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The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra
Metropolitan Area, Ghana: Looking back to look
forward
Ernest Agyemang
To cite this article: Ernest Agyemang (2015) The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra
Metropolitan Area, Ghana: Looking back to look forward, Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift - Norwegian
Journal of Geography, 69:1, 28-37, DOI: 10.1080/00291951.2014.992808
To link to this article:  https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808
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Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography, 2015
Vol. 69, No. 1, 28–37, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2014.992808
The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana:
Looking back to look forward
ERNEST AGYEMANG
Agyemang, E. 2015. The bus rapid transit system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area, Ghana: Looking back to look forward. Norsk
Geografisk Tidsskrift–Norwegian Journal of Geography Vol. 69, 28–37. ISSN 0029-1951.
The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a proliferation of bus rapid transit systems in many cities worlwide. Successful transit
systems, especially in poor cities, have been lauded and presented as models for other cities to emulate. However, little attention has been
given to unsuccessful transit systems, even though reasons for their failures could be beneficial to poor cities planning to invest in mass
public transport. The author examines the militating factors in the demise of Ghana’s first bus rapid transit system and draws useful lessons
for the present and future. Qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and in-depth key informant interviews are analysed and presented in
thematic narratives. They are complemented with quantitative (travel time) data. The results show that recurring traffic congestion,
passengers’ inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from existing public transport operators, lack of legal status for a bus rapid
transit (BRT) system, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot system in the Greater Accra Metroplitan Area (GAMA). The
author concludes that the success of present and future BRT systems is and will be a function of multiple stakeholder consultation and
participation, privatization of day-to-day operations, promotion of multimodalism, and planning with the commuter in mind.
Keywords: bus rapid transit system, GAMA, Ghana, public transport, thematic narrative analysis
Ernest Agyemang, Department of Geography & Resource Development, University of Ghana, P.O. Box LG 59, Legon, Ghana. E-mail:
eagyemang@ug.edu.gh
Introduction The growing list of cities in developing countries that have
successfully implemented BRT systems have served as models
In many developing countries, public transport provision does not for other cities that plan to invest in similar schemes.
seem to have kept pace with the fast-growing urbanization. Thus, While successful BRT systems are often highlighted (Jeffer-
disequilibrium between increasing demand and the limited supply son 1996; Gomez 2004; World Bank 2004; Hidalgo et al. 2007;
of transport has resulted in congested central areas, poor levels of Lindau et al. 2010), studies of the socio-economic and
service from public transport operators, limited high-occupancy operational difficulties that accompany these success stories
vehicles for mass transit, increases in private car use, and traffic are often lacking (Gilbert 2008). Using illustrations from a
mixes with safety implications (Agyemang 2009; Oteng-Ababio & defunct BRT system in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
Agyemang 2012). Consequently, urban mobility in developing (GAMA), I critically examine the socio-economic and opera-
countries is constrained by the lack of ease of accessibility to tional challenges that emerging BRT cities in developing
various parts of cities, especially for low-income earners and the countries need to address to ensure sustainable BRT operations.
vulnerable in societies, who are locked in a web of perpetual
‘transport poverty’ (UN-Habitat 2013). However, the negative
externalities associated with urban mobility in developing coun- Literature review
tries could be minimized by the establishment of the bus rapid
transit (BRT) system, which has been credited with promoting Gilbert (2008) opines that in view of the limited success that has
social equity, environmental and atmospheric cleanliness, and accompanied mass transit options in cities of the developing
economic prosperity (IEA 2002; Wright 2002; Fouracre et al. countries, the few successful ones have received tremendous
2003; Deng & Nelson 2011). In addition, in most developing recognition. They are often seen as role models for others to
countries the paucity of resources for embarking on large-scale rail emulate without due assessment of their strengths and weak-
transit projects, such as seen in the developed world, makes the nesses. A few of these role models include Curitiba’s BRT,
BRT system a cost-effective alternative for mass transportation. which has been described as ‘the world’s cradle for bus rapid
In the developing world, the BRT concept is generally transit (BRT) [and] one of the most successful bus transit
believed to have started in Curitiba, Brazil. It is now ubiquitous systems in the Western Hemisphere’ (Lindau et al. 2010, 17).
in other South American countries, including Bogota (Colum- While Jefferson (1996) focuses extensively on the benefits of
bia) and Quito (Ecuador). In Asia, cities such as Nagoya the system, including observed flow rates of 22,000 passengers
(Japan), Taipei and Beijing (China), Bangkok (Thailand), Delhi, per hour (in each direction), Lindau et al. (2010) praise
Pune, and Hyderabad (India), Dhaka (Bangladesh), Jakarta Curitiba’s unique feat of using busway corridors to direct its
(Indonesia), and Seoul (Korea) have either introduced or are at future growth.
