UNIVERSITY OF GHANA GHANA’S NATIONAL BORDER SECURITY STRATEGY AND COUNTER TERRORISM BY IBRAHIM IMAM HAAFIZ (10246504) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS DEGREE JULY, 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Ibrahim Imam Haafiz, hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of original and independent research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Amanda Coffie and that this work has never been submitted in part or whole for any degree or any other purpose, with the exception of references and quotations, which have been duly acknowledged. IBRAHIM IMAM HAAFIZ (D.S.I.) DR. AMANDA COFFIE (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE: 30/07/2021 DATE: 30/07/2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This work would not have materialised without the strength and guide of Allah Almighty. I dedicate this work to Faizah, Jawad, Najat and Nuwaira- Noella for their support throughout this period. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The contribution of many institutions and persons towards the completion of this research cannot be overlooked. Acknowledging such wonderful people is the least I can do. Firstly, I acknowledge the support of all border agencies of Ghana, especially the Ghana Immigration Service. My sincere appreciation also goes to my supervisor Dr. Amanda Coffie whose guide, encouragement and patience was the driving force that brought this research to fruition. Lastly, I appreciate the support I enjoyed from my family especially, my parent, Faizah, Najat and Nuwaira-Noella; thank you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ECOWAS - Economic Community of West African States Security Governance Initiative (SGI) JCAP - Joint Country Action Plan NBSTGW - National Border Security Technical Working Group NBSS - National Border Security Strategy FIC - Financial Intelligence Centre ML/TF&P - Money Laundering/ Terrorist Financing and Proliferation Financing DNFBPs - Designated Non-Financial Businesses and Professions DI - Defense Intelligence FXDF - Foreign Exchange Declaration Form University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v CONTENTS DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ I DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................................................................................... III LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... IV ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. VIII CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background of Study .......................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 6 1.3 Objectives of Study.............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Rationale of the Study ......................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Thesis Statement .................................................................................................................. 8 1.7 Conceptual Framework ...................................................................................................... 8 1.7.1 The Concept of International Security ......................................................................... 8 1.8 Literature Review .............................................................................................................. 11 1.8.1 Terrorism in Africa ...................................................................................................... 11 1.8.2 The Spread of International Terrorism ...................................................................... 13 1.8.3 Implications of Transnational Security Threats for Border Control ........................ 16 1.8.4 Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) in West Africa ............................................. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 1.8.5 Religious Fundamentalism in Africa .......................................................................... 21 1.9 Research Methodology ...................................................................................................... 23 1.10 Data Sources, Sampling and Data Analysis .................................................................. 24 1.11 Ethical Considerations of the Study .............................................................................. 25 1.12 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 25 1.13 Organisation of the Study ............................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 27 OVERVIEW OF BORDER MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TOWARDS COUNTERING-TERRORISM ................................................................................................. 27 2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27 2.1 Counter-Terrorism............................................................................................................ 27 2.2 Multi-Agency Working and Counter-Terrorism ........................................................... 29 2.3 Coordinated Border Management ................................................................................... 32 2.4 Community-Oriented Approach to Counter-Terrorism ............................................... 35 2.5 Ghana Integrated Migration Management..................................................................... 39 2.6 Ghana National Border Security Strategy ...................................................................... 41 2.7 Measures for Counter-Terrorism in Ghana ................................................................... 45 2.8 Challenges Associated with Border Management .......................................................... 48 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii STATE OF BORDER MANAGEMENT, CONTRIBUTION AND CHALLENGES OF NATIONAL BORDER SECURITY STRATEGY IN COUNTERING TERRORISM IN GHANA ........................................................................................................................................ 51 3.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 51 3.1 The State of Border Management as a Counter-Terrorism Tool in West Africa ....... 51 3.2 The Contribution/Role of the National Border Security Strategy (NBSS) in Countering Terrorism in Ghana ............................................................................................ 57 3.3 Challenges of National Border Security Management in counterterrorism activities in Ghana ....................................................................................................................................... 64 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 68 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................. 68 4.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 68 4.1 Summary of Study Findings ............................................................................................. 68 4.2 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 71 4.3 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 72 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 74 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to analyse Ghana’s National Border Security and the prevention of Terrorism. Specifically, the study examines Ghana's exposition to terrorism threats, the efficacy of the National Border Security Strategy (NBSS) in Countering Terrorism and the challenges faced by state agencies in border management. The study employed qualitative methodology and relied on primary and secondary data for the analysis. The study focused specifically on the land borders of Ghana. The data was analysed using thematically based on the study’s objectives. The study revealed that the NBSS contributes significantly to the efforts in countering terrorism in Ghana. Therefore the study recommends easy accessibility to all agencies/personnel engaged in border security and protection. This can be achieved through the inclusion in the curricula of all national security services training schools and training courses. Additionally, the study found that security personnel face some challenges that directly affect their duties at countering terrorism. These include threats associated with the movement of animals across borders, overcrowding, attacks from citizens and nationals, smuggling of goods, human and drug trafficking, armed robbery. The study recommends personnel protection, constant engagement with leaders and citizens of border communities to facilitate countering terrorism at the borders and inland. Finally, the study recommends that the government of Ghana adequately funds the National Border Security Fusion Centre to ensure sustainability and the achievement of the goals of the NBSS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Background of Study Historically, events that influence humanity have generated diverse reactions to prevent a return or minimize its ramifications. Incidences of violence produce unilateral, bilateral or multilateral actions for dealing with them (Quartey, 2014). The phenomenon of Terrorism is not new to the human experience. Violent actions have been deployed in the course of human history by different actors for diverse purposes. Terrorism is generally agreed to mean acts of violence aimed at the public in pursuance of political or religious ideologies. Terrorism, however, is characterized by the use of violence against civilians, with the express intention of causing harm, death or panic in the population (United States Institute of Peace, 2001). A key element of Terrorism is that there is violence or a threat of violence that is deliberate, arbitrary, intentional, and a predetermined strategy undertaken primarily for political reasons. According to Rourke (2010), the targets of terrorist violence are not necessarily the victims of the violence but rather the audiences of the violence. From this perspective, Terrorism is a form of political communication rather than direct military action. In his view, political violence must have an identifiable organization for it to be classified as Terrorism (Mensah, 2017). As a result of globalization, it has become easier for terrorist organizations operating across national borders to share information, cooperate internally and with other organizations, secure geographic access, and acquire weapons. International migration of people lies at the core of the ongoing process of globalization. People migrate to improve their economic prospects, ensure a more secure living environment, reunite with their family members, or avoid persecution in their country of origin (Kahanec & Zimmermann, 2008). International Terrorism is, because of its cross-border dimensions, a migration issue. It touches on a range of matters directly affecting University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 migration policy, including border integrity (entry and residence with illicit intent), national security, integration, ethnic/ multicultural affairs and citizenship (IOM, 2003). Africa has experienced terrorism before and after the September 11, 2001 attacks (Bamba, 2014). Kenya and Tanzania experienced concurrent violent terrorist attacks in 1983 when US embassies in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam were targeted and attacked. The attacks led to the death of 80 individuals, with more than 1600 injured. After September 11, Kenya, notably, experienced other terrorist attacks, including a major attack on the Westgate Shopping Mall in Nairobi in 2013. Al- Shabaab, a Somali militant group, claimed responsibility for the attacks, which killed 67 persons and injured 175. These terrorist attacks in different parts of the globe and in Africa seemed not to have triggered the requisite reaction from most West African states. The occurrence of terrorism in West Africa has taken the dangers of terrorism to the attention of states and other stakeholders. Nevertheless, recent actions on the part of terrorists have radically altered the situation. Within West Africa, terrorist activities are diffusing rapidly from north to south. The influence of Jihadists in Burkina Faso is a developing concern for the coastal countries in West Africa. Although these countries have experienced very few attacks, the governments fear that activists will use Burkina as a springboard for activities in the south (International Crisis Group, 2019). The comparatively weak systems within Africa in general and the West African sub-region, exacerbated by weak economies, make matters of security of grave concern. The security sector of many states in the sub-region is characterized by ill-equipped security agencies, insufficient collaboration among the different actors, and poor communication (Azumah et al., 2020). Borders in West Africa are undeniably porous. This is an issue of concern for West African governments, individuals, civil society groups and the international community. This porosity has contributed to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 the easy movement and crossing of borders by terrorists in attacking innocent people and targets across West Africa. Boko Haram (a terrorist group), which has its headquarters in the Borno State in Nigeria, readily crosses the Nigerian border as it attacks targets in Cameroon, Chad and Niger. Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (another terrorist group) from Algeria has a base in the northern part of Mali and easily crosses the Malian border and attacks targets in Burkina Faso, Niger and Cote D’Ivoire (Mensah, 2017). The growing threats of terrorism have been a subject of open discussion in Ghana by state actors and citizens of Ghana. This has created a need for serious action by the Government of Ghana to tackle the current terrorist attacks in some states within the ECOWAS sub-region to control the spread of such violence (Azumah et al., 2020). Within the challenges associated with Globalization, migration, free movement of people and goods, the porosity of borders, instability in West Africa, and the attendant increase in transnational border crimes including numerous terrorist attacks in neighbouring countries, Ghana is not immune to terror attacks. Thus it is essential to study Ghana’s National Border Security Strategy towards countering Terrorism. 1.1 Problem Statement In West Africa, terrorist activities are spreading. The spectre of Islamists getting to the Gulf of Guinea troubles West African leaders. Jihadists’ militancy expansion within Burkina Faso has significantly deepened this apprehension. Burkina occupies a crucial location, linking the Sahel to coastal countries and neighbouring four of them, namely Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Togo. Terrorists attacked Côte d’Ivoire in March 2016 and could be strengthened by the coastal state's fragility to launch future attacks. On that basis, the Gulf of Guinea states exhibits the weaknesses that a lot of the time reflect the condition of their northern neighbours, which are more disturbing. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 The flow of the Sahelian crisis into Burkina Faso may well initiate violence on a regional scale, as it encourages the advancement of armed groups towards the coastal south (International Crisis Group, 2019). According to Foucher & Jézéquel (2017), an additional cause for West Africa’s fragility is the elusive regional response found in countries’ inability to cooperate. These states have tried to cultivate a joint response to the Islamists activities. The establishment of numerous dissimilar arrangements with intersecting security and development obligations has meant that their struggles have been unfocused. There is also the challenge of an elusive regional response. The G5 Sahel Joint Force, comprising Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Chad, fails to consist of all West African states and gives the impression of an insufficient reaction to the regional problem of terrorists. The G5 Sahel is premised upon the concept that the Islamists threat will spread horizontally, crossing the western Sahel from east to west; the response’s originators overlooked the likelihood of vertical extension. Moreover, there are also concerns over inadequacies in the G5 Sahel’s security processes and the fact that the G5 Sahel Joint Force and other West African states have under no circumstances appropriately combined forces. West Africa similarly lacks control and the financial resources which joint operations need. From the start of 2019, many events taking place by the frontiers of coastal states, and relating to Islamists armed groups either directly or secondarily, have been connected with Burkina Faso. Two French holidaymakers abducted in Benin on 1st May, 2019, likely by brigands that supposedly attempted to sell them to Islamist gangs, were set free a couple of days subsequently in northern Burkina Faso. In late April 2019, Togo’s President, Faure Gnassingbé, noted the apprehension of suspected associates of armed groups coming from Burkina Faso. In the same University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 month, Burkinabé intelligence agencies cautioned their counterparts in neighbouring countries that several armed Islamists had departed Burkina Faso to hide in Benin and Ghana (Tisseron, 2019). The International Crisis Group (2019) has observed that Burkina Faso does not constitute the sole conceivable entrance for groups desirous of extending their sway into West Africa. Numerous events have occurred on the frontier between Mali and Côte d’Ivoire, comprising the kidnapping of a Colombian Reverend Sister in the Sikasso region in February 2017. The Islamist group, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), is working to open a passage from northern Mali to north-western Nigeria and north of Benin, transiting through the Nigerian settlement of Dogondoutchi. Terrorist activities appear to be moving towards the south and east of Burkina Faso, getting close to the Gulf of Guinea countries. On 7 November 2019, an assault on a group of workers from the Boungou gold mine slew about thirty-eight individuals, attested to their existence in the east of Burkina Faso, neighbouring Benin and Togo. This attack occurred despite the Otapuanu military operation, which was launched on 7 March 2019. The authorities had hailed it as a success. Moreover, Burkinabe security operatives intervened in the province of Pô, a settlement adjoining Ghana in the southeast of the nation, slaying 6 persons believed to be terrorists (International Crisis Group, 2019). Detained in April 2019 in Burkina Faso, Oumarou Diallo, the leader of a domestic Islamists group called the Diawo Group, possessed a list of associates in Benin, Togo as well as Ghana, signifying associations with these states. This partnership has been understood as a signal of a combined scheme that intends to cause the fall of Burkina Faso in an attempt to make a way into Togo, Benin, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire (International Crisis Group, 2019). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Many countries in the sub-region are seeking to fashion a border management strategy to safeguard against these crimes. Ghana is one such country with this strategy. In this light, this study aims to examine Ghana’s border security strategy as a significant measure for countering Terrorism on Ghanaian soil. 1.2 Research Questions The research questions of the study are as follows: i. What is the state of border management as a counter-terrorism tool in West Africa? ii. What is the National Border Security Strategy’s (NBSS) contribution/role in countering terrorism in Ghana? iii. What are the challenges of the NBSS countering terrorism terror along the inland borders and within Ghana? 1.3 Objectives of Study The main objective of this study is to analyze Ghana’s National Border Security and the prevention of Terrorism. Specifically, the objectives of the study are: i. To analyse the state of border management as a counter-terrorism tool in West Africa; ii. To examine the role of the National Border Security Strategy in Countering Terrorism in Ghana; iii. To discuss challenges of the NBSS countering terrorism terror along the inland borders and within Ghana University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.4 Scope of the Study The main focus of this study is to examine how Ghana’s National Border Security Strategy contributes to countering Terrorism at the inland borders and within the country. The study covers the general overview of terrorist activities in West Africa and West African border management systems. Specifically, it will examine the case of Ghana’s adoption and implementation of the NBSS towards countering terrorism. The NBSS was adopted because it is the main guiding framework for counter-terrorism in Ghana. The timeline for the study is January 2021 to July 2021. The adoption of this period enables the analysis to examine the implementation of the strategy and its efficacy to address the ever-changing nature of terrorist activities in West Africa. 1.5 Rationale of the Study Although Ghana has not experienced terror attacks in the 21st century, there has been terror scares in Ghana since 2016. The arrest of some men by the police with a bomb (grenade) in January 2018 at Odokor, a suburb of Accra, made Ghanaians feel unsafe. There have also been attacks on churches in Burkina Faso by terrorists with the recent attack experienced on the 27th of May 2019. These acts have forced some residents of violent areas to cross over into Ghana. On the 3rd of June, a Burkinabe was also arrested with a loaded gun in a church at Hamile, a town in the Upper West region. A few days later, Canada and the United Kingdom issued terror alerts to their nationals. These events have heightened the notion that a terrorist attack could hit Ghana. Thus, the study sought to examine Ghana’s preparedness to counter these possible attacks by focusing on inland border management since the borders are the main entry point for terrorists across the sub-region. Documented evidence abound on Boko Haram and Al-Qaida in the Islamic Magrib use of border crossings to attacking their targets. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 There are studies on border management and counter-terrorism but few have focused on the strategies of individual countries border management as tool for countering terrorism in general and the specific case of Ghana. The current study, therefore, has scholarly and practical implications. The study will contribute to the national security strategies of Ghana to protect the country from terror threats and protect the borders from terrorist infiltration. Also, the study will be contributing to the growing scholarship on this issue. 1.6 Thesis Statement The study is qualitative and is guided by the following thesis argument. That Ghana’s national border security strategy has significantly contributed to countering terrorism in Ghana. 1.7 Conceptual Framework 1.7.1 The Concept of International Security International security broadly refers to the measures adopted by countries and international organizations to promote collective survival and well-being. The measures often comprise military action and diplomatic arrangements like pacts and conventions. It has also been observed that international and national security are practically related, as international security is national security or state security in the global space (Sheehan, 2005). International security began as a new area of academic study with the end of the Second World War. It started as an area of study independently but has became part of a sub-discipline of international relations (Buzan & Hansen, 2009). Some of the proponents of the concept of international security include Edward A. Kolodzej and Roland Paris (2004). In terms of content, international security has extended over the period. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Presently it includes a diversity of interrelated matters at the global stage, which affects human existence. The domain of international security covers the old or orthodox approaches of military clout, the origins and consequences of war among nations, economic clout, tribal, religious and political conflicts, trade and commercial wars, energy provision, science and technology, food, along with threats to human security and the stability of nations posed by ecological destruction, contagious infections, climate change and the activities of non-state actors (Sheehan, 2005). Even though the extensive view of international security considers everything as a security issue, the conventional view concentrates primarily on military issues (Buzan & Hansen, 2009). In terms of security in the international arena, Walter Lippmann (1944) perceives security as the ability of a state to safeguard its basic values, both in terms that a country needs not give up its essential values in staying away from war and can uphold the values by winning war but David Baldwin (1997) contends that ensuring security occasionally needs sacrificing certain values, which may include marginal values and exceptional values (Baldwin, 1997). Arnold Wolfers (1952) contends that just as individuals show differences in recognizing and detecting danger and threats, various states also exhibit differences in security expectations. Arnold Wolfers (1952 )argued that not only is there a variance between accommodation of threats, but different countries also encounter varying levels of threats due to their exclusive geographical, economic, environmental, and political setting. Related to the above, Buzan (2000) perceives international security as more than dealing with threats, but also in terms which threats can be endured and the ones that call for instant action. The concept of an international security actor has extended in all directions from the 1990s, with the range including countries, groups, persons, international organizations, Non-Governmental Organizations as well as local governments (Buzan, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 Bertel & Kristian (2006) have noted that international security has assumed new forms in the 21st century and that threats are no longer mainly emanating from nations. Threats are emerging from ethnic groups preoccupied by hyper-nationalism, criminal rings, Mafiosi control, infectious diseases, HIV/AIDS, radicalism, poverty, economic mismanagement, over-population, failed states, in-flows of migrants, pollution and its attendant impacts, the irrigation and destruction as well as environmental degradation. The casualties of the new threats are mainly individuals, society as well as the entire world. The physical and economic existence of people is under threat and so is the existence of societies and eventually the globe. Nayef (2007) has indicated that conventional methods to international security typically concentrate on national actors and their military capabilities to safeguard national security. Nevertheless, for some years now, the characterization of security has been stretched to deal with the twenty-first century globalized international system, its fast technological advancements as well as the international threats which emerged from this process. According to Nayef (2007), within a globalized system security can no longer be viewed as a zero-sum game involving nations only. International security, instead, assumes five dimensions which comprise human, ecological, national, multinational, and transcultural security, and as a result, international security and the security of any country or culture would not be attained without good governance at all stages which ensures security through justice for all persons, countries as well as cultures (Nayef, 2007). Weaknesses of the concept of international security is its failure to discuss the roles or the part played by and the limits of international organizations in ensuring international security (Kolodzej, 2005). The relevance of the concept of international security to this study is that the complex nature of present-day terrorism in West Africa threatens the existence of all the states in the sub- region and beyond. To address these threats requires the adoption of a comprehensive international University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 security approach. International security more than deals with threats, and has assumed new forms and that threats are no longer mainly emanating from nations. Threats are emerging from ethnic groups preoccupied by hyper-nationalism, criminal rings, extremism, and in-flows of migrants. The international security framework helps to contextualize the study by assisting in understanding how national actors and their capabilities are deployed to safeguard national security by responding to the threat of terrorism. 1.8 Literature Review 1.8.1 Terrorism in Africa The establishment of a separated Africa Command by the United States is the strongest signal that the United States Government of views Africa as an increasing Islamic terrorist threat. The establishment of Africa Command was significantly motivated by the realization that the disjointed approach of the US government’s military intelligence work, as well as regional security training activities, were not able to meet the rising threat presented by growing Islamists connections around East and Southern Africa, the robust existence of extremist Islamic bands within Somalia together with the increasing existence of organizations connected to Hezbollah and Iran which, on occasion, cooperate with al Qaeda, in West Africa (Carson, 2014). A key terrorist attack in Africa involves the one on the Westgate Shopping Mall which happened in the Kenyan city of Nairobi. This shopping center is famous because it is a major attraction for Kenyan citizens as well as foreigners from different parts of the world. This violence was ascribed to actions of the Somalian refugee network. Consequently, 175 individuals died and 68 nationals of other countries sustained injuries (Bolaji, 2010). The attackers isolated Moslems from non- Moslem colleagues and set them free but at the same time held the others hostage leading to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 killing of a lot of shoppers, mainly non-Moslems. As a result of the attacks by the Islamists, the Kenyan security organizations reinforced resilience against terrorism by strengthening its stand against illegal refugees particularly persons of Somali origin as they were perceived to be the originators of the attack (Azumah, et al., 2020). Clarke & Ireland (2012) have also emphasized the attack on Nairobi’s transport terminal, particularly the Machakos Station. Several transport stations in Nairobi are known for their impenetrable human traffic every day for it connects the Eastern and Central African countries. Al-Shabaab operatives' violence, which was understood to have been undertaken, caused nine deaths and several commuters injured. The assault was therefore considered to be retaliatory after KDF had arbitrated in Southern Somalia for about five months. The attack had the backing of East Africa Al-Qaeda operatives and agents. These attacks compelled law enforcement, counter- terrorism together with domestic security agencies to set up extra measures aimed at safeguarding susceptible public spaces as well as structures to supplement the security of human beings and assets (Clarke & Ireland, 2012). In West Africa, there was a similar attack connected with Islamist West Province, and Boko Haram was found around the Nigeria-Cameroon frontier in Gamboru. The assault was a bomb attack focusing on military and non-military operative locations within a crowded market in the Gamboru city and neighbouring zones. It was discovered that the bomb ripped through a crowded marketplace situated between Gamboru and Fotokol in Nigeria and Cameroon, respectively, leading to the death of 30 people, with 35 people sustaining various injuries (Bolaji, 2010). Within Cameroon, there was an attack in the town of Waza that is generally viewed as the first and sanctioned assault by Boko Haram on July 12, 2014. This violence was motivated by the Government of Cameroon joining the Trans-Sahara Counter-terrorism Partnership in 2014. With University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 almost 37 suicide assaults largely around Northern Cameroon and the Lake Chad Basin area, 1,300 people died, resulting dire consequences for the social and economic wellbeing of the state and its inhabitants (Opoku et al., 2017). These attacks were followed by shop plundering, embezzled livestock, as well as stealing to fund their operations. Due to these attacks, the security of areas such as schools, public gatherings, markets, and transport stations was revamped (Opoku et al., 2017). Due to established causes and associated negative effects of terrorism on lives and national development, various counter-terrorism techniques have been developed and used. It has been noted by Azumah et al. (2020) combating terrorism in Africa is a daunting task. Confounding the strategic situation further in Africa is the massive cultural and ethnic variances across diverse geographical borders, making the collecting and analyzing intelligence problematic. It also observed that strategies developed to truncate networks by eliminating prominent personalities within the movement are not likely to cause actual changes, especially as regards Islamic extremism as the ideology of the movement has been dispersed and assimilated to the degree that there is little reliance on personalities to lead and guide it (Azumah et al., 2020). 1.8.2 The Spread of International Terrorism According to Gruici (2011), international terrorism is used when there is a large number of national backgrounds concerning the terrorists themselves as well as the victims of the assaults; and the space where the attack really took place. Terrorism has a long history and did not begin on September 11, 2001, with the al Qaeda violent attack on the United States. Weinberg & Eubank (2006) have pointed out that even the vilest singular deed of terrorism on American land prior to September 11, happened on April 19, 1995, when anti-government campaigners, Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols exploded a truck-bomb at the frontage of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Building in Oklahoma City, which led to the demise of 166 people. Roskin & Berry (2010) have noted that the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), established in 1893, can be traced back in time to over a century; implying that terrorism is not a new occurrence. Broadly speaking, Weinberg & Eubank (2006) have outlined the motives behind terrorists’ actions. They contend that terroristic approach and its instantaneous gains are spreading fear, advertising their concerns, frustrating authorities into reacting excessively as well as raising the determination of the “victim” people. According to Weinberg & Eubank (2006) terrorists groups take advantage of weak regimes which are not able to uphold law and order, and often lack legitimacy and effectiveness. There terrorists groups exploit the fragile state structures to organise easily as well as plan assaults and create training sites. In the view of Weinberg & Eubank (2006) this does not happen for the reason that their activities are sanctioned by government but principally for the reason that the state lacks the capacity to halt their operations. A case in point is Al Qaeda which took advantage of the poor economic and leadership conditions of Afghanistan and Sudan. With this al Qaeda was able to establish their own infrastructure such as religious institutes, developing terrorist maneuvers, as well as to lift the confidence of victim people. The September 11, 2001 or 9/11 terrorists’ attacks definitively shaped global politics by the transformation of the global security system as well as the expansion of immigration system. On September 11, 2001, two hijacked airlines full of inflammable aircraft fuel crashed into World Trade Center Twin Towers in New York City, and another aircraft crashing The Pentagon, Arlington, Virginia-Washington D.C. Reportedly, a fourth aircraft targeting the White House in Washington D.C., crashed earlier in an area south of Pennsylvania, Shanksville (Gruici, 2011). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Gruici (2011) further indicates that the violent attack led to the death of 3,025 persons. On the basis of this attack the United States declared war on the prime suspect, Osama Bin Laden and Al Qaeda. Lansford & Tashey (2005) have noted that after the September 11 assault, America established the Global Coalition against Terrorism. Suddenly, the emergence of a new security threat was universally acknowledged, a threat that was not limited to a particular country, with no defined space and is essentially multinational in character. Many countries intensely condemned the Islamists’ operations and embraced the idea of becoming part of the broadest coalition ever witnessed in history, a grouping led by the United States against international terrorism and its state-backers. In response to the attacks, a raft of measures and arrangements were put in place, even in the Euro-Mediterranean region, such as the Central Barcelona Process. Following the September 11 terrorist violence, the influential governments of the West mainly had, in the final analysis, appreciated the fact that failed countries constituted an existent, crucial danger to international peace and security. The tragedy of September 11 generated an important influence over countries’ approaches and concerns over immigrants, resulting in novel and higher levels of control and monitoring at national borders. Essentially, the horrors of 9/11 influenced most countries to deploy armed forces to topple terroristic regimes. The United States and their allies used force against states known for sponsoring terrorists. Citizens of India pressed for war against Pakistan after the Mumbai carnage (Roskin & Berry, 2010). According to Chomsky (2007), terrorists, like raiders, have been competent at crossing borders and killing people without authorization. Nonetheless, a terrorist can be born everywhere globally, making it difficult to see a logical relationship between border security and counter-terrorism. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 1.8.3 Implications of Transnational Security Threats for Border Control There is already a well-established connection between cross-border crimes and economic integration worldwide (Quartey, 2019). Quartey (2019) has noted that the situation is not different within the ECOWAS sub-region, which makes the task of agencies involved in border management herculean. It is to be noted that controlling and regulating cross-border crime is not just to ensure nonviolent co-existence with neighbours as well as stability in the regional bloc, but it must be viewed as necessary in encouraging relevant political and social-economic activities essential for integrating the countries. The ECOWAS free movement protocols constitute the main principles facilitating cross-border operations of citizens. The population of Africa is the most mobile globally, with the ECOWAS sub-region being the part of Africa with the maximum degree of movement of people (Jørgen, 2016). Furthermore, Addo (2006) notes that the porous nature of national frontiers in West Africa makes it easy for crime to be committed across borders and creates uncertainties resulting from weak interventions and measures designed for identifying criminal engagements. The criminal movements on the whole upset trading and other operations, people’s rights, and other forms of human endeavour in regional blocs. Onuoha (2011) observes that criminal activity linked to border activities comprises illicit trade in small arms and weapons and trafficking of people as the dominant crimes. Marketing of narcotics and armed robbery form part of trans-border crimes that mercenaries and other actors commonly manage. According to Ukeje & Ela (2013), controlling national frontiers is challenging because of the lack of an all-inclusive approach in addressing cross-border issues in West Africa, and there is, therefore, the necessity for clear and strong strategies merged with universally recognized principles as directed by ECOWAS, UN as well as the European Union. A weak security sector, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 high rates of youth unemployment, marginalization, and coupled large refugees comprise some of the foremost challenges national frontiers within ECOWAS. Adesina (2014) contends that the continuous existence of terrorist groups in neighbouring states of West Africa is extensive as a result of the porosity along with the largely uncontrolled frontiers. The situation is not different from other African states south of the Sahara. Cross-border crime is rising in Africa, especially dealing in narcotics, making it a major transshipment route of drug substances that are intentionally concealed to escape detection at the border. Protecting African borders is a challenging task, making penetration by adversaries into conflict zones easy. According to Quartey (2014), the movement of persons from one part of sub-Saharan Africa to another by reason of armed conflicts generates serious security repercussions. It is to be noted that people who run away from conflicts have the right and protection under international humanitarian laws to be accommodated in nearby states. The internal law provisions notwithstanding, many a time, armed fighters travel along with people with refugee status and then threaten the security of the local host communities and refugees within the boundaries of the camps upon crossing the borders. Vignal (2017), writing on changing borders in the Syrian conflict, observed occasions where cross-border attacks or attacks on neighbouring nations were launched by fighters that at the outset make use of refugees as a cover to be able to get into the country. Actions of this nature on the part of armed fighters raise serious concerns over the shared nature of trans-border crime and the security of these borders. Emerson & Solomon (2018) view that fragile state capacity in dealing pragmatically with issues around its frontiers has resulted in the emergence of criminal organizations that facilitate illegal smuggling of contraband commodities and easing the easy movement of foreign nationals lacking correct documents. Even though only a few violent conflicts have occurred over borders, national frontiers have witnessed conflicts that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 reflect the operations of multinational criminal groups across the border. Once the population along the border is abandoned and isolated from the central government development agenda, they become unhelpful and exceedingly collaborative of criminals' activities and scarcely make available information state actors in respect of the illegal operations undertaken by criminal gangs (Lan & Xiao, 2014). 1.8.4 Transnational Organized Crime (TOC) in West Africa According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Transnational crime by definition involves individuals in more than one nation maintaining a system of operation and communication which is sufficiently effective to carry out criminal transactions, on occasion recurrently (UNODC Report, 2005). The efficient manner in which transnational crimes are sometimes executed presupposes the participation of some states’ officials and/or establishments. In the case of West Africa, transnational organized crime could include criminals in the region work together with each other as well as with other groups outside the region such as the rest of Africa, South America, Europe and Asia. Whereas it could be factual that the fragile nature of countries in West Africa and the weaknesses of national organizations authorized to fight the transnational crime has led to the upsurge of transnational organized crime in recent times, the involvement, active or inactive, of national officers in the region and outside, cannot be ignored. Organized crime can infiltrate political parties mainly because the lack of regulations on election campaign financing and the absence of state support for parties (Aning, 2009). Globally, organized crime is regarded a significant threat to human security. Organized transnational criminal groups pose threats to West Africa’s fragile states and to democratic governance development and establishments. Organized crime obstructs social, economic, cultural University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 and democratic developments at the global level, with uneven impacts on third world and weak countries. The threat and challenges of organized crime generally in Africa and particularly in West Africa is huge due to the high presence of weak countries that serve as possible breeding grounds for such activities (Commission of the European Communities 2007). The pervasive power of the corruption of criminal organizations, coupled with a general crisis by state actors in the administration of justice and enforcement of the rule of law play a part in contributing towards the flourishing of such activities (Mazzitelli, 2007). According to Aning (2008), in Africa, as in other parts of the world, organized criminal activities take the form of drug trafficking, advanced fee and cyber-crime, human trafficking, forgery, cigarette smuggling, illicit manufacturing and trading in firearms, armed robbery, the theft and smuggling of oil and stolen vehicles. All the above activities are undertaken together with laundering of money and corruption, the two most important means criminal networks must master so that they can gain from their illegally obtained proceeds and broaden their scope of activities and power. Through corruption, criminal groups are able to obtain protection from state officials, influence political decisions and gain access to genuine business activities. West Africa in its entirety, and individual West African states, presents at the present time the ideal conditions for the establishment of structured criminal networks because of its competitive advantages in reducing risks and consequently maximizing profits (Mazzitelli, 2007). West Africa’s coastlines and harbours have become the center of transatlantic cocaine trade. Cocaine is not the only narcotic traded through and in West Africa. Heroin comes into the region generally by air courier to be subsequently exported to Europe and, to a lesser degree, the United States (US Department of State, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Fragile security and economic hardships create the ideal conditions for criminal groups to traffic humans and smuggle migrants. Children and women from all over West Africa are trafficked for labour and sexual exploitation both within the region and in Europe, the Middle East as well as the Arabian Peninsula (Mazzitelli, 2007). As for the final destination of trafficked persons, according to Mazzitelli (2007), two main patterns could be observed within West Africa. The first comprises intraregional trafficking flows, whereby children are trafficked for exploitation in the agricultural, fishing and private informal economy, or for begging. The second includes the trafficking and exploitation of young women to be used as either domestic work or forced prostitution in destinations in Europe, the Middle East and the United States (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2006). West Africa presently lacks the capacity to produce its own weapons, so most of the guns in circulation originated from outside the sub-region.69 In sum, despite the decline in active conflicts, many countries in West Africa are still affected by the presence of militant groups, irregular changes of government, or the aftermath of civil war. Though the location of demand shifts over time, there is no shortage of potential buyers for firearms in the sub-region. Since most flows are intra-regional, almost all of the trafficking takes place by land, although air shipments have been detected. These seizures indicate that there are essentially five main sources of illicit firearms in West Africa: legacy weapons from past conflicts in the region; weapons from recent conflicts in neighbouring regions; weapons sold by or rented from corrupt security officials; weapons transferred from sympathetic governments; a relatively small number of weapons imported from outside Africa. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 1.8.5 Religious Fundamentalism in Africa From the time when the events of September 2001 occurred and the start of the global war against terrorism, the prevailing literature on terrorism has tended to focus on studying extremist and violent movements associated with Islam (Hassan, 2021). Nevertheless, the phenomenon of religious radicalism is experienced by all religions and beliefs (Siradag, 2016). Fundamentalism and violence based on faith exist in different parts of the African continent where the interpretation of religious texts is used as the main motive to justify the clashes with the existing society. This is applied to all major religions in Africa, including Christianity (Siradag, 2016). Perhaps the most serious problem posed by radical religious movements, this study argues, is the ongoing conflict between Christians and adherents of other faiths, particularly Islam and traditional religions in many African countries. Despite the goodwill and calls for tolerance from many religious leaders, all indications are that conflicts along religious lines of communication will be the most pressing issue in the next decade (Hassan, 2021). According to Hassan (2021). in general, there has been a changing face to religious violence over time in modern African reality, a region that has been fairly stable in terms of peaceful faith coexistence. Africa has not historically experienced religious wars since traditional religions were like isolated islands and had no missionary function. Despite small religious conflicts, there have been no major wars or conflicts based on religion in the last decade. Political religious movements were not a concern for the postcolonial secular state in Africa. However, things took a different turn as signs of religious violence began to increase on the continent. This may become one of the main sources of instability and human insecurity in the future. If this potential threat is not taken seriously it could alter the long-term dynamics of Christian–Muslim relations in Africa (Hassan, 2021). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Most of the countries threatened by religious violence are concentrated in the Sahel region and beyond, with a strong Islamic presence in its northern regions and a Christian concentration in the south (Hassan 2020). An additional factor is the influence from North Africa. There is also a general feeling of political and economic marginalization as a result of hegemony over the political and administrative apparatus of the state by either party. It is noteworthy that the past decade has witnessed an escalation of religious or interfaith tensions and sometimes violence in West, Central, and East Africa. While some of these tensions have been contained, others have escalated. For example, the Ivorian conflict is often portrayed as a confrontation between a Muslim north and a Christian south. With regard to the current religious demographic composition, this is only partially true. It is correct that the vast majority of northerners are Muslims (56 percent). However, there are a large number of Muslims in the south (35 percent as a result of internal migration movements between north and south, as well as waves of migration from the neighboring countries of Burkina Faso and Mali (Miran-Guyon 2006). It is no secret that the main influence on interfaith relations is due to the fact that extremism from one religious group tends to encourage extremism from other religious groups. This occurred in Nigeria during the Biafra War, and the reaction of Christian organizations to the imposition of Islamic Sharia laws in the north. The case of armed Christian organizations directed against Muslims in the CAR provides another example. These conflicts can correspond to the lines of sectarian and ethnic divisions, which can lead to the violent targeting of some groups (Kagwanja 2014). Extremist religious movements appear in the context of a state crisis. The public sometimes welcome them as an alternative to the state in its attempts to achieve security and stability because it is believed these movements will be able to provide enforcement of the rule of law and establish University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 stability. In Africa religion is closely related to people’s daily lives, and thus religious affiliation is shaped and becomes a decisive factor in building social identity. This affiliation may create sharp differences between religious groups (Hassan, 2021). The review of literature discussed the spread of international terrorism, terrorism in Africa, transnational organized crime in West Africa as well as religious fundamentalism in Africa. The study focuses on Ghana’s national security strategy and counter terrorism and using the concept of international security will help to give context to the study to understanding how national actors and their capabilities are deployed to safeguard national security by responding to the threat of terrorism. 1.9 Research Methodology According to Creswell (2013), a research design is the plan for conducting the research study. It is a blueprint that points out how, when and where data is to be gathered and assessed. A qualitative approach will be adopted for this study. According to Moore et al. (2015) the focus of qualitative research is on people’s reflections and emphasizing the uniqueness of the person. Researchers adopt a qualitative approach to examine the activities, perspectives, practices as well as emotions of people at the same time emphasizing their understanding appreciation of these considerations involved (Creswell, 2013). Qualitative research is a social investigation system that emphasizes how entities understand and apply their thoughts of real-life situations. The justification for employing the qualitative method in this study is because it is easy to probe, capture and define the views of persons. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 1.10 Data Sources, Sampling and Data Analysis The study used both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data was collected using a semi-structured interview guide. The study interviewed key persons from security agencies, organizations and some selected community leaders in two border communities and inland border posts. This study set out to interview 20 respondents, 4 each from the following organizations: the Ghana Immigration Service, Customs Excise and Preventive Service, Military, Ghana Police Service, community leaders. Using the principle of saturation, the study in the end used 12 responses from the field because further analysis of the data did not yield new themes or ideas. The use of 12 respondents is in line with Hennink and Kaiser (2022) who observed that saturation is usually reached between the 9th and 17th interview. Without doubt, the best extensively utilized principle for the determination of sample size and evaluation of its adequacy is that of saturation (Vasileiou et al., 2018). The study adopted the purposive sampling technique and obtaining rich information for the study was possible because of the purposeful selection of experienced respondents who have a good knowledge of their operations. These agencies and actors are noted as key actors/agencies for the deployment of the NBSS. The study focused on the two border posts of Paga in the northern part of Ghana and Aflao in the southern part. The justification for this is that the two border posts constitute the biggest in their respective locations. The secondary data sources included reports, journals, articles related to the study. After transcribing the interviews, the study used themes drawn from the interview guide and the study’s research objectives for content analyses. The emerging themes from both primary and secondary data formed the framework for the analyses, findings, and conclusion presented in chapters three and four. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 1.11 Ethical Considerations of the Study Creswell (2013) defines ethical considerations as the moral standards that the researcher should consider in all research methods in all stages of the research design. After obtaining permission from the supervisor to conduct the interviews, the investigator assured the respondents that information provided to the researcher would not be used to go against them. To ensure anonymity, the researcher did not reference respondents' names and personal details in the analysis. Furthermore, the researcher ensured that would-be participants were not compelled to participate in the research. Participants were provided the option of participating or not at any point during the interview and post-inteviews. The researcher approached each participant, sought their permission, explained the purpose of the study, outlined the data collection procedures and eventually asked for oral consent to proceed with the interview. Each participant included in this study consented to their participation which is significant for achieving a high level of credibility and reliability of the data presented. Again, this also ensured that no participant was exploited or harmed during and after the study. 1.12 Limitations of the Study The study mainly focused on Ghana’s border security and counter-terrorism. To the extent that the study will not cover all borders in Ghana and all borders, there may be aspects of local border strategies that this study may not capture. Notwithstanding this limitation, the findings of this study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 remain relevant towards examining the case of Ghana’s border strategy and its contribution towards countering terrorism at those specific entry points and the nation as a whole. 