plastic waste is generated daily in the country, with 70% of the waste ending up in drains and at open spaces (Daily Graphic, 2012). This increasing trend is shown in Figure 2-1. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2-1: Percentage of plastic waste stream over a period of 30 years (Source: Schweizer &Annor (1996), Archer et.al (1997); Fobil (2000), Daily Graphic (2012)) Statistics released by the AMA and other waste management bodies indicate some 270 tonnes of plastic waste is generated each day in Accra alone (IRIN, 2004). Plastic waste generation currently stands at 0.016–0.035 kg/person/day (Fobil and Hogarh, 2009). It is estimated that there are over 40 plastic producing industries in the country producing over 26,000 metric tonnes of finished plastic products per annum. Also about 10, 000 metric tonnes of finished products are imported annually into the country (Fobil, 2000). 2.3.3 Types of Plastic Waste According to Metro Vancouver (2008) the plastic wastes present in municipal waste streams include: a. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) soft drink and custom bottles; b. High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) bottles and jugs; c. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) bottles; 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d. Wide mouth tubs and lids which includes LDPE, HDPE, and polypropylene (PP); e. Polystyrene (PS); f. Plastic films (including recyclable and non-recyclable); g. Other residential plastics. The Metro Vancouver residential waste audit in 2008 showed an annual per capita generation trend as follows: 7.55kg of plastic films, 4.96kg of plastic bottles, 3.18kg of other rigid containers, and 3.79kg of durables (toys, storage bins, pens, brushes etc). A waste stream analysis carried out by the Resource Recovery Forum (2001) in Eastleigh, UK showed the following trend 6.92% of plastic films, 3.51% of food and non-food packaging, 2.52% of plastic bottles and 2.08% of other dense plastic. 2.3.4 Management of Plastic Waste ENVIS India (2008) has recommended the 3 R’s principle i.e. Reduce, Reuse & Recycle as the basic components of any waste hierarchy that has to be understood and implemented to achieve a sustainable integrated waste management. Metro Vancouver (2008) states that the waste hierarchy has taken many forms over the past decade, but this basic concept has remained the cornerstone of most waste management strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from materials and to generate the minimum amount of waste. The United Nations environmental program endorses The Waste Management Hierarchy, as do citizen groups, many industry leaders, and government officials in Europe, North America and Japan (Wagner, 1995). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The EU strategy for waste management, adopted in 1989 and reviewed in 1996, specifies that waste management should first of all aim at preventing waste generation. Material waste recycling and the incineration of waste with energy recovery should be pursued if prevention is not possible. The ‘worst’ options are identified as the use of landfill and incineration without energy recovery (EU, 2007). The Japanese Ministry of Environment (2005) has also outlined five major keywords that are necessary for the success of a sound material-cycle society. These are awareness creation, information sharing, partnership among various bodies, technological development and incentives. The comprehensive waste management strategy adopted by Kenya for the city of Nairobi with the aid of UNEP in 2006 was also based on the 3R’s principle. According to the Kenyan Cleaner Production Centre in 2006, factors that could however affect the effectiveness of this approach include awareness and acceptance among stakeholders i.e. MMDA’s, businesses and residents, a policy framework to facilitate the implementation and capacity building and lack of technological support including human resources, finance and other inputs. In Ghana, NESSAP (2010) promotes reduction, re-use, recycling and recovery (4R’s) of all types of waste streams as a way of reducing the volume and cost of waste delivered to final disposal sites. In Ghana, segregation of domestic waste at source is not officially mandated and is therefore practiced on voluntary basis by few households largely motivated by cash returns that can be earned (CHF, 2010). Most waste reused or recycled are recovered from the waste stream. This collection and re-use/recycling of plastic waste is done mainly by the informal sector. This activity is however seen more as an income generating activity than a waste management strategy. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Formalizing the sector has the potential to lead to loss of income and this might raise opposition (Bjerkli, 2005). It is important to take into consideration these elements during the planning and implementation of a waste management plan. In the waste plastic sector in Ghana, thin-film plastics which generally include empty water and ice cream sachets, black polythene carrier bags and thin-film wrappers used by vendors, are high- value recyclables used in the production of pellets which are the main raw materials for plastic manufacturing companies. Informal waste pickers are therefore actively involved in recovering this type of waste for sale to plastic manufacturing companies. This type of waste is therefore seen as having a high potential for value addition when recycled (CHF, 2010). 2.3.5 Environmental Impacts of Plastic Waste Plastic waste has several impacts on ecosystems and humans. Some of these are more obvious and clearly proven, for example, the entanglement of marine wildlife. Others are less obvious and not well understood, such as the transport and possible concentration of contaminants by plastic waste. Again, there appears more knowledge of ecological and human health impacts in the marine environment than on land (UNEP, 2009). According to the European Commission DG ENV (2011) rising use of plastics and plastic waste generation as well as increasing levels of export form the most significant trends in environmental impacts of plastics. This is because the primary raw material for plastic will continue to be fossil fuels despite the expected rapid rise in the production of bioplastics, increasing plastic waste production will require an expanded waste management system and rising levels of export mean that plastics manufactured in developed countries will end up in developing countries without the management systems needed in place. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The CPCB India in 2007 stated that though plastics are not chemically active their major threat to the environment is essentially the fact that they are non-biodegradable and currently lack an efficient collection and disposal system. They float in water bodies close to the cities, settle on their beds, and cutting off oxygen to aquatic life and to anything they rest on. They also affect soil fertility and water percolation in the ground preventing the growth of plants. They also emit toxic gases when burnt (CPCB, 2007). With the increasing usage of plastic registered by the Food and Drugs Authority, there is the need to study the potential for reuse/recycling of the waste plastic bottles in Ghana. Currently, no study has been carried out in Ghana regarding the fate of plastic bottles recovered from the waste stream. 2.4 The Bottled Water Industry The term ‘bottled water’ refers to water packaged in aluminium cans, laminated cartons, plastic bags, plastic or glass bottles. The most common form of packaging is however the plastic and glass bottles. Bottled water can come in various sizes from single serving packaging up to 80L carbuoys (WHO, 2000). Warburton (2000) also defines bottled water as any potable water that is manufactured, distributed or offered for sale, which is sealed in food-grade bottles or other containers and intended for human consumption. According to the American Beverage Association (2013), the plastic bottles, most especially the PET bottles are the fastest growing preferred form of packaging for most beverage bottling companies because of its lightweight and durability. Plastic packaging is preferred over glass in 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh almost every country (Rodwan, 2012). Globally, bottled water consumption has increased dramatically. According to the Beverage Marketing Corporation, 154 billion litres of bottled water was consumed in 2004, an increase of 57% within a space of 5 years. The United States leads globally in consumption levels at 26 billion litres in 2004 (Franklin, 2006). An analysis of the global trend in bottled water consumption done by Zenith International in 2012 is shown in Figure 2-2. Figure 2-2: Annual Global consumption of Bottled Water (Source: Zenith International, 2012) Figure 2-2 shows an increment of about 36% in bottled water consumption from 2006 to 2011 with an average yearly increase of about 6%. This increase in consumption will also result in a proportional increase in waste plastics generated requiring proper management to safeguard the environment. Ferrier (2001) has attempted to assign reasons for the increase in bottle water consumption stating that consumption of bottled water reflects a certain way of life and that consumers think it tastes 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh better than tapwater. Also bottled water is perceived as safer and of better quality than tapwater. Bottled water is also seen as a healthier alternative (in terms of calories) to other beverages, thus some consumers drink bottled water to lose weight. The use of PET bottles rather than glass bottles also make the product lightweight and easier to carry around. Drinking bottled water is also sign of rising in the social scale (Ferrier, 2001). In Ghana, the use of bottled and sachet water as a primary source of drinking water has increased over the past ten years from 0% in 1998 to 6.7% in 2008 (WSMP, 2009). This is as shown in Figure 2-3. Figure 2-3: Percentage of Population Patronizing Packaged Water from 1998 – 2008 (Source: Water and Sanitation Management Platform Publication, (WSMP, 2009)) Prior to the introduction of sachet and bottled water in Ghana, water was sold to the transient population in plastic or metal cups from buckets. Until the early nineties, this was the main source of water for people moving from one point to another (Stoler et al., 2012). This system however had its hygiene and sanitary shortcomings such as one cup being used by several people without 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh any form of proper sanitization. In an attempt to remedy this problem, hand-tied plastic bagged water was introduced in the early nineties. Hygiene however remained a problem with the bagging process exposing the water to all degrees of contamination from the women and children involved in the process (Obiri-Danso et al., 2003). In the late nineties, a new machinery was introduced in Ghana and many other West African countries. This machine could heat-seal water into plastic sachets effectively creating the sachet water (Stoler et al., 2012). Filtration, chemical treatment and other forms of disinfection systems were later incorporated resulting in our modern day sachet water. Over the past decade, the sachet water has become increasingly popular because of the perception of it being cleaner and more mineralized than tap water (Wienaah, 2007). There are currently over 800 sachet water producers in Ghana registered with the Food and Drugs Authority (www.fdaghana.gov.gh). With the increase, however, the quality of the sachet water has come under intense scrutiny in recent times. The proliferation of illegal producers who oversimplify the production process of sachet water ignoring hygiene standards required by the regulatory authorities has become widespread. In 2011, over 100 companies were closed down by a team of FDA and GSA officials for operating illegally (Daily Graphic, 2013). This development coupled with results of studies done by several researchers showing unacceptable levels of bacteria in sachet water has made Ghanaians increasingly cautious about the source of their drinking water. A summary of results of studies addressing sachet water quality undertaken over the last decade is presented in Table 1. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 1: Summary of Results on Studies Addressing Sachet Water Quality Reference Study Area Sample Quality Measure Results Size Obiri-Danso et al., Kumasi 88 Total Coliform, Faecal 4.5% elevated TC, 2.3% FC 2003 Colifom Dodoo et al., 2006 Cape Coast 180 Total Coliform, Escherichia 45% TC, 14% E. Coli Coli Ampofo et al., 2007 Southern 78 Total Coliform, Faecal 40.2% elevated TC, 8.4% FC, Ghana Coliform, Salmonella, 3.4% - 8.4% various bacterial Clostridium and Bacillus species spp. Kwakye-Nuako et al., Accra 27 Four parasitic organisms 77.8% contained one or more 2007 than protozoan pathogens Okioga, 2007 Tamale 15 Total Coliform, Faecal 47% elevated TC, 6.7% FC Coliform Addo et al., 2009 Teshie – 30 Total Coliform, Faecal 100% high TC counts, 20% Nungua, Coliform contained FC Accra (Source: Stoler et al., 2012) According to Stoler et al. (2012), on the other hand, bottled water has always been available in Ghana through the shops and supermarkets; it however mainly catered for the rich due to higher price as compared to the sachet water. However, in an attempt to safeguard their health Ghanaians are gradually turning to bottled water. Bottled water tested in all the studies listed above met the quality standards set by the WHO. As a result patronage of bottled water which hither to has been the preserve of the elite has been on a gradual ascendency. Currently, there are over 20 bottling companies registered with the Food and Drugs Board. Table 2 gives a summary of the seven major water bottling companies and the price of their bottled water and sachet water of equal volume (See Appendix 1 for full list). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2: Major Bottling Companies in Ghana Prices Company Name Brand Name Products (GH¢) Voltic Natural Mineral Water 500 ml Sachet Water 0.10 Voltic Ghana Limited Cool pac Treated Water 500 ml Bottled Water 0.80 Mobile Refreshing Natural 500ml Sachet Water 0.10 Magvlyn Industries Limited Mineral Water 500ml Bottled Water 0.80 500 ml Sachet Water 0.10 Yes Natural Mineral Water Yes Natural Mineral Water 500 ml Bottled Water 0.80 Ice Cool Purified Water Ltd., 450 ml Sachet Water 0.10 Tema IceCool Purified Water 500 ml BottledWater 0.80 500ml Sachet Water 0.10 Everpure Ghana Ltd. Everpure Drinking Water 600ml Bottled Water 0.80 500ml Sachet Water 0.10 Baron House Limited Ice Pak Mineral Water 500ml Bottled Water 0.80 500ml Sachet Water 0.10 Special Ice Mineral Water Special Ice Mineral Water 500 ml Bottled Water 0.80 (Source: Food and Drugs Authority Website; Market Survey, 2013) Most bottling companies produce both sachet water and bottled water. However, a few such as BonAqua Premium Drinking Water and Belaqua Mineral Water limit their products only to bottled water. Sachet water is commonly sold in 500ml volumes. Bottled water is however sold in several different volumes ranging from 500ml – 1.5L and 19L Dispensing Jars. For the purpose of comparison and avoidance of confusion, only the prices of the 500ml sachet water and the 500ml Bottled water have been presented in Table 2. As can be seen, bottled water costs about eight times the price of an equal volume of sachet water. However it must be noted that, in spite of the apparent increase in bottled water production in the country in response to the increasing patronage, sachet water still remains extremely popular in 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana possibly because of economic reasons. Table 3 shows the regional distribution of sachet water and the bottled water producers in Ghana (See Appendix 1 for full list of companies). Table 3: Number of Bottled and Sachet Water Producers in Ghana by Regions Region Packaged Water Producers in Ghana Sachet Water Bottled Water No. % of Total No. % of Total 1. Ashanti Region 480 56.3 2 9.5 2. Brong Ahafo Region 49 5.8 1 4.8 3. Central Region 26 3.1 0 0.0 4. Eastern Region 52 6.1 2 9.5 5. Greater Accra Region 112 13.2 16 76.2 6. Volta Region 42 4.9 0 0.0 7. Northern Region 5 0.6 0 0.0 8. Western Region 76 8.9 0 0.0 9. Upper West Region 2 0.2 0 0.0 10. Upper East Region 8 0.9 0 0.0 Total 852 100 21 100 (Authors Compilation, Data Sourced from Food and Drugs Authority website) The table depicts two interesting readings. First it is clear that the production of bottled water is skewed towards Greater Accra, recording about 76% concentration. This is in conformity with the general location pattern of most industries in Ghana. According to a UN-Habitat (2009) city profile report, Accra is the second most industrialised city in Ghana, contributing over 10% to the GDP. Over 30% of the manufacturing activities are located in the city offering 22.34% employment to labour force in Accra. Prior research (GLSS, 2008) describes Accra as the most economically endowed city, located in a region (Greater Accra) having the highest per capita income of GH¢544.00 in the country. This implies that all things being equal, most residents in 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the region would be most likely to afford bottled water in spite of its high price. This may have accounted for more bottled water producers in this region. Secondly, like the bottled water, majority of sachet water producers are concentrated in Ashanti and Greater Accra, regions, the most populous and economically endowed areas. The table reveals that Ashanti region accounted for 56.3%, of a total of 852 sachet water producers in Ghana. Greater Accra Region had a relatively lower percentage yet a significant number of sachet water producers at 13.2%. The Upper West and East regions had the lowest numbers of 0.2% and 0.9% of sachet water producers respectively with no bottled water producers registered in the two regions. This could be attributed to the fact that these two regions are also the poorest in the country with majority of residents engaged in unstable economic conditions, and live below the national poverty line of $210 per year (GLSS, 2008) therefore the production and patronage of both sachet and bottled water would not be affordable to residents within these regions. There has however been little research into the transformation of drinking water delivery, exploring how privatized, packaged water is changing the drinking water landscape in developing urban centers such as Accra as well as West Africa in general (Stoler et al., 2012). 2.3.1 Waste Plastic Bottles With the growing bottled water industry comes the associated waste i.e. the bottles. Plastic bottles even though the most readily recycled plastic products, have recycling rates as low as 10% in some countries. The rest end up in landfills, incinerators and in the oceans. In the U.S. the largest producer of this waste only about 20% of the bottles are recycled (US EPA, 2011). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Ghana, there is very little published information on the fate of the plastic bottles generated in the country. According to Fobil and Hogarh (2006), these bottles are traditionally sought after for reuse in homes, by traders and local beverage manufacturers. Booyens (2012) states that one health concern that needs to be taken into account when reusing plastic bottles is that people can easily spread bacteria from their hands and mouth in sharing and reusing bottles that have not been properly washed and dried. Reynolds (2005) also stated that improper maintenance of plastic beverage bottles can lead to contamination with human faecal bacteria, or other harmful microbes, and with harmful chemical by-products that can leach into the water. A study carried out by Oliphant et al. (2012) found that 8.9% of 68 and 64.4% of 76 water samples collected from personal water bottles of elementary school children in the USA were contaminated with faecal coliform and Heterotrophic Plate counts, respectively, that exceeded federal standards. The Codex Alimentarius Commission’s General Principles of Food Hygiene (2003) requires that packaging materials must be non-toxic and not pose a threat to the safety and suitability of food under the specified conditions of storage and use. Where appropriate, reusable packaging should be suitably durable, easy to clean and, where necessary, disinfect. The WHO Code of Hygienic Practice for Bottled/Packaged Drinking Waters (2001) also states that reused containers should be washed and disinfected in an appropriate system and positioned within the processing plant so as to minimize post-sanitizing contamination prior to filling and sealing. 2.5 Conceptual Framework for the Study As stated earlier, the above literature review sought to provide a theoretical framework for this research, and show where the research fits in the existing body of knowledge as well as identify 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some of the gaps in existing knowledge. Based on this review, the conceptual framework guiding the study has been crafted and is presented in Figure 2-4. Figure 2-4: The Pathway to Efficient Management of Plastic Bottles Solid waste Generated at Household Level Source Separation at No Source Household Level Separation Garbage transported to Sorting Facility for Sanitization and Segregation into various components Paper Organics Plastics Metals Others e.g. Fabrics, Wood etc Sorted by type and colour Containers e.g. Bottles, gallons etc Thin Films Bott les sanitized Recycled into Crushed into Recycled into and reused for non- new plastic pellets for new plastic food products products export products (Source: Author’s Compilation) 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Under the framework, it is envisaged that any efficient solid waste management begins with source or household separation, where different vehicles would pick up different categories of waste at separate times. However, in the absence of source segregation, mixed waste collected by one vehicle would be sent to sorting facilities to segregate and sanitize waste into the various categories, namely, organics, paper, plastics, metals etc. It must be stated, in the absence of source separation, the likelihood of the recyclables being contaminated remains very high. Once the waste is segregated different systems of management most suitable for each category of waste will be applied. In the case of plastics, which happen to be the main focus of this study, further sorting, based on type and colour, will be required to further segregate them. The Society of the Plastic Industry Resin Identification Code for plastics will guide the sorting. Thin films would be recycled into new products. Containers such as bottles and gallons which are undamaged can be sanitized and reused for non-food products, the damaged ones can be recycled into new products or in the absence of the technology for recycling they can be crushed into pellets for export. Disposal of plastic waste would be non-existent. It is important to state for source separation to be achieved it is important to put in place appropriate institutional arrangements that will ensure that separated wastes are collected on time and with very little stress for the household. Situations where households have to ‘struggle’ to dispose of separated waste will only serve as a disincentive for future source separation. This study will therefore seek to identify the lapses in the management of waste bottles in Ghana based on the above approach and attempt to assign reasons for these lapses towards evolving management options that will bear a closer resemblance to the ideal approach outlined above. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Chapter Summary This chapter provided a review of the previous works and studies done in relation to solid waste both on the local and international front and therefore provide the theoretical framework for the study. The first section focused on Municipal Solid Waste, what it is, its characteristics and current management practices. The second section sought to examine plastics, their contribution to the Municipal Solid Waste and proposed management methods. The third section provided a background into the water bottling industry and the challenges in managing waste plastic bottles. The final section gave an outline of the conceptual framework guiding the study. The next chapter will provide a background to the study area and the methods adopted to achieve the study objectives. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.0 Introduction This chapter provides a description of activities and analyses undertaken to achieve the objectives outlined for the study. These activities include design and administration of questionnaires to establish the practices, attitudes, perceptions and opinions of individuals within the study area on plastic bottles and assess how socio-demographic factors influence these practices. Also, microbiological analyses were carried out to test for contamination levels on reused plastic bottles. Details of these activities as well as challenges encountered have been discussed in subsequent paragraphs. 