University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh HOW NEWSPAPERS COVER NUCLEAR ISSUES IN GHANA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF DAILY GRAPHIC AND THE GHANAIAN TIMES NEWSPAPERS SHEILA VICTORIA GBORMITTAH University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh HOW NEWSPAPERS COVER NUCLEAR ISSUES IN GHANA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF DAILY GRAPHIC AND THE GHANAIAN TIMES NEWSPAPERS SHEILA VICTORIA GBORMITTAH THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE OCTOBER, 2014 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION This Dissertation is as a result of research work undertaken by Sheila Victoria GBORMITTAH in the DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION STUDIES, COLLEGE OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, under the Supervision of Dr. Godwin Etse SIKANKU in accordance with the guidelines on preparation, presentation and supervision of Dissertation stipulated by the University of Ghana and has not been presented in this University or elsewhere for the award of any degree. Every effort has been made to duly cite all references, but if any has been overlooked, the author is ready to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. ……………………………….. ……………….......................... Sheila Victoria GBORMITTAH Date (Student) ………………………………… ……………………………… Dr. Godwin Etse SIKANKU Date (Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the cause of Nuclear Safety and Security and Nuclear Journalism in Africa ! ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to show my appreciation to:  The Ghana Atomic Energy Commission for fully funding this course;  The Director (Prof. G. Emi-Reynolds) and the entire staff of the Radiation Protection Institute including colleagues at the Nuclear Safety, Security and Safeguards Centre for their steadfast support and encouragement throughout this course;  To the Acting Director (Dr. M. I. Amoakohene) and the entire staff of the School of Communications Studies;  Mr Robert Glover of the Public Records and Archives Administration; Micheal and Bright of the Balme Library; Mr Albert Sam of The Graphics Communications Group; Mr Sackey of The New Times Corporation for their assistance in data collection for this study;  My Supervisor, Dr. G. E. Sikanku for his invaluable contribution and assistance that led to the timely completion of this work;  SCS Class of 2013/2014;  My family and friends – so glad to have you in my blessed life;  My ‘Old Boy’ – He’s proven to be faithful and true once more ! Sheila Victoria GBORMITTAH iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Title page i Declaration page ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Table of Contents v List of Tables viii List of Figures ix List of Plates x Acronyms and Abbreviations xi Abstract 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 2 1.1 Background 2 1.1.1 History of Nuclear Energy 1.1.2 Nuclear Technology: Past, Present and Future 5 1.1.3 Benefits of Nuclear technology 6 1.1.4 Public Perception of Nuclear Technology- The Underlying Issues 7 1.1.5 The Nuclear Industry in Ghana 8 1.2 Problem Statement 9 1.3 Objectives 9 1.4 Research Questions 10 1.5 Research Hypotheses 10 1.6 Period of Study 11 1.7 Relevance of Study 12 1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms 12 1.9 Organisation of the Study 14 1.10 Summary 15 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Theoretical Framework 16 2.2.1 Introduction 16 2.2.2 Framing 17 2.3 Literature Review 19 2.3.1 Media Coverage of Nuclear Issues 19 2.3.2 Media Discourse and Influence on the Nuclear Technology 20 2.3.3 Utilization of the Media by Nuclear Experts and Authorities 22 2.3.4 News Frames on Nuclear Technology 23 2.3.5 Future Developments – Nuclear Journalism in Africa 24 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Summary 25 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 26 3.1 Introduction 26 3.2 Research Design 26 3.2.1 Population and Sample Size 27 3.2.2 Sampling Procedure 27 3.2.3 Coding and Data Collection Technique 28 3.3 Content Analysis 29 3.4 Data Source 30 3.4.1 Daily Graphic 30 3.4.2 The Ghanaian Times 31 3.4.3 Unit of Analysis 31 3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation 32 3.6 Summary 32 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 33 4.1 Introduction 33 4.2 Results 33 4.2.1 Days of Publication 34 4.2.2 Type of Story 35 4.2.3 News Segment 35 4.2.4 Placement of Story 36 4.2.5 Primary Focus of Story 37 4.2.6 Tone of Story 38 4.2.7 Sources Cited in the Coverage of Nuclear Issues In the Newspapers 39 4.2.8 Authors of Story 40 4.2.9 Language of Story 41 4.2.10 Direction of Story 42 4.2.11 Frames 42 4.2.12 Dominant Story Frames 43 4.2.13 People/Science Focus 44 4.3 Research Hypothesis 45 4.3.1 Reasons for Hypothesis I (H1) 45 4.3.2 Reasons for Hypothesis II (H2) 45 4.3.3 Reasons for Hypothesis III (H3) 46 4.3.4 Reasons for Hypothesis IV (H4) 46 4.4 Hypothesis Testing 47 4.4.1 Frames used to define nuclear issues 47 4.4.1.1 What Frames are being used to define nuclear issues in the newspapers? 49 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.2 Determination of the Direction of story on nuclear issues in the newspapers 50 4.4.2.1 How is the nuclear technology represented in the newspapers? 51 4.4.3 Importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story 52 4.4.3.1 What importance do the newspapers place on stories on nuclear issues? 