METHODIST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE GHANA  

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY 

 

 

 

INFLUENCE OF PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS ON MARITAL SATISFACTION 

AMONG MARRIED COUPLES AT ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA 

 

 

FELICIA AMOH BOATENG 

10870069  

 

 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 

PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL 

IN GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING DEGREE. 

 

 

 

September 2020

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DECLARATION 

I, Felicia Amoh Boateng, wish to declare that except for reference and other citations, which 

have wholly been acknowledged, this work is originally done by me as a student after a research 

conducted under the supervision of Rev Prof. Daniel Yao Bruce and Dr. Peter Abomah as part 

of satisfying my obligation to the Department of Psychology, Methodist University College 

Ghana. This work has not been submitted in whole or in part for any University degree. 

 

FELICIA AMOH BOATENG                                               04/09/2020            

SIGNATURE                                                                            DATE       

(STUDENT)                                                           

This work has been submitted for examination with our approval. 

 

 

Supervisor’s Signature:                  Date: 04/09/2020 

Name: Rev Prof. Daniel Yao Bruce 

 

 

Supervisor’s Signature:                                                  Date: 04/09/2020                                     

Name: Dr. Peter Abomah 

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ABSTRACT 

The study assessed how psychosocial factors affect marital satisfaction among married couples 

living within Accra. Based on this, hypotheses formed included whether there would be a 

significant difference among respondents in age at marriage, premarital counselling, level of 

education, gender, each on marital satisfaction, and whether parental stress will negatively 

correlate with marital satisfaction. Convenient sampling was used to sample 389 married 

persons. Instruments used were Marital Satisfaction Inventory and Parental Stress Scale. 

Hypotheses was tested using Univariate analysis and Pearson Correlation tests. A significant 

difference was found among respondents in gender, age at marriage and level of education. 

Parental stress was negatively correlated with marital satisfaction. No significant difference 

was found among respondents who had premarital counselling and those who did not. 

Recommendations are made for improved stakeholder engagement and knowledge about the 

negative effects of psychosocial factors on marital satisfaction among married couples and 

strategies to reduce it. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 

I am grateful to the Almighty God for successfully taking me through my studies. I 

would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors; Rev. Prof. 

Daniel Yao Bruce and Dr. Peter Abomah for their time, patience, and direction from the 

commencement to the completion of this research.  

For the inspiration and unprecedented support, many thanks go to my husband, Mr. 

Nathaniel Amoh Boateng. 

To Rev. Eric Kwapong, your selflessness and benevolence is rare. I deeply appreciate 

your input through this journey. 

To all who in diverse ways helped in the realization of this research, I am profoundly 

grateful. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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DEDICATION 

To my husband, Nathaniel and wonderful children, this journey has not been easy but 

with your love and unflinching support, it has come to a successful end.  

 

  

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TABLE OF CONTENT 

 

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i 

ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................... iii 

DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iv 

TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................................. v 

LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... x 

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 

INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1Background of the study ................................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 6 

1.3 Purpose of the study ......................................................................................................... 7 

1.4 Aims and Objectives ........................................................................................................ 8 

1.5 Scope of the Study ........................................................................................................... 8 

1.6 Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 8 

CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 10 

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 10 

2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 10 

2.1 Psychosocial Factors ...................................................................................................... 10 

2.1.1 Premarital Counselling............................................................................................ 10 

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2.1.2 Parental Stress ......................................................................................................... 12 

2.1.3 Age at Marriage ...................................................................................................... 13 

2.1.4 Level of education................................................................................................... 15 

2.1.5 Gender ..................................................................................................................... 16 

2.2 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 19 

2.2.1 Dynamic Goal Theory ............................................................................................. 19 

2.2.2 Social Exchange Theory ......................................................................................... 20 

2.2.3 Equity Theory ......................................................................................................... 22 

2.2.4 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development ....................................... 23 

2.2.5 Cognitive-Relational Model of Stress (Lazarus, 1991) .......................................... 25 

2.3 Review of Related Studies ............................................................................................. 27 

2.3.1Marital Satisfaction among Couples ........................................................................ 27 

2.3.2 A ge at Marriage and Marital Satisfaction ......................................................... 29 

2.3.3 Level of education and Marital Satisfaction ........................................................... 31 

2.3.4 Gender and Marital Satisfaction ............................................................................. 33 

2.3.5 Parental Stress and Marital Satisfaction ................................................................. 34 

2.3.6 Premarital counselling and Marital satisfaction ...................................................... 36 

2.4 Conceptual Framework .................................................................................................. 38 

2.5 Statement of Hypotheses................................................................................................ 39 

2.6 Operational definition of terms ...................................................................................... 39 

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 41 

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METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................................. 41 

3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 41 

3.1 Research Design............................................................................................................. 41 

3.2 Study site ........................................................................................................................ 41 

3.4 Sampling size and Sampling technique ......................................................................... 42 

3.5 Materials/Instruments .................................................................................................... 43 

3.5.1 Marital Satisfaction Inventory (MSI)...................................................................... 44 

3.5.2 Parental Stress Scale (PSS) ..................................................................................... 45 

3.6 Procedure ....................................................................................................................... 46 

3.7Ethical Consideration ...................................................................................................... 46 

3.8 Data analysis .................................................................................................................. 47 

3.9 Testing of Hypotheses.................................................................................................... 47 

CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 49 

RESULTS ................................................................................................................................ 49 

4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 49 

4.1 Demographic data of respondents .................................................................................. 49 

4.2 Testing of hypotheses .................................................................................................... 52 

4.3 Summary of Results ....................................................................................................... 56 

CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 57 

DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................................... 57 

5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 57 

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5.1 Discussion of results ...................................................................................................... 57 

5.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 75 

5.4 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................. 76 

5.5 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 76 

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 78 

APPENDIX A ........................................................................................................................ 109 

QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................................... 109 

APPENDIX B ........................................................................................................................ 117 

SPSS COMPUTATIONS ...................................................................................................... 118 

 

 

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LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1: Respondents’ Sex, Age Range and Level of Education. ........................................... 49 

Table 2: Duration of Respondents’ Courtship before Marriage, Age at Marriage, and Duration 

of Marriage............................................................................................................................... 50 

Table 3: Respondents’ Status on Premarital Counselling, Children and Employment Status . 50 

Table 4: Overall Mean of the respondents on the Marital Satisfaction Inventory ................... 51 

Table 5: Means of the respondents who have children on the Parental Stress Scale ............... 51 

Table 6: Univariate analysis of variance test results on marital satisfaction among married 

persons who had premarital counselling and those who did not. ............................................ 52 

Table 7: Univariate analysis of variance test results on marital satisfaction among married 

persons with postgraduate education and no postgraduate education. .................................... 53 

Table 8: Univariate analysis of variance test results on marital satisfaction among males and 

females. .................................................................................................................................... 54 

Table 9: Univariate analysis of variance test results on marital satisfaction among married 

persons who got married at less than 30 years and those who got married at 30 years and above.

.................................................................................................................................................. 54 

Table 10: Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient Test Results on the Relationship 

between Parental Stress and Marital Satisfaction. ................................................................... 55 

 

 

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LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1 Influence of Premarital Counselling, Level of education, Gender, Age at marriage, 

and Parental Stress on Marital Satisfaction ............................................................................. 38 

 

 

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CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

1.1Background of the study 

Abra (2001) has defined marriage as a union between a male and female who live 

together and are biologically unrelated. Advantages such as being sexually gratified, love, 

companionship and acceptable means of childbearing are derived from this union (Abra, 2001). 

Adigeb and Mbua (2015) also defined marriage as vital and a basic human relationship because 

it makes provision for the ultimate structure for establishing a family and rearing a child. 

Fincham and Beech (2002) also defined marriage as a union which brings two persons together 

which lasts until one or both persons die. Marriage is the institution endorsed for setting up and 

nurturing family life in every known culture (Brown, 1991; Nunkuya, 2003). According to 

Litzinger and Gordon (2005), marriage is an essential institution in the African sociocultural 

setting.  

Additionally, it is seen as one of the stages of growth and development, as such, some 

scholars argue that marriage is one of the markers of adulthood, particularly in the African 

context. A satisfying marriage is of central importance in building a stable and fully functioning 

family institution in any society. The importance of marriage cannot be underestimated as it 

provides social, economic, and emotional benefits to partners (Abed, Aliasghar & Hamidreza, 

2015). Marriage is expected to promote physical well-being since it offers adequate emotional, 

social support and control which are key processes to discovering and fulfilling the reason for 

an individual’s existence (Choi and Marks, 2008). 

Olson and Olson (2000) emphasized the importance of the marital institution as the 

most nourishing and enduring asset in human relationship. Generally, married persons show 

content with life and demonstrate mental wellness (Rosen-Grandon, Myers & Hattie, 2004). 

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Also, according to Lehnart and Neyer (2006), it was discovered that people who have 

relationships that are worthwhile are less likely to be moody and get easily irritated or 

frustrated. They are less likely to be shy and have a higher level of self-confidence. Individuals 

in healthy relationships, overall, are generally happier, and being in such relationships gives 

everyone a desired purposeful and productive existence. Successful marriage is associated with 

both physiological and psychological health.  