3.1 Study Area The area chosen for the study was Accra Metropolitan Area. Accra is the capital city of Ghana and a major centre for manufacturing, marketing, finance, insurance, transportation and tourism and is located within the Greater Accra Region. The AMA covers a land area of 201sq. km and is the second most populated metropolis in Ghana. The population of AMA was 636,667 in 1970 and increased by 7.51% to a total of 969,195 by 1984. By 2000, the population of Accra Metropolitan area had again seen a 4.3% increase to a total of 1,658,937 which further increased by 9% to a total of 1,848,614 by 2010 (GSS, 2012). The Accra Metropolitan Area is made up of eleven sub-metros namely, Abossey-Okai, Ablekuma North, Ablekuma South, Ashiedu-Keteke, Ayawaso Central, Ayawaso East, Ayawaso West, La, Okai Koi South, Okai Koi North and Osu Klottey as shown in Figure 3-1. Accra is the most modernized and urbanized city in Ghana (Agyei-Mensah and De Graft Aikins, 2010). 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3-1: Sub-Metros in Accra Metropolitan Area (Source: City of Accra, Consultative Citizens’ Report Card, a World Bank Report, 2010) In spite of the high level of modernization, the Accra Metropolitan Area still faces a lot of challenges associated with high rates of urbanization. Water and sanitation are two of the most challenging and contentious issues in Accra. Solid waste generation is estimated to have tripled over the two last decades due to population growth, increased urbanization and lifestyle changes (Water Aid and EU, 2008). 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Private sector participation in waste management has been concentrated in waste collection. In low income areas central container system is operational. There are designated points where containers are placed for households to dislodge their domestic waste for on-ward carriage to final waste disposal and incineration sites. The other system, door-to-door collection, is prominent in affluent areas of Accra (AMA, 2006). About 1,500 – 1,800 tonnes of solid waste is generated in AMA daily and of this only about 60% is collected (UN-Habitat, 2009) with the remaining dumped indiscriminately, openly burned, left to clog drains and litter streets. Accra is supplied by pipe-borne water from 2 operational sources - The Weija and Kpone Water Works (UN-Habitat, 2009). Access to water by people in Accra varies according to the three categories of urban dwellers in Accra. First, there are those who live in first class residential areas and are connected to the water supply network. This class of residence gets water 24 hours a day, and pay for water at the official rates (UN-Habitat, 2009). Second, there are those Accra residents (a large proportion) who live in areas which are connected to the network but do not get water through their taps on a regular basis. These people have to supplement their water supplies by buying water from vendors. Finally there are the majority of residents, mostly the poor and vulnerable groups living in slums and poor neighbourhood, which are not connected to the network, and have to buy their water from the vendors (UN-Habitat, 2009). This study area was chosen because Accra is the most modernized and urbanized city in Ghana (Agyei-Mensah and De Graft Aikins, 2010) with residents having a relatively higher standard of living than other parts of Ghana. Usage of plastic bottle is a modern practice and has been associated with the elite in society; Accra is therefore an ideal location to carry out such a study. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, because of limited time and financial resources, Ayawaso West Sub-metro, one of the eleven sub metros, was chosen as the sampling area. As already noted, the Sub-metro is one of the eleven (11no.) sub metro district Councils of Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA). It is bounded to the North by Ledzokuku Krowor Municipal Assembly, to the West by Ga West Municipal Assembly, to the South by Okaikoi South Metro and to the East by Ayawaso Central Sub Metro (AMA, 2012). Figure 3-2: Map of Ayawaso West Sub-Metro of Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) (Source: CERSGIS, University of Ghana) 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Residential areas in Accra in 2002 were classified into four major classes by the income levels of residents, housing characteristics and environmental conditions (World Bank, 2010). Ayawaso West Sub-metro is the wealthiest sub-metro in Accra and is predominantly comprised of 1st Class residential areas such as Airport Residential Area, Dzorwulu and East Legon. However, a few 2nd Class and 3rd Class residential areas such as Tesano Zongo, Okponglo and South Shiashie can also be found within this sub-metro. Also the University of Ghana located at Legon can also be found within this Sub-metro and hence a large student population. The Ayawaso West Sub-metro was chosen because of its unique nature which embodies a majority of the classes of residents within Accra thus allowing for comparison of respondents of different economic groups. With a population of 70,667, Ayawaso West Sub Metro forms 3.82% of the entire population of AMA an increase of about 47% since 2000 and a population density of 2,728.45 person/sq. km (GSS, 2012). The housing landscape of the Sub Metro is characterized by a mixture of very low- density development with under-utilized service infrastructure on one hand and low class, and high-density development with depressed conditions and overstretched infrastructure services on the other. Some of the major economic activities carried out in the Sub-metro include Hotels and restaurants, transport and wholesale and retail trade. Wholesale and retail trade is however the most popular activity with 33.92% of the population engaged in this (District Environmental Sanitation Strategy Plan, 2009). The District Environmental Sanitation Strategy Plan (2009) for the Ayawaso West Sub-metro District Council Office of the AMA showed that out of the total number of public refuse dumps in the area 38.0% are approved with 61.1% unapproved. Characterization of solid waste disposed of 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the sub-metro showed that generally the organics formed the major component of solid waste at 65%. Plastics ranged from 3% - 5% depending on the income bracket within which the area fell. Waste samples from the communal containers showed 65% organics, 3% paper and 3.1% plastics (District Environmental Sanitation Strategy Plan, 2009). 3.2 Sampling Methods The sampling methods chosen were geared at achieving the research objectives stated in Chapter One i.e. Assess the influence of socio-demographic factors on the patronage of bottled water, assessing the microbiological quality of reused bottles and assess management options (based on the 3R’s concept). a) To assess the influence of socio-demographic factors on the patronage of bottled water and bottle usage, questionnaires were administered to 200 residents within the sampling area. b) To assess the microbiological quality of reused bottles, microbiological analysis for total bacteria, total coliforms and faecal coliforms was carried out in the laboratory. c) The assessment of management options were based on responses results from the first two activities as well as an in-depth interview with a Director from Environmental Protection Agency who was also a member of the Waste Stock Exchange Committee which was part of the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project (GCLME). The GCLME Project which commenced in 2004 is an ecosystem-based effort to assist countries within the Guinea Current Ecosystem to achieve environmental and resource sustainability. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.1 The Pattern of Plastic Bottle Usage in Study Area This section provides details of the materials and methods used in determining the pattern of plastic bottle usage in relation to socio-demographic variables of residents with the Ayawaso West Sub-metro and also their opinions on how the used bottles should be managed. 3.2.1.1 Sampling tool To be able to evolve the patterns in plastic bottle usage in Ayawaso West the sampling tool used was semi-structured questionnaires. Questionnaires were used to enable collection of data from many respondents simultaneously, thus saving time and reducing cost. The questionnaires were semi-structured to ensure that even though the views of the respondents will be restricted by closed ended questions, at various points within the questionnaire the respondent had the opportunity to freely express their opinions. This ensured that the views gathered were fully representative of the opinions of the respondents and thus reduced bias due to limited response ranges. The information required from respondents included their socio-economic status, educational Status, their preference for bottled beverages, how empty (waste) bottles are disposed of, their level of patronage of products in reused bottles and their opinions on how disposal or management methods can be improved. 3.2.1.2 Sample size A sample size of 200 residents within the Ayawaso West Sub-metro was chosen. It is expected that this size will provide statistically reasonable data considering that as stated earlier the community predominantly comprises of 1st Class residents with a few 2nd and 3rd Class residents and is thus largely homogeneous and opinions are not expected to vary significantly. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.1.3 Sampling Technique The sampling technique chosen was the systematic random sampling method. A house was chosen at random and thereafter every other two houses were visited with the questionnaires. This was used for convenience and to eliminate any bias that any other sampling method may introduce. It was also expected that this method will provide data that is representative of the population. 3.2.1.4 Questionnaire Analysis To analyse the filled out questionnaires the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used. The statistical analyses used included descriptive statistics (frequency and percentages) to present tables and charts on demographic data, level of patronage of bottled beverages and products in reused bottles. A chi-square analysis (test of independence) was used to test whether the patronage of plastic bottled beverages is dependent on socio-economic and educational status. 3.2.1.5 Challenges to Questionnaire Administration The challenges faced during the questionnaire administration process are outlined below: a) Unwillingness to participate by individuals as well as absence or non-availability of house owners within the high-class residential areas made it difficult ensuring an even spread of respondents from all residential areas b) Some questionnaires were not filled out completely by respondents 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 To determine the microbiological quality of reused bottles The determination of the microbiological quality of the reused bottles was carried out to assess the level of contamination of these bottles. A comparison of the results from the analysis with established standards will allow an inference to be drawn on the risk consumers are exposed to and also explore possible means of improvement. The main standards the results from these analyses were compared to were the WHO Standards, the Ghana Standard Authority Standards and the US EPA standards for drinking water quality. There is currently no clear standards for microbiological quality of food packaging therefore the standards set for drinking water quality will be used as a yardstick for measuring the compliance level of the used bottles with these standards. The World Health Organisation (WHO) is the directing and coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system. It is responsible for among others providing leadership on global health matters, and setting norms and standards. The WHO has outlined microbiological standards for drinking water and a comparison of the results obtained with the WHO Standard will provide picture of the acceptability of the contamination levels on the bottles on the global scale. The US EPA is the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States set up to protect Americans from significant risks to human health and the environment where they live, learn and work. The US EPA also set standards for the States in the U.S. to implement. Even though this Agency’s authority does not go beyond the U.S., it also provides a basis for comparison of how the results from the microbiological analyses will perform in relation to Standards from other Nations. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ghana Standard Authority (GSA) is the national Standards body and was established by the Standards Decree, 1967 (NLCD 199) which has been superseded by the Standards Decree, 1973 (NRCD 173). Among others the GSA has been mandated to undertake national standards development and dissemination. The Ghana Standard Authority also has its own standards for drinking water quality and a comparison of the results with this standard will provide a picture of the acceptability of the contamination levels on the bottles on the National level. The GSB (1998) also specifies that the appropriate number of samples to be obtained for each lot of packaged water considered for water quality analysis should range from 15 to 24. This requirement therefore informed the choice of the number of bottles (sample sizes) chosen for each category of bottles tested. 3.2.2.1 Sample Size Samples, 25 each, of used washed and unwashed PET Bottles were purchased from three market places, namely, Madina Market, Makola Market and Kaneshie Market. A total of 25 used PET bottles were also obtained from five different homes with the Ayawaso West Sub-metro. A total of 25 new bottles were also purchased from the plastic bottle producers as control. In total 200 bottles were analysed. 3.2.2.2 Sampling Locations The used bottles were sampled from three major markets. These were Madina Market, Makola Market and Kaneshie Market. These market places were chosen because there are currently no major markets within the Ayawaso West Sub-metro and these markets are three major market 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh places in Accra that waste pickers within the sub-metro and beyond sell the bottles and where bottles may be purchased for reuse. 3.2.2.3 Laboratory Analysis To assess the level of contamination of the bottles bacteriological analysis was carried out on the bottles for Total Bacteria, Total Coliforms and Faecal Coliforms. (a) Total Bacteria represents the total bacterial load in a given sample. It is a test to detect all viable microorganisms that could grow aerobically on plate count agar at appropriate incubation condition. The Total Bacterial test could reflect the general hygiene condition of a sample. (b) Coliforms are facultative anaerobes, gram negative, non-spore forming, rod-shaped bacteria capable of growing in the presence of relatively high concentrations of bile salts with the fermentation of lactose and production of acid or aldehyde within 24 h at 35–37 °C. The total coliform group includes both Faecal and environmental species. Most coliform bacteria do not cause disease but their presence is a cause for concern because of the potential for other disease causing strains of bacteria to also be present. (c) Faecal coliforms are a subcomponent of this larger group of coliform bacteria. Faecal coliform are indicator organisms for faecal contamination and potential presence of enteric pathogens (Baron, 1996). A. Materials used for Laboratory Analysis: a) Agar Powder i.e.: i. Nutrient Agar for culturing Total Bacteria ii. Violet-Red-Blue Agar for culturing Total Coliforms iii. MacConkey Agar for culturing Faecal Coliforms 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b) Distilled Water c) 0.85% Physiological Saline d) 70% Ethanol e) Sterile Petri dishes f) Flasks and Beakers g) Bunsen Burner The agar powders, ethanol and physiological saline were sourced from the University of Ghana Soil Science Department Laboratory. All other materials were sourced from the University of Ghana Ecological Laboratory where the laboratory analyses were conducted. B. Method a) Agar preparation 23g of Agar powder was weighed and dissolved in 1000ml of distilled water. The mixture was boiled for 1 minute over a flame. The melted agar was removed and allowed to cool. b) Culturing Process The Pour Plate Technique was employed (Nollet, 2007). a. Total Bacteria The inner portion of each bottle was washed with 9ml of 0.85% physiological saline. A 1ml sample of the saline in the bottle was measured with a sterile 1ml disposable pipette and aseptically dispensed into a well-labelled Petri dish (label indicating source of bottle and whether washed or unwashed). 10ml of double strength melted Nutrient Agar was added to the 1 ml sample in the Petri dish. The Petri dish was securely covered and the agar allowed to solidify. The 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh petri dishes were turned upside down and incubated for 18 – 24 hours in the Laminar Flow Hood at a temperature of 35°C. This was repeated for all 200 bottles tested. The total number of colonies were counted and recorded in CFU/ml. All processes were carried out within the Laminar Flow Hood to prevent external contamination. b. Total and Faecal Coliforms The method for culturing the Total and Faecal Coliforms were similar to the process carried out for determining the Total Bacteria. The agar used for the total and faecal coliforms were Violet- Red-Blue Agar and MacConkey Agar respectively. Results recorded were collated and analysed and presented in frequency charts and tables. 3.2.2.4 Quality Assurance In order to ensure that the results of analysis obtained were accurate, quality assurance measures were observed as follows: a) Samples were analysed based on WHO’s Analytical Methods for Microbiological Water Quality Testing b) All the glassware were thoroughly cleansed with appropriate detergent and rinsed with distilled water and autoclaved. The pair of scissors, Petri dishes, beakers, automatic pipette and agar were all autoclaved. c) Disinfection of the work area (the Laminar Flow Hood) and hands with 70% ethanol. 3.3 Chapter Summary This chapter provided a background to the study area and the research methods adopted. The first section provided details and maps of the study area, the second section outlined the methods 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adopted to analyse the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents and its influence on bottle water patronage. The third and final section presented the microbiological analysis undertaken to determine the levels of bacterial contamination on the bottles. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR PATTERNS IN BOTTLED WATER USAGE AND MICROBIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF USED PLASTIC BOTTLES 4.0 Introduction In this chapter, results of questionnaire and microbiological analyses are presented, described and discussed in full detail. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the questionnaire was administered to establish patterns in plastic bottle usage as well as to sample views and opinions of residents within Ayawaso West on how management of these bottles can be improved. Reuse of plastic bottles in Ghana is a whole industry and one of the current informal systems of management of plastic bottles. The microbiological analyses of the bottles were therefore carried out to establish the contamination levels on these bottles and hence ascertain its level of safety for use for food products. 4.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics and Water Packaging Preferences of Respondents A total of 200 questionnaires were administered to respondents of different age groups, educational backgrounds, economic status and living in different areas within the Ayawaso West Sub-metro. Out of the 200 questionnaires administered, all 200 were returned. The main purpose of collecting the demographic data was to get an idea of the socio-demographic profile of the study area and also to enable comparisons to be made between the socio- demographic status of the people and the patronage or preferences for beverages packaged in plastic bottles or otherwise. To assess the level of patronage of products in plastic bottles 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respondents were required to indicate their preference between: Tap water, Sachet water, Bottled Water. This was done to establish the current status or output of plastic bottles within the area. A comparison of the responses was made with the demographic characteristics of respondents i.e. educational level, income status to determine if patronage of these bottles depends on these socio- economic characteristics. Table 4 below provides a summary of demographic data provided by the respondents. Subsequent paragraphs provide a description of the demographic information as well as a comparison of these with responses given on the preference for bottled water. Table 4: Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Characteristic Classification Frequency Percentage Gender Male 97 48.5 Female 103 51.5 Total 200 100.0 Age Range 20 – 25 47 23.5 26 – 30 44 22.0 31 – 35 45 22.5 36 – 40 33 16.5 41 – 45 8 4.0 ≥ 46 23 11.5 Total 200 100.0 Educational Status No Formal Education 2 1.0 Primary/JSS 20 10.0 Secondary 53 26.5 Tertiary 125 62.5 Total 200 100.0 Employment status Unemployed 20 10.0 Student 75 37.5 Employed 105 52.5 Total 200 100.0 Income Range <100 7 6.6 100-499 31 29.5 500-1000 36 34.4 >1000 28 26.7 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Characteristic Classification Frequency Percentage Undisclosed 3 2.8 Total 105 100 Residential Areas Abelenkpe 36 18.0 Airport 18 9.0 Bawaleshie 2 1.0 Dzorwulu 20 10.0 Legon 55 27.5 Mempeasem 7 3.5 Okponglo 18 9.0 Roman Ridge 2 1.0 Shiashie 14 7.0 Tesano 28 14.0 Total 200 100 Types of Residences Student Hostel 42 21.0 Single/Chamber & Hall (Shared 34 17.0 SFaincgillieti/eCsh)a mber & Hall (self-contained) 38 19.0 Self-contained House (≥ two bedrooms) 86 43.0 Total 200 100.0 (Source: Field Data, 2013) As shown in Table 4, 88.5% of the respondents were below the age of 40 reflecting a youthful sample population. Young people are usually abreast of modern trends so it is expected that a majority of the population would be aware of all the public health as well as environmental problems associated with sachet water. Also, 62.5% of the respondents had attained tertiary education, therefore all things being equal, should be conscious about environmental health and be gainfully employed to be able to afford bottled water. About 34% of the respondents earned between GH¢500.00 - GH¢1000.00 representing the modal income range. Another 27% of the sample population earned above GH¢1000.00. The income range observed further buttresses the point that the respondents would most likely be able to afford to patronize bottled water. Also, about 28% of the respondents live in the Legon area and this was the most represented residential 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh area. Legon being the home of the University of Ghana is predominantly inhabited by academics and are expected to be knowledgeable about the environmental and health implications of the water packaging choices. To verify or confirm these assumptions made, a cross-tabulation of the socio-demographic characteristics outlined above has been done and the patterns observed are described in the paragraphs that follow. 4.1.1 Gender and Age Distribution of Respondents Out of the total of 200 respondents, both male and female were quite adequately represented with 51.5% being male and 48.5% being female. The ages of the respondents ranged from 20 to 46 and above. The age range ≥46 comprised of the respondents of ages 46 – 70. The modal age range was 20 – 25 represented by 23% of the respondents. The age range least represented was 41-45 represented by only 4% of respondents. The pattern observed in the ages of the respondents reflects a youthful community. The plastic bottle phenomenon is a relatively recent one and it is expected to be patronized more by the youth, there will therefore be a greater likelihood of high patronage of the bottled products within this area. To verify this, a comparison of the age of respondents with their drinking water packaging preference is shown in Figure 4-1. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-1: A Comparison of the Ages of the Respondents with their Packaging Preferences (Source: Field Data, 2013) About 61% of the respondents in their early twenties (20 – 25 years) indicated they preferred bottled water to sachet and tap water. On the other hand, about 65% of respondents 46years and above also indicated they preferred bottled water to the other options. Respondents of all other ages between 26 and 45 had an average of about 52% opting for sachet water. Overall, only 1.5% of the total number of respondents opted for tapwater. The trend observed implies that the respondents of the two extreme age categories largely prefer bottled water. The fact that respondents of the youngest age category had a majority opting for bottled water may be attributed to the fact that young people are generally believed to be more susceptible to marketing and advertising, which are key elements in the success of the bottled water industry (Ferrier, 2001; Gleick, 2011). Also, the use of bottled water has arguably assumed some status symbolization. Thus, the use of bottled water is equated to ones economic status in the society. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, generally, 55% of respondents within this age group who preferred bottled water gave the major reason to be “for safety and hygiene”. As far back as 2003, studies by Obiri-Danso et al.and Dodoo et al. (2006) began to query the quality of sachet water and since then several subsequent studies have shown microbial contamination of various degrees. Respondents aged between 20 – 25 years would have been between 10 – 15 years when quality issues began to surface. They would therefore have grown up with a general mistrust for the product. Bottled water has so far been seen as the safest drinking water option and persons within this age group may have turned to this as the healthier option. This trend is interesting for future projections because respondents of this age category will most likely continue to have the preference for bottled water well into their adult lives and further influence their children towards this product. The fact that the category of the oldest respondents (46 and above) also had a majority opting for bottled water may also be associated with the fact again that bottled water has been seen as the safest drinking water option. Older people tend to be more health conscious as they are more susceptible to illnesses and diseases which take a greater toll on them than younger people (Yamada, 2005) and may tend to veer towards the healthiest option available. This is also buttressed by the fact that even within our health institutions, patients are advised strongly to ‘clean water’, preferably bottled water when administering their medication. The older respondents were largely homeowners within the community who could afford to buy bottled water regularly. This may account for the majority of that group having a preference for this option. A chi-square test to determine whether the packaging preference of the respondents depended on the age of the respondents, however, failed to show any significant relationship between the two variables, X2 (5) = 4.579, p = 0.469 (an alpha level of 0.05 was adopted for this 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and all subsequent statistical tests). This means that though the distribution may appear to have tendencies that may cause an assumption to be made that the choice of the respondents would depend on their ages, the chi-square test in fact reveals that preference for bottled water, sachet water or tapwater is independent of the age of the sample population. This means that the choice of respondents may have been influenced by other factors such as their educational level, income earned or the locality they live in. To determine this, an analysis was also carried out on the relationship between the educational level of respondents and the choice made as shown in the subsequent paragraphs. 4.1.2 Educational Level of Respondents Of the 200 respondents 62.5% had acquired tertiary level education and only 1% had no education at all. This trend implies that the area is primarily a literate one with the majority attaining higher level education. Bottled water, according to research carried out by different researchers has been proven to be of good microbiological quality as compared to sachet water and tapwater (Obiri-Danso et al., 2003; Dodoo et al, 2006). The highly educated are expected to be more conscious of the hygiene and issues associated with the different types of water packaging available in Ghana and it is therefore expected that the education will have some level of influence on the choice of packaging. Figure 4-2 shows the relationship between respondents’ education level and their preferred drinking water sources. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-2: Comparison of Educational Level of Respondents with Packaging Preferences (Source: Field Data, 2013) Out of a total of 125 respondents that had attained Tertiary level education, 47.2% preferred Sachet water and 52% preferred bottled water. Only 0.8% of the tertiary level respondents preferred tap water. Out of a total of 53 secondary level education respondents only 3.77% preferred tap water, 47.17% preferred sachet water and 49% preferred bottled water. Respondents with Primary/JSS level education were a total of 20 out of which 40% preferred sachet water and 60% preferred bottled water. No member of this group of respondents preferred tap water. There were a total of 2 respondents with no formal education. Out of these two, 1 preferred bottled water and the other preferred sachet water. Overall, the most preferred water packaging type among respondents of all the educational groupings was bottled water. Tapwater was the least preferred within all the educational groupings. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It would have been expected that a higher proportion of the educated respondents would prefer bottled water while a higher proportion of the less educated respondents would prefer sachet water or even tapwater. The educated respondents by virtue of their exposure and knowledge base are expected to have more awareness of hygiene and health issues associated with drinking water than the less educated respondents. However, this was not the case. Respondents of all educational categories preferred bottled water. The educational level of respondents which, in this study, was measured by formal academic qualifications did not appear to influence the packaging preferences. This pattern observed may be attributed to mass media publications over the past years on the risks of sachet water consumption which has raised awareness of the risks of choosing questionable drinking water sources. The power of the news media to focus public attention on key issues is an immense and well-documented influence (McCombs and Shaw, 1972). The dramatic revolution in the broadcasting environment in Ghana started in 1992, particularly with radio broadcasting. Radio broadcasting is relatively cheaper to consumers, timely in its message delivery and flexible in its use of local languages (Ibis, 2003). There are currently, as at the third quarter of 2012, 225 radio stations operational in Ghana (Adogla, 2013). With the proliferation of all these radio stations, news is disseminated faster and over a wider area than before. The issue of unregistered sachet water producers and the contamination levels in the product continues to be a recurring news item that surfaces periodically, thus the awareness has been created. The general preference for bottled water across all the educational categories could therefore be attributed to increased awareness of safety and hygiene issues among the population. A chi-square analysis 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh was carried out to further ascertain whether packaging preference was influenced by educational level. The test failed to indicate a significant dependence, X2 (3) = 0.992, p = 0.803. On the basis of the chi-square result, it is safe to conclude that the preference for bottled water, sachet water or tapwater is independent of educational level of respondents. 4.1.3 Employment Status and Income of Respondents Out of a total of the 200 respondents, the employed respondents represented 52.5% of the total number of respondents, the students 37.5% and the unemployed 10%. Of the 105 employed respondents, about 97% were willing to disclose their income range. Of this number, about 35% fell within the GH¢500.00 - GH¢1000.00 income range and this was the modal income range. Only 6.67% of the respondents fell below the GH¢100.00 and this represented the lowest income range. This data is consistent with the Ghana Living Standards Survey 5 carried out in 2008 which recorded the average per capita income in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area to be GH¢564.00. Bottled water has been associated with affluence and high living standards. The income range registered suggests that a majority of the employed respondents would prefer bottled water. To verify this Figure 4-3 presents a comparison of the employment status of respondents and their packaging preference. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-3: Comparison of Employment Status of Respondents with Packaging Preferences (Source: Field Data, 2013) As shown in Figure 4-3, 51.43% of the employed respondents preferred sachet water, 47.6% preferred Bottled water and 0.95% preferred tap water. Out of the 75 of the respondents that were students, 61.33% preferred bottled water, 36% preferred sachet water and 2.67% preferred tap water. Out of the 20 unemployed respondents, none preferred tap water, 60% preferred sachet water and 40% preferred bottled water. Generally, a majority of the unemployed and the employed group appeared to prefer sachet water with only the student population having more of their respondents preferring bottled water. This observed pattern may be due to the fact that the student population comprises a relatively younger population and as discussed earlier may have grown to believe that bottled water is the most hygienic and safest option due to the reports in the media and published articles. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh About 36% of the student population gave ‘safety and hygiene’ as their main reason for opting for bottled water, while another 21% gave ‘convenience and portability’ as their main reason for choosing bottled water. A student’s lifestyle demands a lot of movement from lectures, study groups, field trips and other student activities, bottled water being convenient to carry around without affecting mobility or movement presents an option that fits perfectly into the lifestyle of a student. Also, bottled water has been a symbol of affluence and status and students generally are more vulnerable to the need to impress their peer and would most likely prefer or create the impression of preference for bottled water. The majority of the unemployed preferring sachet water is not surprising because being unemployed means the person does not earn an income and is most likely dependent on another person. They would therefore want to choose what they can afford and the more practical option rather than to impress their peers. About 42% of the unemployed respondents gave their main reason for opting for sachet water to be ‘hygienic and cheap’. A chi-square test failed to show any dependence between employment status and preference, X2 (2) = 4.257, p= 0.119. The choice of the respondents is therefore independent of employment status. To further understand the choices within the employed group, a comparison of the income levels among the employed with their preference is presented in Figure 4-4. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-4: Comparison of Income Levels of Respondents with Packaging Preferences (Source: Field Data, 2013) Out of the 200 respondents, 105 were employed. Out of the 105 only 102 were willing to disclose their income range. Out of the 102 respondents, 7 earned below GH¢100.00 and of this number 14% preferred tapwater, and 42.9% preferred sachet water and another 42.9% preferred bottled water. A total of 31 of the respondents fell within the income range of GH¢100.00 – GH¢499.00 and out of this number, 3.22% preferred tap water, 70.97% preferred sachet water and 25.8% preferred bottled water. A total of 36 of the respondents fell within the GH¢500.00 – GH¢1000.00 range of which 44% preferred sachet water and 55.56% preferred bottled water. No respondents within this income bracket preferred tap water. Out of a total 28 respondents that earned above GH¢1000.00, 39.30% preferred sachet water and 60.7% preferred bottled water. No respondent from this category preferred tapwater. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, respondents of the income range GH¢1000 had more respondents preferring bottled water. Again, tap water was the least preferred in all the income ranges. From the trend observed, the income levels appeared to influence the preferences of the respondents. As shown in Table 2, the price of bottled water is about 8 times the price of an equal volume of sachet water. It would therefore appear to be more economical and sustainable to rely on sachet water if your income levels are low. A chi-square test of income levels of the employed respondents showed a dependence of preference on the income earned by respondents, X2 (3) = 8.809, p = 0.032. In Ghana, income levels have consistently been on the increase with the population living under the poverty line of $1.25 a day decreasing by 3.1% from 31.4% in 1992 to 28.5% in 2007 (World Bank, 2013). It is therefore expected that since bottled water patronage depends on income levels and income levels in Ghana are on a constant rise, then bottled water patronage will also increase with a subsequent increase in waste bottle generation. There is therefore a need to map out strategies now to ensure that the waste bottles do not become a nuisance in society. 4.1.4 Residential Areas Represented within the Sub-Metro Ten residential areas were represented among respondents. The area most represented was Legon with 55 of respondents representing 27.5% of the total from that area. The least represented were Bawaleshie and Roman Ridge with only 2 of respondents from that area. Legon is the home of the University of Ghana with a student population of about 39,376 as of the 2012/2013 academic 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh year. Most of the respondents from Legon are therefore expected to be students or in the field of academia. It is important to note however that because of accommodation shortages and preferences some students within the University of Ghana live outside the campus in nearby communities such as East Legon, Shiashie, Okponglo etc. The residential areas in Accra Metropolitan Area have been classified by the AMA according to income levels of residents into first, second, third and fourth class. Of the areas represented in this study, Airport Residential Area, Roman Ridge, Bawaleshie (a part of East Legon) and Dzorwulu fall within the first class residential areas. Some parts of Abelenkpe and Tesano fall within the first class and others the second class residential areas. Okponglo and Mempeasem (parts of East Legon) fall within the second class residential areas and South Shiashie in the third class residential area (AMA, 2006). Legon was not accounted for in the classification since it is not primarily a residential area. With this classification it can be assumed that the area in which a respondent lives could affect his/her water packaging preference. It is expected that the respondents from the first class residential area would have a preference for bottled water and the respondents from the second class residential areas as well as the third class residential areas may have a greater majority having a preference for sachet water. Figure 4-5 shows a comparison of residential area of respondents and their preference. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-5: Residential area versus Packaging Preference (Source: Field Data, 2013) The pattern from the comparison in Figure 4-5 shows that Tesano, Abelenkpe, Bawaleshie and Legon had majority of their respondents preferring bottled water to tapwater and sachet water. In Legon over 65% of respondents indicated a preference for bottled water. In Tesano and Abelenkpe, 53.5% and 55.5% preferred bottled water respectively. Both respondents from Bawaleshie indicated a preference for bottled water. At the Airport Residential Area and Roman Ridge, 50% of the respondents opted for bottled water and the other 50% opted for sachet water. In all the other areas i.e., Shiashie, Mempeasem, Dzorwulu and Okponglo sachet water was the most preferred by 78.6%, 71.4%, 60%, 55.5% respectively. The obvious preference by a majority of respondents from Legon for bottled water implies that the student population has a preference for bottled water. This may be due to the fact that they are 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a younger group and as discussed earlier may have been raised within this era where bottled water is becoming increasing popular and its patronage being encouraged as a more hygienic option and also a more environmentally sound option comparing to sachet water by environmentalists. When asked the reason for their preference about 30% of respondents from Legon indicated they believed it was more safe and hygienic. Another 25% of respondents from Legon gave the reason for their preference of bottled water to be because of its ‘convenience and portability’. A student’s lifestyle demands a lot of movement from lectures, study groups and other student activities, bottled water being convenient to carry around without affecting mobility or movement presents an option that fits perfectly into the lifestyle of a student. Generally, in the other areas, i.e. Tesano, Dzorwulu, Roman Ridge, Airport Residential Area, Abelenkpe about half of the respondents preferred bottled water and the other half sachet with a negligible percentage opting for tap water. This may imply that even though these areas are seen as high income areas the use of bottled water is not necessarily guaranteed. One reason for this observation could be the fact that some trusted bottled water companies produce sachet water and people from high income areas may still patronize these brands of sachet water, bought in bulk, purchased from reliable distributors and this may be more economical for them in the long term. According to Hu et al. (2011), location tends to influence the choice when the quality of drinking water available at the different locations varies. The residential areas covered within the sub-metro all fall within an area of about 25.9sq. km and have access to the same brands and quality of sachet water and bottled water and this may have accounted for the small differences. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When asked why they had the preferences they made about 14% of the respondents from these high income areas indicated that they opted for sachet water because they found it to be both ‘hygienic and cheap’. This means that these respondents believe that sachet water can provide the quality of water they require at a cheaper cost. A chi-square test failed to show any dependence of residential area in which the respondents lived on water packaging preference, X2 (6) = 10.808, p = 0.94. Overall, based on the chi-square apart from income level of employed respondents, preference for bottled water, sachet water or tap water was independent of all other socio- demographic parameter. The hypotheses that the patronage of bottled water is independent of age, educational and area of residence is true, however patronage does depend on income levels. This implies that all things being equal the only certain variable that would influence a person within the study area toward patronizing bottled water or not is their ability to afford it. Information about the quality of different drinking water sources has been all over the media and this has influenced to a large extent the choice of individuals on what to drink. Bottled water is assumed to be safer and thus most people opt for it for this reason. Also, the convenience and portability of the bottled water, makes it attractive to people in transition or always on the move. However the cost of bottled water relative to sachet water appears to be the limiting factor. Bottled water costs about eight times an equal volume of sachet water and barring all other factors makes more economic sense to patronize sachet water than bottled water. Based on this observation, it is expected that as income levels rise patronage of 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bottled water will also rise. This rise will also lead to generation of more waste bottles. The need for proper management will come to play. Reusing plastic bottles for food products has become increasingly popular in Ghana. These bottles are used as packaging for local drinks such as ‘sobolo’ and ‘iced kenkey”. It is also used by market women for sale of palm oil, coconut oil or other locally made oils. The sale of used bottle is therefore a major industry that the market women and local beverage producers depend on. As mentioned earlier, it serves as a major informal management method for this type of waste, at an income generating activity. The microbial load or levels of contamination on these bottles are however unknown and could pose health risk to consumers. A microbiological analysis was carried to assess the extent of contamination of the bottles sold for reuse in the markets. This information will help in determining if this practice should be encouraged, re-evaluated or completely discontinued. The results of this are presented in the paragraphs that follow. 4.2 Microbial Load on Reused Plastic Bottles Sold in the Markets To achieve this objective, 50 used bottles were taken each from three different geographical locations within Accra, namely, Makola market, Madina market and Kaneshie market. These markets were chosen based on referrals from vendors of local drinks within the study area who indicated these markets as their main source of these bottles. Each sample contained 25 samples each of washed and unwashed bottles. In addition a total of 25 bottles were collected directly from 5 different homes. As a control test 25 new unused bottles were also sampled. The results are presented in Figure 4-6. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-6: Percentage of Bottles Positive for the Presence of Microbiological Organisms (Source: Field Data, 2013) As shown in Figure 4-6, out of the total washed and total unwashed bottles tested from the three major markets in Accra, the washed bottles generally recorded higher presence of microbiological organisms than the unwashed bottles. Also, among the three organisms tested for the Total Bacteria recorded the highest presence both in the washed and unwashed and the Faecal Coliforms recorded the lowest presence. Of the total number of bottles tested 93.34% of the washed bottles tested positive for the presence of Total Bacteria whereas 89.34% of unwashed bottles tested positive for the presence of Total Bacteria. Of the total number of bottles, 65.33% of the washed bottles tested positive for the presence of Total Coliforms, the unwashed bottles however had a relatively lower number testing positive at 50.67%. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Results for Faecal Coliforms also followed the same trend with the washed bottles having 49.33% positive and the unwashed recording 36% positives. This means that the washed bottles pose a higher health risk to consumers than the unwashed bottles. This pattern may be attributed to the quality of water used in washing, the contamination level of the washing equipment or the washing procedure. In the Accra Metropolis, the Ghana Water Company (GWCL) produces most of the water used but only about 51% of the population has access to this supply. The rest depend on private and community service provider who either also get their supply from the GWCL, through tanker services or wells and boreholes. These private providers charge different rates for the water which are considerably higher than the costs per unit paid by households with direct connections from the GWCL (Adank et al, 2011). Thus with a situation like this it is difficult to determine where the market people access the water used for the washing from. Most of the sellers claimed they buy the water from nearby vendors. Therefore the source of the water may be the first source of contamination. The washing equipment may already be contaminated with coliforms and may spread the contamination to the bottles. The washing tools do not undergo any form of prior disinfection before usage. Hazard Critical Control Points (HACCP) Standard Operating Procedures adopted by the U.S. National Food Safety Management Institute as well as other national institutions require that to ensure food hygiene and safety, cleaning equipment should be sanitized and allowed to air dry between uses or after four hours if in constant use. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also the washing procedure depending on how frequently the washing water is changed and how many rinses the bottle is taken through may also cause increased contamination. Because water is scarce, water used for both washing and rinsing the bottles are probably reused several times before changing, if at all. This could lead to cross contamination. Hazard Critical Control Points (HACCP) standards also require that water used for washing should be clean, free of grease and food particles, also that washing be done in three separate compartments i.e. washing compartment, rinsing compartment and sanitizing compartment, each with defined temperatures. These standards to a market woman or vendor of these used bottles would be a luxury they cannot afford. Finally, bottles are washed in bulk and stored in sacks without drying awaiting purchase. The moisture provides an ideal environment for bacterial re-growth and multiplication. Bacteria need water to dissolve the food they use for energy and growth. Water allows the food to get into the cells, is used for the many chemical reactions necessary for life and growth, and allows waste products to escape. In ideal conditions (i.e. in moist foods at 37°C) bacteria will grow and multiply by dividing into two every 20 minutes. After 6 hours, in ideal conditions, one bacterial cell could become 131,072 bacteria (Wilmcow, 2012). This trend also implies that bottles direct from consumers may not necessarily have high bacterial contamination levels, however it is the quality of treatment it undergoes after leaving the consumer that could degrade the quality or otherwise. To verify this, 25 bottles were collected from 5 different homes within the sub-metro and tested for the same parameters. The result is as shown in Figure 4-7. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-7: Contamination Levels on Bottles Directly from Home (Source: Field Data, 2013) The results shown in Figure 4-7 indicate that out of the 25 bottles tested for total coliforms and faecal coliforms only 1 representing 4% tested positive for both parameters. This confirms the earlier statement that bottles disposed of by users at home are more likely to have low levels of contamination however the processes or the treatment they undergo after they are disposed of may compromise their quality. 