53 4.4.4 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear Issues in Ghana 54 4.4.4.1 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana 55 4.5 Discussions 4.5.1 Frames used to define nuclear issues 56 4.5.2 Determination of the direction of story on nuclear Issues in both newspapers 56 4.5.3 Importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story 57 4.5.4 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana 58 4.6 Summary 58 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60 5.1 Introduction 60 5.2 Conclusion 60 5.3 Limitations 61 5.4 Recommendations 61 5.4.1 The Ghana Atomic Energy Commission 61 5.4.2 The Ghana Journalists’ Association 62 5.5 Future Research Work 62 5.6 Summary 63 REFERENCES 64 APPENDICES 70 A. Supporting Information 70 B. Additional Information on Daily Graphic Newspaper 74 C. Additional Information on The Ghanaian Times Newspaper 77 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Direction of stories on nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times Newspapers 48 Table 4.2: Frames used to define nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times Newspapers 50 Table 4.3: Placement of story on nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers 52 Table 4.4: Source cited on the coverage of nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times Newspapers 54 A1: Data Collection Form 70 B2: Selected Dates of Daily Graphic Newspaper Editions 75 B3: Editions of Daily Graphic analysed 76 C2: Selected Dates of The Ghanaian Times Newspaper Editions 78 C3: Editions of The Ghanaian Times Analysed 80 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1: Days of publication of stories on nuclear issues in both Newspapers 34 Figure 4.2: Type of story on nuclear issues in both newspapers 35 Figure 4.3: News segment sections of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 36 Figure 4.4: Placement of stories on nuclear issues in the pages of the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers 37 Figure 4.5: Primary focus of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 38 Figure 4.6: Tone of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 39 Figure 4.7: Sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in both newspapers 39 Figure 4.8: Authors of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 40 Figure 4.9: Language used in the articles on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 41 Figure 4.10: Direction of story on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 42 Figure 4.11: Frames used in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers 43 Figure 4.12: Dominant story frames used in the coverage of nuclear issues in the two newspapers 44 Figure 4.13: People/Science Focus of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 44 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF PLATES B1: A sample of Daily Graphic Newspaper analysed 74 C1: A sample of The Ghanaian Times Newspaper analysed 77 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS AFRA: African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training related to Nuclear Science & Technology BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation CSO: Civil Society Organisation DOE: Department of Energy GAEC: Ghana Atomic Energy Commission GJA: Ghana Journalists’ Association GNA: Ghana News Agency GNRB: Ghana Nuclear Regulatory Bill GNRP: Ghana Nuclear Reactor Project GSNAS: Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging PRAAD: Public Records and Archives Administration Department SI: Système International d’Unités SPSS: Statistical Product and Service Solutions (originally Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS et al,: and others. etc: et cera n. d: not dated. x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT For understanding the formation of public opinion or citizen action which appears in the form of anti-nuclear or pro-nuclear movements, there is the need to analyse media content for the development of this subject matter over a period of time as the media influences public awareness of issues through framing of news. This study examined the frames, direction of story, placement of story and sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. Data was collected by means of quantitative content analysis of stories on nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times for the periods 1962 to 1964; 1966 to 1968; 2005 to 2007 and 2011 to 2013. Findings suggest that the anti-nuclear frame of ‘public accountability’ representing 39.0% was used to define nuclear issues; the direction of story on nuclear issues in the two newspapers was neutral represented by 54.0% articles; both newspapers did not place much importance on stories on nuclear issues as 93.0% of the articles were published on other pages other than the front page, centre page and back page and the majority of sources cited in both newspapers were the news agencies represented by 54.0% of the articles analysed. Recommendation is both media and nuclear experts should familiarise themselves with the activities of each other for the effective dissemination of relevant news on nuclear issues in Ghana. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background News coverage of nuclear issues is an essential aspect of public discourse. This is particularly so because of the media’s pivotal role in informing and educating the public on subjects which causes a lot of apprehension such as nuclear issues. News paper coverage of nuclear issues is therefore important because past research has established that in times of nuclear accidents like the Chernobyl nuclear accident, majority of people resorted to the media as the primary source of information to the detriment of the formal information sources. Coverage of nuclear issues has been primarily linked to risks of technological hazards with significant impact on politics, legal issues, economics, environment, public health and psychological effects (Kim & Bie, 2013; SNAS, 2008a; Abalkina & Melikhova, 2006). Some of these risks include threats to public health (Kim & Bie, 2013; Gupta et al., 2011). The dominant emotions associated with the nuclear technology are fear and anxiety (Arulchelvan, 2013; Gamson, 1992). Therefore, investigating media representations of controversial issues is a prominent aspect of media and communication research because of the media's role in shaping issues for the audience. 