1.13 Organisation of the Study In terms of structure, this study is divided into four chapters. Chapter one, which is the introductory chapter, sets out the background of the study, the statement of the problem, the research objective, research questions. It also presents the methodology, literature review the significance of the study, and the scope and organization of the study. Chapter Two discusses key concepts and discusses relevant literature. This chapter presents an overview of the approaches to border management and counter-terrorism. It covers multi-agency working and counter-terrorism, coordinated border management, community-oriented approach to counter-terrorism, Ghana integrated migration management, Ghana national border security strategy, measures for terrorism prevention in Ghana as well as challenges associated with border management. The third chapter research analysis. The chapter deals with the state of border management, contribution and challenges of national border security strategy in countering terrorism in Ghana. This chapter presents the results obtained from the field as well as the discussions of the study. Chapter four concentrates on the summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF BORDER MANAGEMENT APPROACHES TOWARDS COUNTERING-TERRORISM 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents an overview of the approaches to border management and counter-terrorism. It covers multi-agency working and counter-terrorism, coordinated border management, community-oriented approach to counter-terrorism, Ghana integrated migration management, Ghana national border security strategy, measures for terrorism prevention in Ghana as well as challenges associated with border management. 2.1 Counter-Terrorism Even though different countries adopt an array of means to interrupt the activities of terrorists in the preparation and implementation stages, the term counter-terrorism is usually used to mean the actions developed for countering the ideas, narratives, activities or messages sent out by extremist groups along with complementary operational pre-emptive efforts. Essentially, counter-terrorism is targeted at preventing non-radicalised persons from getting radicalized and stopping the operations of the already radicalised. Counter-terrorism is also targeted at creating resilience against violent radical activities which threaten the state and individuals via several means (Neumann, 2011). Effective counter-terrorism approaches are ones that dynamically involve and include several agents and allies in different parts of the world. This also includes leveraging the tools together with the capacities of nations all over the globe against a common enemy. Counter-terrorism also includes persuading persons with extremists thinking and discouraging them from actualizing them. It deals with actions which are taken by appropriate agencies to thwart terrorist activities. This implies that the target population for counter-terrorism programmes is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 actually enormous, particularly if the actions and processes are directed at people locally or overseas deemed to be in a position to offer assistance to facilitate the operations of terrorists groups. On this basis, it has been suggested by Lorenzo (2010) that the array of non-coercive methods which can consist counter terrorism measures remain extensive. As a result, governments together with international agencies have undertaken a comprehensive set of actions towards countering violent terrorism. It is further stated that most of the measures adopted are built upon existing initiatives as well as strategies such as engaging communities, delivering development, conflict prevention, etc. According to Neumann (2011), the set of actions adopted to fight terrorist operations is potentially infinite. Neumann (2011) developed a typology of indicative actions, embracing: messaging; engagement and outreach; developing the capacity of agencies in the fight against terrorism, community security along with protection programmes, education and training of community leaders, public employees, law enforcement, etc. Romaniuk & Naureen (2012) have stated that the broad nature of counter terrorism measures means counter-terrorism operatives come into contact with a spectrum of actors which were possibly beyond the range of their immediate tasks. Generally, counter terrorism mobilises new implementing actors from diverse government agencies, engaging non-traditional actors outside the regular system of government’s operations, as well as extending antiterrorism operations to a range of policy spheres which were hitherto not impacted by issues of national security. Counter methods and their goals, funding as well as efforts to incorporate prevention with other antiterrorism techniques remain varied from country to country. Furthermore, Jason (2010) has stated that the growing emphasis on counter terrorism measures has given rise to more appreciation of an understanding that counter terrorism constitutes is a method of communication to susceptible groups as well as the larger populace. Accordingly, public views University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 regarding government’s performance in tackling threats along with safeguarding the citizenry can offer one measure of efficiency of counter terrorism actions. It is to be noted that the development of counter terrorism strategies has given has led to the emergence of several difficulties in the field of policymaking and practice including, for instance, the identification of community-level pro government agents together with the designing of interventions in a manner aimed at avoiding the stigmatisation of target population, that may consist of minority as well as faith-based groupings (Romaniuk & Naureen, 2012). 2.2 Multi-Agency Working and Counter-Terrorism According to Kiran (2018), multi-agency working refers to a situation where personnel from several agencies operate an organized unit cooperatively, share goals, information, schedules, and roles to interfere promptly to stop problems from arising. McInnes (2007) states that Multi-agency working deals with ensuring that people are frequently interacting about their duties and tasks, appreciating one another’s functions, and sharing with other organizations and users of services. It involves operating in concert in the direction of generally established objects and goals. Atkinson et al. (2005) conceptualize multi-agency working as operating in partnership across organizations to improve services to address multifaceted situations. Atkinson et al. (2005) further identify several models of multi-agency operation, with each being able to perform diverse functions such as decision making, coordination of efforts, to undertake a broad service, among others (Atkinson et al., 2005). According to Atkinson et al. (2005) decision-making becomes useful when professionals from diverse organizations need to be brought together so as to make decisions on specific needed operations. Within the framework of counter-terrorism, for instance, this may comprise scheduling University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 meetings of policing professionals, immigration, customs, military and other state agencies to consider the appropriate means of offering help to communities from which several persons are known to have taken part in terrorism. The emphasis of decision-making of such groups tends to be strategic, for example, policy-based instead of operational. In the view of Abbott, Townsley & Watson (2005) service delivery would occur, for instance, when policing as well as other professionals perpetually go along with a multi-agency team, where knowledge is shared, and the team can organize the services in an integrated manner to service delivery, for example, situations of community-based techniques for developing resilience to violent radicalization or terrorism. A technique of that kind can include either co-location of the personnel or their remote networking and can also encompass both strategic and operational actions. Charman (2014) notes that an operational team delivering multi-agency working includes drawing organizations together to provide services to a particular clientele base and is often operational. Charman (2014) further states that this model is identical with the multidisciplinary team working, usually deployed within the health service sector. The significance of these distinctions for multi-agency working in countering terrorism is that they demonstrate that any thought of multi-agency partnership includes specifying the exact kind of cooperation. This also encompasses recognizing that groups that work together to prepare policies are very dissimilar from those co-located and undertake their operations with persons signifying a tendency to take part in terrorism, that is, focus on practice. In terms of the value of multi-agency working, it is generally acknowledged that multi-agency working delivers numerous benefits whenever intricate public challenges occur across different agencies' domains of operation (Cairns, 2015). Multi-agency working has been acknowledged as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 a means for dealing with the disintegration of services in and across jurisdictions, as well as the propensity for services to work in silos without optimally tying together the knowledge, capability as well as practices of other organisations. With the occurrence of multi-agency working, team members and relevant agencies have an opportunity to tap into the experience and the resource base available in partaking agencies and emerging as related professionals adopt a trans-disciplinary viewpoint on challenges. Multi- agency working can likewise generate a common dialect and a standard method towards valuation and formulation of risks, and lead to an agreement regarding the all-encompassing goal, thereby improving the efficacy and efficiency of services and making room for a multi-agency working group to request additional resources (Greenhouse, 2013). Moreover, multi-agency working is considered a valuable technique for tackling multifaceted challenges like public safety, crime prevention as well as preparation and response to emergencies. It has been noted by Charman (2014) that even though the value of multi-agency working is well established, practically, it is usually rather challenging to execute. There is also the difficulty of inter-operability of structures, policies as well as procedures as regards dealing with undertaking operations across organizations. For Kiran (2018), the duty for the multi-agency service constitutes the identification and remedial of the risk elements linked to the particular phase being targeted during the intervention stage. The author noted that, for instance, three approaches cover a significant volume of the multi-agency work being undertaken in the prevention of violent extremism, which remains valuable. The prevention approach prevents violent radicalization at its initial phases through community-based resilience-building interventions such as critical thinking, inter-group contact, social modelling, etc. Such approaches could be described as dealing with the risk of violent radicalisation pre- emptively through a public health- or community-based approach. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Another level is redirection which involves supporting persons that are presently perceived to be going through the midst of being violently radicalized and may be in danger of participating in terrorism. Multi-agency services established to deal with such persons can be characterized as providing a targeted method to violent radicalization. There is also supported exit, which deals with persons desirous of disengaging from terrorism. The preceding approach could include practical, psychological as well as policing. 