4.2.1 Comparison of Results from Different Locations The study further explored the spatial differentiation of the level of contamination of the sampled bottles. This was to see if the location from which the bottles were taken would affect the quality of the bottles tested. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-8: A Comparison of Percentage of Bottles positive for Total Coliforms from Three Markets (Source: Field Data, 2013) As shown in Figure 4-8, washed bottles from Madina recorded the highest level of contamination of Total Coliforms (72%) with Makola and Kaneshie recording (64%) and (60%) respectively. Figure 4-9: Percentage of Bottles Contaminated with Faecal Coliforms from Three Markets (Source: Field Data, 2013) 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In terms of Faecal Coliforms, the results in Figure 4-9 show bottles from Madina again recording the highest level of contamination of 64% while 56% and 32% were recorded in Makola and Kaneshie respectively. Madina market has one major (male) vendor from which all the market women buy their bottles. According to the vendor, the bottles are sourced from the University of Ghana Campus where some degree of sorting is done at the central disposal containers located near some Halls of residence. High levels of contamination of washed bottles at Madina may be attributed to both source of the bottles i.e. the exposure to contaminants in the garbage and the quality of water used by the vendor to sanitize the bottles before selling. Madina is a town in the Ga East Municipallity of the Greater Accra Region. Madina and its environs face a serious challenge of availability of water with limited or no availability of pipe borne water. Residents are therefore highly dependent on water tanker services and other sources of water such as hand-dug wells and boreholes. The quality of all the main sources of water in Madina cannot be assured. Also, the scarcity of water makes the price of water in this area very high and most residents are very frugal in water usage. From observation, the vendor uses the water for both washing and rinsing several times without changing in order to minimize his water consumption. The major issues there were therefore the source of the bottles, initial quality and source of the water, cross-contamination from bottles and from washing equipment. Makola Market has several vendors. The bottles tested were therefore sourced from three different vendors. The vendors in Makola indicated that they receive their unwashed bottles from the waste pickers but were not sure where exactly the bottles were sourced from. The vendors in 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Makola were mainly women and they wash their bottles off-site. This may be an indication that the bottles are washed in a location where resources need for the washing of the bottles such as water can be sourced more conveniently than in the market. This would encourage a more rigourous or intensive washing. This may have accounted for the relatively lower numbers of contamination recorded on the bottles from Makola as compared to Madina. Kaneshie had the lowest level of contamination in relation to the others. There were two main female vendors in Kaneshie. One indicated that she only sources her bottles from homes of family and friends. She does not buy her bottles from the waste pickers around. The other vendor however indicated that she receives her bottles from the waste pickers but also washes it off-site. The fact that one of the vendors only sources her bottles from the homes may have been significant in relatively lower levels recorded in Kaneshie. As shown earlier, bottles taken directly from home when analysed had only 1 representing 4% of the bottles contaminated with coliforms. The different vendors, sources and treatments of the bottles therefore may have played a key role in the different patterns observed from the various markets. 4.2.2 Comparison of Results with Regulatory Standards A comparison of the results from the analysis with established standards will allow an inference to be drawn on the risk consumers are exposed to and also explore possible means of improvement. The main standards the results from these analyses were compared to were the 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh WHO Standards, the Ghana Standard Authority Standards and the US EPA standards for drinking water quality. There is currently no clear standards for microbiological quality of food packaging therefore the standards set for drinking water quality will be used as a yardstick for measuring the compliance level of the used bottles with these standards. The WHO has outlined microbiological standards for drinking water and a comparison of the results obtained with the WHO Standard will provide picture of the acceptability of the contamination levels on the bottles on the global scale. The WHO Standard for drinking water requires that no total coliform or faecal coliform be detected in samples tested (WHO, 2011). The Ghana Standard Authority (GSA) also has its own standards for drinking water quality and a comparison of the results with this standard will provide a picture of the acceptability of the contamination levels on the bottles on the National level. The Ghana Standard Authority, as the WHO Standard, also requires that no total coliform or faecal coliform be detected in samples tested (GSB, 1998). The US EPA also set standards for the States in the U.S. to implement. Even though this Agency’s authority does not go beyond the U.S., it also provides a basis for comparison of how the results from the microbiological analyses will perform in relation to Standards from other national standards. The US EPA standard on the other hand requires that no more than 5.0% of samples tested in a month should be total coliform positive, however samples positive for total 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh coliform should be further tested for faecal coliform; no faecal coliforms are allowed (US EPA, 2011). A comparison of the results for total coliforms and faecal coliforms of all the bottles tested at the various locations with the Ghana Standard Authority Standards/WHO Standards and the US EPA standards is shown in Figure 4-10 and 4-11 respectively. Figure 4-10: A Comparison of Total Coliform results with US EPA Standards and Ghana Standard Authority Standards 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Madina Madina Makola Makola Kaneshie Kaneshie Home New Bottles Washed Unwashed Washed Unwashed Washed Unwashed Unwashed Source and State of Bottles Presence of Total Coliforms WHO Std/GSA Std (0%) US EPA Std (5%) (Source: Field Data, 2013) 79 Percentage of Bottles Contaminated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4-11: A Comparison of Faecal Coliform results with US EPA Standards and Ghana Standard Authority Standards 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Madina Madina Makola Makola Kaneshie Kaneshie Home New Washed Unwashed Washed Unwashed Washed Unwashed Unwashed Bottles Source and State of Bottles % Presence of Faecal Coliforms WHO Std/GSA Std (0%) US EPA Std (0%) (Source: Field Data, 2013) Of all the bottles tested only the new unused bottles (control) met the GSA and WHO Standard of 0%. The unwashed bottles directly from home as well as the new bottles met the US EPA standard of 5%. Further testing of the home used bottle that registered positive for total coliform recorded a positive for faecal coliform as well thus only the new bottles met US EPA standard, the GSA and the WHO Standard for faecal coliforms. The reused bottles do not meet the any of the standards. 80 Percentage of Bottles Contaminated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The washed bottles are mainly of concern because they are released to reusers and consumers. Total coliforms were detected on more than 50% of samples from each locations. The presence of total coliform may not necessarily pose a health risk but may be an indication that other more serious health threatening bacteria may be present. For this reason, the WHO and GSA standards require that no coliform bacteria should be detected. The US EPA standard offers a bit of laxity of a minimum detection of 5%. However, it requires further testing to ascertain that faecal coliforms are not present at all. Faecal Coliforms were detected on over 30% of washed bottles from each location. Presence of faecal coliforms is an indication of a health hazard. It is an indication that the bottles have been contaminated by faecal material which could have been from the garbage from which the bottles were picked or the water used to wash the bottles. Faecal coliforms may include disease-causing organisms such as viruses, parasites and pathogenic bacteria. Consumption of food containing faecal colifoms could cause dysentery, typhoid fever, hepatitis A, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis. These used bottles, as indicated earlier, are mostly used for food products especially drinks that are consumed directly without any further processing. This presents a health risk to the consumers. Respondents in the survey were asked to indicate if they patronize products in these bottles. Of the total of 200 respondents, 27% indicated that they do patronize beverages sold in these bottles and 45.5% indicated they patronize cooking oil sold in these bottles. Even though a majority of 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the respondents do not patronize giving the mistrust of the source and hygiene of the bottles as the main reason, the percentages of respondents who patronize is still significant and are constantly exposed to the health risks associated with consumption of food from these bottles. There is the need to protect this section of the public from these products. The observations and results call for a holistic management system that will reduce waste bottles in the waste stream at the same time making it a valuable resource that will provide income generating opportunities for Ghanaians without compromising the health of the general public. 4.3 Chapter Summary This chapter presented the details of the results obtained from the work done on the field. The first section presented the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. The section attempted to establish a relationship between the socio-demographic variables of the respondents and their water packaging preference. The section also provided an evaluation of how respondents dispose of their used bottles. The second section presented the results of the microbiological analysis of the used bottles. The variation of the results from different locations was assessed. Also, a comparison of the results with established local standards i.e. Ghana Standard Authority standards and international standards, i.e. WHO standards and US EPA standards was also presented and discussed. The subsequent chapter will present an assessment of management options based on the respondent’s opinions and expert opinion. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR WASTE PLASTIC BOTTLES 5.0 Introduction This chapter seeks to assess the options available for improving the management of plastic bottles in the Accra Metropolis. The assessment is based on the perspective of respondents as expressed in the questionnaire administered in the study and in-depth interviews conducted with experts from the Environmental Protection Agency and other key informants. The assessment will seek to identify the best options available taking into consideration the socio-demographic patterns identified in the previous chapter. 5.1 Disposal Practices of Respondents To enable the assessment of management options, it was important to identify and evaluate what the existing practice for handling waste bottles by residents is. The respondents were therefore asked to indicate how they dispose of the bottles when they finish drinking from it in order to gain an insight into what the current disposal practices of the respondents were based on which the management options can be evolved. The trend is shown in Figure 5-1. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5-1: Disposal Practices of Respondents (Source: Field Data, 2013) When respondents were asked how they disposed of their used bottles 70.50% said they dispose of their bottles in a bin at home, 39% also said they reuse at home, 29.50% said they dispose of the bottles in the nearest bin, 21% said they sell to reusers and 4.50% leave it wherever they finish using the bottles. This implies that the most popular disposal method was in a bin at home. The second most popular option was reusing the bottles at home. This method however would likely end up in a bin at home after it has exhausted its usefulness in the home. Disposal in a bin at home may be the most popular because it is the most convenient option. Also, with the increase in patronage of bottled water or beverages, more waste bottles are generated in the households which most likely exceed the reuse needs of the home. Waste bottles in the past were valued because of their scarcity, however, now with its abundance it appears to be less valuable to households. Also one major reuse area in the past was refilling used bottles 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with tapwater for drinking at home, however with the current switch to the bottle and sachets the used bottles appear to have limited use in homes. Selling to reusers was not too popular with 21% of the respondents indicating this as their practice. This method may not be too popular because very few neighbourhoods have reusers or waste pickers who come directly to purchase these bottles from their homes. Bottles are kept pile up and are in the end disposed of along with the garbage at home. This pattern also points to the fact that most of the bottles sold for reuse within Accra are bottles intercepted after they have been discarded by first time users mainly at the central waste containers or at the final disposal sites. The retrieval of the bottles, although informally done, performs an important role in the waste management process by reducing the waste volumes managed at the landfill sites at the same time serving as an income generating activity for those involved. However, the risks involved require that it is evaluated and better options explored. Because the bottles are exposed to other forms of garbage and contaminants therein, it compromises the quality of the bottles and poses a health risk to consumers who patronize food products sold in these recovered bottles. Although these bottles are washed by the pickers or the reusers who purchase the bottles from the pickers, the efficacy of the process cannot be assured and may even expose the bottles to more contaminants. As shown in chapter 4, over 60% of 75 washed bottles tested from three markets in Accra tested positive for total coliforms and about 50% of the bottles tested positive for faecal coliforms. These levels are unacceptable by all standards both national and international and there is the 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh need to find a solution to this problem as soon as possible to safeguard the health of the Ghanaian public. 5.2 Status of Current Waste Management System from the perspective of Respondents Solid waste management in Accra is a major problem for the Accra Metropolitan Assembly. The problems include low spatial coverage in collection and non-availability of land for disposal of collected waste (Oteng-Ababio, 2010). This has led to open dumping, burning and littering of waste. The main aim of this study is to identify ways in which plastic bottles as a component of the solid waste generated in Accra can be managed with the view to reduce the waste volumes at the same time making the bottles a valuable resource. Before an assessment of management options for the bottles can be done it is important to analyse the respondent's perspective on the current waste management system operating within their locality. This will help to identify the aspects of the current system resident’s are dissatisfied with such that in developing a new system these problems are catered for. It will also help to ensure that options considered fit into the existing culture of the people. The respondents were therefore asked to indicate the type of waste collection system operating in their locality and their opinion on its efficiency. The results are shown in Table 5 and Table 6. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5: Waste Collection System Indicated by Respondents Type of Waste Collection Frequency Percent Door to Door Trucks 153 76.5 Door to Door Tricycles 11 5.5 Central waste containers 28 14.0 Open dump 8 4.0 Total 200 100.0 (Source: Field Data, 2013) Out of a total of 200 respondents, 76.5% of the respondents indicated that their waste was collected by Door to Door trucks. Only 4% of the respondents indicated their waste was disposed of in open dumps. The observed pattern is not surprising as the sampling area, Ayawaso West Sub-metro, has mainly high income residential areas which predominantly enjoy the Door to Door waste collection system in the AMA (UN-Habitat, 2009). In spite of this, there are a few low income residential areas within the sub-metro such as parts of Okponglo, Shiashie and Tesano and this accounted for the other waste collection systems indicated. The Door to Door truck system is the most convenient form of waste collection which requires the least effort from the household. Households are only required to collect their waste in a dustbin and make it available for emptying on specific days as indicated by their contract with the waste management company. This system also ensures the most efficient collection with minimal littering (Hann et al., 1998). It can therefore be assumed that respondents who enjoy this type of collection system are used to the convenience and efficiency in their waste collection system. This therefore implies that for the success of any new management system proposed in this area, 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh it should be characterized by two main features, efficiency and convenience. Table 6 shows the opinion of respondents on the efficiency of their management system. Table 6: Respondents’ Opinion about the Efficiency of their Waste Collection System Respondents’ Waste Collection System Rating of Collection System Door to Door Door to Door Central waste Open dump Trucks Tricycles containers Very good 24.14 (%) 36.36(%) 14.81(%) 0.00(%) Good 47.59(%) 45.45(%) 37.04(%) 14.29(%) Fair 24.14(%) 9.09(%) 33.33(%) 0.00(%) Poor 3.45(%) 9.09(%) 14.81(%) 42.90(%) Very poor 0.69(%) 0.00(%) 0.00(%) 42.90(%) Total 100.00(%) 100.00(%) 100.00(%) 100.00(%) Out of a total of the 153 respondents that indicated being served by door-to-door trucks, about 72% felt their system ranged between very good and good. The main reason given by 82% of the respondents that were satisfied with the efficiency of their collection system was that they felt the trucks were regular. Of the 28% that ranked the system from fair to very poor, their main reason was for the irregularity of the trucks to their areas. Since the respondents were from different residential areas within the sub-metro, it is possible that some areas have more regular service than others. This disparity could be due to different waste management contractors servicing the respondents. Also, generally, 1st Class residential areas tend to enjoy priority when it comes to waste collection, so even though a residential area classified as 2nd Class may also be serviced by the Door-to-Door trucks, the regularity with which residents in such areas are attended to may vary 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from residents in areas classified as 1st Class. As of June 2010, the AMA introduced a fee-based performance collection system, where each service contractor is “zoned” a specific area within a sub-metro through a tender process. Under this arrangement, each house owner and/or landlord, office building, business, and street-vending kiosk is required to register with the contractor and pay a fee, which is tiered according to income status (Oteng-Ababio et al., 2012). In Accra, the growth in waste collection demand far outstrips the ability of the municipality and the waste management contractors to expand their fleet. Most disposal trucks in Accra are therefore old and too few in number this puts pressure on the trucks eventually causing them to also breakdown. Since these private contractors sole motivation is to make profits and in view of shortages in trucks, there is the tendency for contractors to give priority to residential areas that pay higher fees and are more consistent with their payments to the disadvantage of lower income areas. The respondents that dispose their waste in central waste containers were 28 and of this number about 52% were satisfied with the system. The main reason given by 82.4% of these respondents was that the containers are emptied regularly and the skip is always neat. Of the 48% that were not completely satisfied with the system operated in their area, the main reason given by 37% of them was that the skip was not emptied regularly. Another 30% felt that because they had to carry the refuse to the skip themselves, their neighbours litter around. The responses showed a majority of residents within the Ayawaso West area appeared to be satisfied with how their solid waste is managed. It is therefore important that whatever new system is introduced will also continue to keep the residents satisfied, if not improve satisfaction. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the responses, it can be seen that most of the respondents graded the efficiency of their system based on the how regularly waste is picked up. Domestic solid waste is generated daily and therefore accumulates quickly. Waste stored over a period of time begins to putrefy and generate odour depending on the amount of organics present in them. Households are therefore very particular and concerned about how often their waste is evacuated and how reliable and regular the system is. Where the waste is taken to or how it is handled after it is collected from their homes is of little concern to most people as long as it is not near them. Waste segregation is one way of ensuring that biodegradable waste is kept separate from non- biodegradable for pickup. This also reduces the volume of waste the contractors needs to urgently evacuate to the landfill. Once waste is segregated management of the various components becomes easier. This will also increase the number of households each truck can service before reaching its capacity. The management of the other components of the segregated waste becomes easier. In this case, bottles separated from the garbage to be disposed of can be a resource used for other purposes. In most developed countries, collection and recycling is the main method for managing waste bottles. It would however be presumptuous to conclude that once these systems operate in the developed world, it would necessarily work in the developing world and in this case Ghana. There is therefore the need to assess the management options within the local context. The role of residents in the success or failure of any solid waste management system cannot be underestimated; because of this the residents were asked their opinion on the best way to manage waste plastic bottles. The subsequent paragraph provides details on their responses. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Respondent’s Opinion on Management Options of Plastic Bottles Any management system implemented is heavily dependent on the cooperation of the households and individuals who will be affected by the system instituted, therefore it is important to seek their views. Respondents were therefore asked to indicate what the best management method for plastic bottles should be. The results are presented in Figure 5-2. Figure 5-2: Respondents Opinion on the Best Way to Manage Plastic Bottles (Source: Field Data, 2013) Out of the total of 200 respondents, 85% indicated that recycling would be the best management option for the plastic bottles and only 1% indicated that disposal at landfills would be best. This could be associated with the fact that awareness has been created over the years regarding the problems associated with solid waste management in Accra as well as innovative things that can be done with waste plastics. Also it was established in the previous chapter that majority of the respondents had tertiary education and are therefore expected to have some level of enlightenment regarding environmental issues. This may have accounted for the high percentage of respondents that indicated recycling as the best option. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interestingly, only 15% indicated reuse would be the best management option. This is an indication that reusing plastic bottles is not viewed favourably by a majority of the respondents. This may be due to the fact that the area is a high income area with a high percentage of highly educated residents. They are most likely aware of the health implications of the reuse of waste bottles and not view this as the best solution. When respondents were further asked if they were willing to segregate waste at home for collection, 90% of the respondents were willing and only 10% were not willing indicating reasons such as not having the time and not accepting reuse and recycling as the best option for management. From these responses it would be easy to conclude that residents would readily accept to segregate their waste. However experiences indicate otherwise, a study carried out by Dagadu and Nunoo (2011) showed low levels of separation especially in high income homes where managing waste is left to house helps. This was attributed to the fact that even though there was the willingness to carry out separation by homeowners, the helps in the home do not understand the importance of the exercise and generally tend to forget to separate their waste. Their recommendation by Dagadu and Nunoo (2011) for the implementation of source segregation was public education supported by the right infrastructure. The next paragraph will assess the practicality of the options proposed by the respondents. 