One of the most vital objectives of entering marriage is the desire to have a satisfying 

marriage (Heshmati, Behnampour, Arabameri & Kohan, 2016). Satisfaction in marriage is a 

complicated and multi-faceted occurrence. It has been substantially explored by the most 

varying empirical fields (Rebello, Silva & Brito, 2014). According to Schoen and Weinick 

(1993), satisfaction in marriage refers to a universal assessment of the condition of one’s 

marriage. This reflects how happy one is in the marriage and how well one can operate 

optimally in the marriage. (Schoen and Weinick, 1993). Using an evolutionary approach, 

satisfaction in marriage reflects a mental condition of balanced mechanisms that keeps track of 

the advantages and expenses of marriage to an individual (Zainab, Nasir, Ruzy & Noraini, 

2012). Marital satisfaction is the bedrock upon which a marriage succeeds or thrives amidst all 

the ups and downs that a couple may encounter throughout their marriage journey.  

Baumeister (2006) also defined satisfaction in marriage as a cognitive situation that 

mirrors the rewards and costs incurred by being married as envisioned by a person. Hence, the 

more losses a marriage partner imposes on a person, the less satisfied that person generally is 

in the marriage and with the marriage partner and vice versa. Satisfaction in marriage is a 

subjective affair in marriage which can only be assessed by each married person in response to 

the degree of fulfilment in marriage (Kaplan & Maddux, 2002). According to Kaplan and 

Maddux (2002), satisfaction in marriage reflects what each married person expects and desires 

in their marriage. There are many public health implications that come with a satisfied marital 

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relationship (Halford, Markman, & Stanley, 2008). Some include emotional and psychological 

well-being, greater happiness, and high life satisfaction (Waite & Gallagher, 2000). Thus, an 

individual who is satisfied in the marriage is less prone to suffer from depression (Williams, 

2003), experiences better self-assessed health, and productive end-result (Umberson, Williams, 

Powers, Liu, & Needham, 2006). Marital satisfaction, therefore, can be referred to as an 

individual’s personal marriage encounter in terms of when their needs are met, and their 

personal expectations are materialised (Adigeb & Mbua, 2015).  

In my opinion, the authenticity of the marriage is shaped by the happiness of each 

partner and how enjoyable the marriage is to each partner irrespective of what may come their 

way as a couple. As such, it takes the persevering and relentless effort and commitment of each 

of the couple to ensure that each other is happy as individuals and in the relationship as well. 

The expectations of the married couples as well as that of the people within their sphere of 

influence and that of the society at large create poor marital satisfaction when unmet due to 

one reason or another. Although, it is believed that marital satisfaction is necessary not only 

for the stability of the marriage, but also for the spouses to interconnect with each other, 

additional fact-finding is required in this field (Dzadey, 2015).  

However, studies have shown within some decades that marital satisfaction is not so 

easily attained (Rosen- Grandon, 2004). This is so because a broad scope of both cognitive and 

socio-demographic factors should be considered when analysing satisfaction in marriage 

(Rosen-Grandon, 2004). These factors can affect the thinking, feeling, behaviour, 

communication, and other marital interactions of the husband and wife (Rosen-Grandon,2004). 

Family life and marital satisfaction are especially important and are recognised as principal 

predictors of general living standard (Shek, 1995; Stutzer & Frey, 2006). However, satisfaction 

in marriage can have an impact not only on the somatic and psychological health of both 

partners (Holt-Lunstad, Birmingham & Jones, 2008). It also affects the growth of children, 

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their general wellbeing, academic attainment, skills they use to communicate and relate with 

others (Cummings & Davies, 2010). 

Nevertheless, most married couples in an unhappy marriage quickly resort to the 

breakdown and dissolution of their marriage as the ultimate solution. Several studies have 

indicated that the rate of divorce is on the increase. The Registrar of marriages at Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly has records of divorces under the Customary Law Marriage. Divorce 

has progressively impacted several individuals in Ghana for the past three decades. Accra 

Metropolitan Assembly (AMA; 2008) indicates that out of over 1,647 registered marriages, 

there were 664 divorces between 2006 and 2007 in Accra alone. Alarming rates retrieved from 

the Head Office of Legal Aid Ghana (2011) specifies that within a period of 14 months at least 

40% of marriages contracted yearly in the region split-up (Oppong Asante, K., Osafo, J., & 

Nyamekye, G., 2014). This implies that the rate of divorce is increasingly alarming and that 

the issues of marriage need to be critically assessed in order to put the right measures in place 

to deter married couples who intend to tread the same path. 

There are several factors that influence marital satisfaction among couples. Several 

studies have been conducted on some of these factors which include the level of education 

(Nwafor, 2009), marital communication, spousal respect and forgiveness (Offei- Kwapong, 

2018), age (Dzadey, 2015), number of children, time spent together, depression, affection, and 

sexual activities (Adigeb & Mbua, 2015), among others. A research by Guo and Huang (2005) 

found age, gender, educational attainment, number of children, presence of male children, and 

health conditions as significant determinants of satisfaction in marriage. Pimentel (2000) also 

suggests that education and income could affect satisfaction in marriage. In this study, the focus 

would be on the influence of psychosocial factors (age at marriage, gender, level of education, 

premarital counselling, and parental stress) on marital satisfaction.  

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According to Target (1980), elements such as the mode of communication between 

couples at home, marriage relationship, the presence of children, influence of in-laws, couples’ 

meeting the sexual desires of each other, and reconciling occupational differences contribute 

to marital dissatisfaction. Others are lack of love and moral commitment, lack of financial 

comprehension, and domestic violence (Target, 1980). The phenomenon has also created 

mental and communal insecurities among individual couples (Ellis & Harper, 2005). This has 

resulted in increase in prostitution among married women and men, inattentiveness in their 

workplaces, break-up, rise in children’s deviant behaviour, and reckless behaviour by both 

married men and women (Ellis & Harper, 2005). 

 It is undeniably true that married couples who go along with each other enjoy 

companionship with their family and friends, solve problems together, are quite satisfied in 

their marriages, demonstrate satisfaction with the personality habits of their partners, and are 

highly satisfied with their marital and sexual life. The danger of uncertainty associated with 

the problem of lack of satisfaction in marriage has therefore created grave challenges to 

marriage therapists. To this Owuamanam and Osankinta (2005) ascertain that in African 

societies and specifically in Nigeria, some marriages even collapse before their first 

anniversaries. Being aware of the components that lead to dissolution of the African family, 

may be the fundamental step in coming up with programs that can be used to address the 

reported rise in divorce in that country (Takyi, 2001). 

The society in which the family is the foundation would be strongly built if marriage is 

healthy and stable, and the couples are satisfied. One of the vital functions of modern marriages 

is to reach a state of marital satisfaction in the home (Adigeb & Mbua, 2015). Satisfaction in 

marriage remains an extensively researched topic in the area of marriage and family 

psychotherapy (Adams, 1988; McKenry and Price, 1988; Nye, 1988; Spanier and Lewis, 1980). 

Many intellectuals have identified issues that involves many details and exchange of views 

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notwithstanding abundant research in this area (Zainah, Nasir, Ruzy, & Noraini, 2012). There 

is, therefore, the need to add on to research in relation to the study of the factors of marital 

satisfaction. This would help marriage therapists and all stakeholders to identify variables that 

could predict a great outcome of marital success. This is because people get into marriage and 

look forward to having a satisfying marriage, which is conceived as a successful marriage in 

promoting marital satisfaction and family stability. 

 

1.2 Problem Statement 

The impact of satisfaction in marriage on an individual’s welfare, psychological 

wellness, and the family of that individual is very vital. This calls for the urgency to 

comprehend the elements that may influence satisfaction in marriage and the measures required 

to enhance it. Many studies have been carried out on divorce. A common example is the 

research conducted by Acheampong and Heaton (1989). The findings show an alarming 

concern of increasing divorce rates in Ghana. Divorce appears to be the ultimate result of 

unsatisfaction in marriage until the right strategies are adopted in resolving the marital issues.  

Statistics available at the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, Ghana - Accra on customary 

marriage in 2008 indicates that out of 1,511 registered marriages, a total of 618 marriages were 

dissolved. In January 2007, out of the 136 registered marriages, 46 were also dissolved. 

According to the Head of Registry of Legal Aid, married women who apply for separation 

every week exceeds the number of married males (Asoodeh et al, 2010). All these account for 

a serious threat to social stability in the nation. 

The Registrar Generals Department indicates that in the year 2010, the percentage of 

cases of terminations of marriages from the month of January to April points out that there will 

be more cases of divorce by the end of 2010 when compared to that of previous years (2009 

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and older). According to the Registrar General’s report for the year 2008, about 10.3 percent 

of Christian marriages ended in divorce (Asoodeh et al, 2010).  