various stages of implementing a BRT system. Africa has not Bogota’s Transmilenio is another example of a successful
been left out of the global BRT revolution. The continent’s first BRT. Declared ‘the world’s most important urban transport
extant BRT system has been operational since March 2008 in project’ (Gilbert 2008, 443), the Transmilenio was awarded the
Lagos (Nigeria). Currently, similar schemes are being tested in Stockholm Partnership Prize in 2002, and transport authorities
Cape Town (South Africa) (Deng & Nelson 2011), and in both from 37 different countries visited it during its first five years of
Dakar (Senegal), and Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) (ITDP 2003). operation. Bogota city authorities and the World Bank touted its
© 2015 Norwegian Geographical Society
NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015) Bus rapid transit system in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area 29
virtues all over the world (Gomez 2004; World Bank 2004; educational, industrial, and commercial hub continued to attract
Hidalgo et al. 2007). people from all over Ghana. By contrast, the city’s public
Gilbert’s (2008) critical examination of Bogota’s ‘Miracle transport has been erratic and has not responded to the
Cure’ provides rare but practical insights into the socio- urbanization trend. For example, Addo (2002) notes that until
economic and operational bottlenecks that emerging BRT cities the late 1980s, two state-owned bus companies – Omnibus
should be wary of. He notes that Bogota’s success story has not Services Authority (OSA) and City Express Service (CES) –
been without problems. Criticisms of the system range from provided frequent, safe, and comfortable intra-urban services in
‘insensitive’ increases in fares, controversies in the third-phase GAMA. However, due to rising financial losses, mismanage-
expansion, deteriorating bus stations, overcrowding and delays, ment, and stiff competition from the private sector, both of the
insecurity, to the perceived incompetence of the central execut- bus companies collapsed, which paved the way for private-
ive agency (Gilbert 2008). sector transport operations, popularly referred to as trotro.
Other studies of BRT planning and operational challenges in According to Abane (2011), trotro is a local Ghanaian
the developing countries have focused on the role of existing expression meaning ‘three pence’, which is the fare charged
transport operators, and have confirmed that addressing opposi- for local trips in trucks (known as ‘mummy trucks’) in GAMA
tion sentiments and involving existing transport operators may in the late 1950s and 1960s. Today, the word loosely refers to
go a long way to ensuring the successful planning and all vehicles engaged in commercial transport, including Nissan
subsequent execution of BRT systems. For example, in Bogota Urvans, Toyota Hiace minibuses, and the 207 series Mercedes-
the deliberate policy of involving local bus companies fostered Benz buses (Fig. 1). Fouracre et al. (1994) explains that in
both a sense of ownership among existing transport operators GAMA the conversion of c.10,800 minibuses to intra-urban
and their willingness to cooperate with the new system (Gilbert operations due to a 1989 ban on their use for inter-urban
2008). Failure to do this could have resulted in ‘the Quito transport gave impetus to the trotro transport system. The trotro
experience’, when ‘the army’s tanks had had to intervene to operators have unionized into very powerful groups, of which
crush a strike by the bus owners who did not want to let the new the Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) by far is the
system open’ (Ardila-Gomez 2004, 343). Similarly, the failure largest (Agyemang 2009). The trotro transport system has had a
of Johannesburg city authorities to involve South Africa’s virtual monopoly for over two decades. The trotro is readily
United Taxi Association Forum (UTAF) prior to the launch of available, accessible, convenient, and above all affordable, as
its BRT system led to a series of mass protests. Later, a BRT bus the term trotro connotes.
travelling from Soweto to the central business district was Due to its relatively low carrying capacity of c.12–15
reportedly fired at and a passenger and policewoman were hit
passengers, a trotro may not queue for long at terminals. As
by bullets. Other individuals suspected of conniving with the
shown in Fig. 1, most trotros collect passengers en-route and
city officials in implementing the BRT system have suffered a
not necessarily at specified bus terminals. Passengers are
similar fate (Dugger 2010).
allowed to board a trotro and then pay their fare to the
I therefore concur with Hildago & Graftieaux’s (2008)
conductor, referred to in local parlance simply as the driver’s
conclusion that fear of protests and unrest has caused cities to ‘mate’. In Fig. 1, the assistant is the man wearing a sleeveless
involve incumbent public transport operators in direct negotia-
shirt. The dynamism in trotro operations, as seen in the
tions with existing operators (e.g. Mexico City, Lean, and
possibility for drivers to re-route through minor corridors or
Jakarta) or to give incumbents extra points in the bidding
even drive on road shoulders during peak hours, in addition to
processes (or to give entry barriers to outside bidders) (e.g.
Bogota, Pereira, Guayaquil, and Sao Paulo). It should be noted allowing passengers to embark or disembark at any location of
that longstanding cultural and behavioural factors may also their choice on heavily trafficked roads despite the practice
impede the success of BRT systems in the developing world. being illegal, are seen as advantages that have further popular-
This has been observed in the Indian city of Ahmedabad, where ized the ‘trotro culture’ in GAMA.
planning for the Janmarg BRT systems was fiercely opposed by In recent years the trotro transport system has been criticized
religious groups whose structures fell within the proposed bus by the general public for its poor operational and safety
route network (Kadri 2010). standards as well as for personal security issues during late
evening operations. Addo (2002) found that the trotro transport
unions had not been able to regulate effectively the behaviour of
Case study of GAMA’s transport system their members. Thus, drivers and their assistants could be
discourteous to passengers and other road users while knowing
Accra, Ghana’s capital since 1877, is one of the most populated very well that severe sanctions were rarely applied, even when
and fastest growing metropolises in Africa. According to the reports were made to the executive members of the unions. In
Ghana Statistical Service (2012), in 2010 the Greater Accra earlier studies, I found that some trotro drivers and their
Metropolitan Area had an estimated 3.7 million inhabitants. In assistants arbitrarily increased their fares, especially during
earlier studies, I considered that the city’s growth might be evening peak-hour journeys, after heavy downpours, or shortly
accounted for primarily by rural–urban migration in response to after an increase in the price of fuel has been announced by the
rapid industrialization and expansion in the commercial sectors authorities; very often, this resulted in violent altercations with
between 1960 and 1970 (Agyemang 2009; 2013). passengers (Agyemang 2009; 2013).