5.4 The Practicality of Management Options Proposed by Respondents in Ghana The respondents proposed four management options i.e. recycle, reuse, burning/incineration and disposal into landfills. About 85% of the respondents viewed recycling as the best, whereas 15% also viewed reuse as the best. Burning was also proposed by 10.50% of the respondents. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, burning of plastics release dangerous gases into the environment which causes cancers and respiratory diseases (EU, 2007). Disposal into landfills is the current management system which this study seeks to improve on. One of the main reasons for this study is to assess ways the plastic bottles can be made useful with minimal effect on the environment. Burning and disposal into landfills are therefore viewed here as the last options and will not be considered here. Therefore the main management systems proposed by the respondents which will be assessed here will be the recycling and the reuse options. 5.4.1 Assessment of Plastic Bottle Recycling as a Management System in Ghana Recycling was the most popular management option proposed by respondents. Recycling involves converting waste into a usable material. Plastic bottles (and other plastic materials) can be recycled into a varied number of products including fibre for carpets and textiles. This option may have been popular with the respondents because of the current media hype on environmental issues and recycling stories from other nations. However the practicality of this option within our local context is important to the implementation of this system so that it can be tailored to suit our environment and does not become an imperfect copy of systems being run in developed countries. To aid in this analysis, an in-depth interview was held with a Director of the EPA who was also a part of the committee that conducted a research into tradable waste or the waste stock exchange in Ghana under the Guinea Current Large Ecosystem Marine Project. The committee evaluated the various solid waste streams with the view to converting them to resource rather than just waste. The Director indicated that recycling plastic bottles was the best option; however the major 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenge was that the bottles were not being generated at a rate to make an investment into this sector in Ghana attractive. “…Recycling is the best option for the management of plastic bottles. There are a few recycling plants in Ghana such as Cyclus Elmina Plastic Recycling which is the main recycling company for plastic bottles located in Elmina where they crush the bottles into pellets for sale to domestic plastic manufacturers as well as export. However, one of the challenges the sector faces is that the bottles available are not enough to make recycling here in Ghana financially viable considering the high taxes companies have to pay for importation of machinery. Also, since waste is not segregated in the homes, they source the waste from the pickers who also sell the bottles to reusers. Reusing bottles in Ghana is so popular that the recycling companies are in direct competition for the bottles from the reusers. This does not auger well for business because the quantities received cannot be assured. Cyclus has had to add on thin-film plastic recycling to make up for the non-availability of the bottles…” With the issues presented above, recycling of the bottles does not appear to be a blossoming industry in Ghana at the moment. The thin-film plastic sector on the other hand appears to be thriving. This may be due to be the fact that on the whole sachet water is still extremely popular with the Ghanaian public. Also, sachets once used cannot be reused, the sachet recycling sector therefore has an abundance of resource with no competition from other sectors. On the other hand, waste bottle collection and sale for reuse in Accra is a whole industry that depends on constant retrieval of the waste bottles from dumpsites. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4.2 Assessment of Plastic Bottle Reuse as a Management System in Ghana The recycling industry comes into direct competition with the reusers for the resource. When asked his view on the reuse sector, The Director explained that the reuse of the bottles is currently a public health hazard and should not be encouraged. “… The reuse of the bottles poses health hazards to the section of public that consume the products in these bottles. It should never be encouraged. Formalizing the collection and sanitization of the bottles in an attempt to improve the microbiological quality is a costly venture which will not yield any returns. There is the need to provide vehicles for collection, a processing site for washing and disinfecting the bottles and employ staff to do the work. The price at which a reused bottle is sold is not enough to ensure that the venture will break even. Who takes financial responsibility for this? Finding a sustainable management system for waste bottles in Ghana has been difficult and is still pending…” Based on this presentation, it is obvious that both recycling and reuse in Ghana have their challenges. The main challenge the recycling industry faces is the non-availability of bottles to sustain the industry. This non-availability is as a result of the reuse industry whose sole raw material is the used bottles. The reuse industry as it is now is an informal sector which relies heavily on retrieving bottles from waste dumps and cleaning them with unknown sources and qualities of water all of which have unacceptable health implications. Formalising the sector, to eliminate the health risks, however, requires high financial investments with minimal expected returns. Currently, reused bottles are retailed at GH¢0.20 for every four (4) bottles and a new fresh bottle is sold at GH¢0.20 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh per bottle (source: Market survey, 2013). This price difference shows clearly the attraction the used bottle holds for those who patronize them. The processes required to ensure that the bottles meet the quality standards will most likely cause an increase in the price of the used bottles and may eventually cost more or equal to the price of the used bottle, making the venture pointless. Also the PET bottle, which is most popularly reused here in Ghana, was made for single use only. Repeated reuse could compromise the quality and strength of the bottle. This therefore puts a limit on the number of times the bottles can even be reused. Again, the foods and beverages which are packaged in these bottles such as the palm oil, ice kenkey, 'soboloo' etc. stain the bottles. Therefore if the bottles cleaned for reuse are sold to the producers of these products, taking the bottles back after use will require a more intensive cleaning regime than before, some of these products may even render the bottles unusable. Effectively, this means that the capacity for reusing the bottles is limited and if this system is adopted will require the support of another system for a complete management system, most probably a recycling system. 5.5 Findings of the Comparative Assessment of Recycling and Reuse in Accra Based on the presentation above, recycling would be a more ideal management system to adopt than reuse in terms of financial viability and sustainability. Recycling also offers the advantage of not being overly dependent on source segregation. Even though source segregation would be the ideal way of making the waste bottles accessible, experience has shown that cooperation can be quite low (Dagadu and Nunoo, 2011). Also, as indicated earlier, the residents in the study area are generally used to a convenient waste collection system. Introducing any strategy that would involve more effort on their part may not be successful. With recycling, intermediary sorting 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh facilities can be set up where garbage is taken for sorting. Other waste streams can also be sourced for management at this point. This however will increase the need for more rigorous washing regime for the bottles before starting the recycling process at the recycling facility. The success of recycling bottles in Accra, however, is hinged on the elimination of the reuse sector. The reuse sector, although informal, provides income to a wide range of people, the waste pickers, the market women who sell the bottles and the local beverage producers who use these bottles. These people stand to lose their income if this sector is eliminated. However, the public health implications of allowing this sector to continue to operate as they do are also numerous and varied and cannot continue to be overlooked. This is particularly important since there are currently no official institutional arrangements for recycling or reuse. The lack of an official avenue has provided the impetus for the private sector to create an economic niche for itself in the informal waste reuse. A holistic management system should therefore aim at incorporating these issues. Complete elimination of the reuse of plastic bottles on the commercial level should be the ultimate goal. However, the approach should take into consideration the section of the public that will lose their source of livelihood. 5.6 Chapter Summary The aim of this chapter was to assess the management options available for waste plastic bottles. The first section sought to evaluate the respondents’ views on the current waste management system operating within their locality. The type of collection system as well as the respondents’ 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh views on its efficiency was discussed. The second section was a discussion on the respondents’ opinion on the best management system for plastic bottles. The third section evaluated the management systems proposed by the respondents based on expert opinion. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0 Introduction This final chapter will provide a summary of the entire study, the conclusions and the summary of the findings of the study based on the objectives as well as provide recommendations for policy consideration. 6.1 Summary of the Study Broadly, the study sought to contribute to the surging literature which seek to explore efficient and sustainable ways of managing municipal solid waste which in recent years have been increasing in volume and character. It specifically sought to investigate better options for managing waste plastic bottles, based on a case study in the Ayawaso Sub-metropolitan Area of Accra Metropolitan Area. The selection of the sub-metro was based on the fact that it presents a microcosm of AMA, habouring parts of all the socio-economic characteristics – High, Middle and Low income communities of Accra. The study adopted multiple research methods including questionnaire surveys, laboratory analysis, key informant/stakeholders’ interviews and critical participant observation. The fieldwork lasted for five months beginning from December 2012 to April 2013. From the results of the study, even though the younger respondents, the students as well as the tertiary level educated respondents generally had a higher percentage of their respondents having a preference for bottled water, the was no significant difference between them and respondents 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from the other categories to conclusively say that the patronage of bottled water depends on age, educational level, employment status and area of residence. The only factor that appeared to significantly affect the choice of bottled water was income levels. The main reason attributed to this pattern observed was media reports in recent times on the bacterial contaminations in sachet water, infiltration of unregistered sachet water producers operating under unhygienic conditions. These media reports especially the radio stations have a nationwide coverage and are available in local languages so are able to reach every sector of population. The reports have thus created awareness about the activities of the unregistered sachet water producers and in effect have created a general mistrust of the sachet water. Since bottled water is significantly more expensive than sachet water, the choice of whether or not to drink bottled water was therefore only limited by the ability to afford the product. Based on this, it is expected that as income levels increase the patronage of bottled water will also increase. In Ghana, income levels have consistently been on the increase with the population living under the poverty line of $1.25 a day decreasing by 3.1% from 31.4% in 1992 to 28.5% in 2007 (World Bank, 2013). Since income level is directly linked to patronage of plastic bottles, the generation of waste plastic bottles is expected to increase directly proportionally to rise in income levels. In this light there is the need to develop a management plan as early as possible to ensure that the management of the bottles do not become as problematic as the sachet problem. The study further analysed the microbiological contamination levels on the plastic bottles reused for local beverages, cooking oils etc. The reuse of plastic bottles is primarily an income 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh generating activity for those engaged in it. It, however, performs a secondary function as an informal means of managing the bottles disposed of by users. These bottles are mostly sorted from garbage disposed of at landfills, central waste containers and open dumps. They are washed and sold to reusers who use them as packaging for their products, mostly food products. The essence of the analysis of the bacterial levels on the bottles was to determine the health implications of the usage of these bottles for food products. Generally, the washed bottles had higher presence micro-organisms than the unwashed bottles which could be attributed to the quality of water used in the washing process. About 66% of the washed bottles recorded presence of total coliform and about 50% of these same bottles recorded presence of faecal coliforms. On the whole the samples did not meet of the standards they were measured against. The WHO Standard and the Ghana Standard Authority Guidelines states that for no coliforms (total or faecal) should be detected on samples of drinking water tested. The study therefore showed that the reuse of the bottles poses health risk to consumers and should be re-evaluated. The study further assessed the management options available taking into consideration the opinions of respondents and an expert opinion. The management systems proposed by the respondents included reuse, recycling, burning/incineration and disposal at landfills. The most popular management system proposed by the respondents was recycling and the least popular was disposal at landfills. Burning/incineration and disposal at landfills because of the level of their environmental impacts were viewed as unsustainable options and were not considered in the assessment. Reuse and recycling were therefore critically examined. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The assessment revealed that recycling of used bottles even though the option popularly promoted by the governments and international organizations all over the world, has not been too successful in Ghana. This has primarily been due non-availability of the bottles. The recycling sector is in direct competition with the reuse sector for the bottles. The reuse sector as mentioned earlier, though informal, is a whole industry made up of waste pickers, market women and the actual re- users whose livelihoods depend on it. This industry however is stifling the recycling sector which needs constant supply of the used bottles to make the sector profitable. Thus most plastic recycling companies focus on the recycling of the thin-film plastics which are abundant in the Ghanaian environment. The assessment further looked as the reuse sector as a primary means of management of the used bottles. The study showed that in order to improve the re-use system and eliminate the health risks currently associated with it there will be the need to formalize the sector in a way that will ensure that collection, cleaning and distribution of the bottles are done in a controlled, sanitary manner. Establishing a system for proper processing of the used bottles will have financial implications that may affect the pricing of the final bottles if profit is to be made. However, the main attraction currently to the used bottles is its pricing. The new bottles cost about four times the price of an equal volume of a used bottle. An increase in the price of used bottles may make it less attractive and reduce its marketability. Also, PET bottles, which are the most common type of plastic bottles used in Ghana, were made for single use only. Reusing them repeatedly could compromise the strength and quality of the 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bottles. There would therefore be the need to limit the number of times a bottle can be used. Also, products such as ice kenkey, ‘soboloo’ and palm oil stain the bottles they are contained in or even render them unusable. These are however the most common reuse areas for the bottles. This would mean that bottles used for these purposes would need to be disposed of in a different way. Effectively, for the reuse sector to work holistically, it will need to work in conjunction with another management system, most probably, recycling. 6.2 Conclusion Bottled water has become the main source of water that Ghanaians turn to for safety and reliability in terms of quality. The reports of the unhygienic operations of unregistered sachet water operators and even poor results of quality tests on sachet water from some of the registered operators has made Ghanaians skeptical about drinking sachet water. The findings of this study showed that patronage of bottled water in the Ayawaso West Sub-metro was independent of age, educational level or residential area of residents. It however pointed to the fact that patronage of bottled water had a dependency on income levels. The price of bottled water is about seven times the price of an equal volume of sachet water and a consumer would be limited by his/her economic status in the choice between sachet and bottled water. The study therefore concluded that since the only socio-demographic factor that was limiting the patronage of bottled water was income levels, then as income levels in Ghana rise, patronage will also rise proportionally assuming the price stays the same. Bottled water patroange is dependent on income levels with patronage rising with rising income levels. This therefore points to the fact that bottled water patronage in Ghana and hence waste bottle generation is expected to continue to 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh increase in Ghana as income levels continue to also rise. There is therefore the need to evolve a sustainable management plan for this type of waste to reduce their impacts on the environment. The current informal management system of reusing the bottles has serious public health implications and should not be allowed to continue to operate as it is. Tests conducted on the bottles showed high levels of bacterial contamination on over 60% of the bottles. Two main options for management of the bottles were assessed in the study, recycling and formalizing the reuse the bottles. Overall, recycling was seen as a more sustainable option that would provide a holistic solution to the problem. However, bottle retrieval from garbage and reuse has become a popular commercial activity in Ghana causing shortages in availability of bottles for the recycling companies. The option of formalizing the reuse sector has its shortcomings of requiring high financial investment with low returns and also being an incomplete solution, in that there is a limit on the number of times the bottles can be used and also may be damaged during the reuse. It will require the support of another management system to completely solve the problem. Recycling is the best solution for managing waste bottles in Ghana. It not only manages the waste bottles by transforming them into items that have long life spans such as carpets and textiles, but an opportunity also to generate income. There is a need however to find ways of discontinuing the current practice of retrieving used bottles and reusing them. This will free up the bottles for recycling and make the sector more attractive for industry players. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.3 Recommendations The study concluded that there is the need for a management system for the waste bottles. Recycling has been proposed as the most ideal system for managing the bottles however the practice of retrieving bottles for reuse has a negative impact on the current bottle recycling industry. The study therefore proposes the elimination of the reuse sector, predominantly an informal sector, in light of the health implications and also to free up the bottles for recycling. However, a large number of people depend on this sector as a source of livelihood and eliminating it would cause a loss of income to these people. The process of eliminating the reuse of bottles therefore should be a gradual process which should involve intensive education on the health implications of reusing the bottles. The study showed the tremendous impact the mass media has had on the shift from sachet water to bottled water. This same media should be employed in educating the public. The market generally responds to consumer demands, therefore if the public is educated to stop buying the products in used bottles, the market will also shift accordingly. This informal sector therefore should be allowed to play a role in the recycling process. Waste pickers could be encouraged as they are with the thin-film plastics to deposit their bottles with recycling companies at a price rate higher than they stand to earn when they sell to the market women. Also how the various components of the recycling system will work in terms of allocation of responsibilities needs to be clearly mapped out. Municipalities own the solid waste that is put on their public streets, have full control over who they allow as their agents to handle that waste, and 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are expected to provide waste management services from the source to the final disposal (Cointreau, 2005). This means that Accra Metropolitan Assembly is overall responsible for what happens to waste generated within the metropolis. However, other sectors have a stake in making this management system successful. There will therefore be the need for the AMA to collaborate with other sectors such as the Ghana Standard Authority, the Food and Drugs Authority, the Environmental Protection Agency, the Recycling companies and media houses in mapping out and implementation of the management system. 6.4 Opportunities for Further Research This study paves the way for further research into more aspects of managing used bottles. These areas should include: i. Research on the financial and environmental implications of implementing the recycling system. ii. Also, further research on the impacts of implementing the management options presented will be on the livelihood of people in the reuse industry i.e. the waste pickers, the retailers and the actual re-users. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adank, M. Darteh, B. Moriarty, P. Osei-Tutu, H. Assan, D. Rooijen, D. van, (2011). Towards integrated urban water management in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Current status and strategic directions for the future, SWITCH/RCN Ghana, Accra, Ghana Addo, K. K., Mensah, G. I., Bekoe, M., Bonsu, C. and Akyeh, M. L. (2009). Bacteriological quality of sachet water produced and sold in Teshie-Nungua suburbs of Accra, Ghana. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development 9, 1019–1030. Adogla, S. (2003). Challenges and Prospects of Radio Industry in Ghana, Published in the Daily Graphic, 26 February 2013, available at: www.graphic.com.gh/challenges-and -prospects-of- radio-industry-in-ghana.html accessed 10th June, 2013 Agyei-Mensah, S. and de-Graft Aikins, A. (2010). Epidemiological Transition and the Double Burden of Disease on Accra, Ghana, Journal of Urban Health, 87 (5): 879 – 97. AMA (2006). Know More about AMA, available at: www.ama.ghanadistricts.gov.gh accessed 11th November 2012 AMA (2012). 