Diener and Lucas, (2000) said they are still incompetent to decipher the convolution of 

the human relationships and what exactly precipitates the success or the failure of a relationship 

especially in the domain of marriage. This is because marital satisfaction is an indispensable 

aspect of family life that moulds people’s fitness although both longitudinal and transversal 

studies have been performed. However, there is inadequate empirical research from a social 

psychological dimension that has investigated the concept of marriage and marital satisfaction 

in Ghana (Dzadey, 2015). It is in the light of this that this research work is trying to contribute 

to existing literature by exploring some psychosocial factors namely parental stress, premarital 

counselling (psychological factors), age at marriage, level of education and gender (social 

factors) to see the role they play in an individual’s marital satisfaction. 

 

1.3 Purpose of the study 

This study seeks to assess some underlying psychosocial factors of marital satisfaction 

from the viewpoint of married persons in Accra Metropolitan Area. This would also aid in 

reducing the rate of emotional or psychological divorce or separation and to promote long, 

healthy and satisfying marriage relationships among couples and prospective married couples 

amidst all the challenges that may arise in their lifelong journey. This study would also 

complement the efforts of therapists and counsellors on issues pertaining to marriage, 

counselling and divorce which will further contribute to literature available in Ghana. 

 

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1.4 Aims and Objectives 

The research aims mainly to examine and understand the influence of psychosocial 

factors on marital satisfaction among married people at Accra Metropolitan Area. 

The specific objectives are: 

1. To find if a difference exists in score of marital satisfaction between respondents 

who had premarital counselling and those who did not. 

2. To investigate the impact of the level of education on marital satisfaction. 

3. To examine the difference in marital satisfaction scores between male and female 

spouses.  

4. To find out if a difference exists in score of marital satisfaction between married 

persons who married at less than 30years and those who married at 30years and 

above. 

5. To assess the relationship between parental stress and marital satisfaction among 

married persons. 

 

1.5 Scope of the Study 

This study is limited to married couples living within Accra Metropolitan Area. 

 

1.6 Significance of the study 

The study among other things will draw the attention of married people to the ways and 

means of achieving satisfaction in marriage. This awareness will help manage risky behaviours 

of married persons that lead to divorce. The findings of this research will expose individuals 

who intend to get married soon to how to achieve a satisfying marriage and find alternative 

routes to separation or divorce.  

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 It will also add up to the existing literature on marital issues and guide policy makers 

to make well- informed decisions in relation to the institution of marriage. In addition, this 

research can equip stakeholders in social welfare with the right plan and implementation 

strategies to educate the community about the need to be satisfied in their marriages with 

regards to the influence of psychosocial factors on marital satisfaction. In the long run, the 

application of knowledge obtained from this research would reduce tendencies of married 

persons to engage in divorce. Again, students and researchers conducting a similar study in the 

future can employ the findings as a source of reference. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter’s focal point is on the theoretical and empirical evaluation on premarital 

counselling, parental stress, age at marriage, level of education and gender and how these 

psychosocial factors influence marital satisfaction. 

 

2.1 Psychosocial Factors 

In this research work, psychosocial factors are elements that impact married couples’ 

psychological responses to marriage and its associated conditions, potentially causing 

psychological health problems and marital satisfaction/dissatisfaction. These are psychological 

and socio demographic factors that could affect husband’s and wife’s behaviour, thinking, 

feelings, communication, and other interpersonal interactions in marriage. As such, these 

factors need to be taken into consideration when evaluating satisfaction in marriage. The 

psychological factors in this study include premarital counselling and parental stress, and the 

socio demographic factors are age at marriage, level of education, and gender. Each of these 

factors and its implication on marital satisfaction are discussed in detail below 

 

2.1.1 Premarital Counselling 

Premarital relationship period is when two people decide to know more about each 

other and form love bonds essential to live together prior to marriage. Friendship before 

marriage and engagement are necessary for the purpose of being satisfied in marriage 

(Özgüven, 2000). Premarital counselling refers to “a therapeutic intervention for couple that 

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occurs before they live together as husband and wife” (Murray & Murray, 2004). It is also a 

“form of counselling which centres around how a man and a woman relate, and guides them  

to evaluate their relationship in view of their approaching marriage” that aids couples to know 

each other and to explore ways that will enhance the stability of their marital life (Diaz, 1966). 

Premarital counselling programs are also offered to couples without distress in their 

relationship and are aimed to help prevent future distress. This is achieved by first drawing 

attention to the problems that are likely to occur. Next, it offers the avenue of providing the 

information, skills, or resources needed to prevent or improve these issues (Carroll & Doherty, 

2003). Some researchers (Carrol & Doherty, 2003; Stanley, Amato, Johnson, & Markman, 

2006) have recognized the importance of marriage preparation for premarital couples. Marriage 

preparation has been linked to improved satisfaction in marriage, increased loyalty to a spouse, 

and a 31% drop in the divorce rate (Stanley et al., 2006). Certain media reports in Ghana have 

attributed the high incidence of marriage breakdown to a lack of marriage preparation (Ghana 

News Agency, 2007a).  

Marriages are deteriorating, and those entering marriages are not adequately prepared. 

In 2012, Ghana Statistical Service’s 2010 Population & Housing Census reported that closely 

600,000 marriages contracted in Ghana have collapsed and over 300,000 ended in separation 

(Ghana Statistical Service, 2012). A leading Ghanaian Family and Marriage Counsellor 

suggests that one of the root causes for breakdown of marriages is lack of effective premarital 

counselling. He observes: “Lack of pre-marital counselling, absence of training in the home 

that prepares people for future courtship and marriage, or poor counselling that does not 

provide the important details of the meaning and purpose of marriage” (Kisseadoo, 2016). 

In a research to find out how Pre-Marriage Counselling affects Marital Satisfaction of 

Newlywed Couples in Iran it was indicated that premarital education had a positive significant 

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effect on sexual, non-sexual and satisfaction in marriages of couples. Another research by 

Özgüven (2000), Tuğba and Melek (2010) indicated that enrolling in relationship program 

before marriage increases the chances of having a satisfying marriage. In their study they found 

that because early in the engagement process couples are not experiencing initial distress often, 

they see no reason to change (Sullivan, Pasch, Cornelius & Cirigliano, 2004). A study on  the 

effects demographic variables have on satisfaction in marriage highlighted that comprehending 

the pressures and presumptions experienced by married couples that could be a stumbling block 

in  attaining satisfaction in marriage, is vital for every married person to achieve a considerable 

level of marital satisfaction (Zainah, Nasir, Ruzy & Noraini,2012) .  

 

2.1.2 Parental Stress 

According to Deater-Deckard (1998); Holly, Fenley, Kritikos, Merson, Abidin & 

Langer (2019), parental stress is the anguish you experience when you feel you just cannot 

fulfil your duties as a parent. When the tasks assigned to you as a parent are too weighty or the 

resources needed are not enough to adequately carry out your roles as a parent, you are likely 

to experience parenting stress (Deater-Deckard, 1998; Holly, Fenley, Kritikos, Merson, Abidin 

& Langer, 2019). In other words, parental stress arises when parenting demands far outweigh 

the resources available to the parents that increases their chances of being successful in the 

parent role. Heightened levels of parenting stress hinder warm responsive parenting and 

inspires crude reactive caregiving. In this regard, parenting stress also influences the 

relationship between the parent and child negatively. External factors such as harsh economic 

conditions, having a child/ren with difficult temperament, medical, emotional, or behaviour 

problems, and having an inadequate support system or lower levels of social support can 

exacerbate higher levels of parental stress. 

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In the marital context, lower levels of social support are evident when either of the 

spouses (husband/wife) is more responsible for the daily upkeep of the children which results 

in a lower degree of marital satisfaction among the couples. In other words, a spouse is less 

happy if the partner imposes great demands. Likewise, an increase in the perceived rewards 

results in an increased content a married person is with the marriage and with his or her 

marriage partner. Low marital satisfaction lessened child outcomes in the Incredible Years 

Parent Training Program (Webster-Stratton, 1984), specifically that for mothers reporting low 

satisfaction in marriage. The results of several research indicate that parents who have children 

with disabilities experience higher stress in parenting, poorer cognitive wellness, and career 

suspension. They also lose their leisure time and are more likely to experience marital 

dissolution than parents with children who have no disabilities (Brobst, Clopton & Hendrick, 

2009; McConkey, Truesdale-Kennedy, Chang, Jarrah & Shukri, 2008; Risdal & Singer, 2004; 

Rogers & Hogan, 2003). 

 

2.1.3 Age at Marriage 

Age at marriage is a key indicator of marital satisfaction among married couples. It is 

dependent on the specific environmental, economic, and cultural circumstances in any society. 

Generally, age ranging from 18 to 25 years and 24 to 30 years are the most suitable marriage 

ages for women and men, respectively. This is because some believe that marriage at older 

ages is accompanied with a higher quality of life and that marrying at the age of below 18 for 

women and 20 for men will likely be associated with divorce or marital failure and lower 

marital satisfaction or a decreased stability of marriage (Booth & Edwards, 1985).  Most 

psychologists agree to the assertion that older people are level-headed in understanding than 

younger ones hence a strong positive correlation exists between age and understanding. It is 

said that communication serves as the engine of every healthy relationship and is fuelled by 

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“understanding”. Gordon (1994) attributed what goes wrong in marriage relationships partly 

to miscommunication. According to Dabone (2014), married persons who marry at younger 

ages are revengeful. They are seriously disoriented in so many ways. This is because of the 

changed life stage they find themselves. On the other hand, older married people have 

experienced a lot of life phenomena and have adapted themselves to these circumstances.  