2.3 Coordinated Border Management The Global Facilitation Partnership for Transportation and Trade (2005) defines Coordinated Border Management as the organisation and control of border agency operations to address the collective task of enabling the flow of lawful persons and merchandise and at the same time maintain secure borders in a manner that meets lawful national requirements. According to Aniszewski (2009), Coordinated Border Management can be used to mean a harmonized methodology deployed by border control organizations, both national as well as transnational, within the framework of looking for better efficiency as regards the management of goods and travel movements, while ensuring equilibrium with compliance requirements. Polner (2015) describes Coordinated Border Management as representing a method for managing borders, including public service organizations operating across portfolio frontiers in a harmonised way to accomplish the common aim of ensuring a unified governmental reaction to the problems of national frontier control. The term can mean a rational means of managing national frontier activities towards ensuring well-organized and operative practices deployed by all supervisory bodies tasked with safeguarding borders and monitoring requirements that apply to persons, merchandise, and deliveries going across national frontiers. In terms of the object, the coordinated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 border management structure is for trade facilitation and the approval of travellers and simultaneously securing national frontiers (Polner, 2015). According to the Commission of the European Communities (2007), coordinated border management has generally been presented to be of two diverse aspects, namely, domestic border management system that comprises internal management in and between state agencies or in some cases, a single economic bloc; while the second, international border management, consists of a partnership among neighbouring states and trading partners. The essential facets of the internal border management setup are coordination and collaboration at the intra-service level plus the inter-service level. Intra-service collaboration refers to a partnership among agencies in a government that comprises two distinct phases. There is the vertical dimension of intra-service collaboration, which implies the coordination and collaboration amongst diverse managerial stages from a government institution to entities operating at the border level. In contrast, the horizontal dimension deals with the working collaboration among several entities at the different stages of the entity. Inter-agency cooperation also takes place at the local, regional and central levels. It is based on horizontal cooperation and coordination between different border agencies (Aniszewski, 2009). The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2008) has observed that cross-border agency collaboration constitutes the other important prop of harmonized border management. This is contingent upon a robust legal structure among states. Cooperation of this nation can be put forward by using a policy statement or a joint compact between states. Genuine collaboration and coordination between various border entities take place at three phases: local partnership amongst personnel on either side of the national frontier, a joint cooperation between neighbouring countries, and transnational partnerships. In the view of Aniszewski (2009), the ideal kind of cross- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 border collaboration at the local level deals with the idea of a one-stop border post, which deals with a border post managed by two adjoining states. This involves the day-to-day control of borders, the coordination of requisite documentation, formulating a legal structure dealing with shared acknowledgement of regulations, and sharing of information, mutually maintaining infrastructure. The bilateral kind of cross-border collaboration comprises consultations among neighbouring states at the provincial level as well as the main level to deliberate on issues like harmonization of border patrols on either side of the national frontier, establishing mutual patrols, the establishment of offices to help with communication as well as sharing of data along with the possible formation of end-to-end mechanisms for control (World Customs Organization, 2011). Polner (2015) has noted that multinational collaboration in terms of border management matters is concerned with matters like data sharing among states and entities of regular training services. Multilateral border control collaboration will also take account of collaboration with pertinent transnational agencies in establishing, approving and executing several global standards and best practices harmonising and building effectiveness in coordinated control of national frontiers. Also, according to Polner (2015), several gains result in states and specific border agencies from coordinated border management. Developing and executing a coordinated border management system will lead to the elimination of ambiguities among various policy positions, and on this basis, delivering policies becomes more operative. The implementation of the coordinated border management enables states to tackle strategic concerns effectively throughout the border agency division that may not be taken into account by individual state entities, bringing a system perspective to border management. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Bowman (2006) has indicated that the effective implementation of a coordinated border management system can strengthen the state’s capacity to tackle strategic border agency issues in an all-inclusive manner, which approach will greatly profit all border agency duties together with other tasks. In terms of resource usage, coordinated border management can generate significant savings by means of economies of scale taking place from sharing Information, Communication Technology structures, improvement, cross-training, and bringing together resources from different units. Generally, the joint use of data and intelligence information will yield benefits for all border entities while supporting them to undertake more effective risk controls. Improved and better ways of managing risks will empower individual entities to deliver their facilitation together with their intervention programmes in an effective manner. As regards the challenges, it has been observed that various entities may deploy different organisational ethos that could impact harmonization and collaboration at various stages. Also, numerous outlines of accountability and many performance measurements may generate significant complexities. There is also the cost component such as transitional costs of introducing a mutual approach which may also be fairly high from the onset, and the availability of funds would be a question that would need to be addressed. Nevertheless, the gains from implementing a coordinated border management system would ultimately prevail over cost considerations (Aniszewski, 2009). 2.4 Community-Oriented Approach to Counter-Terrorism According to Durodié (2005), a community could largely be considered as comprising individual persons, a group of persons, as well as organizations confined within a specific zone area and/or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 possessing collective interests. From the above description, it can be said that a community is a stakeholder group expressing interest in specific concerns, processes or plans. In this sense, people or a group of people could be part of several communities. It is to be expected that people play a part in more than one community, including across national frontiers, with their attachments to certain groups expected to transform over a period. Moreover, the expectations of individuals within a community vary dependent upon several background factors such as sex, age, education and income levels. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (2014) notes further that the term community remains multifaceted and extensively deliberated, generating diverse understandings which capture several overlapping views. The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe also distinguishes communities of interest that draw together people, diverse groupings, and organizations that express one or other joint interests such as a common geographical zone, preservation of certain beliefs and principles. On the other hand, geographical communities comprise persons, identifiable groupings, and establishments in particular territorial spaces, like neighbourhoods, towns, regions, societies, or the total population of a state. There can be communities of interest that express universal and international aspects within a certain sense of borderless communities that go beyond indigenous or native zones or national frontiers. Of late, due to the emergence of information technology and new media, people, groups, and organizations located in diverse spaces are capable of linking and engaging on topics of shared interest. Innes (2006) contends that the state plays a significant part in the creation, encouragement, and sustenance of cohesion amongst the communities within a society. The state does this through the promotion of a sense of identity which is reliable and lasting, along with being adequately fluid to easily cover several communities, premised upon the equal and complete enjoyment of human University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 rights as well as fundamental freedoms by persons within the national space. It is generally known that terrorist groups work to stimulate fear among citizens with the intention of drawing attention to their group, the concerns they advocate as well as the imposition of their demands on the people together with the state. Terrorists communicate using the attacks they lunch; besides the propaganda accompanying them, together with their particular understanding of reality, they present and what ought to be done. The attacks, together with the narrative they deliver, produce disruptive impacts within societies. An essential aspect of resilience to terrorism, especially in the immediate aftermath of attacks, is for state officials and political leaders to encourage cohesion and solidarity in society in the face of terrorism, to reaffirm their commitment to democracy and the rule of law and to reject violence and divisive ideas and stereotypes (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2012). According to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (2014), community- oriented methods depend on the idea that the safety of a community is comprehensively linked with the extent of cohesion in addition to the resilience of the community. State-level terrorism prevention plans and programmes, as a result, occasionally target the building of resilience in communities that do not want to have to have anything to do with extremists or their perspectives on issues, along with mobilizing the national population, people and identifiable groupings within society to embrace counter-terrorism objectives. It has been indicated by Spalek (2012) that terrorists pose a danger generally to society and for, therefore, an entire state. Activities of terrorists are not limited to only negatively impacting communities, but they need and search for assistance, adherents, and recruit from the public to implement their ideas. Therefore, the state has a duty to prevent, combat, and manage the effects of the actions of terrorists together with the responsibility of respecting and protecting human University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 rights. In the course of these functions' performance, the state needs to look for assistance from civil society organizations, media, traditional and religious leaders to counter terrorists’ activities effectively. According to Topping (2008), preventing terrorism remains a collective duty that involves the combined participation and collaboration of the immigration service, customs, police, and other state agencies and individuals in