The boom in the service sector during the late 1980s and Many commuters prefer to share taxis, which may charge two
1990s led to further increases in the migratory flow of people or three times the trotro fare (Addo 2002). However, the
into GAMA. Thus, the primacy of GAMA as an administrative, proliferation of taxis has contributed to severe traffic congestion
30 E. Agyemang NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015)
Fig. 1. A white 207-series Mercedes-Benz trotro stopping for passengers in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
and environmental pollution in GAMA (Armstrong-Wright version of a BRT system on the 20 km ‘Kimbu–Adenta’
1989; Fouracre et al. 1994). As a social policy intervention, a highway in GAMA (shown as the first BRT line in Fig. 2).
quasi-private bus company called Metro Mass Transit Limited This functioned until 2007.
(MMTL) was established in October 2003 to offer intra-city, GAMA’s pilot BRT system was characterized by a fast, time-
intercity, and long-distance transport options to commuters to bound trip connection between the Kimbu terminal (in GAMA)
GAMA and beyond. In September 2005, the MMTL piloted its and Adenta town in the Greater Accra Region, with Tetteh
Fig. 2. The first and proposed BRT lines within the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015) Bus rapid transit system in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area 31
Although the propriety of GAMA’s pilot BRT system may be
subject to future discussions, I have chosen to focus on factors
that militated against it as well as useful lessons that could be
learnt from its demise. The relevance of this focus is established
by Ghana’s recent adoption of an Urban Transport Project
which will introduce a pilot BRT system operating between
Accra’s business district and Kasoa in the Central Region of
Ghana.
Following the success of the pilot system in GAMA, the BRT
project will be replicated in cities across the Greater Accra
Region, Ashanti Region, and Central Region of Ghana. The
philosophical basis and regulatory framework of the new BRT
system as well as its anticipated socio-economic and environ-
mental benefits have been thoroughly elaborated elsewhere
(Nuworsoo 2006; Finn et al. 2009).
Fig. 3. A wooden kiosk (opposite a NEOPLAN bus) serving as a sales Data and methods
point for bus rapid transit (BRT) tickets in the Greater Accra Metropol-
itan Area Qualitative data
I used primarily qualitative data from interviews, surveys, and
Quarshie acting as a central transport hub and changeover point. in-depth key informant interviews carried out in 2008 in order
Eight buses, four in each direction, were used in its daily to understand the socio-economic and operational factors that
operations in 2005. The buses were to set off from the depots at led to the collapse of GAMA’s BRT.
1 Information on the day-
15-minute intervals and drivers were expected to complete each to-day operations of the express service was generated through
trip in c.45 minutes. Four more buses (two at each depot interviews with MMTL drivers and passengers who had
respectively) were reserved for use in emergency situations such participated in the pilot project. Six drivers were approached
as accidents, breakdown of ‘operational’ buses, or during peak and interviewed at two major terminals at Kimbu and Adenta
hour travels. Thus, 12 buses in total were designated for use in while their buses queued to pick up passengers. The interviews
the pilot BRT system. Prospective passengers were expected to lasted 15–25 minutes on average, depending on the time of the
buy tickets at selected ticket booths and wait for the arrival of a day. Passengers were also interviewed under similar circum-
stances. However, the interviews proved challenging especially
bus (Fig. 3). The Department of Urban Roads delineated the
‘ – ’ due to distractions from excessive noise and heat in the buses.outer lane of the Kimbu Adenta highway for buses only.
In order to compensate for this weakness, three student
However, compliance with the right-of-way provision was
researchers were employed to conduct a survey of the views
seldom enforced. The pilot BRT system enjoyed initial over-
of residents living in Adenta SSNIT (Social Security and
whelming success characterized by massive ridership. However,
National Insurance Trust) flats in Adenta town. The choice of
within barely two years of operation, it was replaced by a residents in that particular housing complex for the interviews
‘regular’ service, which meant that the buses were permitted to was informed by its unique location where all the out-bound
collect passengers en-route upon payment of fares, in common BRT trips ended. In addition, the place is inhabited mostly by
with trotro operators. In view of the above description of the public and civil servants, students, business people, and market
key operational characteristics of the mass transit in GAMA, the women who were the main target group of the pilot BRT
description BRT system’ may seem inappropriate or even system. The survey was designed to reveal information on the
misleading because a ‘proper’ BRT system operates an ‘inte- socio-economic and commuting characteristics of respondents,
grated system of facilities, services, amenities, operations, and their expectations of the service, and the reasons for its collapse.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) improvements that are In total, 30 MMTL passengers were interviewed. Registered
designed to improve performance, attractiveness to passengers, socio-economic characteristics of the survey respondents
image, and identity’ (Levinson et al. 2002, 1). included gender, educational level attained, employment status,
Furthermore, several of the main components of a ‘proper’ and age. The study did not consider the income status of
BRT, as identified in Levinson et al. (2003), the Canadian respondents due to the assumption that given the highly-
Urban Transit Association (2004), and Deng & Nelson (2011), subsidized low fares charged by the BRT service affordability
such as dedicated bus lanes, enhanced shelters, and the would not have been a determinant of a resident’s decision as to
application of ITS technologies are not present in GAMA’s whether to patronize the service.