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The Waste Management Situation in Accra, Ghana: The Challenges and Prospects, Presentation at Waste MET Asia, 2012, ISWA Conference – 3-4 July, Singapore 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 1: List of Bottled and Sachet Water Producers Registered with the Food and Drugs Authority (Ghana) (FDA Website, 2013) FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. ASHANTI REGION Bottled Water Producers 1. F DB/Wt 09A-0084 Grafton Natural Mineral Intrapex Ghana Ltd., Tema Water(Satchet, Cup, Bottle) 2. F DB/Wt 09A-0056 Previan Natural Mineral Paramount Distilleries Ltd., Kumasi Water(1.5L & 500ml) Sachet Water Producers 3. F DB/Wt 02A-0010 Otaqua (Water) Otayamako Agencies, Kumasi 4. F DB/Wt 02A-0016 Dero Drinking Water Dero Enterprise, Kumasi 5. F DB/Wt 02A-0017 Adehye Nsuo Royal Water Popular Merchants, Kumasi 6. F DB/Wt 02A-0018 Bethel Filtered Water Bethel Oasis Enterprise, Kumasi 7. F DB/Wt 02A-0019 Shalom Drinking Water Vassilussa Ventures, Yennyawaso- Kumasi 8. F DB/Wt 02A-0020 Sister Comfort Filtered Water Sister Comfort Filtered Water Ent., Kumasi 9. F DB/Wt 02A-0021 Osada Filtered Water Great Osada Co. Ltd., New Tafo-Kumasi 10. F DB/Wt 02A-0022 Addomet Drinking Water Adomso Business complex, Sunyani. 11. F DB/Wt 02A-0023 Mizu Filtered Water Minboat Enterprise, Kumasi 12. F DB/Wt 02A-0024 Alice Filtered Water Pet-Kee Enterprise, Buokrom Estate, Kumasi 13. F DB/Wt 02A-0025 The Truth Drinking Water Fosbot Enterprise, Agric Nzema, Kumasi 14. F DB/Wt 02A-0026 Boadwo Drinking Water Abraham Osei Enterprise, Kwadaso Estate, Kumasi 15. F DB/Wt 02A-0027 Fresh Natural Filtered Water Ahmesa Co. Ltd., Kumasi 16. F DB/Wt 02A-0028 Stand Still Filtered Water StandStill Farms & Trading Ent., Ayigya, Kumasi 17. F DB/Wt 02A-0029 Fantacy Filtered Water Kaf Industries Ltd., Atasomanso-Kumasi 18. F DB/Wt 02A-0030 Unity Treated Water Asuo Gyebi Ent., Agric Nzema, Kumasi 19. F DB/Wt 02A-0031 Majesty Drinking Water Majesty Enterprise, Bomso- Kumasi 20. F DB/Wt 02A-0032 Afosek Drinking Water Afosek Trading Ent., Kokoso-Kumasi 21. F DB/Wt 02A-0033 Aninwaa Treated Water Aninwaa Treated Water Ent., New Tafo, Kumasi 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 22. F DB/Wt 02A-0034 Kate's Filtered Water Abraham Osei Enterprise, Kwadaso Estate, Kumasi 23. F DB/Wt 02A-0035 Original Asukokyea (Water) Frimkids Ventures, Kumasi 24. F DB/Wt 02A-0036 Fabulous Filtered Water Fosbot Enterprise, Agric Nzema, Kumasi 25. F DB/Wt 02A-0037 Emmanuels Drinking Water Emmanuels Hygenic Ent., Pankrono-Atafoa, Kumasi 26. F DB/Wt 02A-0038 Dwoakoma Drinking Water Low Cost, Konongo, Ashanti Region 27. F DB/Wt 02A-0039 Vic'mike Drinking Water Vic'mike Co. Ltd., Ashanti Region 28. F DB/Wt 02A-0040 Maa Rose Filtered Drinking Maa Rose Ventures Ltd., Mampong, Ashanti Water Region 29. F DB/Wt 02A-0041 Medo Me Man Filtered Water Old Tafo, Kumasi 30. F DB/Wt 02A-0042 Nsuo Eye De Embik Ltd., Old Tafo, Kumasi 31. F DB/Wt 02A-0043 O'one Drinking Water Conjay Ventures, Kumasi 32. F DB/Wt 02A-0044 Mo Maria Filtered Water Mo Maria Enterprise, Abrepo-Kumasi 33. F DB/Wt 02A-0045 Anocumps Drinking Water Old Tafo, Kumasi 34. F DB/Wt 02A-0046 Abrempong Nsuo (Water) Jok Art Consult, Ofori Krom, Kumasi 35. F DB/Wt 02A-0047 Trampio Drinking Water Trampio Motors, Tanoso, Kumasi 36. F DB/Wt 02A-0048 Kube Nsuo Drinking Water Kube Nsuo Enterprise, Adiebeba, Kumasi 37. F DB/Wt 02A-0049 Wabos Drinking Water Wabos Enterprise, Kumasi 38. F DB/Wt 02A-0050 Crystal Drinking Water A. A. Mini Mall Ltd., Asuoyeboa, Kumasi 39. F DB/Wt 03A-0001 Samreg Millenium Filtered Samreg Enterprise, Kumasi Water 40. F DB/Wt 03A-0002 Willis Drinking Water William Appiah Enterprise, Suame-Kumasi 41. F DB/Wt 03A-0003 Abotare Drinking Water Olivia Owusu Enterprise, Old Tafo, Kumasi 42. F DB/Wt 03A-0021 Francophone Filtered Water Deekay Adom Company Ltd., Kumasi 43. F DB/Wt 03A-0022 Ohene Gyan Filtered Water Ohene Gyan Estate Developers, Kumasi 44. F DB/Wt 03A-0023 Make Peace Filtered Water Kelly Gold Collection Ltd., Kumasi 45. F DB/Wt 03A-0024 Leit Treated Water Kasanaleit Enterprise, Dichemso, Kumasi 46. F DB/Wt 03A-0025 UG Drinking Water Sunrise Electricals, Kumasi 47. F DB/Wt 03A-0026 Happy Home Filtered Water K. Osei Tutu Co. Ltd., Kumasi 48. F DB/Wt 03A-0027 Feel Good Drinking Water P. K. Boamah Ent., Abuakwa, Ashanti Region 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 49. F DB/Wt 03A-0028 Jarac Filtered Water Jirajero Enterprise, Ayigya, Kumasi 50. F DB/Wt 03A-0029 Bismark Filtered Water Keep The Faith Ent., Asuyrboa, Kumasi 51. F DB/Wt 03A-0030 Fasta Filtered Water Fasta Co. Ltd., Kumasi 52. F DB/Wt 03A-0031 Home Spring Filtered Water Ash & Shah Enterprise Patasi, Kumasi 53. F DB/Wt 03A-0032 Paamuka Filtered Water Paamuka Water Company Ltd., Kumasi 54. F DB/Wt 03A-0033 Akwag Drinking Water Akwag Enterprise, Suame, Kumasi 55. F DB/Wt 03A-0034 New Iseaz Filtered Water Paktoria Praises, Ent., Kumasi 56. F DB/Wt 03A-0035 Bobia Filtered Water Bobie-Ansah Enterprise, Kumasi 57. F DB/Wt 03A-0036 Tomgra Filtered Water Tomgra Enterprise, Sesuame, Kumasi 58. F DB/Wt 03A-0037 Sere Aqua (Water) Jojem Pharmaceutical Ltd., Suame, Kumasi 59. F DB/Wt 03A-0038 Asomfo Drinking Water Asomfo Investment Ltd., Ejisu, Ashanti Region 60. F DB/Wt 03A-0039 Mama Thess Filtered Water Couples Enterprise, Kwadaso, Kumasi 61. F DB/Wt 03A-0040 Sebon Filtered Water Sewaa Bonna Ventures, Tafo, Kumasi 62. F DB/Wt 03A-0041 Asido Filtered Water Asido Enterprise, Kumasi 63. F DB/Wt 03A-0042 Maa Feli Filtered Water Agyepok Enterprise, Kumasi 64. F DB/Wt 03A-0043 Moon 'N' Star Water Syb Vission Ltd., Ejisu 65. F DB/Wt 03A-0044 Littbarski Drinking Water Kwakye & Sons, Kumasi 66. F DB/Wt 03A-0045 Mars Filtered Water Eleazora Enterprise, Kumasi 67. F DB/Wt 03A-0046 Aquabella Filtered Water Frerdom Enterprise, Kumasi 68. F DB/Wt 03A-0047 Kaeya Filtered Water Kaeya Enterprise, Berkwai, Ashanti Region 69. F DB/Wt 03A-0048 Nyanko Nsuo (Water) Jusbro Trading Enterprise., Kumasi 70. F DB/Wt 03A-0049 Nkwa Treated Water Opoku Mensah Ent., New Tafo, Kumasi 71. F DB/Wt 03A-0050 Juliet Filtered Water Mugoba Enterprise, Pankrono, A/R 72. F DB/Wt 03A-0051 Kofidi Filtered Water Kofidi Enterprise, UST - Kumasi 73. F DB/Wt 03A-0052 Bedpok Filtered Water Bediako Poku Ent., Kumasi 74. F DB/Wt 03A-0053 Asuoba Filtered Water Daatweereb Ent., Kumasi 75. F DB/Wt 03A-0054 Oboadee Drinking Water Ashanti Pride Enterprise, Kumasi 76. F DB/Wt 03A-0055 Splash Filtered Water Splash Ventures Ent., Kumasi 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 77. F DB/Wt 03A-0056 Sweetlife Filtered Water IKELIZ Ent., Kumasi 78. F DB/Wt 03A-0057 Agabo Filtered Water Agabo Enterprise, Kumasi 79. F DB/Wt 03A-0058 Yayeb Filtered Water Yayeb Enterprise, Kumasi 80. F DB/Wt 03A-0059 Novena Filtered Water Santo Jeff Ent., Kumasi 81. F DB/Wt 03A-0060 Quench De Original Drinking Quench Global Ent., Kumasi Water 82. F DB/Wt 03A-0061 Bernard Drinking Water Wember Enterprise, Ashanti 83. F DB/Wt 03A-0062 Ahenfie Nsuo Filtered Water Kwaku Anto Tabri Co. Ltd., Kumasi 84. F DB/Wt 03A-0063 S & M Filtered Water K. D. B. Ventures, Kumasi 85. F DB/Wt 03A-0067 Brenda Drinking Water Public Interest Enterprise, Kumasi 86. F DB/Wt 03A-0068 Champion Man Filtered Water Champion Man Company Ltd., Kumasi 87. F DB/Wt 03A-0069 Blue Skies Filtered Water Kuffour Enterprise, Kumasi 88. F DB/Wt 04A-0026 Century Drinking Water Century Investment Limited, Kumasi 89. F DB/Wt 04A-0027 Eden Filtered Water Eden Ventures,Kumasi 90. F DB/Wt 04A-0028 Jossey Filtered Water Jesus Saves Enterprise, Kumasi 91. F DB/Wt 04A-0029 Americanos Drinking Water American Taste Enterprise, Kumasi 92. F DB/Wt 04A-0030 Exodusco Drinking Water Ansah & Co Ltd., Kumasi 93. F DB/Wt 04A-0031 Dorin Treated Water Dorin Enterprise, Kumasi 94. F DB/Wt 04A-0032 Awareso Filtered Water Awareso Enterprise, Kumasi 95. F DB/Wt 04A-0033 Kabaas Drinking Water Kabaas Stores Enterprise, Kumasi 96. F DB/Wt 04A-0034 Yiadom Filtered Water I.Y.B. Enterprise, Kumasi 97. F DB/Wt 04A-0035 OH YES Drinking Water Akufric Trading Enterprise, Kumasi 98. F DB/Wt 04A-0036 Silverstone Filtered Water Ahinyak Company Limited, Kumasi 99. F DB/Wt 04A-0037 Dorjo Filtered Water Doreido Enterprise, Kumasi 100. F DB/Wt 04A-0038 Gofex Filtered Water Good First Engineering Limited, Kumasi 101. F DB/Wt 04A-0039 Lords Filtered Water Lord's Enterprise, Kumasi 102. F DB/Wt 04A-0040 Prepjel Treated Water Prepjel Treated Water Enterprise, Kumasi 103. F DB/Wt 04A-0041 Make Sure Filtered Water Lee Jay Frans Enterprise, Kumasi 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 104. F DB/Wt 04A-0014 Cool Pac Treated Water Voltic Ghana Ltd., Accra (Koforidua) 105. F DB/Wt 04A-0042 Hi-Bee Treated Water Hi-Bee Enterprise, Kumasi 106. F DB/Wt 05A-0007 Yaapsa Filtered Water Yaapsa Ent., Ahinsan Estate, Kumasi 107. F DB/Wt 05A-0008 Solidad Drinking Water Solidad Enterprise, Kumasi 108. F DB/Wt 05A-0009 Silos Filtered Water Silos Enterprise, Kumasi 109. F DB/Wt 05A-0010 Valor Drinking Water Gows Marketing Consult 110. F DB/Wt 05A-0011 Jimmy Filtered Water Jimmy Spring Water Co.Ltd, Ayeduase, Kumasi 111. F DB/Wt 05A-0012 Jofrem Drinking Water Enye Mahooden Enterprise, Abompekrom-Obuasi 112. F DB/Wt 05A-0013 Debiorah Drinking Water Angels Fountain Waters, Anwonmaso, Kumasi 113. F DB/Wt 05A-0014 Thirsty Tasty Drinking Water Appason Enterprise, Obuasi 114. F DB/Wt 05A-0015 Obey Your Thirst Drinking Fenaboat Ventures, Daban, Kumasi Water 115. F DB/Wt 05A-0016 Obaapa Filtered Drinking First Watch Limited, Ashanti Region Water 116. F DB/Wt 05A-0017 Sam Dot Filtered Water Samhaco Ent., Kumasi 117. F DB/Wt 05A-0018 Sir Joe Drinking Water Sir Joe Mineral Water Co.Ltd., Kumasi 118. F DB/Wt 05A-0019 Hyeden Filtered Water Hyeden Ventures, Old Tafo, Kumasi 119. F DB/Wt 05A-0020 Ellena Drinking Water Ellena Flora Centre, Ahinsan, Kumasi 120. F DB/Wt 05A-0021 Manigold Filtered Water Eelac Ventures, Deduako-Kodiekrom, Kumasi 121. F DB/Wt 05A-0022 Girls Girls Drinking Water Kwaku Antwi Enterprise, Plt 5 Blk C, Kronum, Kumasi 122. F DB/Wt 05A-0023 4 Ever Filtered Water Technology World Limited, Plt 2A AAII Street SECII, Fumesua, Kumasi 123. F DB/Wt 05A-0024 Abodwosuo Filtered Water Okoafre Enterprise, Asafo-Kumasi 124. F DB/Wt 06A-0002 Lily Filtered Water K. Bermour Enterprise, Kumasi 125. F DB/Wt 06A-0003 Freeman Filtered Water Kath Construction and Trading Enterprise, Kumasi 126. F DB/Wt 06A-0004 Sola Treated Water Reginus Ent., Kumasi 127. F DB/Wt 06A-0005 Konas Drinking Water Konas & Co Limited, Mampongteng, Ashanti 128. F DB/Wt 06A-0006 Aqualy Filtered Water K.O. Apuu Company Ltd., UST, Kumasi 129. F DB/Wt 06A-0007 Dominion Drinking Water Dominion Chapel Enterprise 130. F DB/Wt 06A-0008 Kofcee Filtered Water Kofcee Enterprise, Kumasi 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 131. F DB/Wt 06A-0009 U3 Drinking Water Notre Dame Industry, Kumasi 132. F DB/Wt 06A-0010 Maame Dora Drinking Water Maame Dora Drinking Water, Kumasi 133. F DB/Wt 06A-0011 Zoe Filtered Water Life Establishment and Services Ltd., Kumasi 134. F DB/Wt 06A-0012 Gentle Dove Treated Water Adford Enterprise Limited, Kumasi 135. F DB/Wt 06A-0013 Ekuona Filtered Water Ekuona Filtered Water Enterprise, Kum 136. F DB/Wt 06A-0014 Lisa Filtered Water Kes-Bana Enterprise, Kumasi 137. F DB/Wt 06A-0015 Hudson Drinking Water Party Essentials Enterprise, Ejisu 138. F DB/Wt 06A-0016 Abaawa Filtered Water Naomi Eyifah Enterprise, Kumasi 139. F DB/Wt 06A-0017 Agyengo Drinking Water E. K Agyeman Enterprise, Kumasi 140. F DB/Wt 06A-0018 Good Tree Filtered Water B. B. S Enterprise 141. F DB/Wt 06A-0019 Betenase Filtered Water Betenase Euro Ventures, Kumasi 142. F DB/Wt 06A-0020 Yen Ara Asase Ni Drinking Loob Company, Kumasi Water 143. F DB/Wt 06A-0021 Kay Filtered Drinking Water Caritas Ventures, Kumasi 144. F DB/Wt 06A-0022 Choice Filtered Water Safe Wheels Enterprise, Kumasi 145. F DB/Wt 06A-0023 Frevacs Filtered Water Adube Ventures, Obuasi 146. F DB/Wt 06A-0024 Agyapa Filtered Water Anamon Hyeren Ventures, Obuasi 147. F DB/Wt 06A-0026 Transitional Drinking Water Owusu Danso Lydia Ent., Kumasi 148. F DB/Wt 06A-0027 Pev Natural Mineral water Peevic Ent., Obuasi 149. F DB/Wt 06A-0028 Rich Drinking Water Rich Dua Ent., Kumasi 150. F DB/Wt 06A-0029 Tot Way Drinking Water Totway Communications, Kumasi 151. F DB/Wt 06A-0030 Uncle Willie Filtered Drinking Uncle Willie Natural Water, Ejisu Water 152. F DB/Wt 06A-0031 Adepa Filtered Water Adepa Filtered Water, Kumasi 153. F DB/Wt 06A-0033 Adukromu Nsuo Fusspots Ent., Kumasi 154. F DB/Wt 06A-0048 Sanat Filtered Drinking Water Abdulai Seini Sanat Enterprise, Kumasi 155. F DB/Wt 06A-0049 Mr. King's Filtered Drinking Domonion Company Limited, Kumasi Water 156. F DB/Wt 06A-0050 Bubbles Filtered Drinking Bubbles Production Enterprise, Kumasi Water 157. F DB/Wt 07A-0007 Aqua Yuba Filtered Water Aqua Vitae Co Ltd., Box SE 889, Kumasi 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 158. F DB/Wt 07A-0009 Nafran Filtered Water Nafranina Enterprise, Kumasi 159. F DB/Wt 07A-0012 Model Drinking Water Conata Enterprise, Kumasi 160. F DB/Wt 07A-0013 Johet Drinking Water Johet Transport and Trading Enterprise, Kumasi 161. F DB/Wt 07A-0014 Dorcstev Treated Ventures Dorcstev Ventures, P.O. Box 42 Japekrom-Brong Ahafo 162. F DB/Wt 07A-0015 Pasky Drinking Water Don - Hel Ent, Kumasi 163. F DB/Wt 07A-0016 Sweet Mother Drinking Water Sweet Mother Divine Ventures, Kumasi 164. F DB/Wt 07A-0017 Promise Filtered Drinking Namosaa Ultimate and Trading Ent., Kumasi Water 165. F DB/Wt 08A-0002 Tinex Filtered Drinking Water J. T. Osei & Co. Ltd., Kumasi 166. F DB/Wt 08A-0018 Okofo Filtered Water Okofo Boampong Ent. P.O Box 58, Nsuta- Ashanti 167. F DB/Wt 08A-0019 Go Filtered Water Gogosag Company Ltd. P.O Box S A 174, Kumasi 168. F DB/Wt 08A-0020 Odo Nsuo Natural Spring Ado- Dap company Ltd, P.O Box SE 1693, Suame Water Kumasi 169. F DB/Wt 08A-0021 Spa Filtered Water Ado- Dap company Ltd, P.O Box SE 1693, Suame Kumasi 170. F DB/Wt 08A-0022 Ado- Dap Natural Mineral Ado- Dap company Ltd, P.O Box SE 1693, Suame Water Kumasi 171. F DB/Wt 08A-0029 Greenland Filtered Water Greenland Pure Water Co. Ltd P.O Box 101 Kumasi 172. F DB/Wt 08A-0032 Downtown Filtered Drinking Aspirations Ventures, Kumasi Water 173. F DB/Wt 08A-0033 Ameena Drinking Water Pokuase 3000 Ltd Kumasi 174. F DB/Wt 08A-0034 Benak Drinking Water It's Jehova Motors And Trading Ltd, Kumasi 175. F DB/Wt 08A-0035 Jilac Drinking Water Fenimens Co. Ltd.,Obuasi 176. F DB/Wt 08A-0036 Ahwenepa Drinking Water Ahwenepa Ventures Konongo 177. F DB/Wt 08A-0037 Nkrabea Drinking Water Nkrabea Memorial Farm and General Merchandise 178. F DB/Wt 08A-0038 Pearl Drops Filtered Drinking Great Amazing Ventures Water 179. F DB/Wt 08A-0039 Trust Me Drinking Water Trust and Favour Ltd Akutuase, Konongo 180. F DB/Wt 08A-0040 Nyarko Nsuo Nyarko Memorial Ventures, Ejisu Ashanti 181. F DB/Wt 08A-0041 Amrita Natural Mineral Water Zichen Investment Company Ltd, Kumasi 182. F DB/Wt 08A-0042 Meros Drinking Water Busy Hands Ent, Old Tafo Kumasi 183. F DB/Wt 08A-0043 DKN Filtered Drinking Water MNS Enterprise 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 184. F DB/Wt 08A-0044 Abrempong Nsuo J. T. Osei & Co. Ltd., Kumasi 185. F DB/Wt 08A-0045 Erigi Filtered Water Erigi Ventures KNUST Kumasi 186. F DB/Wt 09A- 0048 Complex Filtered Drinking Complex Communication Centre, Kumasi Water 187. F DB/Wt 09A -0113 Pelikan Filtered Drinking Pelikan Manor Co., ltd water 188. F DB/Wt 09A-0002 Maxima Filtered Drinking Gymboat Company Ltd,Kumasi water 189. F DB/Wt 09A-0004 Hillbacai Filtered Water Hillbacai Ent.,Kumasi 190. F DB/Wt 09A-0007 Jefkef Filtered Water Jefkef Ventures 191. F DB/Wt 09A-0009 Yarmens Filtered Drinking Yarmens Enterprise, Suame, Kumasi Water 192. F DB/Wt 09A-0018 Snow White Filtered Drinking A.Y Frempong Ventures, Kumasi Water 193. F DB/Wt 09A-0084 Grafton Natural Mineral Water Intrapex Ghana Ltd., Tema 194. F DB/Wt 09A-0021 Maame Akoma Drinking Daasebre Pharmacy Company Limited, Konongo- Water Ashanti 195. F DB/Wt 09A-0039 Atta-Dor Drinking Water Atta-Dor Enterprise, Kumasi 196. F DB/Wt 09A-0042 Ropa Filtered Water Osjei Enterprise, Kumasi 197. F DB/Wt 09A-0046 Kwaboat Drinking Water Sunkwa Filtered Water Ent., Offinso New Town, Kumas 198. F DB/Wt 09A-0047 Elipah Drinking Water Adwoa Konadu Ent., Kumasi 199. F DB/Wt 09A-0050 Seven Sister Filtered Drinking Nana Kofi Ansah Ent. Water 200. F DB/Wt 09A-0051 Jefas Drinking Water Jeff A. Asare Ent. 201. F DB/Wt 09A-0052 Nanark Filtered Drinking Nanark Ventures Ashanti region Water 202. F DB/Wt 09A-0055 Thirstgo Crystal Water Thirstgo Crystal Waters 203. F DB/Wt 09A-0063 Jonasy Drinking Water J. Anim Ent., Nkawkaw 204. F DB/Wt 09A-0070 Breeze Natural Mineral Paramount Distilleries Ltd., Kumasi Water(Satchet) 205. F DB/Wt 09A-0074 Mesa Filtered Drinking Water Stephen Akuoko Trading & Local Soap Manufacturing Ent 206. F DB/Wt 09A-0076 Sweet Life Filtered Drinking I.Y.B. Enterprise, Kumasi Water 207. F DB/Wt 09A-0077 B2O Drinking Water Adjei Brobbey Ventures 208. F DB/Wt 09A-0096 La Vie Filtered water F-Factor Ltd., Obuasi 209. F DB/Wt 09A-0101 Bana and Bata Drinking water Bana and Bata Ent 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 210. F DB/Wt 10A-0002 Skywalker Drinking water Skywalker Co. Ltd., Kumasi 211. F DB/Wt 10A-0010 Rivercrest natural mineral Rivercrest Co. Ltd., Kumasi water 212. F DB/Wt 10A-0011 Passion Treated drinking water Rivercrest Co. Ltd., Kumasi 213. F DB/Wt 10A-0012 Adolan filtered water Truth Waters, Kumasi 214. F DB/Wt 10A-0014 Rainbow filtered water Rainbow filtered water Ent 215. F DB/Wt 10A-0015 Go Tango filtered drinking Go Tango Co. Ltd., Kumasi water 216. F DB/Wt 10A-0016 Companion drinking water Eden Springs Resources, Kumasi 217. F DB/Wt 10A-0020 Liwat Filtered water Living Water Chapel Filtered Water Co. Ltd., Kumasi 218. F DB/Wt 10A-0026 Dimples Filtered drinking K.B Agyapong Ent., Kumasi water 219. F DB/Wt 10A-0036 Mount C Filtered water MT Carmel Resort ltd 220. F DB/Wt 10A-0037 Nayas Filtered Water Sweet Achiaa Ent., Kumasi 221. F DB/Wt 10A-0040 Nakmad Filtered Drinking Nakmad Ent., Kumasi water 222. F DB/Wt 10A-0041 S.A.J Filtered water S.A.J Timber and Construction ltd 223. F DB/Wt 10A-0042 Everfresh Filtered Drinking Everfresh Drinking Water, Adum Kumasi water 224. F DB/Wt 10A-0043 Still P.D filtered drinking Still P.D Ebenezer water 225. F DB/Wt 10A-0044 O-Beng Drinking Water O-beng Ventures 226. F DB/Wt 10A-0048 Boafowah Nsuo filtered Glani-Sarp Farms and Trading Ent drinking water 227. F DB/Wt 10A-0051 Nivana Filtered Water Jerry Boakye Ansa Ventures 228. F DB/Wt 10A-0054 Joetess Drinking water AM-Joetess Business Ent 229. F DB/Wt 10A-0055 Connie's Drinking water Connie's Health water and general trading 230. F DB/Wt 10A-0059 Be-First Filtered drinking Be-First Enterprise, Kumasi water 231. F DB/Wt 10A-0061 Opponak Drinking water Oppong Nyantakyi Ent 232. F DB/Wt 10A-0062 Nyakus Drinking water Nyakus Ent., Kumasi 233. F DB/Wt 10A-0063 Obaa Yaa Filtered drinking Obaa Yaa Mineral Water water 234. F DB/Wt 10A-0065 Emas Drinking Water E-Agyemens Ventures 235. F DB/Wt 10A-0066 Be Jay Drinking water Anointing Mineral Water 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 236. F DB/Wt 10A-0067 Tashna Drinking water Tashna Ventures, Kumasi 237. F DB/Wt 10A-0068 KAB Filtered water KAB Filtered Water, Kumasi 238. F DB/Wt 10A-0070 OA Filtered drinking water OA Mineral water 239. F DB/Wt 10A-0073 Olive Treated drinking water Olive Treated Water and trading Ent 240. F DB/Wt 10A-0074 Cobb-Ji drinking water Cobisco Ent., Kumasi 241. F DB/Wt 10A-0075 Enumafield filtered water Enumafield Co. Ltd., Kumasi 242. F DB/Wt 10A-0076 Ernogyan Filtered drinking Ernogyan Co. Ltd., Kumasi water 243. F DB/Wt 10A-0077 Asukokyeaa drinking water Asik'm Ent., Kumasi 244. F DB/Wt 10A-0078 Mannam Filtered water Manna Pavement block works 245. F DB/Wt 10A-0079 Hanmoro Filtered water Hanmoro Filtered water, Kumasi 246. F DB/Wt 10A-0080 Dam Fresh water Prince Yaw Damoah Ent 247. F DB/Wt 10A-0081 Romis Filtered drinking water Romis Drinking water 248. F DB/Wt 10A-0082 Lee Filtered drinking water Margaret Konadu Kankam Ent., Kumasi 249. F DB/Wt 10A-0083 Vineyard Filtered water Vineyard Spring Ent., Kumasi 250. F DB/Wt 10A-0084 Cox-long drinking water Coxlong Ent., Kumasi 251. F DB/Wt 10A-0085 Blue Moon filtered water Crystal Joy Spring Water Ent., Konongo 252. F DB/Wt 10A-0086 Big K filtered water Big K Ventures, Konongo 253. F DB/Wt 10A-0087 Ghafas filtered water Kingy Engineering and Construction 254. F DB/Wt 10A-0088 Anso Vital Water Anso Vital water Co., ltd 255. F DB/Wt 10A-0089 Ekuoba drinking water Grace F. Mart Ent., Kumasi 256. F DB/Wt 10A-0090 Vespring Drinking water Vespring Co. Ltd., Kumasi 257. F DB/Wt 10A-0091 ACME filtered water ACME Filtered 258. F DB/Wt 10A-0092 Sanapac mineral drinking Sanapaac mineral water Ent water 259. F DB/Wt 10A-0093 Alberta Treated drinking water Naa Sab Enterprise, Kumasi 260. F DB/Wt 10A-0094 Auntie Julie drinking water Jot Ent., Suame Kumasi 261. F DB/Wt 10A-0095 Prince drinking water Oheneba Fobi Ventures, Kumasi 262. F DB/Wt 10A-0098 Sukyeremma Treated water Nowasa Ent., Ash Town Kumasi 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 263. F DB/Wt 10A-0099 FM filtered water Frikkias Motors, Kumasi 264. F DB/Wt 10A-0100 Milanese filtered drinking Dannyrosa Joy Ventures, Kumasi water 265. F DB/Wt 10A-0102 Ahenanan filtered water Aiksarp Ventures 266. F DB/Wt 10A-0106 Camelot filtered drinking Baqkiro Co. Ltd., Ejisu water 267. F DB/Wt 10A-0110 Eco Filtered Drinking Water Essase Christian Orphanage, Kumasi 268. F DB/Wt 10A-0111 Benny Drinking Water Down River Enterprise 269. F DB/Wt 10A-0116 Tyburn Drinking Water Tyburn Martyrs Ventures 270. F DB/Wt 10A-0117 Nana Achiaa Filtered Drinking Nana Achiaa Memorial Filtered Water Water 271. F DB/Wt 10A-0119 Davis Filtered Water Davis Farms & Trading Ent. 272. F DB/Wt 10A-0202 Wisdama Filtered Drinking Wisdama Enterprise, Suame Kumasi Water 273. F DB/Wt 10A-0204 Olivetan Drinking Water Olivetan Mineral Water Ent., Kumasi 274. F DB/Wt 10A-0205 Hello Drinking Water Donakon Enterprise, Kumasi 275. F DB/Wt 10A-0210 Artic Water Artic Investment Ltd. 276. F DB/Wt 10A-0219 Macfreda Drinking Water Macfreda Ent., Kumasi 277. F DB/Wt 10A-0221 Kak Water Marvin-T Ent., Kumasi 278. F DB/Wt 10A-0222 Cadpure Filtered Water Ceaser And Cad Ltd. 279. F DB/Wt 10A-0229 Madam Catherine Drinking Rocky Crystal Ventures Water 280. F DB/Wt 10A-0237 Atlas Drinking Water Boateng & Family Company Limited 281. F DB/Wt 10A-0239 Truestar Filtered Water True Star Mineral Water 282. F DB/Wt 10A-0240 Timeless Drinking Water Apranaa Ventures, Kumasi 283. F DB/Wt 10A-0241 Eddyrose Filtered Drinking Jevefra Ent., Kumasi Water 284. F DB/Wt 10A-0244 Kosarbs Filtered Drinking Kosarb Enterprise, Old Tafo Kumasi Water 285. F DB/Wt 10A-0245 Aboagyewaa Filtered Water Bemawus Ent., Kumasi 286. F DB/Wt 10A-0246 Iroc M Filtered Water S.S.B.S. Enterprise,Kumasi 287. F DB/Wt 10A-0248 Amkess Filtered Drinking Amkess Ventures, Kumasi Water 288. F DB/Wt 10A-0249 Almoc Filtered Drinking Almoc Pharmacy Limited Water 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 289. F DB/Wt 10A-0250 Bafman Drinking Water Bafman Ltd., Kumasi 290. F DB/Wt 10A-0253 Mabon Filtered Water Kraptus Enterprise 291. F DB/Wt 10A-0255 Agya Pete Drinking Water Peedampts Ventures, Kumasi 292. F DB/Wt 10A-0258 Bota Filtered Drinking Water Bota Drinking Water 293. F DB/Wt 10A-0259 Nipak Drinking Water Onipa Nkwa Hohia Enterprise, Konongo 294. F DB/Wt 10A-0260 Big Time Filtered Water Jeffrey Owusu Ent., Kumasi 295. F DB/Wt 10A-0262 Barfour Drinking Water Osakpon Farms Company 296. F DB/Wt 10A-0263 Gyasons Filtered Water G. Gyasons Enterprise 297. F DB/Wt 10A-0265 BG Geobeck Filtered Water Beckgeo Ventures, Kumasi 298. F DB/Wt 10A-0266 Trimude Filtered Drinking Trimudehene Investment Centre Water 299. F DB/Wt 10A-0267 Joe Filtered Drinking Water Joe's Dignity Enterprise 300. F DB/Wt 10A-0270 Eddy-Sa Drinking Water Eddy Sarp Enterprise 301. F DB/Wt 10A-0271 Madame Filtered Water Doris One Ent., Kumasi 302. F DB/Wt 10A-0272 Active Drinking Water Ghaireland Ltd., Tamale 303. F DB/Wt 10A-0273 Kanaz Drinking Water Kanaz Company Limited 304. F DB/Wt 10A-0275 Kandeglo Drinking Water Kandeglo Ent., Kumasi 305. F DB/Wt 10A-0276 Fonty Filtered Drinking Water Ebentet Enterprise 306. F DB/Wt 10A-0278 Alfa Drinking Water Boakap Ent., Kumasi 307. F DB/Wt 10A-0279 Jebet Filtered Drinking Water Baffour Asafo Adjei Enterprise, Kumasi 308. F DB/Wt 10A-0280 New Age Filtered Water First New Age Limited, Ash-Town Kumasi 309. F DB/Wt 10A-0281 Fendy Filtered Drinking Water Fendimore Ventures, Bantama Kumasi 310. F DB/Wt 10A-0282 Uncle Sark Drinking Water Uncle Sark Enterprise, Kumasi 311. F DB/Wt 10A-0287 Saba Drinking Water Ginadai Ent., New Tafo Kumasi 312. F DB/Wt 10A-0288 Aqua Link Filtered Drinking Frontline Beverage Enterprise Water 313. F DB/Wt 10A-0290 Mountain View Filtered Water Selo - Jay's Company Limited 314. F DB/Wt 10A-0294 Erimil Drinking Water Dovewell Co. Ltd., Kumasi 315. F DB/Wt 10A-0295 Skyy Cool Filtered Water Nkronkron Nsuo Ent., Kumasi 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 316. F DB/Wt 10A-0296 Lom Filtered Drinking Water Nhyira Nsuo, Kumasi 317. F DB/Wt 10A-0297 Bro. Yaw Filtered Water Selwus Ent., Kumasi 318. F DB/Wt 10A-0298 Angel Ben Filtered Drinking Angelben Ent., Kumasi Water 319. F DB/Wt 10A-0299 Vangies Filtered Drinking Marisca Ent., Kumasi Water 320. F DB/Wt 11A-0001 Prema Filtered Drinking Water Matprin Ent., Ahinsan Kumasi 321. F DB/Wt 11A-0002 F & GE Filtered Water Fran "O" Ford Co. Ltd 322. F DB/Wt 11A-0005 Princess Drinking Water Kosesa Enterprise, Ejura-Ashanti 323. F DB/Wt 11A-0006 Andes Filtered Water Aqua Vera Ventures, Kumasi 324. F DB/Wt 11A-0007 Shirleysco Drinking Water Shirleysco Enterprise, Kumasi 325. F DB/Wt 11A-0008 Patmos Drinking Water K-Sarbee Enterprise 326. F DB/Wt 11A-0009 Next Filtered Drinking Water Koaklina Enterprise, Adum Kumasi 327. F DB/Wt 11A-0010 Augva Mineral Water Augva Mineral Water, Kumasi 328. F DB/Wt 11A-0011 Lady Dina Filtered Water Johnsteyn's Ent 329. F DB/Wt 11A-0012 Ozrock Drinking Water Zealous Marketing Enterprise 330. F DB/Wt 11A-0013 Aqua Clear Drinking Water Quality Health Care Ltd., Kumasi 331. F DB/Wt 11A-0014 Bless Drinking Water Kac-B Enterprise, Ejisu Kumasi 332. F DB/Wt 11A-0016 Good News Drinking Water