communities. Getting the community to participate in the prevention of terrorism could be herculean. Within that community, there could, for instance, be a record of misunderstandings and tension among state intelligence organizations and the general public or with specific communities specifically, which may be resulting from instances of recurrent state agency offensive conduct. In the view of Friedmann & Cannon (2007), conventionally, policies and practices that aim to counter-terrorism have mainly targeted the community, such as aiming at a community in order intelligence and undertake operations undertaking by the key security concerns of the state. In pursuit of this, the state deploys such strategies as police stop-and-search powers, clandestine maneuvers as well as intelligence collection technics to identify suspects that may be terrorists and foil their operations, mainly operative strategies for attacking the community of state at large. These approaches remain an essential aspect of any adequate plan for countering terrorism. It has been observed that these techniques sometimes adopt engagements with communities or does not engage in consultation or co-operation with individuals along with identifiable groupings within the communities and that basis may end up running the risk of sidelining or in certain situations, stigmatize particular communities as well as persons (Friedmann & Cannon, 2007). The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (2014) has noted that the community- oriented approach is the method by which national counter terrorism goals, plans along with mechanisms are undertaken by means locally motivated, collaborative interventions, designed for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 local situations, for enhancing and ensuring effective outcomes. The adoption of the above signals that there is a rising acknowledgement of the fact that societies along with communities constitute stakeholders and collaborators for countering terrorism instead of just remaining as passive objective of state law enforcement operations. According to the Organization for Security and Co- operation in Europe (2014), the community-oriented approach for counter terrorism is targeted at bringing people in the community on board, and raising their support for policy formulation and implementation, bearing in mind the variances as well as intricacies regarding, for instance, ethnicity, culture, political ideology, sentiments, concerns, setting as well as history. Community- oriented approaches have the potential of contributing to improved accountability of decision making bodies to the public. Establishing supportive partnerships among policymaking entities, security agencies as well as other community agents is essential to the community-oriented approach to counter terrorism. Developing and sustaining trust remains vital to the effectiveness of such approaches. 2.5 Ghana Integrated Migration Management Stimulated by efforts to ensure effective response to the intricate migration problems, the International Organization for Migration together with the Ghana Immigration Service are collaborating to implement the Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach Project sponsored by European Development Fund of the European Union (EU). This project was launched in 2014 with the aim of contributing towards the Government of Ghana’s attempts to ensure the effective management of migratory issues. This would be accomplished by establishing an integrated migration management approach (Ghana Migration Management, 2016). According to Jørgen (2016), migration remains a serious concern which requires a multi-faceted method. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Even though capacity development remains a key strategy in the management of migration, it fails to deal with all subsequent concerns. On this basis the Ghana Immigration Service adopted the integrated management method as an all-inclusive, transparent and rational way of addressing migratory as well as national frontier management practices. According to the Ghana Migration Management (2016) the Ghana Integrated Migration Management system’s strategic focus is on three areas: developing the capabilities of personnel leading migration management, sharing information on secure and legitimate movement, as well as creating of a nationwide databank for actual policy making operations in respect of migration. The first component was designed to address migratory issues in West Africa since the area remains one of the regions globally known for high migratory activity. With the rise in the movement of persons and merchandise across national frontiers comes the need to improve immigration and border control arrangements to ease movements across those frontiers. To accomplish this, the Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach seeks to develop the capacity of personnel to be able to understand and put into effect applicable regulations. This also includes supporting the improvement of physical structures, equipments as well as capabilities of Border Patrol Units to check unapproved cross-border movements like the movement terrorist as well as narcotics and human trafficking. The second component of the Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach is the promotion of secure and authorized movements of people. Due to the fact that it remains necessary for migrants to ensure that efforts are made to take decisions in a way makes movement legitimate, non-coercive and safeguarded by domestic and transnational regulations, the Ghana Integrated Migration Management system offers assistance through the strengthening of the Migration Information Bureau situated within Accra as well as the Migration Consultation Centre located at University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 Sunyani to serve migrants’ needs. The Ghana Integrated Migration Management project also supports livelihood improvement operations within localities susceptible to illegal migratory activity within Ghana (Ghana Migration Management, 2016). There is also the third focal area of the project dealing with the reinforcement of migratory information management to make policies that are informed by evidence. The Ghana Migration Management (2016) has noted that it is anticipated that with the implementation of the Ghana Integrated Migration Management Approach comes a more harmonized method for managing migratory related information to strengthen Ghana’s capability for mapping its migration issues and for designing the right migration policies. The Ghana Integrated Migration Management project is collaborating with several stakeholders to ensure creation and operation of the national migration data sharing structure, data gathering and analysis on migratory activities as well as regularly providing updates on Ghana’s migration profile. 2.6 Ghana National Border Security Strategy Countries in the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) including Ghana are faced with the difficult task of successfully controlling national borders in a manner which helps to secure their territories, promote regional integration as well as fighting illegal cross-border activities. The rising prospect for terrorism, problems linked to transnational usage of technologies by criminals to perpetrate crime, dealing in counterfeit merchandise, prohibited trading in humans, weapons and drug, piracy and growing e-commerce require that Ghana develops the capacity to tackle them. Managing and securing borders remains an intricate endeavour because the practices overlap the expertise and scope of diverse institutions which are mandated to address emotional issues and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 threats that affect the security of the state, economy, communities situated along the border, as well as international relations. On the basis of the foregoing, universally, the cooperative method in border management has been regarded as the ideal method. The idea of a cooperative approach has progressively been recognized and adopted as constituting best practice in counter-terrorism as well as the promotion of efficiency in the flow of goods and persons that eventually leads to progressive changes in society where individuals and their livelihoods are secured. The Republic of Ghana has taken steps that are consistent with the cooperative approach (Government of Ghana, 2020). According to the United States Department of State (2019), the Republic of Ghana in February 2016 signed the Security Governance Initiative (SGI) Joint Country Action Plan (JCAP) with the United States of America. This is a joint agreement purposely targeting the consolidation of Ghana’s security sector control. This joint pact comprises a border security element, one of the aims of that is the development and implementation a national border security plan. From the time when the JCAP was approved, Ghana implemented a cooperative method towards the supervision, control as well as securing its national borders. Consistent with the above method, the border control institutions in Ghana are acting in cooperation towards the development of a National Border Security Strategy which will institutionalize collaboration and harmonization amongst important border security managers, which includes traditional rulers within the communities along borders; with the country’s neighbours; as well as with strategic border security partners. Through the coordination efforts of the National Security Coordinator as well as heads of security institutions, the National Border Security Committee developed the Ghana National Border Security Strategy, which outlined four aims. The first aim is ensuring the sustenance of the cooperative approach to managing borders to ultimately ensure a harmonized supervision and enforcement of Ghana's borders. Secondly, the National Border Security Strategy is designed to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 achieve efficiency regarding approved cross-border movements of people and goods so as to enhance procedures and ability, modernize infrastructure, and encourage competence, reliability as well as personnel wellbeing. Thirdly, the aim is also to fight cross-border threats to secure national frontiers to reduce cross-border crime. Ultimately, the goal is to develop collaborations, economic and national interests to champion border security collaborations, operate with stakeholders together with communities along borders, and transnational associates to manage security at national frontiers effectively encourage economic integration (Government of Ghana, 2020). According to the Government of Ghana (2020), among other things, the National Border Security Strategy outlines the following strategic undertakings which have to be achieved. i. Ensure the sustainability of the National Border Security Fusion Center with requisite financing, together with the National Border Management Secretariat which administers the Center; ii. Establish a Land Border Development Authority; iii. Increase the deployment of technology for the process at the ports and borders, surveillance, and data gathering as well as analysis; iv. Employ the use of Advanced Electronic Cargo Tracking and Monitoring System, and enforce the usage of sealed containers for carrying high-risk commodities from the ports to the destinations; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 v. Develop clear policy and standard operating procedures for transhumance (cattle herdsmen); vi. Develop the capacities and enable the Border Patrol Unit as well as the Customs Preventive Unit to sustain lead as the primary force for the security of national frontiers; vii. Deliver constant training for personnel and staff of border agencies;