BRT. However, according to the IEA (2002), communities Among the respondents, 18 were female (60%) and 12 (40%)
should be able to customize the building of a rapid transit were male. In terms of educational attainment, 2 (7%) of the
system that meets their needs and funds. Thus, the extent of respondents claimed they had not received any formal educa-
dedicated infrastructure and the level of sophistication of tion, 3 (10%) had received basic-level education, 10 (33%) had
different systems may vary considerably. received upper secondary school education, and 15 (50%) had
32 E. Agyemang NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015)
received some tertiary education. Thus, the sample population system in GAMA. Views shared by the managers of the MMTL
may be considered to have an educational bias. bus company related to poor fuel consumption patterns and an
Regarding employment status, 3 (10%) of the respondents unsustainable vehicle maintenance regime that due to traffic
claimed they were unemployed while 8 (27%) claimed they congestion characterized the entire BRT operations. The fre-
were still attending school. A total of 8 (27%) respondents quent wear and tear and technical failures of the BRT buses
claimed they were self-employed, while 11 (36%) stated that appeared to raise the total overhead costs of maintaining them to
they were government workers. In terms of age, the respondents the extent that the management found it increasingly difficult to
were asked to identify with pre-determined age groupings. In meet their outgoings:
total, 4 (13%) respondents were under 20 years of age, while 6
(20%) fell within the 21–30 years age group, 9 (30%) belonged When the buses are locked up in the corridor due to traffic
to the 31–40 years age group, and 8 (27%) were between 41 congestion, they waste a lot of time and burn fuel inefficiently. This
affects both the operational and total costs of the company. (MMTL
and 50 years of age. Only 3 respondents (10%) were above the
official)
age of 50 years. In addition to the surveys, information on the
policy, planning, and management of the pilot BRT system was The Yaxing buses that were primarily used for the pilot BRTS
obtained through in-depth key informant interviews with a frequently developed technical faults, especially with the clutches due
public transport policymaker, a transport development expert, to the delays associated with traffic congestion. Of course, this also
and to two senior-level MMTL officials. exposes the weakness of the buses that were used for the project but it
would not have occurred in the first place if there was no incidence of
The results of the surveys and in-depth interviews were traffic congestion in that corridor. At some point in time, it was
subjected to thematic narrative analysis and presented with the realized that there was so much congestion that it became natural that
help of direct quotes. Thematic narratives have been used there was no pilot BRTS. (MMTL official)
extensively in psychology and in other disciplines as a method
for identifying, analysing, and reporting patterns (i.e. themes) I also found that the unpredictability of traffic conditions in the
within data. The method organizes and describes a data set in corridor made it almost impossible for the managers to
detail, and can also be used to interpret the data (Boyatzis 1998; effectively plan and adhere to trip schedules. Without the aid
Braun & Clarke 2006). of tracking devices such as GPS and traffic cameras to provide
real-time data, the managers faced an uphill struggle to maintain
regular schedules.
Quantitative data The results from the quantitative data confirm that the
observed mean travel times, irrespective of the time of day,
In order to complement the qualitative data, quantitative data
exceeded the allotted 45 minute per leg originally proposed by
were generated through a traditional stopwatch and traffic
the bus company (Table 1). This means that the total travel time
congestion registration technique. This used a geographic
for each time of the day was significantly different from the
information system (GIS) and Global Positioning Systems
allotted travel time of 45 minutes (morning t (39) = 8.49, p <
(GPS) to map prevailing traffic conditions by recording the
0.05; afternoon t (39) = 11.45, p < 0.05; evening t (39) = 6.90,
time it took an MMTL bus to travel between the start and end
– p < 0.05). It could then be deduced that the buses spent morenodes of each route segment on the Kimbu Adenta highway.
than 45 minutes on average per trip.
These geographically referenced nodes marked the location of
Table 2 shows that at the significance level of 0.05, travel
bus stops used in the pilot BRT project.