As a result, they are appreciative of the shortfalls of people especially their partners as 

compared to young people.  African communities attach a great deal of importance to sustained 

and successful marriages because married couples who fall within that category are accorded 

much respect. This respect is what most old married people desire. Rogers and White (1998) 

are also of the viewpoint that what is perceived to be a difference between young married 

persons and old married persons is that old married people have a higher level of commitment 

than young married people rather than the age at  which they got into marriage. 

Age at the time of marriage has been the focus of most research in marital satisfaction 

(e.g. Lee, 1977; Booth & Edwards, 1985). There is a harmonious assertion that the younger an 

individual is at first marriage, the higher the likelihood of not being satisfied in the marriage. 

This implies that the younger one is when married, the higher one is likely to engage in divorce 

(Lee, 1977). People who marry at a younger age are more prone to marital instability than those 

who marry later in life. One major reason for addressing age is that factors which are negatively 

related to marital “success” (i.e. whether one divorces or remains married) include many which 

are related to age at time of marriage, such as low education, premarital pregnancy, short 

premarital acquaintance, personality maladjustment, and low socioeconomic background 

(Burchinal, 1965).  

 

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2.1.4 Level of education 

One of the factors that can greatly affect marital satisfaction is the educational 

attainment or the couple’s education. Ideally, the correlation that exists between spouses’ 

educational attainment and marital satisfaction cannot be side-lined. Cambridge advanced 

Learners Dictionary (2003) defined education as the knowledge acquired from the process of 

teaching or learning in a school. Education is also defined as the application of knowledge in 

making use of one’s potentials to the highest degree. In this light, the objective of education is 

to evolve the proficiency of students.  

According to Nwafor (2009), the two primary reasons for education are to train the 

human mind in becoming a right thinker who can make good decisions and to equip one to 

embrace the broad world with a wholistic mind and adjust well to the increasing competitive 

world. While education can be formal or informal, the present research work is interested in 

the formal which refers to the type of education acquired in formal settings such as the schools. 

And informal education refers to the type of education acquired in an informal setting such as 

the home. However, what remains a predicament over the decades is the kind of relationship 

existing between educational attainment of spouse and marital satisfaction.  

 In recent times, Ghana has taken a drastic turn from what it used to be in the past two 

or three decades such that people have come to be fully aware of the importance of formal 

education and both males and female members of the society have accepted it. Unquestionably, 

quality education would not only make an individual ready to face the great challenges of our 

time, but it also positions individuals to obtain greater economic advantages, such as 

employability. A study carried out by Barongo, Okwara, Aloka, and Masoka (2015) indicated 

that couples who had the same level of Higher or Lower levels of education showed more 

satisfaction than, the couples with different levels of education (High-Low educational 

attainment). Also, couples with equal higher educational attainment (High-High) are more 

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satisfied than the couple with equal education (Low-Low). While the couple with equal low 

level of education (Low-Low) were more satisfied than the couple with unequal level of 

education (High-Low).  

Another study by Nwafor (2009) which examined the influence of education attainment 

on marital satisfaction found that the level of education attainment significantly influences 

marital satisfaction. Their finding also harmonized with Walsterg, Walster & Bersched, (1978) 

equity theory. Thus, the more the costs incurred the relationship outweighs the rewards derived, 

the lower the level of satisfaction experienced by the individual in the relationship. And as 

observed by Sprecher (1995), inequality in relationship results in negative outcomes such as a 

decrease in commitment to the relationship, happiness and satisfaction with the relationship. 

The outcome is likely to be a relationship break up.  

 

2.1.5 Gender 

We must understand what “gender” is and how different it means from “sex” in this 

study. Gender is defined as individual’s ascribed role because of his or her sex in the society 

(Juni & Grimm, 1994). The terms “gender” and “sex” are often used homogenously, however, 

these terms are not synonymous. Sex refers to the biological difference between females and 

males, while gender refers to the social and psychological factors often associated with being 

female or male. While we tend to impose a gender-based classification system on the world, it 

is worth noting that gender is not just a binary concept, as maleness and femaleness can occur 

on a continuum, as can sex (Knox & Schacht, 1991). One can then say it is not the sex in itself 

that predicts marital satisfaction in this case as may be believed initially but rather the gender 

that is characterised by the role of an individual that is associated with his or her sex in the 

society (Juni & Grimm, 1994) indicating the extensive roles variables such as culture, race, 

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upbringing, values and beliefs play in an individual’s gender makeup and its related marital 

satisfaction. Scholars of marriage assert that how men experience marriage differs from how 

women experience marriage.  

Gender contributes essentially to numerous aspects of life and the way a woman and 

man relate. Different challenges that similarly affect marital satisfaction are experienced by 

both wives and husbands. For example, many husbands reported the increased pressure levels 

to meet both family and work demands and are more likely to want to spend more time with 

their spouse and children compared to wives (Roxburgh, 2006). There is also the difficulty for 

husbands understand and manage the wives’ needs, emotions and demands. Males also struggle 

with the experience of rejection within the context of sexual intimacy and feeling unable to 

satisfy their wives’ desired communication levels and styles (Thompson & Walker, 1989).  

These and many other challenges may result in a decreased satisfaction in marriage for 

husbands. This may offset the discomfort wives tend to experience to the point in which 

husbands and wives are similarly satisfied or dissatisfied with their marriages. The route to 

marital discomfort mostly lies with the wife becoming dissatisfied in the relationship. Hence, 

wives are more likely to seek marital therapy (Doss, Atkins & Christensen, 2003) and to start 

the process of separation (Montenegro, 2004; Rokach, Cohen & Dreman, 2004). There is proof 

that marriage and division of household labour differ by socioeconomic status (Amato 

&Hohmann-Marriott, 2007), (Davis & Greenstein, 2004; Geist & Cohen, 2011; Warner, Lee, 

& Lee, 1986), and race (Amato et al., 2007).  

Also, there is evidence that division of labour and childcare tasks evolve over the course 

of marriage. As children become a part of the home through birth and leave the home when 

they are older, and as the parents retire from full-time employment (Miller & Yorgason, 2009). 

According to feminist theory (Bernard, 1972) and evidence from empirical research (Grote & 

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Clarke, 2001; Stevens, Kiger & Mannon, 2005), these disparities in marital power and division 

of household labour that are associated with demographic factors may affect gender differences 

in marital satisfaction. 

Women’s second-in -command duty as wives is reflected as unequal control of money 

earned by both husband and wife, and double standards regarding sexual behavior (Finlay & 

Clarke, 2003; Walker & Thompson, 1995). This is so because unequal balance of control fuels 

less satisfaction in marriage (Ball, Cowan, & Cowan, 1995; Brezsnyak & Whisman, 2004; 

Gray-Little, Baucom, & Hamby, 1996). Hence wives are likely to experience a less satisfying 

marriage than husbands. 

According to the feminist theory (Bernard, 1972), husbands have better health than 

wives. In support of her argument, there is empirical evidence that men derive more health 

benefits than women from being married (Waite, 1995). A nationally representative 

longitudinal study found that the transition to first marriage for men was associated with a 

27.9% increase in the probability of being in excellent or very good health, compared to a 4.8% 

increase for women (Williams & Umberson, 2004). 

Likewise, men’s transition to remarriage was associated with a greater health benefit 

than for women. Men also benefit more than women from marriage because women shoulder 

the majority of nurturing a child and carrying out household chores (Bernard, 1972). Indeed, 

the unequal division of household labour and childcare has been a central focus of feminist 

theory and research (Ferree, 2010; Osmond & Thorne, 1993).The tasks assigned to women in 

marriage are nearly always more challenging than their husbands’, especially for working-class 

women who experience extra responsibilities (being a wife, mother, homemaker, and 

employee). Usually, the emotional suppositions of women are often unmet by men because 

women and men are socialised differently.  

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2.2 Theoretical Framework 

2.2.1 Dynamic Goal Theory 

The dynamic goal theory of marital satisfaction suggests that personal growth goals, 

instrumental goals, and companionship goals are the three types of marital goals (Li & Fung, 

2011). Companionship goals refer to the need for a sense of belonging and relatedness in the 

marriage specifically in intimacy and commitment. Personal growth goals refer to the need for 

the desire to improve oneself in the marriage. Spouses can help each other in achieving this 

goal through affirmation and provision of support.  

Instrumental goals are about the need for spouses to contribute to household tasks and 

other duties assigned to each other, such as child nurturing, and financial management of family 

funds. The level of significance of each of the marital goals experience varying changes across 

adulthood. Generally, couples at a younger age prioritize personal growth goals, couples who 

are middle-aged prioritize instrumental goals, and couples at an older age also prioritize 

companionship goals. The importance of marital goals is also affected by other elements, such 

as life transitions and cultural values and practices of each married person.  Awuah (2013) 

stated that the extent to which the goals an individual set in marriage are attained predicts their 

level of marital satisfaction. 