Josrita Ent., Kumasi 333. F DB/Wt 11A-0020 A1 Filtered Water A1 Purified Water, Accra 334. F DB/Wt 11A-0022 Oforisuo Filtered Water Nsuo Mu Nsuo Ent., Fomena Adansi 335. F DB/Wt 11A-0024 Agya Koo Filtered Water Gyamalex Ent., Kumasi 336. F DB/Wt 11A-0025 Eagle Filtered Water Yaw Barimah Farms 337. F DB/Wt 11A-0035 Big Osei Filtered Drinking Agya Sei Filtered Drinking Water Water 338. F DB/Wt 11A-0036 Raemako Filtered Drinking Raemako Co. Ltd., Kumasi Water 339. F DB/Wt 11A-0037 KuulJoy Drinking Water Papakiano Ventures, Kumasi 340. F DB/Wt 11A-0039 Kofas Drinking Water Kofas Mineral Water Co. Ltd., Kumasi 341. F DB/Wt 11A-0040 Gate Way Filtered Water Bomathsent Ent., Suame Kumasi 342. F DB/Wt 11A-0043 Joo Filtered Water His Grace Mineral Water, Effiduase Sekyere 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 343. F DB/Wt 11A-0044 Maa Filtered Drinking Water Tawiah Purified Drinking Water 344. F DB/Wt 11A-0045 Momee Filtered Water Purepac Enterprise, Ahinsan Kumasi 345. F DB/Wt 11A-0046 Focus Filtered Drinking Water A&B Pure Rock Ltd. 346. F DB/Wt 11A-0047 Sunny Day Filtered Drinking Napadd Limited Water 347. F DB/Wt 11A-0058 Dan Dee Drinking Water D.B Kids Enterprise 348. F DB/Wt 11A-0061 Fontomfrom Drinking Water Ahinasa Fontmfrom Ent., Akrokerri Adansi 349. F DB/Wt 11A-0062 Aco Filtered Water Agya Nti Pharmacy, Tepa A/R 350. F DB/Wt 11A-0066 Adom Nkoa Filtered Water Ado Nkoa Ent., Kumasi 351. F DB/Wt 11A-0071 Oshi Filtered Water Obetwum Ent., Kumasi 352. F DB/Wt 11A-0075 Philips Filtered Drinking Philips Obeng Ent. Bekwai- Ashanti Water 353. F DB/Wt 11A-0076 A-C Filtered Water A-C Consult Ltd, Kumasi, A/R 354. F DB/Wt 11A-0077 Royal Drinking Water Royal Delivery Limited, Kumasi 355. F DB/Wt 11A-0080 Bumper to Bumper Filtered Okumanim Royals Ent., Ashanti Water 356. F DB/Wt 11A-0083 Adwubi Kete Filtered Water O.K. Mineral Water Works, Kumasi 357. F DB/Wt 11A-0086 Naadom Drinking Water Alex K. Appiah Engineering Service, KNUST- Kumasi 358. F DB/Wt 11A-0088 Mege Natural Mineral Water St. Patrick Co. Ltd., Kumasi 359. F DB/Wt 11A-091 Modern Drinking Water Arhinkus Enterprsie 360. F DB/Wt 11A-092 S.M Filtered Water K.D.B Ventures 361. F DB/Wt 11A-094 Real Filtered Water Real Filtered Water and Trading Ent. 362. F DB/Wt 11A-095 Sweet Mother Drinking Water Sweet Mother Divine Ventures, Kumasi 363. F DB/Wt 11A-104 Emmanuel's Filtered Drinking Emmanuel's Hygienic Water Ent. Water 364. F DB/Wt 11A-106 Gentle Dove Filtered Water Adford Ent. 365. F DB/Wt 11A-107 Gina Filtered Drinking Water Ginamanuel Ent. 366. F DB/Wt 11A-109 S. Thomas Filtered Drinking St Thomas Co-operative Credit Union Ltd. Water 367. F DB/Wt 11A-110 Nafran Filtered Water Nafranina Ent. 368. F DB/Wt 11A-111 Allied Filtered Water Nana Amakye Gas 369. F DB/Wt 11A-112 Kina Drinking Water Awo Kina 7983 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 370. F DB/Wt 11A-113 B. Filtered Water Menab Ventures 371. F DB/Wt 11A-114 Tegola Aqua Drinking Water Tegola Aqua Ent. 372. F DB/Wt 11A-124 Mama Stella Filtered Water Gyellack Enterprise 373. F DB/Wt 11A-128 Margra Filtered Water Margra Ent. 374. F DB/Wt 11A-129 Alberto-Ans Drinking Water Alberto-Ans Ent. 375. F DB/Wt 11A-130 Aqua Benaf Filtered Drinking Fasonda Ventures Water 376. F DB/Wt 11A-131 Ohili Filtered Drinking Water Al Shaili Ent. 377. F DB/Wt 11A-132 Hop Filtered Drinking Water H.O.P Filtered Drinking Water 378. F DB/Wt 11A-133 Charity Drinking Water Centrack Ventures 379. F DB/Wt 11A-137 Genephil Filtered Drinking Genephil Enterprise, Kumasi Water 380. F DB/Wt 11A-139 Gyamkofa Filterd Drinking Gyamkofa Ent. Water 381. F DB/Wt 11A-140 Chrysmar Filtered Water Kofboat Business Services 382. F DB/Wt 11A-141 A.L. Drinking Water Neach Ventures 383. F DB/Wt 11A-142 G-Life Drinking Water St. Mary's Bakery 384. F DB/Wt 11A-147 Rean Filtered Water Reanstar Ventures, Kumasi 385. F DB/Wt 11A-152 Lina Drinking Water Lina Filtered Water 386. F DB/Wt 11A-155 Dwaagu Filtered Drinking Dwaagu Ent. Ltd., Adum Kumasi Water 387. F DB/Wt 11A-185 Liet Filtered Drinking Water Kasana-Liet Ent. 388. F DB/Wt 11A-187 Geert Poles Filtered Drinking Seinti Hotel Ltd. Water 389. F DB/Wt 11A-188 Oheneba Nsuo Filtered Water Prince Poly Ent. 390. F DB/Wt 11A-189 Joetick Filtered Drinking Joseph Adjei Williams Ent.,Ahinsan Kumasi Water 391. F DB/Wt 11A-190 Aniwaa Drinking Water Sarps Agency 392. F DB/Wt 11A-202 Nak's Drinking Water Kopnak Ventures 393. F DB/Wt 11A-214 Ennisco Drinking Water Ennisco Drinking Water, Kumasi 394. F DB/Wt 11A-215 Fragobeng Drinking Water Fragobeng Limited 395. F DB/Wt 11A-216 Sparks Filtered Drinking Leefizzi Enterprise Water 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 396. F DB/Wt 11A-217 Sika Gyiri Filtered Drinking S.K Gyiri Ventures Water 397. F DB/Wt 11A-218 Favour Filtered Drinking Favour Mineral Water & Fruit Juice Ventures Water 398. F DB/Wt 11A-225 Queens Filtered Water The Queen's Maternity Home 399. F DB/Wt 11A-226 Frankies Filtered Drinking Akwasi Fosu Company Ltd. Water 400. F DB/Wt 11A-230 J.M Filtered Water Joemanu Ventures, Kumasi 401. F DB/Wt 11A-231 Elvis Filtered Water Elvis Filtered Water, Kumasi 402. F DB/Wt 11A-232 Drinkull Drinking Water G-Gabs Enterprise 403. F DB/Wt 11A-234 Novena Drinking Water Santo Jeff Enterprise, Kumasi 404. F DB/Wt 11A-242 A Star Filtered Drinking Water Star Adom Ent. 405. F DB/Wt 11A-243 Kaskala Drinking Water Kaskala Herbal Centre 406. F DB/Wt 11A-244 Paulina Drinking Water Animuonyam Nka Nyame Filtered Water 407. F DB/Wt 11A-248 Adwoa Konadu Filtered Water Ojoo Holland Ent. 408. F DB/Wt 11A-250 M.S.K. Filtered Water Manso Konte Co. Ltd. 409. F DB/Wt 11A-253 Summer Filtered Drinking Landark Ent. Water 410. F DB/Wt 11A-255 Pishon Drinking Water Super Big Kay Ent. 411. F DB/Wt 11A-256 Teddy Filtered Water Lord Winner Investments Ltd., Kumasi 412. F DB/Wt 11A-257 Ikhlass Drinking Water Ikhlass Ent. Aboaso- Ashanti 413. F DB/Wt 11A-278 18th Golden Drinking Water 18th Rock Of Golden Enterprise 414. F DB/Wt 11A-286 Gratis Aqua Filtered Drinking Smooth Enterprise Water 415. F DB/Wt 11A-297 Blue Skies Filtered Water Kuffour Ent. 416. F DB/Wt 11A-298 Julie's Filtered Water Nhyira Star Filtered Water Enterprise, Adum- Kumasi 417. F DB/Wt 11A-303 Adukromu Nsuo Fusspot Ent., Kumasi 418. F DB/Wt 11A-315 Apak Filtered Drinking Water Alberta G. Ventures 419. F DB/Wt 11A-323 Young Man Drinking Water Youngman Nathan Ent., Kumasi 420. F DB/Wt 11A-324 Mabi Drinking Water Fabs De Christ Co. Ltd., Kumasi 421. F DB/Wt 11A-325 Totway Drinking Water Totway Foods, Kumasi 422. F DB/Wt 11A-326 Erfect Drinking Water Margaret Yeboah Asiamah Ent., Kumasi 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 423. F DB/Wt 11A-328 Jaevab Drinking Water Jeavab Ent., Kumasi 424. F DB/Wt 11A-329 C.F.P Filtered Drinking Water Celike Drinking Water, Kumasi 425. F DB/Wt 11A-330 Willico Filtered Drinking Cobbiwilliams Ent., Kumasi Water 426. F DB/Wt 11A-333 Bamba Filtered Water Bamba Ent., Kumasi 427. F DB/Wt 11A-336 k. Naboat Drinking Water K. Naboat Enterprise 428. F DB/Wt 11A-337 Uncle George Drinking Water Pasark Enterprise 429. F DB/Wt 11A-340 Aqua Dio Filtered Drinking Aqua Dio Filtered Drinking Water Water 430. F DB/Wt 11A-341 Second In Life Filtered Second In Life Ent., Kumasi Drinking Water 431. F DB/Wt 11A-342 Ateasefo Drinking Water Ateasefo Drinking Water Ltd., Obuasi 432. F DB/Wt 11A-344 Asum Drinking Water Asum Investment Ltd., Kumasi 433. F DB/Wt 11A-351 Raifmon Drinking Water Raifmon Enterprise 434. F DB/Wt 11A-354 Tessfo Filtered Drinking Tessfo Enterprise, Kumasi Water 435. F DB/Wt 11A-364 Samson Filtered Drinking Sukkott Limited, Kumasi Water 436. F DB/Wt 11A-365 Anaco Filtered Drinking Nasavan Ventures Water 437. F DB/Wt 11A-367 Ole Drinking Water Benito Menni Health Centre, Dompoase- Adansi,Obuasi 438. F DB/Wt 11A-368 Shabath Drinking Water Nak Hasen Works, Kumasi 439. F DB/Wt 11A-369 Mama Mercy Drinking Water Mama Mercy Ent., Kumasi 440. F DB/Wt 11A-370 Gabb Filtered Drinking Water Mary Brobbey Ent., Kumasi 441. F DB/Wt 11A-379 My Shield Drinking Water Paulfel Services Limited, Kumasi 442. F DB/Wt 11A-380 Abrefi Drinking Water Kumasi Gilead Academy, Kumasi 443. F DB/Wt 11A-381 Able Filtered Drinking Water Nea Nyame Tumi Ye Ltd., Kumasi 444. F DB/Wt 11A-382 Agonaman Nsuo Drinking Agonaman Plus Investment, Kumasi Water 445. F DB/Wt 11A-383 Levissima Filtered Water Levissima Drinking Water and Trading Enterprise, Kumasi 446. F DB/Wt 11A-384 Rosmat Filtered Water Davglad Ventures, Kumasi 447. F DB/Wt 11A-388 Philjoy Filtered Water Ayabena Co. Ltd., Kumasi 448. F DB/Wt 11A-389 Castro Drinking Water Nollvic Enterprise, Kumasi 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 449. F DB/Wt 11A-390 Gyasik Drinking Water Bakasek Enterprise, Kumasi 450. F DB/Wt 11A-391 Fauzi Filtered Drinking Water Fauziya Enterprise, Kumasi 451. F DB/Wt 11A-392 Samic Drinking Water Samic Enterprise, Kumasi 452. F DB/Wt 11A-401 Niva Drinking Water Ganaf Enterprise, Kumasi 453. F DB/Wt 11A-402 Vivita Filtered Drinking Water Aquavita Ventures, Kumasi 454. F DB/Wt 11A-416 Abokyi Drinking Water Old Dominion Enterprise, Kumasi 455. F DB/Wt 11A-417 Ohene Filtered Drinking Ohene B Enterprise, Konongo Water 456. F DB/Wt 11A-418 Franko Filtered Water Franko Divine Ventures, Kumasi 457. F DB/Wt 11A-424 Hanny's Drinking Water Job-Dhan Co. Ltd., Kumasi 458. F DB/Wt 11A-426 Naspaw Drinking Water Wapman Filtered Water & Trading Enterprise, Kumasi 459. F DB/Wt 11A-427 Diamond Filtered Water Kinsmat Communication and Business Service 460. F DB/Wt 11A-428 Ella Drinking Water Emmanuel Owusu Enterprise 461. F DB/Wt 11A-429 Appico Drinking Water Opanin Kwabena Appiah Enterprise, Kumasi 462. F DB/Wt 11A-430 Musdina Drinking Water Musdina Enterprise, Mim 463. F DB/Wt 11A-431 Berfi Nsuo Filtered Water Berfico Limited 464. F DB/Wt 11A-434 Maantewaa Filtered Water Maantewaa Filtered Water, Kumasi 465. F DB/Wt 11A-435 Liberty Filtered Drinking Ceecom Entreprise Water 466. F DB/Wt 11A-508 K. Poly Filtered Water Glomas Company Ltd, Adum Kumasi 467. F DB/Wt 11A-509 Yeboss Filtered Drinking Yeboss Standard Mineral Water Water 468. F DB/Wt 11A-510 Ahoofe Drinking Water N. Y. Agyemang Company Limited 469. F DB/Wt 11A-511 Rebbek Filtered Drinking Numafo Products Limited Water 470. F DB/Wt 11A-512 Eliya Filtered Drinking Water Jeligsha Enterprise 471. F DB/Wt 11A-513 Sikanat Drinking Water Yebonat Enterprise 472. F DB/Wt 11A-514 Dansabon Filtered Water Dansabon Filtered Water Company Limited 473. F DB/Wt 11A-516 Blueland Drinking Water Blue Land Company Ltd, Bekwai - Asante 474. F DB/Wt 11A-517 Baroko Filtered Water Tanbok Enterprise. Asuoyeboah, Kumasi 475. F DB/Wt 11A-521 Samass Drinking Water Agonana Ventures. Suame- Kumasi 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 476. F DB/Wt 11A-522 Boas 'V' Filtered Drinking Boas Ventures. Kumasi Water 477. F DB/Wt 11A-523 Sure Cool Filtered Water Jefrante Company Limited 478. F DB/Wt 11A-526 Sakk Filtered Water Sakof Enterprise 479. F DB/Wt 11A-527 Jodi Drinking Water Jodi Guest House, Kumasi 480. F DB/Wt 11A-537 Happy Time Filtered Drinking Revelation Filtered Water and Trading Enterprise Water 481. F DB/Wt 11A-558 Agyenak Drinking Water Agyenak Company Ltd 482. F DB/Wt 11A-560 Gempic Drinking Water Gempic B. Kay Ent., Obuasi BRONG AHAFO REGION Bottled Water Producers 483. F DB/Wt 03B-0014 Eusbett Water Eusbett Hotel, Sunyani, Brong Ahafo Sachet Water Produceers 484. F DB/Wt 05B-0046 Water Universe Semex Ghana Ltd., Sunyani 485. F DB/Wt 02B-0051 Encore Filtered Water Cydond Company Ltd., Sunyani 486. F DB/Wt 02B-0052 Mayfair Drinking Water Mayfair Abandenden Enterprise, Sunyani 487. F DB/Wt 02B-0053 Aspet A Drinking Water Aspet 'A' Enterprise, Techiman Aduana, B/A 488. F DB/Wt 02B-0054 Zam Zam Drinking Water Seedi T-T Enterprise, Wenchi, Brong Ahafo 489. F DB/Wt 02B-0055 Dero Drinking Water Dero Enterprise, Kumasi 490. F DB/Wt 03B-0001 Tabiri & Co Filtered Water Biareck Enterprise, Berekum- B/A 491. F DB/Wt 03B-0012 Hapon Filtered Water Hapon Company Ltd., Berekum, Brong Ahafo 492. F DB/Wt 03B-0013 Mart K Filtered Water Mart K Enterprise, Berekum, Brong Ahafo 493. F DB/Wt 03B-0015 Kwapong Filtered Water Kwapong Pharmacy, Attebuba, Brong Ahafo 494. F DB/Wt 03B-0016 Brijia Filtered Water Brijia Enterprise, Sunyani, Brong Ahafo 495. F DB/Wt 03B-0017 Aduana Abodwo Insuo Beckgea Enterprise, Dormaa Ahenkro, Brong Ahafo 496. F DB/Wt 03B-0018 Napas Filtered Water Napas Enterprise, Techiman, Brong Ahafo 497. F DB/Wt 03B-0019 D. W. Filtered Water Divine Enterprise, Techiman, Brong Ahafo 498. F DB/Wt 03B-0020 Yabs Filtered Water Dymens Enterprise, Techiman, Brong Ahafo 499. F DB/Wt 03B-0064 Aamco Filtered Waterf Aamco Farm Complex Ltd., Techiman - B/A 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 500. F DB/Wt 05B-0025 Fradesa Filtered Water Francis De Sales Ltd., Dormaa Ahenkro 501. F DB/Wt 05B-0026 Queen Elizabeth Filtered Queen Elizabeth Enterprise, Berekum, B/A Water 502. F DB/Wt 05B-0027 Pauluus Filtered Water Paul De Saint Enterprise, Techiman, B/A 503. F DB/Wt 05B-0028 A-90 Filtered Water Napok Enterprise, Nkoransa, Brong Ahafo 504. F DB/Wt 05B-0029 Asomdwe Nsuo (Water) Christian Health Association of Ghana, Dormaa Ahenkro, B/A 505. F DB/Wt 05B-0030 Beampo Filtered Water Beampo Enterprise, Sunyani 506. F DB/Wt 05B-0031 Fatima Filtetered Water Wenchi Water Project, Our Lady of Fatima Parish, B/A 507. F DB/Wt 05B-0032 Susu Gold Drinking Water Susu Gold Ent., Sunyani. 508. F DB/Wt 05B-0033 Adu's Drinking Water Bakwadu Enterprise, Sunyani 509. F DB/Wt 06B-0032 Opoyeb Nsupa Opoyeb Ent., Wenchi 510. F DB/Wt 06B-0034 Precious Drinking Water Precious Mann. Company Ltd., Dwenase Boma. B/A 511. F DB/Wt 06B-0035 Managye Filtered Water Managye Spot and Catering Services, Wenchi 512. F DB/Wt 06B-0036 Mart B. Filtered Water Mart B. Ent., Penkwasi, Sunyani 513. F DB/Wt 06B-0037 Odregina Filtered Drinking Odregina Enterprise, Techiman Water 514. F DB/Wt 06B-0038 Miaw Drinking Water Miaw Ent., Techiman 515. F DB/Wt 06B-0039 E.K.G. Filtered Water E.K.G. Food And Beverages Industry Ltd., Sunyani 516. F DB/Wt 06B-0040 Vanket Filtered Water Vanket Communications and Business Services, Seikwa, B/A 517. F DB/Wt 06B-0041 Nkonimdi Nsuo Medimafo Ne Awurade Enterprise, Nkoranza- Brong Ahafo 518. F DB/Wt 06B-0042 Kasfred Filtered Water Kasfred Ltd., Techiman 519. F DB/Wt 06B-0043 Our Lady Nsupa Our Lady of Fatima Catholic Church, Wenchi 520. F DB/Wt 06B-0044 Sunkwa Filtered Water Lady Galaxy Ent., Sunyani 521. F DB/Wt 07B-0010 George Baryeh Filtered Water George Baryeh Company Ltd., Goaso, Brong- Ahafo. 522. F DB/Wt 09B-0033 Angliba Drinking Water Anglican Diocese of Sunyani 523. F DB/Wt 09B-0036 Engedi Filtered Drinking Pee Wees Business Venture Ltd., Kintampo Water 524. F DB/Wt 09B-0068 Abusua Akwaaba Filtered Kaan Investment, Berekum, B/A Drinking Water 525. F DB/Wt 09B-0069 Bootsma Filtered Drinking Mawuli Obaa Ent. Water 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 526. F DB/Wt 10B-0009 Lovers Filtered drinking water Alice Twum Antwi Trading Ent 527. F DB/Wt 10B-0017 Akodeb Filtered Drinking Akodeb Ltd., Sunyani water 528. F DB/Wt 10B-0018 Rufam Filtered drinking water Rufam Co. Ltd., Techiman 529. F DB/Wt 10B-0019 Tonney Filtered drinking Kwayaco Ent., Techiman water 530. F DB/Wt 10B-0056 Snat Drinking water Snat Co., Ltd., Techiman 531. F DB/Wt 10B-0060 Cayouth Filtered drinking WWP Co., Ltd., Sunyani water 532. F DB/Wt 10B-0231 Life And Living Natural Life And Living Ent., Sunyani Mineral Water CENTRAL REGION S achet Water Producers 533. F DB/Wt 04C-0004 Law Filtered Drinking Water Law-Enchi Electrical Ent., Mankessim, Central Region 534. F DB/Wt 04C-0015 Cool Pac Treated Water (Cape Voltic Ghana Ltd., Accra Coast) 535. F DB/Wt 04C-0025 Gloria Drinking Water Kasane Enterprise, Saltpond 536. F DB/Wt 04C-0045 Dandetex Waters Dandetex Enterprise, Cape Coast, Central Region 537. F DB/Wt 04C-0049 Mega Filtered Water Elcam Ent., Cape Coast 538. F DB/Wt 05C-0003 Sadico Filtered Water Sadico Filtered Water, Padu Estate, Cape Coast 539. F DB/Wt 05C-0034 Aubsel Drinking Water Aubsel Company Ltd,Cape Coast 540. F DB/Wt 05C-0064 Coastal Clean Water Coastal Clean Water, Savoy Hotel-Cape Coast 541. F DB/Wt 05C-0065 Day By Day Filtered Drinking Wilsapark Trading Enterprise, Hse No 2BLK 5+, Water Krofa Road, Mankessim 542. F DB/Wt 05C-0067 Anet Filtered Drinking Water Pedu Soft Drink Industries, Hno 142 Pedu Estate 543. F DB/Wt 06C- 0054 Lovely Filtered Drinking Susaban Enterprise, Hse No A65/2, Tantri, Cape Water Coast 544. F DB/Wt 06C-0045 Stephen's Drinking Water J. Akono Co. Ltd., Dunkwa-On-Offin 545. F DB/Wt 07C-0005 Hasna Filtered Drinking Water Hasna Water Cape Coast, opp Ackon Clinic Industrial Area, Cape Coast 546. F DB/Wt 07C-0006 The Cloud Filtered Drinking Sod-Hab Enterprise, Takoradi Water 547. F DB/Wt 08C-0004 Glad Drinking Water Gladlife Ent.,Seventh Day Adventist Church, Ajumako 548. F DB/Wt 08C-0023 Kings Aquabetic Water Abura Kingsway Enterprise 549. F DB/Wt 08C-0027 Boss Filtered Drinking Water Hasrob Co LtdP.O Box 618 Cape Coast 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 550. F DB/Wt 09C-0014 Aqua Belle Filtered Water Aqua Belle Ventures, Anyinase 551. F DB/Wt 09C-0023 Gracious Drinking Water Exclusive Touch Ventures, Agona Swedru 552. F DB/Wt 09C-0044 Dam's Filtered Water Daniel Atta Mills Ent., Mankessim 553. F DB/Wt 09C-0045 Edmarad Filtered Drinking Edmarad Filtered Drinking Water Water 554. F DB/Wt 09C-0078 Omega One Filtered Drinking Omega One Filtered Drinking Water Co. Ltd Water 555. F DB/Wt 10C-0215 A&H Filtered Drinking Water A & H Business Services Ltd. 556. F DB/Wt 10C-0217 The Sun Filtered Drinking Hanson Ent., Cape Coast Water 557. F DB/Wt 10C-0224 Mars Spring Filtered Drinking Cinterko Ventures, Cape Coast Water 558. F DB/Wt 10C-0236 Sanikwad Filtered Drinking Sanikwad Ent., Breman Esikuma Water EASTERN REGION Bottled Water Producers 559. F DB/Wt 04E-0048 Astek Nsu Natural Mineral Astek Fruit Processing Ltd, Nsawam Water 560. F DB/Wt04E-0035 Aquafill Natural Mineral Highland Springs (GH) Limited, Dobro Water 561. F DB/Wt 02E-0013 Smile Natural Mineral Water Shaaba Enterprise, Accra Sachet Water Producers 562. F DB/Wt 04E-0048 Astek Nsu Natural Mineral Astek Fruit Processing Ltd, Nsawam Water 563. F DB/Wt 02E-0013 Smile Natural Mineral Water Shaaba Enterprise, Accra 564. F DB/Wt 04E-0058 Everyday Drinking Water Owusuco Trading Enterprise, Mpraeso 565. F DB/Wt 08E-0025 Sparrow Filtered Drinking Javs Enterprise P.O Box 169 Odumase, Krobo Water 566. F DB/Wt 08E-0031 Starco Drinking Water Starco Ventures Limited, Koforidua 567. F DB/Wt 08E-0046 Akono Nsupa Drinking Water Kabview Ventures, Aburi-Akuapem 568. F DB/Wt 08E-0048 Henry's Filtered Drinking Henry's Pure Waeter Ent, Koforidua Water 569. F DB/Wt 09E-0003 Hisae Cool Filtered Drinking Hisae Co.Ltd, Akosombo Water 570. F DB/Wt 09E-0031 Asase Aban Drinking Water Dase Aban Enterprise 571. F DB/Wt 09E-0064 CSIR Sircool Treated Natural CSIR Mineral Water Co., Ltd. Water 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 572. F DB/Wt 09E-0066 Salv Filtered Drinking Water Rafka Ventures 573. F DB/Wt 09E-0092 Nsuo Ye Filtered Drinking Nsuo Ye Nkwa Company Limited Water 574. F DB/Wt 09E-0093 Domeabra Drinking Water Domeabra Mineral Water Ent. 575. F DB/Wt 09E-0102 Diplomatic Filtered Drinking Dakoba Farms and Industries water 576. F DB/Wt 09E-0104 Start Filtered Drinking Water Bea-Newt Ent., Koforidua 577. F DB/Wt 09E-0105 New Era Filtered Drinking Kansa Ltd., Nkawkaw water 578. F DB/Wt 09E-0111 Fenhac Drinking water F.N.Hackman Co., ltd 579. F DB/Wt 09E-0112 Liahona Filtered Water Andyjay Ent., Cape Coast 580. F DB/Wt 10E-0005 Welcome filtered water Aquaba Purified Water, Kade 581. F DB/Wt 10E-0007 Unity Filtered drinking water Unity Purification Water Company, Odumase Krobo 582. F DB/Wt 10E-0023 Paradi Filtered drinking water JJEP Ent., Nkawkaw 583. F DB/Wt 10E-0024 Akosombo Lina Filtered Danstex Ent., Akosombo Drinking Water 584. F DB/Wt 10E-0025 Nhyiramma Filtered Drinking U-Love Ventures water 585. F DB/Wt 10E-0028 Fresto Filtered Drinking water Fresto Ent., Afiduase Koforidua 586. F DB/Wt 10E-0030 Nomnsu Filtered drinking Nomnsu Ent., Somanya water 587. F DB/Wt 10E-0031 Nom Nsu Pa Filtered drinking Conek Ventures, New Akrade water 588. F DB/Wt 10E-0032 Sovi Filtered Drinking water Kateben Ent., New Akrade 589. F DB/Wt 10E-0033 One Step Filtered Drinking One Step Ent., Accra water 590. F DB/Wt 10E-0035 Standwater filtered drinking Standfirma Ent., Koforidua water 591. F DB/Wt 10E-0045 Shepherd King filtered True Good Shepherd Ventures, Koforidua drinking water 592. F DB/Wt 10E-0047 Vidi Aquam filtered water Catholic Diiiociesie of Koforidua 593. F DB/Wt 10E-0049 T.K. Filtered Drinking water Gbegbe Tettey-Kwame 594. F DB/Wt 10E-0072 Royal Filtered drinking water Joe Trading Enterprise, Akosombo 595. F DB/Wt 10E-0105 B Choice filtered drinking Stemilright Ltd. Nsawam water 596. F DB/Wt 10E-0107 Zion filtered drinking water Vic'mike Co. Ltd., Ashanti Region 597. F DB/Wt 10E-0113 Smiling Filtered Drinking A. P. Ent., Kpongunor 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. Water 598. F DB/Wt 10E-0203 Olisa Filtered Drinking Water Olisa Ent., Akyem Abuakwa 599. F DB/Wt 10E-0211 Aqua Nobel Filtered Drinking Bermac O9 Enterprise, Maase Water 600. F DB/Wt 10E-0216 Danlite Cools Hearts Drinking Danlite Trading Enterprise Water 601. F DB/Wt 10E-0220 Ultima Drinking Water Ultimate Drinking Water, Odumase Krobo 602. F DB/Wt 10E-0226 Angelo Filtered Drinking Perimeter Ent., Accra Water 603. F DB/Wt 10E-0227 Steward Filtered Drinkiong Geojoe Ent., Nkawkaw Water 604. F DB/Wt 10E-0230 Maltic Filtered Water B.M. Maltic Enterprise 605. F DB/Wt 10E-0254 J K Filtered Drinking Water Jacob Kweku Padi Enterprise 606. F DB/Wt 10E-0256 Casante Filtered Water Vicalos Ventures, Koforidua 607. F DB/Wt 10E-0257 Osab Filtered Drinking Water Osab Ent., Nkawkaw 608. F DB/Wt 10E-0261 First Star Filtered Drinking S.O. First Star Enterprise Water 609. F DB/Wt 10E-0269 Major Filtered Drinking Water Odda Enterprise 610. F DB/Wt 10E-0277 Vitakings Filtered Drinking Vitakings Company Ltd. Water 611. F DB/Wt 10E-0289 Ernesto Filtered Drinking Ernest Agyei Apeadu's Ent., Mpraeso Water 612. F DB/Wt 10E-0291 Eye Aseda Filtered Drinking Grace Filtered Water & Lollies Ventures, Akwatia Water GREATER ACCRA REGION Bottled Water Producers 613. F DB/Wt 03G-0011 Dasani Purified Water The Coca-Cola Bottling Co. of Gh. Ltd., Accra 614. F DB/Wt 04G-0018 Ice Cool Purified Water Ice Cool Purified Water Ltd., Tema 615. F DB/Wt 07G-0006 Aquasplash Purified Non- SBC Beverages Ghana Ltd. Carbonated Drinking Water 616. F DB/Wt 07G-0004 Mobile Refreshing Natural Magvlyn Industries Limited, Tema Light Industrial Mineral Water Area, behind Mac Baron Hotel, Aflao Rd 617. F DB/Wt 08G-0028 Voltic Natural Mineral Water Voltic Ghana Ltd., MF, Accra 618. F DB/Wt 10G-0228 Yes Natural Mineral Water Yes Natural Mineral Water 619. F DB/Wt 02G-0006 Standard Drinking Water Cob-A Industries, Accra 620. F DB/Wt 09G-0035 Everpure Purified Drinking Everpure Ghana Ltd., Accra 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. Water 621. F DB/Wt 09G-0010 Safina Natural Mineral Water Sun Ridge Company Ltd., Accra 622. F DB/Wt 09G-0061 Bon Aqua Premium Drinking The Coca Cola Bottling Company Gh. Ltd., Accra Water 623. F DB/Wt 11G-483 Special Ice Natural Mineral Special Ice Mineral Water, Accra Water 624. F DB/Wt 11G-553 Belaqua Mineral Water Blowchem Industries Limited, Accra 625. F DB/Wt 11G-0038 Ice Pak Mineral Water Baron House Limited, Accra 626. F DB/Wt 02G-0012 Meridian Filtered Water GIHOC Distilleries Co. Ltd., Accra 627. F DB/Wt 02G-0014 Divine Aqua Divine Aqua Enterprise, Accra 628. F DB/Wt 08G-0045 Aqua-in Natural Drinking Aqua-in Ltd. Tema Water Sachet Water Producers 629. F DB/Wt 02-0007 Two Doves Filtered Water Two Doves Ventures, Accra 630. F DB/Wt 05-0039 Ste-Sophie Cristaline Natural Eurofood Ghana Limited, Accra Spring Water 631. F DB/Wt 02G-0001 Diamond Crystal Water Dans Fabrics Enterprise, Accra 632. F DB/Wt 02G-0002 Kasa Ahomka Nsuo Kasapreko Co. Ltd., Accra 633. F DB/Wt 02G-0003 Pure Joy Filtered Water Edcom Investments, Accra 634. F DB/Wt 02G-0004 Gift Filtered Water Giftmon Enterprise, Accra 635. F DB/Wt 02G-0005 Brensuo Drinking Water Basfos Enterprise, Legon, Accra 636. F DB/Wt 04G-0018 Ice Cool Purified Water Ice Cool Purified Water Ltd., Tema 637. F DB/Wt 02G-0007 Rock Filtered Water Riyok Enterprise, Kodiabe, Accra 638. F DB/Wt 02G-0008 Water King Filtered Water Water King Ltd., Accra 639. F DB/Wt 02G-0009 Alpine Drinking Water Alpine Chest Ventures, Accra 640. F DB/Wt 02G-0011 Bride of Kings Filtered Ndibo Enterprise, Tema Drinking Water 641. F DB/Wt 02G-0012 Meridian Filtered Water GIHOC Distilleries Co. Ltd., Accra 642. F DB/Wt 02G-0014 Divine Aqua Divine Aqua Enterprise, Accra 643. F DB/Wt 02G-0015 King of Kings Filtered Natural Codabra Ventures, Ashiaman, Tema Water 644. F DB/Wt 03G-0004 Brent Filtered Water Brent Services Ltd., Accra 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 645. F DB/Wt 03G-0005 Paradise Filtered Water Paradise Enterprise, Accra 646. F DB/Wt 03G-0006 Soif-Sukom Drinking Water Spadjeg Enterprise, Accra 647. F DB/Wt 03G-0007 Shekinah Glory Drinking Lady Nightingale's Ent., Accra Water 648. F DB/Wt 03G-0008 Living Water Nifesco Ventures, Accra 649. F DB/Wt 03G-0009 Patty Filtered Water Maame Sassoulo Ltd., Accra 650. F DB/Wt 03G-0010 Bells Filtered Drinking Water MacBells Company Ltd., Accra 651. F DB/Wt 07G-0004 Mobile Refreshing Natural Magvlyn Industries Limited, Tema Light Industrial Mineral Water Area, behind Mac Baron Hotel, Aflao Rd 652. F DB/Wt 03G-0065 Alba Drinking Water Albatross Impex, Accra 653. F DB/Wt 03G-0066 Cana Filtered Water You Quot Ventures, Accra 654. F DB/Wt 03G-0070 Awa Drinking Water Salligent Ventures, Accra 655. F DB/Wt 04G-0001 Bless Drinking Water Deeko Ghana Limited, Accra 656. F DB/Wt 04G-0003 Basic Victory Filtered Water Basic Victory Enterprise, Accra 657. F DB/Wt 04G-0010 Thy Grace Living Drinking Gbadey Limited, Tema Hygienic Water 658. F DB/Wt 04G-0012 Cool Pac Treated Water Voltic Ghana Ltd., Accra 659. F DB/Wt 09G-0035 Everpure Purified Drinking Everpure Ghana Ltd. Water 660. F DB/Wt 04G-0022 Southern Drinking Water Rubash Ventures, Accra 661. F DB/Wt 04G-0043 Star Fresh Water Regies Enterprise, Accra 662. F DB/Wt 04G-0046 Trust Drinking Water Estorm Enterprise, Tema 663. F DB/Wt 04G-0047 Gedlet Drinking Water Gedlet Ventures, Tema 664. F DB/Wt 04G-0050 Perfect Peace Drinking Water Shai Hill Motel, Accra 665. F DB/Wt 04G-0053 Stay Awake Filtered Water Stay Awake Enterprise,Accra-North, GR 666. F DB/Wt 05G-0001 Ist Foundation Filtered Ist Foundation Enterprise, Nungua, Accra Drinking Water 667. F DB/Wt 05G-0002 Jal Filtered Water Lok Marketing Venture, Accra 668. F DB/Wt 05G-0036 Oasis Drinking Water Oasis Lifeline Ventures Limited, Tema 669. F DB/Wt 05G-0037 Akweley Suma Drinking Beak Paper Company, Accra Water 670. F DB/Wt 05G-0038 Comforter Drinking Water Comforter Enterprise,Accra 671. F DB/Wt 05G-0042 Adelom Filtered Drinking Adelom Fresh Water, Tema 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. Water 672. F DB/Wt 05G-0043 Goshdel Drinking Water Goshdeldal Ventures, Teshie-Nungus, Accra 673. F DB/Wt 05G-0044 Kushea Esreal Nsuo Industrial and Engineering Services Gh Ltd, Accra 674. F DB/Wt 05G-0048 Classic Drinking Water Classic Beverages Ltd., Regimanuel Est., Accra 675. F DB/Wt 05G-0049 Global Drinking Water Global Springs Company Ltd., Accra 676. F DB/Wt 05G-0050 King David Filtered Drinking CodaVok Enterprise,Teshie, Accra Water 677. F DB/Wt 05G-0051 Long Life Filtered Drinking God & Angels Ent. Ltd., Tema Water 678. F DB/Wt 05G-0057 Amoo Drinking Water Amoo Enterprise, Tema 679. F DB/Wt 05G-0060 Go-Cool Non-carbonated Deejay Beverages Ltd, Tema Purified Drinking Water 680. F DB/Wt 05G-0061 Safeway Drinking Water Sakisco Enterprises Limited, Hse No 504, Haatso Agbogba Junction, Accra 681. F DB/Wt 05G-0068 Spak Treated Drinking Water Soham Ions Ghana Ltd., Hse No 6 Asante Avenue DTD, West Legon 682. F DB/Wt 05G-0069 Sip Drinking Water Ocran and Ocran Co.ltd, Accra 683. F DB/Wt 06G-0052 Sultan Filtered Water Sultan Refined Water Co.,Accra 684. F DB/Wt 11G-483 Special Ice Natural Mineral Special Ice Mineral Water, Accra Water 685. F DB/Wt 11G-0038 Ice Pak Mineral Water Baron House Limited, Accra 686. F DB/Wt 07G-0008 Jeps Filtered Drinking Water Jepasoa Enterprise, New Asawman Blue Kiosk 687. F DB/Wt 08G-0001 Trust Drinking Water Estom Enterprise,Tema 688. F DB/Wt 08G-0003 Yayra Drinking Water Jonyato Enterprise, Tema 689. F DB/Wt 08G-0007 Go Fresh Pure Water Sanshie E-Bonsu Ent., Accra 690. F DB/Wt 08G-0009 Party Ice Cubes Panda Investments Ltd. La Accra 691. F DB/Wt 08G-0013 Richbi Mineral Water Richbi Ventures, Accra Central 692. F DB/Wt 08G-0015 Royal Falls Mineral Water Royal Falls company Ltd, Accra- North 693. F DB/Wt 08G-0016 Bride of King Drinking Water Indibo Enterprise, Accra. 