‘ ’ time per period of the day (i.e. morning, afternoon, andTravel time data were recorded during the a.m. peak
‘ ’ ‘ ’ evening) and direction (i.e. from the central business district(morning), off-peak (midday), and p.m. peak (late afternoon)
(CBD) in Kimbu to Adenta town and vice versa) were
on weekdays with different MMTL drivers in order to avoid the
statistically different, with mean travel times exceeding the
risk of being unduly influenced by a particular driver’s driving
allotted travel time of 45 minutes per trip. The only exception
style, as suggested by Taylor et al. (2000). With 6 trips made
was in the evening, when the transit buses travelled from
daily continuously for one month, a total number of 120 trips
Adenta town to the CBD (t (19) = 2.03, p = ns). Thus, it was
were made. The cumulative travel data were subjected to
possible to have a situation where a BRT bus, for example
statistical analysis to determine whether the mean of a single ‘Number 1’, crawled in a traffic jam and ended up picking all
variable differed from a specified constant using the bus
’ prospective passengers who should have boarded bus ‘Numbercompany s 45 minutes per leg policy as the test value at a
2’ instead. While the first bus would have been overcrowded
confidence interval of 95%. For each of the test variables, the
with passengers, the second bus would have followed virtually
mean and standard deviation were calculated. In the next
section, the results of the analysis are discussed under various
themes to identify the factors that jointly hindered the imple- Table 1. Mean travel times in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area
mentation of Ghana’s first BRT sytem. according to the time of day
Mean travel
time Standard
Results Time of day (minutes) deviation df T P-value
Effects of traffic congestion Morning 72 20 39 8.49 0.00
Afternoon 65 11.19 39 11.45 0.00
The study revealed that peak-hour recurring traffic congestion Evening 69 21.89 39 6.9 0.00
stifled the initial progress and success achieved in the pilot BRT
NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015) Bus rapid transit system in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area 33
Table 2. Mean travel times according to the time of day and direction travelled by buses between the central business district (CBD) in Kimbu (Greater
Accra Metropolitan Area) and Adenta town (Greater Accra Region) (Source: field survey data)
Time of day Buses’ direction of travel N Mean travel time (minutes) Standard deviation T Sig. (2-tailed)
Morning CBD–Adenta 20 57 8.00 6.43 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 87 16.15 11.69 0.000
Afternoon CBD–Adenta 20 66 11.90 7.83 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 65 10.72 8.26 0.000
Evening CBD–Adenta 20 86 11.85 15.62 0.000
Adenta–CBD 20 51 14.02 2.03 0.057
empty or in extreme cases would have completed the trip with A friend of mine narrated her ordeal on one of those trips when she
an empty bus. was sandwiched between two male passengers. It was terrible. She
The following comments from a commuter are representative swore afterwards never to use that soloku [overcrowded] bus again!
’ (Student and commuter)of passengers initial enthusiasm for an improved transit service
and the disappointment that followed due to congestion: When they introduced the special buses for those of us in Adenta, my
friends and I saw it as a blessing as we no longer had to be at the
I only used the Kufuor bus [MMTL buses] in the mornings and mercy of trotro drivers and their rude mates. After a while, we
afternoons when travelling to Accra [business district] as they moved realized that it was no longer interesting to use the buses. After a hard
a lot faster but in the evenings I preferred to use the trotro instead. ... day’s work in the sun, you will be so tired that you cannot afford to
The trotro can use the lungu-lungu ways [unapproved routes through travel back home while standing, sometimes among young men. Who
residential areas] and in no time you can get to your destination. knows what can happen to you? (Petty trader and commuter)
(Petty trader and commuter)
The findings from the above quotes concur with earlier studies
The unwillingness of passengers to patronize BRT services for that attributed the decline in ridership of Bogota’s Transmilineo
evening peak trips due to delays could be a major reason for the to passengers’ perception of insecurity, risk of theft, and
failure of the pilot project. This finding resonates with earlier overcrowding, among other factors (Gilbert 2008).
studies by Nuworsoo (2006) and Abane (2011), who found that
high levels of delays and inability to maintain any semblance of
a regular schedule accounted for the limited success of high Resistance from existing public transport operators
occupancy buses (as used for the pilot BRT operations) in
GAMA. Alternatively, congestion might have proved advant- MMTL in general and the pilot BRT system in particular
ageous for the bus company over their competitors: emerged in GAMA at a time when private transport operators
had enjoyed decades of a virtual monopoly. A critical obstacle
During peak hours, many prospective passengers are stranded due to that needed to be overcome by MMTL was how to break that
the fact that most of the trotro drivers use shortcuts [unapproved
monopoly effectively, especially in the light of several unortho-
routes through residential areas] instead of the main corridor. Owing
to their limited carrying capacity, the few commercial vehicles that dox tactics employed by the private transport operators to
opt to remain in the main corridor cannot accommodate extra sabotage its efforts. A representative of the management of the
passengers besides their maximum carrying capacity. As such, these bus company said:
passengers will clamour for any available space in the express buses
even if that will demand that they stand in the buses for the whole Some trotro drivers deliberately slow down or stop in the middle of
duration of the journey. By contrast, when there is no congestion moving traffic to fetch passengers or allow them to alight. When
these same passengers prefer to board the trotros because of their traffic jams exist, they usually drive on the shoulders of the road for a
small sizes and the ability of their drivers to involve in all sorts of while, then suddenly they forcefully and quickly join the mainstream
illegalities to beat traffic [queues]. (MMTL driver) traffic flow again, resulting in occasional crashes with our buses.