Also, he cited critical thinking and problem-solving skills, effective communication, 

among others, as facilitators of organizational goals. Prioritized marital goals can also influence 

the modes of marital interaction to attain higher satisfaction in marriage. As such, this current 

theory offers a simplified way to combine previous studies about marital satisfaction from the 

developmental perspective. It also adds on to both the research works already carried out on 

satisfaction in marriage and how the various prioritized goals enhance a satisfying marriage.  

In summary, this theory indicates that marital satisfaction is regulated by the fulfilment of each 

of the prioritized marital goals during certain stages of development in the marriage. 

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This theory is applicable to this study because it goes a long way in explaining and 

creating the understanding that marital satisfaction is on an individual basis and dependent on 

the individual’s own prioritized goal for the marriage. Failure to achieve these set goals result 

in marital satisfaction and vice versa. 

 

2.2.2 Social Exchange Theory 

Homans (1961) centrally ideates the way people relate to each other based on costs 

incurred and benefits obtained from their interaction. He originally adopted the term “social 

behaviour” for what subsequently was referred to as social exchange. He stated, “Social 

behaviour is an exchange of goods - material goods but also non-material ones, such as the 

symbols of approval or prestige (Homans, 1958, p. 606),” and afterwards in his publication, 

social behaviour is recognized “as an exchange of activity, tangible or intangible, and more or 

less rewarding or costly, between at least two persons (Homans, 1961, p. 13).” Having a 

conversation with someone costs you time and energy (Redmond, 2015). This can be 

neutralized by the benefits gained for instance growth of a relationship and confirmation of 

your worth.  

The theory concerns how several people interact with one another. Thibaut and Kelley 

(1959), Homans (1958), and Blau (1964) also addressed how this theory also influences how 

individuals generally behave. This theory generally applies to how people relate with one 

another. Blau (1964) annotated social exchanges as “voluntary actions individuals engage in 

that are motivated by what they are expected to gain from those actions (p. 91).” He lays much 

emphasis on the fact that the action is non- mandatory to differentiate it from behaviour that is 

constrained. The definition of Homans draws attention to the fact that people are aware of being 

liable to a cost because they look forward to receiving a benefit which should either balance 

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the cost induced or exceed it. The rewards we obtain can be either inherent (love) or external 

(providing support with household tasks). The dependence of at least one of the partners on the 

other is what leads to this phenomenon known as social exchange. Blau (1964) stated that to 

meet the personal goals of an individual, a reciprocation must occur with some other individual. 

For instance, being cherished, earning a salary, being assisted with an assignment you lack 

knowledge about, or getting a pay-check all constitute social exchange.  

Blau(1964)  categorized social exchanges into two main roles “to establish bonds of 

friendship, and to establish super-ordination over others (p. 89).” Continuously engaging in 

social exchanges builds more trust, and interdependence in close relationships. A balanced, 

reciprocal, interdependent relationship is created when the personal goal of each partner is 

being met. However, super-ordination occurs when social exchanges take place continuously 

to the point where the other partner becomes over-dependent on the person meeting the 

partner’s needs. Exchanges can be inherent or discussed with the other person involved (Molm, 

2003).  

When people incur a cost while meeting the needs of their partners without making 

known to them exactly what they expect in return even though they expect something in return, 

this is termed as reciprocal exchanges. Exchanges of that nature are not coerced and usually 

happen due to the establishment of relationships created by earlier productive exchanges 

(Mitchell, Cropanzana & Quisenberry, 2012). Nonetheless, discontentment and a pessimistic 

effect on the relationship evolves when there is failure to repay the debt or favour. On the other 

hand, when people discuss emphatically what they expect in return for meeting the needs of 

their partner, negotiated exchanges occur.  These may include going on a date, dashing a friend 

some money, selling your used clothes. However, with negotiated social exchanges, 

expectations are likely to be unsaid (Redmond, 2015). 

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Additionally, scholars have identified that the outcome of a social exchange process is 

affected by the duration of a relationship. Thus, at the initial phase of a relationship which is 

termed as ‘the honeymoon phase’, the couple may ignore some costs they incur which is 

contrary to what happens in an older relationship. Hence, with reference to cost-benefit 

analysis, the duration of a relationship directly affects how that relationship is evaluated by the 

couple (Long- Crowell, 2016).  

In relation to this study, marital satisfaction is greatly affected when individuals in a 

marital relationship compare the cost and benefit of their marriage to their past pre-marital 

relationship and life as a single individual and realise that the cost is significantly higher than 

the benefits they are getting from the marriage. This leads to unhappiness in marriage and 

eventually marital dissatisfaction if it persists. Another factor too is that when marital 

expectation is high because of one’s past romantic relationship, it leads to marital 

disappointment. Hence, increased chances of marital happiness and satisfaction is fuelled by 

having lower comparison and marital expectation levels. The social exchange theory, therefore, 

goes a long way to throw more light on the factors that leads to marital 

satisfaction/dissatisfaction. 

 

2.2.3 Equity Theory 

According to Asoodeha, Khalilib, Daneshpourc & Lavasanib (2010), equity theory lays 

emphasis on people’s response to and handle situations in which they feel the rewards they are 

receiving are lesser than the costs they are incurring. Equity theory lays emphasis on having 

benefits that are equal to the contributions (Walster, &Traupmann, 1980). Everyone may not 

consider equity as vital in their relationships (Buunke & Van Yperen, 1991). Mckenzie (2003) 

revealed that the absence of equity results in less satisfaction in close relationship. People 

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consider themselves to be under-benefited or over-benefited in inequitable relationships. When 

people receive lesser benefits than contributions made as compared to their partner, under-

benefited inequity occurs. On the other hand, when people receive more benefits than costs 

incurred in comparison to their partner, over-benefited inequity occurs (Guerrero, La Valley & 

Farinelli, 2008). Many studies have reported that women experience under-benefited inequity 

more often as compared to men (Utne et al, 1984; Saginak, & Saginak, 2005). In a study by 

Pillemer, Hatfield, & Sprecher (2008) on the importance of fairness and equity for the marital 

satisfaction of older women in the USA, the outcome was that (85%) of them regarded their 

marriages to be equitable.   

In relation to this study, people experiencing equity in marriage should be more 

satisfied than those who are not experiencing it in marriage. The marital discomfort 

experienced correlates with the severity of inequity experienced in the marriage (Walster, 

Traupmann & Walster, 1978) leading eventually to an increase in marital dissatisfaction, and 

in worst case scenarios, a dissolution of the marriage. 

 

2.2.4 Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Human Development 

The psychosocial theory of human development as established by Erikson (1963) stress 

the cognitive tasks that are distinctive in the growth of everyone from birth to death. He focused 

more on the sociological processes and how it affects the satisfaction of the individual. To 

achieve this, he paid more attention to the roles played by the family and the larger society in 

the growth of the individual. This growth process occurs across eight stages in the life of every 

individual. He emphasizes that the outcome of the passage through each stage is in two folds – 

a resolution or crisis on conflict. Therefore, each of the stages constitute a pairing of the most 

positive and most negative aspects of the crisis period. He then indicated that to equip the 

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individual with the required skill necessary for the next stage, it is sufficient for the resolution 

of a crisis to be made. 

Evidently, this research is focused on the sixth stage of the psychosocial theory of 

development. Intimacy versus isolation (the sixth stage), deals with how couples interact 

socially. This includes building familiar work relationships, establishing reciprocal friendship, 

and intimacy. Erikson theorized that the major challenge among married couples stems from 

having a sense of fulfilment by interacting with others instead of avoiding partnerships and 

becoming socially and personally isolated. The resolution of this conflict is vital in determining 

whether the adult is more concerned with making the partner more satisfied in the marriage. 

This is achieved by creating a household with an equitable division of labour (Erikson, 1987). 

As a result, the adult who achieves that as well as helping others to grow develops the personal 

integrity needed to face the final crisis of life.  

The import of this theory in this study highlights how satisfaction in marriage is 

sustained through intimacy shared among married persons and the need to create and sustain a 

satisfied home. This is achieved by sharing intimate thoughts and feelings, offering up their 

own identity, and seeing it reflected in their loved ones. Married persons must develop their 

ability to form deep intimate relationship with each other to enhance satisfaction in the marital 

home. This theory encourages married persons to form deep emotional attachments, develop 

love and affection for one another for satisfaction in the marriage relationship to be 

materialised.  

  

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2.2.5 Cognitive-Relational Model of Stress (Lazarus, 1991) 

This model of stress dwells on a cycle of appraisal of environmental stress how to cope 

with the stress afterwards. Appraisal of stress in the environment and methods of coping are 

mediating measures that seek to diminish the intensity of stress. This model is also referred to 

as the Transactional model Lazarus Theory. Precursors that start the cycle of the appraisal 

activity include the following:  

Stressors: There are the immediate causes of the stress, such as a frozen computer screen, 

being scolded, or losing money. General stressors include:  

Deprivation: Being uncertain or lacking knowledge about what you want or lack of 

understanding about something. 