694. F DB/Wt 08G-0017 Body Choice Filtered Drinking Zakpa Company Ltd Water 695. F DB/Wt 08G-0026 Flamingo Special Filtered More Western Ent P.O Box 199, Nungua Accra Water 696. F DB/Wt 10G-0228 Yes Natural Mineral Water Yes Natural Mineral Water 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 697. F DB/Wt 08G-0030 Golden Pot Drinking Water Hansen Water Services, Osu Accra 698. F DB/Wt 08G-0049 Agua Filtered Water Royal Sweets, Accra 699. F DB/Wt 08G-0050 Sedaqua Filtered Drinking Sedaqua Ent., P O Box 20700, Aiport Accra Water 700. F DB/Wt 09G-0001 Aquatork Filtered Drinking Rehoboth Goshen Ventures, Water 701. F DB/Wt 09G-0005 Steral H2O Steral Co., Osu Accra 702. F DB/Wt 09G-0012 Agua Filtered Water Royal Oasis Co. Ltd. 703. F DB/Wt 09G-0016 Trumpet Drinking Water Abogate Enterprise, Accra 704. F DB/Wt 09G-0019 Waves Natural Mineral Water Sun Ridge Company Ltd., 705. F DB/Wt 09G-0026 Kann Filtered Water Faskann Ventures, Ltd., Comm 20, Tema 706. F DB/Wt 09G-0030 Little Drops Drinking Water Zerb Trading Company, Accra 707. F DB/Wt 09G-0032 Aqua Darling Filtered Water Kwaryat Ventures, Accra. 708. F DB/Wt 09G-0034 Harlem Filtered Drinking Harlem Town Co., Ltd Water 709. F DB/Wt 09G-0038 Agya Appiah Mineral Water Agya Appiah Alternative Herbal Medicine 710. F DB/Wt 09G-0040 Marss Drinking Water (Cape Marss Processing Co. Ltd., Tema Coast) 711. F DB/Wt 09G-0043 Eliak Filtered Water Eliak Ventures, Dansoman, Accra. 712. F DB/Wt 09G-0049 Frost Drinking Water Clean Shine Ltd, Cantonments-Accra 713. F DB/Wt 09G-0054 Polar Crystal Ice Cubes Always Easy Party Rentals 714. F DB/Wt 09G-0058 Chicago Filtered Drinking Treasure Mind Ventures Water 715. F DB/Wt 09G-0060 Aqua Ware Natural Mineral Alex Oware Ent. Ltd., Accra Water 716. F DB/Wt 09G-0071 Aqua Best Filtered Drinking Trinessh Ent., Tema Water 717. F DB/Wt 09G-0073 Aquarius Drinking Water Halleluya in Numbers Ent. 718. F DB/Wt 09G-0079 ACS Filtered Drinking Water Agro-Catering Services, Accra 719. F DB/Wt 09G-0081 Tik Tak Drinking Water Pro-Bio Laboratories, Accra 720. F DB/Wt 09G-0085 Starsplash Mineral Water StandStill Farms & Trading Ent., Ayigya, Kumasi 721. F DB/Wt 09G-0086 Jenna Natural Mineral Water KSMK Ltd., Accra 722. F DB/Wt 09G-0087 Fedek Pure Water Fedek Ventures Ltd., Accra 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 723. F DB/Wt 09G-0088 Ntipet Drinking Water Ntipet Enterprise, Accra 724. F DB/Wt 09G-0090 Verge Filtered Water Verge Fresh Ventures 725. F DB/Wt 10G-0001 OneGoal Natural Mineral Mighty JKB Co., ltd Weija Water 726. F DB/Wt 10G-0003 Golf Fresh Filtered drinking Abuyankowa Co. Ltd., Tema water 727. F DB/Wt 10G-0006 Cool-Berg Purified Drinking Hanlex Co. Ltd., Accra water 728. F DB/Wt 10G-0046 Adwene Nsuo filtered drinking Akyempim Dreams Ent., Accra water 729. F DB/Wt 10G-0096 El-Elyon filtered drinking Eleoni Ent. Kanda Accra water 730. F DB/Wt 10G-0097 Starsplash natural mineral Starsplash Co. Ltd., Achimota Accra water 731. F DB/Wt 10G-0101 Samma Aqua filtered drinking Sam Ritty Ventures water 732. F DB/Wt 10G-0118 Sibi's Mineral Water Zooland Enterprise, Accra 733. F DB/Wt 10G-0208 Big Ben Natural Mineral Big Ben Investment Limited, Accra Water 734. F DB/Wt 10G-0209 Delta Drinking Water Emma Boaff Ent., Tema 735. F DB/Wt 10G-0232 Deona Filtered Drinking Deona Company Limited Water 736. F DB/Wt 10G-0234 Neddok Filtered Water Neddok Ventures, Accra 737. F DB/Wt 10G-0238 Fontanis Filtered Drinking Nayewa Ent., Taifa Accra Water 738. F DB/Wt 10G-0242 Eno's Classic Natural Mineral Eno's Classsic Ghana Ltd Water 739. F DB/Wt 10G-0243 Spalife Mineral Water Sonaspa Company Ghana Limited 740. F DB/Wt 10G-0252 Dorika Drinking Water Dorika Crystals, Tema NORTHERN REGION S achet Water Producers 741. F DB/Wt 04N-0013 Cool Pac Treated Water Voltic Ghana Ltd., Accra (Kumasi) 742. F DB/Wt 05N-0055 Divine Love Filtered Water Lady D's Divine Love Enterprise, Tamale,N/R 743. F DB/Wt 08N-0006 Kosung Drinking Water Kosung Ent., Tamale 744. F DB/Wt 08N-0012 Aqua-ba Filtered Drinking Malakite (Ghana) Ltd., Plot # 252, West Gurugu, Water Residential Area, Tamale 745. F DB/Wt 10N-0038 Batachuo filtered drinking Kumbata Chuo, Tamale water 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. VOLTA REGION S achet Water Producers 746. F DB/Wt 06V-0056 Be Still Filtered Drinking Be Still Enterprise Ltd., Ho Water 747. F DB/Wt 06V-0058 Mount Zion Filtered Drinking Victorious Mount Zion Ent., Ho Water 748. F DB/Wt 08V-0008 Two Streams Filtered Two Streams Ent.Apesokubi, Volta Region Drinking Water 749. F DB/Wt 08V-0010 Emros Drinking Water God is So Great Enterprise, Ho 750. F DB/Wt 09V-0008 Cosfil Drinking Water Cosfil Pure Water Co.Ltd., 751. F DB/Wt 09V-0017 Fifo Drinking Water Fifo Drinking Water Enterprise, Hohoe-V/R 752. F DB/Wt 09V-0029 Brensk Filtered Water Brensk Enterprise, Ho. 753. F DB/Wt 09V-0041 All Nice Filtered Drinking All Nice Drinking Water Water 754. F DB/Wt 09V-0053 Standard Drinking Water Cob-A Industries, Accra 755. F DB/Wt 09V-0057 Big Jay Filtered Drinking Big Jay Ventures, Ho Water 756. F DB/Wt 09V-0059 Eno Filtered Drinking Water St. Maria Gorreti Ventures, Juapong 757. F DB/Wt 09V-0072 Vic-Ana Filtered Water Vicana Ent., V/R 758. F DB/Wt 09V-0082 Crystal String Filltered Crystal Spring Water Drinking Water 759. F DB/Wt 09V-0083 Steward Filtered Drinking Gedlet Ventures, Tema Water 760. F DB/Wt 09V-0100 Aqua Berto Drinking water Alberto and sons Ltd., Sogakope 761. F DB/Wt 09V-0103 Double AA Wasser Drinking Double AA Wasser ltd Water 762. F DB/Wt 10V-0021 Jeps Filtered Drinking Water Jepasoa Enterprise, Nungua Accra 763. F DB/Wt 10V-0022 Roeliza Filtered drinking Roeliza Filtered Drinking Water water 764. F DB/Wt 10V-0027 Shiloh Fresh Filtered drinking Shiloh Fresh Ventures, Sogakope water 765. F DB/Wt 10V-0029 Milinda Filtered drinking Akyem Process Co. Ltd., Akim Oda water 766. F DB/Wt 10V-0034 Abba Filtered Drinking water Habitat Pure Co., ltd 767. F DB/Wt 10V-0050 Akpe Filtered Drinking water Dew Fresh Ventures 768. F DB/Wt 10V-0052 Stay Cool Filtered Drinking Elite Volta Co.ltd 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. water 769. F DB/Wt 10V-0053 Tel Aqua Filtered Drinking Life Aqua Co. Ltd., Ho water 770. F DB/Wt 10v-0058 Constant Filtered drinking Constant Aluminium Fabrication Ent water 771. F DB/Wt 10V-0064 JJ3 Filtered Drinking Water JJ3 Ent., Sogakope 772. F DB/Wt 10V-0069 Lawrenda Filtered drinking Christ Resurrection Enterprise water 773. F DB/Wt 10V-0103 Appex filtered drinking water Appex Global (GH) co. ltd 774. F DB/Wt 10V-0104 Voltaqua filtered drinking CDB Ltd., Nii Boiman Accra water 775. F DB/Wt 10V-0108 Volta Frigo filtered drinking Volta Frigo Ltd., Ho water 776. F DB/Wt 10V-0112 Honesty Filtered Drinking Grace Honesty Co. Ltd., Sogakope Water 777. F DB/Wt 10V-0114 Fresh Alexander Filtered Saparlex Ventures, Ho Drinking Water 778. F DB/Wt 10V-0115 Peagad Filtered Drinking G-Life Enterprise Water 779. F DB/Wt 10V-0200 Papat Filtered Drinking Water Papat Enterprise Ltd. 780. F DB/Wt 10V-0201 Elorm Filtered Drinking Water Micmor Ventures, Ho 781. F DB/Wt 10V-0206 Rose Filtered Drinking Water Ropors Ent., Ho 782. F DB/Wt 10V-0207 Faafa Filtered Drinking Water Faafa Spring Water 783. F DB/Wt 10V-0212 Amenuveve Filtered Drinking Adhohac Ent., Accra Water 784. F DB/Wt 10V-0225 Mawuko Filtered Drinking Noah's Ark Ent., Ho Water 785. F DB/Wt 10V-0251 Majet Filtered Drinking Water Destiny Stores, Anloga 786. F DB/Wt 10V-0268 Prosta Filtered Drinking Water Prosta Mineral Water, Ho 787. F DB/Wt 10V-0274 May Filtered Drinking Water Temako Haleluya Enterprise WESTERN REGION S achet Water Producers 788. F DB/Wt 04W-0002 Thanks Filtered Drinking Thanks Enterprise, Takoradi Water 789. F DB/Wt 04W-0005 Ogye Nsu Filtered Water Admaben Enterprise, Takoradi 790. F DB/Wt 04W-0006 Lucky Sparks Filtered Lucky Kazat Enterprise, Takoradi Drinking Water 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 791. F DB/Wt 04W-0007 Sobak 69 Filtered Water Sobak 69 Limited, Takoradi 792. F DB/Wt 04W-0008 Frakam Filtered Water Frakam Enterprise, Takoradi 793. F DB/Wt 04W-0009 Calm Waters Drinking Water Rebdark Enterprise, Takoradi 794. F DB/Wt 04W-0011 Aqua Pura Water Granmate Company Ltd., Efiakuma, Takoradi 795. F DB/Wt 04W-0019 Sompa Filtered Water Sompa Plaza, Tarkwa 796. F DB/Wt 04W-0020 Idan Filtered Water Idan Industries,Takoradi 797. F DB/Wt 04W-0021 Chako's Filtered Water Chako Enterprise,Takoradi 798. F DB/Wt 04W-0023 Akyemfo Birefi Filtered Akyemfo Birefi Nsu Co., Saltpond Drinking Water 799. F DB/Wt 04W-0024 Aduss Filtered Water Emmanuel '93 Ent., Takoradi 800. F DB/Wt 04W-0044 Millenial Joy Drinking Water Millenial Kingdom Enterprise, Tarkwa 801. F DB/Wt 04W-0051 Mina-Mina Filtered Water Mina-Mina Filtered Water,Takoradi 802. F DB/Wt 04W-0052 Tarkwa Nsu Dew Filtered Amonoo Memorial Ent,Market circle-Tarkwa Water 803. F DB/Wt 04W-0054 Adom Wo Wim Water M. K. Adom Wo Wim Ent., Plot 73, West Tanokrom 804. F DB/Wt 04W-0055 Victory Filtered Drinking Victory Product Ent. Water 805. F DB/Wt 04W-0056 Kings Water Abura Kingsway Enterprise 806. F DB/Wt 04W-0057 Ahomka Drinking Water Providence Enterprise,Old Afra Market, Effia Kuma , Tarkoradi 807. F DB/Wt 05W-0004 All Clean Drinking Water Moonlight Catering Services, Tamso, Tarkwa 808. F DB/Wt 05W-0005 Hansim Filtered Water Hansim Ventures, Anaji Hills, Tarkoradi 809. F DB/Wt 05W-0006 Philbeth Filtered Water Philbeth Enterprise, Tarkwa 810. F DB/Wt 05W-0040 Refreshing Waters Gillimok Enterprise, Ketan Road Estates, Sekondi 811. F DB/Wt 05W-0041 Nyame Yie Filtered Water Mandela Enterprise, Takoradi 812. F DB/Wt 05W-0045 Halleluyah Filtered Water Menstack Enterprise, Kweikuma, Takoradi 813. F DB/Wt 05W-0047 Menko Filtered Drinking Menko Water, Kokompe, Takoradi Water 814. F DB/Wt 05W-0056 Joy Filtered Water Men-Tek Ventures, Takoradi 815. F DB/Wt 05W-0070 Akwaaba Pa Filtered Water Clafil Trading Ent., P'T 134 West Tanokrom. Tadi 816. F DB/Wt 06W- 0055 Ohenpon Nsu Filtered House of Elegance Co. Ltd., Takoradi Drinking Water 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 817. F DB/Wt 06W-0001 Pearls Drinking Water Western Pearls Ltd.,# NT 13C, New Layout, Tarkwa 818. F DB/Wt 06W-0051 Aseda Nsuo Drinking Water Mekra Do Awurade,Komenda 819. F DB/Wt 07W-0001 Graceland Filtered Drinking Gak-Graceland Enterprise, Takoradi Water 820. F DB/Wt 07W-0002 40 Filtered Drinking Water 40th Enterprise, Elubo 821. F DB/Wt 08W-0011 Aseda Ben Filtered Water John Afadu Enterprise, Tarkwa 822. F DB/Wt 08W-0014 Jim Drinking Water Jim Filtered Water, H/No. T/E 41, Windy Ridge, Takoradi 823. F DB/Wt 08W-0024 Pentclean Filtered Drinking Pentclean Filtered Water Ltd P.O Box 37 Assin Water Fosu 824. F DB/Wt 08W-0047 City Bell Filtered Drinking Gofra Co. LTD P. O. Box 496 Sekondi Water 825. F DB/Wt 09W-0011 Akwaaba Pa Filtered Waater Clafil Trading Ent., P'T 134 West Tanokrom. Tadi 826. F DB/Wt 09W-0013 Thess Aqua Ice Thessalummex West Africa Ltd., Takoradi 827. F DB/Wt 09W-0015 Agisol Filtered Water Agisol Ventures 828. F DB/Wt 09W-0020 Mobile Refreshing Drinking Magvlyn Industries Limited, Tema Light Industrial Water Area, behind Mac Baron Hotel, Aflao Rd 829. F DB/Wt 09W-0022 Zionex Filtered Water Zion- Ex Catering Services, Takoradi 830. F DB/Wt 09W-0024 Step- Cell Treated Water Step-Cell Filtered Water, Tarkwa 831. F DB/Wt 09W-0025 Unique Filtered Drinking Unique Mineral Water,Wassa-Damang Water 832. F DB/Wt 09W-0027 Tomaclem Filtered Drinking Tomaclem Standard company Limited, Takoradi Water 833. F DB/Wt 09W-0028 Yoofii Filtered Drinking Eden Frandorp Ventures, Takoradi Water 834. F DB/Wt 09W-0037 Dzinpa Filtered Drinking Speak Easy Company Water 835. F DB/Wt 09W-0062 AG Filtered Drinking Water Ask God Motors, Takoradi 836. F DB/Wt 09W-0065 Soko Filtered Drinking Water Soko Global Ent., Nzema 837. F DB/Wt 09W-0067 Eye Adom Filtered Drinking Thers-An Ventures, Elubo Water 838. F DB/Wt 09W-0075 Gold Pure Crystal Clear Nas-Matson Industries, Takoradi Purified Water 839. F DB/Wt 09W-0091 7 Plus Filtered Drinking Water His Divine Favour Ventures 840. F DB/Wt 09W-0095 Peace "N" Love Filtered Andreas Mannas Foundation drinking water 841. F DB/Wt 09W-0097 Gado Filtered Water Algo Nuevo Ventures 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 842. F DB/Wt 09W-0098 Life line filtered drinking Emivic Ventures, Takoradi water 843. F DB/Wt 09W-0110 Shalom Filtered Drinking Sabad Ventures, Sefwi-Boako, W/R water 844. F DB/Wt 09W-0114 Morila Filtered Drinking water Mo Maria Enterprise, Abrepo-Kumasi 845. F DB/Wt 09W-0115 Turks Drinking Water Ndu-Turks Ent., Enchi, W/R 846. F DB/Wt 10W-0008 MTL Mackay drinking water Mining technology Lining(MTL), Tarkwa 847. F DB/Wt 10W-0013 S.B.H Filtered water SBH Ventures, Takoradi 848. F DB/Wt 10W-0039 Jemi Filtered drinking water Jemilove Ent., Bibiani 849. F DB/Wt 10W-0071 A & A Filtered Drinking water Lawgloss Co. Ltd., Sefwi Bekwai 850. F DB/Wt 10W-0213 Metro Filtered Drinking Water Stamford Hill Ventures, Takoradi 851. F DB/Wt 10W-0214 Everlasting Filtered Drinking Emmajoe Investments Ltd., Aiyinase Nzema Water 852. F DB/Wt 10W-0218 Glada Filtered Water Glada Filtered Water, Takoradi 853. F DB/Wt 10W-0223 Jahan Tasty Filtered Water Jahan Ent., Takoradi 854. F DB/Wt 10W-0233 Blue Wave Filtered Drinking Petliz Trading Ent., Takoradi Water 855. F DB/Wt 10W-0235 Royal Crown Filtered Water Joejay Enterprise, Takoradi 856. F DB/Wt 10W-0247 D & L Filtered Water Dew Of Life Company Limited 857. F DB/Wt 10W-0264 Hilltop Filtered Drinking Prince John Brentum Ent., Enchi water 858. F DB/Wt 10W-0283 Wespring Filtered Water Wespring Co. Ltd., Kumasi 859. F DB/Wt 10W-0284 Danlit Filtered Drinking Water Danlit Hebron Enterprise, Takoradi 860. F DB/Wt 10W-0285 Suvic Filtered Drinking Water Suvic Ventures, Takoradi 861. F DB/Wt 10W-0286 Willisey Drinking Water Joewams Ltd., Tarkwa 862. F DB/Wt 10W-0292 Bless Me Drinking Water Bless Me Enterprise 863. F DB/Wt 10W-0293 Aqua Vitae Filtered Water ESS-ANN Ltd., Takoradi UPPER EAST REGION Sachet Water Producers 864. F DB/Wt 05UE-0052 Tahco Filtered Water Tahco Ent., Bawku 865. F DB/Wt 05UE-0053 Our's Filtered Drinking Water Big Tanko Limited, Bolgatanga 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh FDA Registration Product Name Company Name & Location No. 866. F DB/Wt 05UE-0054 Aqua Filtered Drinking Water Esther Awuni Enterprise, Bolgatanga 867. F DB/Wt 05UE-0058 Shinning Star Filtered Water Shinning Star Enterprise, Bolgatanga 868. F DB/Wt 05UE-0059 Ernesto Filtered Water Ernesto Innovative Ventures, Bolgatanga 869. F DB/Wt 06UE-0046 Sakande Filtered Drinking Sakande Co. Ltd., Bolgatanga Water 870. F DB/Wt 06UE-0047 Pearl-Ma Filtered Drinking Viyah's Ent., Bolgatanga Water 871. F DB/Wt 08UE-0005 Naelsa Filtered Drinking Hajj-Sandasco Ent Ltd., Bolgatanga Water UPPER WEST REGION S achet Water Producers 872. F DB/Wt 06UW- 0053 White Rock Natural Mineral La Frans Enterprise, WA Water 873. F DB/Wt 09UW-0080 Upper Spring Natural Water Unique Agro Trading Ent., Ltd, Wa (Source: Food and Drugs Authority Website, 2013) 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 2: Questionnaire Administered to Respondents UNIVERSITY OF GHANA INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES Dear Respondent, I am a Master of Philosophy (Environmental Science) student of the Institute of Environment and Sanitation Studies at the University of Ghana, Legon. This questionnaire is being administered as part of a study on Management of Waste Plastic Bottles: A Case Study of the Ayawaso West Sub-metro. I would be grateful if you would take time out of your busy schedule to respond to the questions below as openly and as candidly as possible. Please be assured the information you provide is purely for academic purposes and will be treated with utmost confidentiality. SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Gender: a) Male b) Female 2. Please state your date of birth…………………………………………………….................................. 3. Education: a) None b) Primary/JHS c) Secondary d) Tertiary 4. Employment: a) Unemployed b) Student c) Employed 4a. If Employed, what is your occupation…………………………………………………........................ 4b. If Employed, Income Range (GHc) : a) <100 b) 100 – 500 c) 500 -1000 d) >1000 5. Residential Area:………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5a.Type of Residence: a) Student Hostel b) Single/Chamber & Hall (shared facilities) c) Single/Chamber & Hall (self –contained) d) Self-contained House ( two bedrooms) 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B: CURRENT SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 6. What kind of waste collection/disposal system is operating in your area? a) Door to Door Trucks b) Door to Door Tricycles c) Central Waste Containers d) Open dump f) Other…………………………………………………………………………………………................. 7. How much do you pay for collection/disposal? ………………………………………….. 8. How efficient is the system? a) Very Good b) Good c) Fair d) Poor e) Very Poor 8a. Why……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9. Please state how the current handling of solid waste has impacted on your area ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 10. Since when did you make this observation?........................................................................ 11. In your opinion, how can the situation be improved? ......................................................................................................................... ................... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12. How do you dispose of your plastic waste bottles? (Please tick as many as applicable) a) Reuse at home b) In a bin at home c) Sell to reusers d) In the nearest bin anywhere e) Leave it wherever I finish drinking f) Other………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13a. If you sell, how much (GHc) per bottle? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14. What are the current uses of plastic waste bottles in your area? (Please tick as many as applicable) a) Reused for local beverages for sale b) Reused for cooking oil (palm oil etc.) c) Reused for kerosene d) Sold to reusers e) No use (disposal) f) Other………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 15. Do you patronize cooking oil in reused bottles? a) Yes b) No 15a. If No, why.............................................................................................................. ............. 15b. If Yes, have you experienced any health problems after using it? a) Yes b) No 16. Do you patronize beverages in reused bottles (e.g. ice kenkey, local drinks etc.)? a) Yes b) No 16a. If No, why? a) May not be prepared hygienically b) The bottles may not be cleaned well c) I just don’t like local drinks d) Other……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 16b. If Yes, have you experienced any health problems after drinking any of these? a) Yes b) No 16c. If yes, please indicate the type of health problem…………………………….............................. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 17. If the safety (health wise) of the reused bottles was assured, would you patronize products packaged in them? 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a) Yes b) No SECTION C: LEVEL OF PATRONAGE OF WATER/BEVERAGES IN PLASTIC BOTTLES 18. Which of these do you prefer? a) Tap water b) Sachet Water c) Bottled water 18a. Why?.................................................................................................................................. 18b. Do you drink bottled water at all? a) Yes b) No 18c. On the average, how many bottles do you drink in a day (Please indicate size of bottle i.e. 500ml, 1L, 1.5L etc.)?........................................................................................................... 18d. If the quality of tap water was assured would this be your preferred option? a) Yes b) No 19. Which type of soft drink packaging do you prefer? a) Returnable glass bottles b) Take-away plastic bottles 19a. Why?...................................................................................................................... ............ 19b. Do you patronize soft drinks in plastic bottles at all? a) Yes b) No 19c. On the average, how many do you drink in a day?.............................................................. SECTION D: ASSESSMENT OF MANAGEMENT OPTIONS FOR PLASTIC WASTE BOTTLES 20. In your opinion, what do you think is the best way to handle plastic waste bottles? a) Reuse b) Recycle c) Burn/Incinerate d) Disposal at Landfills e) Other……………………………………………………………………………………………............. 21. In your opinion, whose responsibility is it to ensure that plastic waste bottles are properly handled?............................................................................................................................. . 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22. What role do you think the Assembly is supposed to play to ensure that plastic waste bottles are properly handled? ………………………………………………………………………………………….................................. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23. What role do you think plastic bottle manufacturers are supposed to play to ensure that plastic waste bottles are properly handled? ………………………………………………………………………………………….................................. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24. What role do you think NGO’s/CBO’s are supposed to play to ensure that plastic waste bottles are properly handled? ............................................................................................................................. ............... ............................................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................. ............... 25. What role do you think residents are supposed to play to ensure that waste plastic bottles are properly handled? ………………………………………………………………………………………….................................. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26. Who should be financially responsible for plastic waste management? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27. Are you willing to separate your plastic bottles at home for collection? a) Yes b) No 27a. If No, why? a) Don’t have the time b) Don’t believe in recycling/reuse c) If only I get paid to do it 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh d) Other……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27b. What role are you willing to play towards improving the handling of waste plastic bottles? ............................................................................................................................. ............ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………... …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 28. In your opinion, what should be done to solve the problem of waste plastic bottles in your area? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 160