(MMTL official)
The acts of gross indiscipline exhibited by the majority of trotro
Passengers’ perception of comfort and safety on buses drivers have been the subject of earlier discussions (Oppong
2000; Addo 2005). However, most trotro drivers perceive the
The significance of the passengers’ perceptions of comfort, MMTL as belonging to the government (abandea in the local
safety, and convenience on buses cannot be overemphasized. parlance). Agyeman-Duah (1987, 614–615) states that govern-
The study revealed that their perceptions were a function of ment property ‘can be stolen, abused or destroyed with no direct
gender. While most males were simply ‘extra alert to not to fall consequences. The government is still considered to be a
victim to potential pickpockets’, females would have avoided foreign entity, and too many people feel no compunction or
riding on a bus if they had a choice: obligation to protect its property or services’.
I used to enjoy the express service to Legon [University of Ghana] Furthermore, the success of the MMTL is seen as a direct
campus. However, on many occasions, especially in the late after- threat to the revenue base of the private transport operators. I
noons, the bus becomes overcrowded to the extent that we are packed found that some trotro drivers and their assistants deliberately
up like sardines … you just have to be extra alert not to fall victim to launched what may be conveniently described as psychological
potential pickpockets. (Student and commuter) warfare against passengers who patronized the pilot BRT system:
34 E. Agyemang NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015)
I used to enjoy the quality services introduced by the Kufuor bus. It I can vividly recount several instances when my colleague drivers and
even got better when they introduced the express service. However, it I have been at the receiving end of unprintable insults from aggrieved
was very frustrating to listen to comments like ‘misers’, ‘cheap side’ passengers who felt we needed to stop exactly at a location of their
and ‘One-One Thousand’ [the subsidized bus fare of 1000 Ghana choice … but I was only doing my job. (MMTL driver)
Cedis, equivalent to USD 0.05 per trip in 2005] from trotro drivers
anytime they saw you walk pass them to patronize the big buses. I am a trader who buys goods in bulk from Agbogloshie and
(Teacher and commuter) Kantamanto [markets] for retail. When I get to my destination, I
expect the drivers to at least consider my heavy luggage and allow me
The unpleasant repercussions of being tagged as miserly or to stop close to my shop. If the driver decides to take me to the next
‘cheap side’ could be best understood when put into the stop, how does he expect me to carry my heavy load back to the
Ghanaian context, in which ‘cheap’ items are perceived as shop? (Petty trader and commuter)
inferior and of low quality. Thus, the extent to which these Many of us who use the Kufuor bus are petty traders and market
statements might have contributed to the dwindling ridership women. However, you have to beg them [the conductors] to help you
and subsequent collapse of the pilot BRT system in GAMA is offload your luggage. Some of them were so rude, especially when
clear. your luggage is a bit heavy. (Trader and commuter)
Adequate user surveys had not been conducted prior to the pilot
BRT system. Such surveys could have assisted the MMTL to
Lack of facilities at bus stops serve the individual needs of users. The responses from the
aggrieved passengers highlighted the lack of understanding by
The study revealed that the lack of facilities to ensure the commuters of a time-bound BRT service and how they could
convenience and comfort of prospective passengers also use it. Moreover, the unwillingness of BRT drivers and
contributed to making the BRT service an unattractive option. conductors to assist passengers, especially traders to offload
However, no arrangements were made by the bus company to their luggage, may have had the undesired effect of dissuading
provide shelters against the vagaries of the weather for them from patronizing the buses. This favoured trotro operators,
passengers at the main BRT terminal at Kimbu, nor were whose conductors were perceived as more helpful in offloading
any seats provided for prospective passengers to sit on while heavy luggage.
awaiting the arrival of buses. Thus, having to queue under the The findings reinforce the belief that Ghanaians have
baking sun for buses that had erratic arrival times must have generally become accustomed to the trotro culture, as found in
tempted most prospective passengers to opt for a trotro an earlier study by Abane (2011), who explains the continuous
instead: dominance of the GPRTU in the country partly by the proximity
of trotro terminals to the homes (and shops) of commuters. It
They asked us to buy tickets and wait for a little while. However, the
should be pointed out that the continuous dominance of the
buses could be delayed ... mostly in the late afternoons but sometimes
in the mornings as well. Unfortunately, there were no seats to sit on GPRTU and the trotro operations in GAMA is not a function of
while waiting. So if you got tired what did you do? You advised the quality of service delivery or the safety and comfort
yourself! (Civil servant and commuter) afforded to passengers. The informal public transport operators
simply serve as ‘gap fillers’ (Cervero 1998) following decades
Since the pilot BRT system was characterized by irregular of neglect by the state to provide formal public transport for
schedules, there was a need for some sort of shelter for clients urban dwellers. Thus, their dominance is explained primarily by
who chose to wait. This would have made the BRT service an the absence of better alternative transport modes. In recent
attractive transport option for commuters. years, the use of motorcycle taxis, locally referred to as okada,
has surfaced to help to fill in the gap between the demand and
supply of public transportation.