Difficulty: Not being able to take the appropriate measures.  

Threat: Anticipated possibility of danger or harm. 

Harm: Physical or cognitive impairment. The main source is the physical surroundings. 

Negative imaginations also play a vital role.  

Stress is a cumulative process. One large stress is the sum of many small stresses. The 

merging of several factors can produce severe stress. In addition to direct stressors, other 

contextual factors contribute appreciably to the process of appraisal. Context is vital in yielding 

an explicit interpretation in any appraisal, whether driven by stress or not. In stressful 

situations, appraisal comes to play when environmental factors may heighten the stress or 

constrain coping. The appraisal process is affected by the internal human aspects of the 

individual undergoing. Some people are more susceptible to stress because of their personality 

(as in neuroticism in the big five personality model). On the extreme end, those who actively 

take risks have a high stress threshold. An essential factor to consider is the ability of the person 

to cope with stressful situations once they happen. Thus, some people are more capable in 

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handling stressful situations than others. Other diverse personal factors can be a contributory 

factor to how people perceive stress, such as their level of extroversion. 

Appraisal is often misjudged as a single activity but is made up of two distinct 

components. These include assessment of the situation (primary appraisal) and identifying 

what to do about the situation (secondary appraisal). Appraisal is the ‘thinking stage’. Here, 

aspects from the antecedents are taken and coping actions are thought of in connection with 

that. It takes place as a response to stress, even though the person may not perceive what 

occurred as 'stress' but as an 'issue'.  

Primary appraisal: In primary appraisal, first, people appraise for short-term threat to needs. 

Next, they appraise for longer-term impact on personal and organisational goals. They may 

also give their attention to seeking opportunities and looking forward to challenges. This may 

be short and internal. It may also access external knowledge from other people. 

Secondary appraisal: Here, people usually decide what can be done to lessen the feelings of 

stress. What they choose to do may depend to a large extent on how conversant they are with 

the situation and the means they can adopt. These choices are often spontaneous and flawed 

and yet can be functional. There is a kind of fight or flight option in deciding what to do. The 

person may either try to look for means to address the situation inducing the stress or just give 

oneself up to the stress. 

This theory is therefore applicable to this study since it addresses stress on the cognitive- 

relational principles which emphasizes that one’s interpretation of stress is defined by how one 

interprets the cycle of appraisal of stress induced by the physical environment as well as 

cognitive factors and its subsequent coping which the researcher believes will help in 

discussing the findings on stress and marital satisfaction.  

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2.3 Review of Related Studies 

2.3.1Marital Satisfaction among Couples 

According to Hinde (1997), satisfaction in marriage refers to how a married person 

generally interprets the marital relationship. Satisfaction in marriage also refers to how a 

married person subjectively assesses the specific components within her or his marriage 

(Durodoye, 1997). Fatehizadeh, & Ahmadi (2006) are also of the view that satisfaction in 

marriage plays a huge role in stabilising the marriage. According to Garcia & Rivera (1999), 

satisfaction in marriage is considered at three levels. These levels include satisfaction with 

one's spouse, satisfaction with family life, and the general satisfaction with life.  

 

Some researchers have focused on the relationship between stability and marital 

satisfaction (Utne, et al., 1984; Givertz, Segrin, & Hanzal, 2009), and equity and marital 

satisfaction (Saginak, & Saginak, 2005; Davis, Emerson, & Williams., 1997). Asoodeha, 

Khalilib, Daneshpourc &Lavasanib (2010) are of the view that a relationship in which one is 

satisfied forms a fundamental and complicated aspect of intimate relationships. Wong and 

Goodwin (2009) demonstrated that in Britain, Hong Kong, and China, the most important 

factors in marital satisfaction comprises financial stability in the family, a firm relationship and 

cooperation with the spouse, and  support related to the wedding. A person's ideas about himself 

is influenced by beliefs and cultural values (Markus, &Kitayama, 1991). 

There are many public health implications that come with a satisfied marital 

relationship (Halford, Markman, & Stanley, 2008). Some include emotional and psychological 

wellbeing, greater happiness, and high life satisfaction (Waite & Gallagher, 2000). According 

to Baumeister (2006), satisfaction in marriage is a cognitive state that mirrors the anticipated 

benefits and cost incurred in the marriage to a person (pp. 541). The greater the costs incurred 

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in a marriage, the more the partner experiences less satisfaction. Similarly, the greater the 

perceived benefits obtained, the greater the satisfaction experienced in the marriage and with 

the marriage partner. 

Litzinger and Gordon (2005) defined marriage as an essential institution in the African 

sociocultural setting. According to their research, marriage is seen as one of the stages of 

growth and development, as such, some scholars argue that marriage is one of the markers of 

adulthood, particularly in the African context. However, marriage which is seen as an important 

institution in the African setting is under threat due to the rate at which individuals are engaging 

in the practice of divorce thereby undermining its value and sacredness. In recent times, 

individuals who are not satisfied with their marriages opt for divorce as a quick way out 

(Dabone, 2014). Divorce has been a serious issue in Ghana for decades and has progressively 

affected several individuals (Oppong Asante, Osafo & Nyamekye, 2014). 

Marital satisfaction is made up of multiple dimensions of concepts that includes factors 

such as child nurturing styles, sexual relations, personality features, and financial matters 

(Tazekand, Nafar and Keramati, 2013). As Hakins said quoted from Ahuyi (2004), marital 

satisfaction refers to a maturing cognitive emotion of reciprocal fulfilment, accomplished 

amusement and a productive outlook for the wife and husband. Using conflict resolution style, 

spouse self-disclosure, and self-disclosure (Hatch & Bulcroft, 2004) enhances a mutual 

satisfaction in marriage.  

Fincham, Beach & Davila (2004) emphasised that the style adopted in resolving conflict 

and one’s ability to show feelings in the first five years of life predetermines satisfaction in 

marriage. Other factors considered in relation to satisfaction in marriage can be affected by 

couple's mutual agreement on the style of relation, how they express their emotions, sexual 

relation, activities engaged in during leisure time, sharing of  household tasks, duration of 

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spending time with each other, external network and supply (Vangelisti & Huston, 1994) and 

incompatible explanations (Bradbury, Beach, Fincham, and Nelson, 1996). 

Studies and findings on some psychosocial factors and its relation to marital 

satisfaction; these proposed factors which are premarital counselling, level of education, 

parental stress, gender, and age at marriage are presented as follows: 

 

2.3.2 A ge at Marriage and Marital Satisfaction 

Anim (2013), in a study examined how much discomforted men and women are in their 

marital relationships and the psychosocial factors that are linked with distress in marriage. A 

total of eighty (80) married men and women made up of 40 husbands and 40 wives were used 

as respondents. The Marital Happiness Scale, and a questionnaire that measured demographic 

characteristics were adopted to gather data. Two research questions were answered, and one 

hypothesis was tested. Findings revealed that wives scored higher distress than husbands in 

marriages. Psychosocial areas which showed as areas of high distress in marriages include 

communication, time spent together, sex relations, and friendliness. The study revealed that the 

lower the age of wives, the higher their distress. An explanation given was that wives can 

handle their discomforts better as they grow That of husbands, on the other hand was not 

correlated.  

Additionally, a study conducted by Dabone (2014) using 320 registered married people 

(160 males and 160 females) which assessed if age differences influenced couple satisfaction 

within the Sunyani Municipality in the Brong Ahafo Region using the Marital Satisfaction 

Inventory was used for the study. The study discovered that both old (112) and young (208) 

married couples were not satisfied with their marriages. Furthermore, the younger a couple the 

higher their levels of marital dissatisfaction. Hence, age differences do little to influence marital 

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satisfaction among couples. However, Dabone (2014) failed to provide reasons as to why both 

older and younger couples have similar levels of satisfaction in marriage.  

On the contrary, Madanian and Mansor (2013) conducted a study in which 29 female 

students and 18 male students from the Iranian University in Malaysia were evaluated to check  

their satisfaction in marriage considering factors such as age, level of education, number of 

children, length of marriage and level of finance. Data were collected using Latifeh-Shafeq 

Marital Satisfaction Instrument and was analysed using Winstep software, version of 3.6. A 

higher percentage of participants were satisfied in marriage. Age, number of children and 

length of marriage were proven to have some negative impacts on satisfaction in marriage. The 

results indicated that participants with younger ages were more satisfied in marriage than 

participants who got married at older ages.  

The findings were like the findings of Amato & Booth (1997) and Glenn (1990). They 

confirmed that the age at which people marry influenced the difference in the quality of 

marriage. Furthermore, this finding is in line with findings of Aghajanian (1986). This 

researcher expressed that the likely reasons for separation in Iranian culture is the fact that the 

males are more inclined to marry younger women. This is so because they believe that if they 

marry a younger female, they can socialize with them according to their norms and values 

(Aghajanian, 1986). Moreover, these findings as compared to findings of Jose &Alfons (2007) 

revealed that middle aged adults encounter more challenges in their marriage than younger or 

older age adults. 