Overcoming the trotro hail-and-ride and rerouting
culture
The study showed that some passengers did not fully under- Inadequate publicity for the BRT project
stand the BRT policy of stopping only at designated bus stops. The study revealed that the limited publicity and advertisement
The disparity between this service and the consumers’ expecta- in printed and electronic media to herald the official launch of
tion of a flexible door-to-door service experienced when using the pilot BRT project could have contributed to much of the
the trotro occasionally led to fierce arguments between the misunderstandings and frustrations of passengers. This factor
drivers and their passengers: could also have accounted for the operational difficulties faced
by the bus crews:
The drivers and their mates occasionally fight with passengers,
especially when the latter insist on alighting at locations that are A public launch was done to highlight the pilot BRTS to the people of
convenient for them. This bad attitude made some of us lose interest Accra [GAMA]. Besides this, no major advertisements were done in
in using the Kufuor bus. (Student and commuter) the printed and electronic media. It is therefore reasonable to expect
that most passengers were oblivious as to what that particular service
The following comments from a bus driver and two aggrieved was all about, their rights and responsibilities as passengers, as well
female passengers further highlight the conflicts that character- as other operational characteristics such as the arrival and departure
ized the strict adherence to the ‘station–terminal only’ policy times of the pilot BRTS buses and the approved bus terminals.
practised by the drivers of the pilot BRT system: (MMTL official)
NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015) Bus rapid transit system in Greater Accra Metropolitan Area 35
Given the BRT system’s unique operational features, the large tracts of lands referred to as ‘customary lands’, which are
importance of adequately informing the travelling public, who owned by local chiefs, families, or clans. Customary lands are
were generally used to the trotro operations, could have proven usually sold freehold to private individuals (Brobby 1991; Larbi
useful in ensuring the success of the BRT service: 1994; Odame 1996). Thus, in order to avoid any conflicts, city
authorities have had to pay huge amounts of compensation to
The average Ghanaian traveller may have become used to the so- private property owners whose properties are demolished to
called ‘trotro culture’ of boarding and disembarking at his or her make way for road constructions or expansions. The huge
doorstep regardless of the inconvenience it causes other road users.
compensation costs usually discourage the state from accessing
Therefore, adequate publicity and education of the travelling public is
needed to change that attitude. Regarding the pilot BRTS, it appears credit facilities from the World Bank and other donors to start
the publicity was just not enough. (Transport planning expert) the construction of new roads or to expand existing ones.
Lack of an enabling environment Difficulties in day-to-day operations
A number of exogenous factors conspired against the successful While MMTL’s managers and drivers tried their best to
implementation of GAMA’s first BRT system. The first factor maintain a quality service to their patrons, it appears that
was the lack of any legislative instrument or bye-laws to ensure inevitable human errors might have undermined the pilot BRT
utmost protection for exclusive use of the busway by BRT project. Such errors included occasional delays in the managers
system buses. As noted in the following quote from a transport issuing tickets to the drivers, inadequate monitoring, arriving
official, the simple act of a quasi-private bus company putting a late for work, driver’s failure to comply with new BRT rules,
number of buses in a corridor and naming it the ‘BRT system’ and the poor driving attitude of some drivers:
may not necessarily have rendered it as such: The Adenta project [pilot BRT system] collapsed due to delays at the
My department was only tasked to mark some segments of the [company’s] head office in the issuance of tickets for the smooth
Kimbu–Adenta highway as ‘bus only’. However, without recourse to conduct of business. Again, monitoring and supervision of the service
any legislative instrument, it meant that the traffic police could not were just not adequate. I must admit that a few of us [drivers and
intervene to ensure strict compliance of the ROW [right of way] conductors] occasionally reported late for work. (MMTL driver)
directive by other motorists. Therefore, it was only a matter of time My problem with the whole arrangement was our inability to pick up
before the so-called ‘pilot BRTS’ collapsed. (Public transport official) passengers simply because they stood at the ‘wrong’ place. (MMTL
driver)
Besides the lack of legal status for the service, the assertion by the
public transport official highlights another important finding, Some of us opted to allow passengers to board [at the ‘wrong’ places]
which is the inadequate coordination among different actors in so that they could pay the conductors later when the buses reached
public transport delivery in the city. In order to ensure the success the designated ticket booths. However, management disapproved of
of a BRT, the cooperation among various actors, including this due to allegations of theft of funds [by drivers]. (MMTL driver)
policymakers, city authorities, law enforcement agencies, tech- Some of our drivers did not drive fuel-efficiently enough and they
nocrats, researchers, and bus operators is required. Hence, the caused many avoidable accidents. Occasionally, some of them
failure to bring all of these actors on-board might have pilfered funds. We therefore set up the Inspection Unit within the
contributed to the demise of the pilot BRT system in GAMA. Internal Audit Department to randomly check the driving crews as
The second and third exogenous factors relate to limited well as to inspect the tickets of passengers to ensure their validity.