  

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2.3.3 Level of education and Marital Satisfaction 

Heaton (2002) investigated information from the 1995 National Survey of Family 

Growth in United States of America. His results indicated that marriages contracted after 1980 

are getting increasingly stable and aimed to find possible explanations for this change. Heaton 

(2002) discovered that among women who were more educated or who married at an older age, 

there were lower cases of marriages being dissolved. As a result, he concluded that age at 

marriage influenced to a great extent the trends in marital dissolution. He also stated that 

women who married at older ages had more marriages that were satisfying. He also found that 

marriages were more secured if the husband was older or more educated, but not so in the case 

of the wife who was older or more educated. Oranthinkal and Vansteenwegen, (2006) 

examined whether differences in age and level of education predicts level of marital satisfaction 

among respondents. Their findings indicated that educated couples were more satisfied. Their 

finding reinforced that of Madanian and Mansor (2013).  

Tucker and O’Grady (2001) also included a discussion of intelligence, as measured by 

educational attainment level, in their study. They looked at factors related to satisfaction in 

marriage, including age at marriage, attractiveness, and educational level. Respondents were 

rated on a 15-item Likert scale. They found that participants judged similarities in educational 

levels to be a vital factor in determining whether the couple was likely to have satisfaction in 

marriage. An essential aspect of this study was that people of higher educational levels were 

only seen as having more satisfying marriages if the education level was the same as that of 

their spouse. Lower-educated couples were also considered as having satisfying marriages if 

they were matched similarly to their spouse in level of education. Dyadic satisfaction among 

real-life couples was not assessed.  

Bumpass (2003) in his study with 210 married people in the United States revealed that 

105 participants whose levels of education were higher indicated higher marital satisfaction as 

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likened to participants with lower levels of education. On the marital satisfaction inventory 

score sheet to these married people, Bumpass (2003) stated that respondents whose levels of 

education were higher scored 3.6 which were higher than the average of 2.0. They added that 

married people whose levels of education were lower scored an overall of 2.7 which was also 

above average. In their conclusion they stated that married people whose levels of education 

were higher showed increased levels of satisfaction in marriage than their counterparts whose 

levels of education were lower. Also, Acheampong and Heaton (1989) conducted a study in 

Ghana on how some demographic factors correspond to the timing of divorce. In this study 

they quoted studies to show that higher educational attainment lowered the divorce and 

separation rates. It seems likely that education correlated positively with marital satisfaction as 

few available studies (as quoted above) concerning the influence of education on satisfaction 

in marriage show. 

However, in a research conducted by Dabone (2014) on marital satisfaction among 

married persons living within the Sunyani Municipality of the Brong-Ahafo Region of Ghana. 

320 respondents were sampled using purposive and quota sampling. The level of marital 

satisfaction was assessed with four variables- sex, religion, age and educational levels of 

respondents. A descriptive survey was employed. A Marital Satisfaction Inventory (MSI) was 

used to solicit for respondents’ view. The results showed that married people in the Sunyani 

Municipality were not satisfied with their marriages. The study also found that the higher 

educated married people were significantly more dissatisfied than married persons with lower 

levels of education. Some of the reasons given by some stakeholders of education and 

respondents were that so much education is taking place on marital issues in their communities, 

churches, mosques, airwaves and so many social gatherings, so much so that wherever pockets 

of people meet, it is one of the issues commonly discussed. The people with lower levels of 

education have therefore taken advantage of these forms of education. 

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2.3.4 Gender and Marital Satisfaction 

Shek (1995) suggested that there are two likely reasons for gender differences in 

marriage. The first reason is based on the difference in roles apportioned to men and women in 

a marriage. As a result, women feel that derive less benefit from a marriage. Therefore, women 

develop a negative perception about marriage. This is because the female roles carried out are 

usually tedious and less gratifying compared with the roles of the husband. Also, married 

women who are fully employed are plagued with more responsibilities, and role conflicts 

within their families. The second proposed reason is a contrast in expectations between married 

women and married men. Married women experience less satisfaction in marriage because 

their expectations of intimacy and emotional support in a marriage tend to be unreasonably 

high whereas men are customarily not socialised to offer this kind of support in a marriage 

(Fowers, 1991).  

Moreover, men and women are traditionally socialized differently. Some researchers 

have indicated that emotional spousal support predicts higher satisfaction in marriage 

(Mickelson, Claffey & Williams, 2006). Again, the differences in marital satisfaction between 

married women and married men might be due to the dissimilarity in expression of their 

feelings. Women tend to cope with their emotions by seeking instrumental and emotional 

support (Simon & Nath, 2004) and verbally expressing what they are experiencing in their 

personal lives (Simon &Nath, 2004), while men are more emotionally reserved (Matud, 2004) 

and possibly avoid avenues to talk about such sensitive topics as their marital relationship.  

Jackson, Miller, Oka, and Henry (2014) in the meta-analysis empirically tested the 

assertion that women confront lower satisfaction in marriage than men which produced 

contradictory results. A total of 226 independent samples with a combined sum of 101,110 

participants were included in the meta-analysis. Overall results indicated a statistically 

significant yet exceedingly small gender differences in marital satisfaction between wives and 

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husbands, with wives not considerably less satisfied than husbands. After running a moderator 

analysis, however, the outcome was that this difference was due to the inclusion of clinical 

samples, with wives in marital therapy 51% less likely to be satisfied in their marriages than 

their husbands. The effect size for nonclinical community-based samples indicated no 

significant gender differences among couples in the general population. Additional moderator 

analyses indicated that there were also no gender differences when the levels of marital 

satisfaction of husbands and wives in the same relationship (i.e., dyadic data) were compared. 

 

2.3.5 Parental Stress and Marital Satisfaction 

A study by Bodenmann and Cina (2005) suggests a lasting connection between stress 

and relationship outcomes. The study illustrates that everyday stress often precipitates a 

retrogression in relationship. Another study by Randall and Bodenmann (2009), also confirmed 

that stress can improve or stagnate well-being in close relationships. This is so because the 

quality of a relationship is the primary medium of satisfaction in life. In another study by 

Anthony (2008), dyadic relationships including marital satisfaction was found to exert a solid 

influence on family cohesion and adaptability among married parents in South California. A 

recent meta-analytic study revealed that although couples who have no children experience a 

reduction in marital satisfaction over time, parents are significantly less satisfied than non-

parents are, and the number of children is reliably related to marital dissatisfaction (Twenge, 

Campbell & Foster, 2004).  

Being the parent of a child at a very tender age is also linked with lower marital 

satisfaction in some studies (Crnic & Booth, 1991). Parenting more than two children (Twenge 

et al., 2004) was also found to negatively influence satisfaction in marriage. Crnic and Booth 

(1991) reported that the growth changes in the child, especially when the child is at a tender 

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age, may worsen the minor stressors that parents deal with. According to Bradbury, Fincham 

& Beach (2000), some studies confirm that spouses, after the birth of their first child regarded 

that standard of their relationship and their contentment with family life as inhibited as  

compared to the period before their child came into their lives. Married persons and especially 

women who are parents are more prone to partly ignore the needs of the other spouse. This is 

partly due to an emotional increase of attention and attachment to the new-born, and the 

arduous task of responding promptly to the infant’s needs. 

 Jill Hess (2008) indicated in his study that marital satisfaction and parental stress are 

associated in several ways. Satisfaction in marriage is most significantly correlated in the areas 

of parental discomfort and challenges faced in parent child interactions. However, a 

contradictory research finding by Merrifield (2010) revealed that, as satisfaction in marriage 

of mothers increased, their parenting stress decreased. Several studies also reinforced this 

finding (Gerstein, Crnic, Blacher, & Baker, 2009). Another research by Lavee, Sharlin and 

Katz (1996) examined the assertion that the effect children have on the marriages of their folks 

is triggered by stress in the parental task. A multivariate model was used to assess the 

association between the parenting stress of fathers and mothers and their mental well-being and 

understanding of marital quality.  

In addition, the effects of 6 other variables were assessed. Among these variables were 

2 competing roles namely mother's employment and household division of labour, 2 children-

related variables namely number and age composition, marital duration, and economic distress. 

Data were assembled from both the husband and the wife among 287 intact couples who had 

children living at home. Using structural equation modelling, data from both parents were 

investigated jointly to examine the mutual effect of the married couple on one another. The 

findings showed that parenting stress was affected by the number of children and economic 

distress for both fathers and mothers. Other roles did not have any effect on parenting stress. 

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For both spouses, mental wellness, and the level of understanding of marital quality were 

negatively affected by parenting stress. Significant correlation was found between husbands' 

and wives' parenting stress, as well as a mutual effect of how each of them recognised marital 

quality on each other. 

 

2.3.6 Premarital counselling and Marital satisfaction 

A comprehensive and meta-analytic study conducted by Carroll and Doherty (2003) on 

how productive premarital counselling was. The mean effect size was .80. This means that the 

average couples that participated in a premarital counselling program were better off than 79% 

of those who did not (Carroll and Doherty, 2003). Their findings recommended that the couples 

who took part in premarital counselling had increased rates of being satisfied  and experiencing 

stability within their marriage. Couples who enrolled in premarital counselling programs had 

lower rates of divorce than couples who did not take part in a premarital prevention program.  