investments in transportation infrastructural development and (MMTL official)
poor spatial planning in GAMA. The boom in car ownership in Furthermore, more recently the extent of corruption and embez-
GAMA since the 1980s, when Ghana adopted neoliberal zlement of funds involving workers and officials of the MMTL
policies (Yeboah 2000; 2003; Grant 2009), has not been in appears to have increased considerably (Daily Graphic 2013a;
tandem with investments in transport infrastructure. As a 2013b; Ghana Today 2013). While the arrest of culprits may
consequence, GAMA’s road network is woefully inadequate to suggest that perhaps the proactive measures put in place by
ensure enough driving space for its existing fleet. This has been MMTL are yielding dividends, it also suggests the extent to which
compounded by the lack of east and west corridors (Tamakloe the diversion of large amounts of monies into private pockets
1993; Addo 2002). Therefore, any policy that seeks to limit might have contributed to the demise of the BRT system and the
motorists’ access to portions of the existing road network generally abysmal performance of the MMTL in recent years.
marked as a right of way (ROW) exclusively for BRT system
buses would require more than just the presence of the traffic
police to ensure compliance, especially during peak hours. In Towards a successful bus rapid transit system: lessons
order not to inconvenience other motorists, the city authorities from the past
need to invest in the construction of extra lanes. However, due
to GAMA’s present poor spatial planning system occasioned The purpose of my study was to provide useful insights into
primarily by the lack of complete ownership of lands by the how to ensure a successful BRT system in poor cities that are
state, the construction or expansion of roads have been daunting planning to implement a BRT. In order to achieve this, I placed
tasks. While the state has compulsorily acquired portions of emphasis on factors that led to the demise of Ghana’s first BRT
land known as ‘state lands’ and also exercised management project, which was introduced by MMTL. The results showed
functions over other lands known as ‘vested lands’, there are that recurring traffic congestion, passengers’ perceptions of
36 E. Agyemang NORSK GEOGRAFISK TIDSSKRIFT 69 (2015)
inadequate comfort and personal security, resistance from Toilets and limited retail facilities could be introduced within
existing public transport operators, lack of a legal status for the main bus terminals, depending on the availability of funds.
BRT, and limited advertising led to the collapse of the pilot PA (public address) systems and LED (light-emitting diode)
BRT project in GAMA. In the light of this finding, I displays providing travel information in both English and other
recommend that a number of changes are made, primarily languages spoken in Ghana would prove useful for informing and
targeted at BRT policymakers and city authorities in Ghana, educating travellers, and promoting the BRT system in Ghana.
although stakeholders in other jurisdictions could benefit from In addition to refresher courses on defensive driving, drivers of
them too. future BRT buses should have good customer-relations skills. A
I recommend that local city authorities need to be adequately deliberate policy should be in place to properly care for the safety
empowered to pass and enforce laws that will guarantee the and comfort of the vulnerable in society, including women,
exclusive use of ROW by licensed BRT operators. There is also children, the elderly, and those who are physically challenged. In
a need to provide the traffic police unit with adequate resources order to encourage patronage by the vulnerable in society and to
to enforce strict compliance with the ROW, especially during address properly their ‘transport poverty’, there is a need to
peak-hour trips. This should ensure that the BRT buses comply integrate and promote non-motorized transport (NMT). Dedic-
with trip schedules, as there will be no traffic congestion to ated pedestrian walkways and bicycle lanes should be provided
delay their movements. as an integral component of the BRTsystem. This would not only
Further, I recommend that existing transport operators in promote ease of access for the majority of people who are already
used to walking, but in addition to the health benefits they would
Ghana, notably the GPRTU, need to be incorporated in the
derive, GAMA would benefit from reduced energy use, minim-
planning and implementation of the BRT system in a form of
ization of greenhouse gas emissions, and significant pollution
private-public partnership to ensure the smooth take-off of the
reduction, which would enhance the sustainability of the urban
project. To this end, the government could assist them in
environment. To this end, adequate measures should be put in
procuring soft banks loans to buy new high-occupancy buses place to prevent recalcitrant traders from encroaching on pave-
for use in the new pilot BRT project. In addition, the public ments meant for NMT, and adequate lighting and security should
sector should build and maintain infrastructure for use of the be provided for the users.
service. Beyond this, it is crucial to ensure that the actual day-
to-day operation of the BRT system is organized by the private
transport operators while the appropriate state agencies at the
district assembly level plan and supervise the project. Earlier Note
studies of the positive effects of involvement of existing 1 With the exception of the quotes from MMTL officials, the transport planning
operators support this assertion (Ardila-Gomez 2004; Gilbert expert, and the public transport official, I was responsible for translating all of
2008; Hildago & Graftieaux 2008; Dugger 2010). The involve- the quotes from interviewees.
ment of existing operators would not only ease needless
tensions, but also foster a sense of ownership among drivers Acknowledgements. – I thank Associate Professor Sigal Kaplan, of the Department
of Transport, Technical University of Denmark, for her initial comments on this
and would ultimately ensure optimum work output. I also article. Thanks are also due to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive
recommend that operators of the service should be paid criticisms.
according to the distances they travel rather than passenger
volume. This would ensure adequate motivation for drivers,
balanced distribution of bus routes, and compliance with Manuscript submitted 6 February 2014; accepted 16 June 2014
Editors: Ragnhild Lund, Catriona Turner, Michael Jones
planned trip schedules to avoid delays. Further, while the
operators earn an operating profit, the government may also
provide limited subsidies to maintain low fares for commuters.
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