 Schumm, Resnick, Silliman, and Bell (1998) carried out a study on Premarital 

Counselling and Satisfaction in marriage among civilian wives of US military personnel. 

Among couples who gave an account of a joint participation in premarital counselling, results 

indicated that both enrolling in premarital counselling and having more satisfaction with the 

counselling experience had increased levels of being satisfied in marriage. Nonetheless, among 

couples who had diverse opinions about going for premarital counselling, results were still 

favourable but less consistent (Schumm, Resnick, Silliman, & Bell, 1998). In another study, 

after analysing the data obtained from the survey, it was revealed that taking part in premarital 

education was a precursor to elevated levels of fulfilment and dedication in marriage. Lower 

levels of conflict and divorce were found to be as a result of taking part in premarital education 

programs (Stanley, Amato, Johnson, & Markman, 2006). Due to the benefits of premarital 

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counselling, various religious leaders in a church, temple or other religious institutions 

viciously encourage premarital counselling for all engaged couples (Meyers, 2011). 

However, Meyers (2011) further indicated that although studies such as that of Schumm 

et al (1998), Carroll and Doherty (2003) and Hudson (2008) stated that married persons who 

had counselling before getting married have decreased levels of marriage breakdown as 

compared to their counterparts who had no counselling before marriage, these studies are 

generated with few notable flaws (Carroll and Doherty, 2003; Hudson, 2008; Schumm, et al., 

1998), For instance, there are other mediating variables that may help couples to stay together 

(Meyers, 2011). Thus, most of the couples who are given such counselling have strong religious 

values. It is unfeasible to obtain with effort what helps if two people stay together in the season 

of marital challenges. The probable reason may include holding on strongly to religious values, 

premarital counselling or the social support provided because of one’s association to a religious 

community (Meyers, 2011). Hence, premarital counselling may not necessarily be the reason 

for marital satisfaction.  

Fawcett, Hawkins, Blanchard, and Carroll (2010) concluded that “we do not see good 

evidence yet for a positive effect of premarital education on relationship quality/satisfaction, 

at least over the short time frame of the typical study” (p. 225). Adding to this assertion is 

Sullivan and Bradbury’s (1997) findings that after marital outcomes was assessed in 60 couples 

after 18 months, no differences existed in satisfaction in marriage and secureness between 

couples who took part in premarital preparation and those who did not. Cunderlach (1985) 

conducted a study to determine whether there is an association between current satisfaction in 

marriage and premarital counselling among two sample populations. The results indicated that 

virtually no correlation exists between premarital counselling and current marital satisfaction. 

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In general terms, several studies have supported the fact that premarital counselling 

leads to marital satisfaction among couples. This is because couples who undergo premarital 

counselling are enlightened about effective strategies that when applied in the face of marital 

difficulties would enhance their marital relationship. On the other hand, some researchers have 

challenged the reliability of the claim that premarital counselling leads to marital happiness 

and satisfaction. 

 

2.4 Conceptual Framework 

Figure 1 Influence of Premarital Counselling, Level of education, Gender, Age at 

marriage, and Parental Stress on Marital Satisfaction 

    Independent Variables                                 Dependent Variable 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

It could be deduced from the conceptual framework in Fig. 1 above that marital satisfaction 

(dependent variable) is influenced by psychosocial factors such as premarital counselling, level 

Level of Education 

Gender 

Age at Marriage 

Parental Stress 

Marital Satisfaction 

Premarital Counselling 

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of education, gender, age at marriage, and parental stress (independent variables). To examine 

the level of marital satisfaction among respondents, these factors must therefore be assessed. 

 

2.5 Statement of Hypotheses 

1. Married persons who partake in premarital counselling will have significantly higher levels 

of marital satisfaction than those who do not go for premarital counselling. 

2. Married persons who have acquired a postgraduate level of education will have a 

significantly lower level of marital satisfaction than married couples who have acquired a 

Diploma/Undergraduate level of education. 

3. Gender will significantly impact on marital satisfaction. 

4. Married persons who got married at less than 30years would have a more satisfying marriage 

than those who got married at 30years and above.  

5. There will be a significantly negative correlation between parental stress and marital 

satisfaction. 

 

2.6 Operational definition of terms 

1. Marital satisfaction- In this study refers to how well the needs of a married person are met 

in the marriage. 

2. Age at marriage- It is defined in this research work as the actual age at which married persons 

got into marriage, which is categorized as less than 30years, and 30 years and above. 

3. Level of education- In this research work refers to the formal education achieved by a 

married person which categorized into Postgraduate education and No Postgraduate education. 

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4. Premarital counselling- Involves being equipped with adequate resources including gaining 

in-depth knowledge about each other as married couples to-be and overcoming possible marital 

challenges that may arise in marriage. 

5. Parental stress- A condition that arises when married persons with children are overwhelmed 

with childcare tasks or are unable to meet the wholistic needs of their children. 

6. Psychosocial factors- These are a combination of psychological factors such as parental 

stress and premarital counselling, and social factors such as age at marriage, gender, and level 

of education. 

7. Gender- The roles associated with the sex(male/female) of the married person in a 

heterosexual union as culturally compatible in Ghana.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER THREE 

METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction 

This chapter highlights the area of study, design of the research, the target population, 

sampling size and sampling technique, materials for data collection, procedure, ethical 

consideration, and analysis of the results. 

 

3.1 Research Design 

 A quantitative method design was adopted for the data collection among married 

respondents. The research design specifically took the form of a survey by use of 

questionnaires. The main purpose of this study is to gather information from married people in 

the Accra Metropolis about their beliefs, opinions, characteristics about the influence of 

psychosocial factors (age at marriage, parental stress, gender, level of education, premarital 

counselling) on marital satisfaction. 

Therefore, a descriptive survey was employed for the study to obtain quantitative data 

from the respondent for analysis since the research is temporal and would be conducted within 

a limited time frame.  

 

3.2 Study site 

The study conducted was restricted to Accra Metropolis in the Greater Accra Region 

of Ghana. Respondents were sampled from Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA), the capital city 

of Ghana. Accra is bounded to the South by the Gulf of Guinea, and the North by Ga West 

Municipal. The Accra Metropolitan Area (AMA) is part of the 216 Metropolitan, Municipal 

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and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in Ghana. It is among the 16 MMDAs in the Greater Accra 

Region with ten Sub Metropolitan District Councils made up of 72 communities. 

The population and housing census conducted in 2010 indicated that the population of 

Accra Metropolitan Area was 1,665,086. Females constituted 51.9 percent and males 

constituted 48.1 percent (GSS, 2012). The age distribution of the population shows that 12.4 

percent fell within the age group 20-24 followed by 11.5% who fell within the 25- 29 age 

group. In almost all the age groups of the population females account for a higher percentage. 

Statistically, for every 100 females, there were about 93 males within the Metropolis (GSS, 

2012).  

The marital status of the population in 2010 who were 12years and older was 1,275,440. 

About 49 percent were never married, 36.3 percent were formally married (customary, church 

or ordinance) while 2.6 percent were separated. As age increases, the pattern of individuals 

who have never married declines steadily as married population increases with age until age 

group 40-44 years where it tends to reduce as a result of deaths, divorce, or separation between 

married couples. 

 

3.4 Sampling size and Sampling technique 

The Krejcie and Morgan (1970) table for determining sample size was applied to 

sample 389 participants for the study. Anon-probability sampling technique (convenience 

sampling) was employed for the study. 

Despite the short fall of non-probability sampling technique, it is relatively, cheaper, 

quicker, and easier to reach out to. Thus, it is not complicated, swift, and inexpensive. In many 

cases, participants can be reached easily to be a part of the sample. As such, for this study, 

convenient sampling, a type of non-probability sampling technique was therefore used. The 

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researcher created an online survey and shared a link on social media with contacts. Also, 

convenience sampling was used to gather data quickly in order to meet the required targeted 

number of respondents, and the data collection would commence even within a few hours. 

Three hundred and ninety -four (394) participants filled the online survey based on their 

availability at the time of data collection and because they were willing to participate 

voluntarily in the research within the time frame given (7 weeks). Respondents included in this 

study were married men and women who are Ghanaians with ages between 18-55 years. Out 

of the total number of data collected, five (5) were incompletely filled and so the remaining 

three hundred and eighty- nine (389) was used for data analysis. 

 

3.5 Materials/Instruments 

The main data collection instrument was a questionnaire made up of demographic data 

such as age, occupation, area of residence, sex, duration of courtship before marriage, 

premarital counselling, duration of marriage, level of education, age at marriage and number 

of children. A set of questionnaire were also used for the data collection via Kobo ToolBox 

which is an integrated set of tools used for building forms and gathering feedback from 

interview conducted especially in difficult field settings. It is a mobile app tool which is used 

in collecting and analysing data and allows for the collection of data offline and submission of 

the data when internet connectivity is available. With this tool, after gathering the data, it is 

automatically uploaded in S