1.1.1 History of Nuclear Energy Although we live in a radioactive world, our society is apprehensive with the potential radioactive contamination of the environment resulting from the technological development and applications of nuclear science (IAEA, 2008; Shapiro, 1990). Radiations are defined as energy in motion originating from the sun and could be grouped into two main categories: natural and man-made sources. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Natural radiation sources originate from cosmic rays from the sun and outer space, the earth’s crust which exist in the environment in rocks and the soil, atmosphere, air and water and food (Potassium-40). Artificial sources originate from various types of accelerators, electron sources and artificial radioactivity used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medicine, industrial applications, defense, veterinary and educational purposes (IAEA, 2008). Since the discovery of radiations, major developments in the nuclear industry which initially focussed on the production of defense weapons during World War II in 1945 is now concentrating on the peaceful applications of nuclear knowledge and technology in the areas of science, medicine, industry, education and research (DOE, n.d). Strictly speaking, nuclear technology is simply the technology that relates to or uses the energy released from nuclear fission or fusion. Examples of the nuclear technology are nuclear reactors for both research and electricity generation, nuclear medicine and other applications in industry, agriculture and education (IAEA, 2007). Stakeholders in the nuclear industry include: media, local government, security agencies, medical institutions, public, the international community, the regulator of the nuclear industry in the country and other nuclear industries (WINS, 2011). Although the first harmful effect of radiations were first reported in the 1900s (SNAS, 2009), the bases for developing radiation protection principles by nuclear experts and subsequent discussions about the consequences of using nuclear technology became and still is a topic of public debate since World War II (Gupta et al., 2011; SNAS, 2008b) – notably after the famous Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings in Japan in 1945. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nonetheless, the media operates in ways that promote apathy, doubt and sluggishness rather than active citizenship and participation (Gamson et al., 1992). This is achieved through emphasizing the production of images rather than facts and information. Images are important as they connote what is visual and they normally signify a mental picture of something not real or present. However, facts, as much as images, take on their meaning by being embedded in some larger system of meaning or frame. These systems of meaning or frame result in the construction of what is real in the minds of media readers and takes the form of media discourse (Gamson et al., 1992). Media discourse is a meaning system in itself, that is, it is about a particular set of ideas and symbols that are used in various public forums to construct meanings to societal issues (Gamson, 1992). It involves certain ways of framing issues which gain or lose prominence over time. This discourse is carried out in many forums like conferences, speeches, hearings, books and magazines, televisions, movies and newspapers which are representative of the major channels of communication (television, print, radio, word of mouth and new media) in society (Gamson, 1992). Consequently, media discussion is an important context for understanding the formation of public opinion on nuclear technology which in a way will determine the future of the industry (Grimston, 2002). 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.2 Nuclear Technology: Past, Present and Future The discovery of the neutron led to major and phenomenal developments in nuclear research including the discovery of uranium fission in 1939 (DOE, n.d; Shapiro 1990). The acknowledgement of the possibility of releasing enormous amount of energy produced by nuclear fission and fusion advanced the creation of an extensive nuclear technology in favour of the production of energetic radiations for research, medical treatment and industrial use (Shapiro, 1990). Presently, due to the harm that energetic radiations could cause when exposure is uncontrolled, adequate measures have been instituted to protect the occupationally exposed worker, patients undergoing diagnostic and therapeutic procedures using radiations and the public from excessive or inadvertent exposure to radiation. These protective and security measures include the enactment of legislation, establishment of regulatory authorities, licensing mechanisms, the setting up of standards for radiation monitoring and exposure, and the requirement for training of radiation workers to conform with accepted practices in working with radiations and radionuclides (IAEA, 2014; IAEA, 1996; Shapiro, 1990). These measures ensure that operations of the nuclear technology are safe and secure for maximum profit. One of the notable principles of the nuclear technology is ‘should its operations fail, it must fail to safety’ (IAEA, 2008). Although there are no clear agreements on the further development of the nuclear technology, it promises the future we all hope for – less environmental degradation and depletion of fossil fuels, economic growth and better living standards (Grimston, 2002; Gamson, 1992). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.3 Benefits of Nuclear Technology Nuclear technology plays an important role in medicine, industry, science, food and agriculture and the creation of jobs. In medicine, it is used for both diagnostic (x-ray, mammography, computed tomography (CT) scans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)) and therapeutic (radiotherapy, nuclear medicine and Brachytherapy) purposes (SNAS, 2008b). In industry, it is used for destination inspection (screening of cargo containers and personnel for contrabands); for non-destructive testing of welds and pipes; well logging (drilling for oil); for sterilisation of medical products and food; in density gauges (for checking moisture content of concrete at constructional sites). One major important use of the nuclear technology is the generation of electricity (SNAS, 2008b; DOE, n.d) for economic growth and development. Archaeologists also use Carbon-14 dating for telling the ages of rocks and prospecting of natural resources like petroleum and other industrial applications. In research, scientists also use applications of the nuclear technology in conducting experiments like structure determination of crystals, physico-chemical applications like studies on solubility of sparingly soluble substances, analytical applications like neutron activation analysis in education and research (IAEA, 2008). Agricultural applications include controlling predatory insects by labelling them with radioactivity, sterilization of foods to increase their shelf lives as well as for the generation of electricity (IAEA, 2008). 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.1.4 Public Perception of the Nuclear Technology – the Underlying Issues Notable amongst the many technologies associated with societal controversies is the nuclear technology, (Arulchelvan, 2013; Gupta et al., 2011; Grimston, 2002). People base their views on nuclear technology on other dimensions relative to the health and safety other than scientific and technical information (Arulchelvan, 2013; Parkins & Haluza-DeLay, 2011). In other words, the use of nuclear technology for electricity generation is a controversial technology with a unique risk perception in the public’s mind in that it occupies a polarised set of perceptions relative to other types of risks like plane crash, vehicular accidents, amongst others. The mere mention of ‘nuclear’ brings to mind Chernobyl, and ‘mushroom clouds’ (Kasperson et al., 1988). Some of the concerns behind the public’s fear or anxiety in some developed countries like Russia and Germany were caused directly by the industry itself. The construction times and costs of many plants were far longer and higher than projected and the performance of many plants was disappointing (Grimston, 2002). Secondly, unpredicted accidents and incidents like the Chernobyl Accident (IAEA, 1992), the radiological accident of San Salvador (IAEA, 1990) amongst others have resulted in some form of reluctance to adopt the nuclear technology by the public (Grimston, 2002). In the same way, the growing mistrust of the ‘nuclear industry’ has a bit of its origin in the arrogance and secretiveness of nuclear spokesmen in many of these countries. The simple suspicion that the industry and its supporters are able to put undue pressure on regulators further damaged their public credibility (Albakina & Melikhova, 2006; Grimson, 2002). 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another underlying concern is the perceived risk associated with the technology (Gupta et al., 2011; Kasperson et al., 1988) although there is a striking difference between lay risk perception and expert risk perception from nuclear power (Slovic, 1987). On the other hand, the major concerns for promoters and operators of the nuclear technology are the political and public opinion influence on it (Grimston, 2002). 1.1. 5 The Nuclear Industry in Ghana In 1961, the Government of Ghana decided to undertake the ‘Ghana Nuclear Reactor Project’ (GNRP) which was intended to introduce nuclear science and technology into the country to exploit the peaceful applications of nuclear energy to foster national development. The central facility of the project was to be a research reactor designed solely for research, human resource development and production of radioisotopes (GAEC, 2012). The long-term strategic objective of this initiative was to develop manpower and promote plans for the introduction of nuclear power for electricity generation for the country. To help realize this objective, the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission (GAEC) was established in 1963 by an Act of Parliament: Act 204 of 1963 to be the sole authority in Ghana responsible for matters relating to the peaceful applications of atomic energy in the areas of medicine (for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes), industry (oil and gas sector, mining, construction), agriculture (pest control, food preservation, plant breeding) and education and research. Subsequently, this Act has been replaced by Act 588 of 2000. (GAEC, 2012). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Problem Statement It has been noted that promoters of the nuclear industry like the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission seem to be unpopular due to limited media coverage (Arulchevan 2013). This study seeks to identify the extent of coverage which newspapers are giving to nuclear issues in Ghana and the degree of importance they attach to it. 1.3 Objectives The prime objectives of this study are to: 1. identify the frames used to define nuclear issues in the newspapers; 2. determine the direction of story on nuclear issues in the newspapers; 3. verify the importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story in pages in the newspapers; 4. identify the sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Questions This study seeks to identify the extent of coverage which newspapers are giving to nuclear issues in Ghana and the degree of importance (that is, the newspaper reporting factors that are present) that is, attached to it. To do so, the following sub-questions were addressed. RQ1. What frames are being used to define nuclear issues in the newspapers? RQ2. How are nuclear issues represented in the newspapers? RQ3. What importance do the newspapers place on nuclear issues? RQ4. Which sources are likely to be cited more in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues? 1.5 Research Hypotheses To examine the frames, direction of story, placement of story and sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana within the specific media context of two newspapers, the following hypotheses were tested; H1. The anti-nuclear frame of ‘Public Accountability’ is more likely to be used to define nuclear issues than the pro-nuclear frame of ‘Progress’ in the newspapers. H2. Anti-nuclear stories are likely to be more than pro-nuclear stories in the newspapers. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H3. It is likely that both newspapers do not place much importance on nuclear issues. H4. The two newspapers are likely to cite more scientific sources than governmental sources in the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. 1.6 Period of Study The study period covers the periods 1962 to 1964; 1966 to 1968; 2005 to 2007 and 2011 to 2013. Firstly, the early 1960s were chosen because the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1963, as such, there was likely to be news stories on its establishment. Secondly, the late 1960s were chosen because they saw the staging of the first coup d’état that overthrew the Dr. Kwame Nkrumah government. The overthrow was commensurate with political instability and the closure and termination of most of the projects initiated by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah. The period of overthrow was coincidentally synonymous with the movement of nuclear weapons testing by the major nuclear states like France and the United States of America was at its peak (Anon., 1966). Thirdly, 2005 through to 2007, Ghana experienced one of its severe power crisis and there was much talk of Ghana going nuclear. At the same time, the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences was established for human resource development in the knowledge of nuclear science and technology. Finally, 2011 through to 2013, Japan experienced its worst nuclear disaster triggered by a tsunami. In 2013, GAEC celebrated its golden jubilee and appreciable progress had been made with the gazetting of the Ghana Nuclear Regulatory Bill to be passed into a law. This is phenomenal as it is required for the regulation of a nuclear power plant. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Relevance of Study Media discourse in a way determines the future of an industry. Currently, there is some form of advocacy for the nuclear technology to be used for electricity generation as part of the energy mix for the country on social media platforms like Ghanaweb and myjoyonline (Abroni 2013; Dadzie, 2013). This research is therefore needed to identify the frames, determine the direction of story, verify the placement of story and identify the sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues. It would also serve as a situational analysis to identify some of the challenges being faced by the nuclear industry when it comes to media coverage. Recommendations would be made based on findings to the appropriate authorities like the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and the Ghana Journalists’ Association for the relevant actions to be taken. 1.8 Operational Definitions of Terms Type of story: This is defined as whether the story on nuclear issues is a straight news story, a feature story, a profile story or an editorial. News segment: This is defined as the placement of a news story on nuclear issues into a segment based on geographical location that is, local news segment, international news segment or regional news segment. Placement of story: This is defined as the placement of stories on nuclear issues in the pages in the newspapers. Primary focus of story: This is defined as nuclear issues like advocacy for nuclear power, applications of nuclear technology, nuclear weapons issues, educational tips 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on nuclear safety and security, training course, nuclear tests, nuclear accident issues and others. Source of Story: This is defined as the sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues. Tone of Story: This is defined as the ‘voice’ of the story. A positive tone suggests a reassuring ‘voice’ and a negative tone suggests an alarming ‘voice’. A neutral tone suggests a ‘voice’ which is neither reassuring nor alarming. Author of story: This is defined as the writer of the news story on nuclear issues. Here, it could a scientist, a journalist or the identity of the author could be unclear. Language of Story: This is defined as the simple or technical language. The former refers to written communication that do not have specialized content and meaning and the latter refers to written communication that have specialized content and meaning. Direction of Story: This is defined as pro-nuclear, anti-nuclear or neutral. Pro- nuclear stands for the advocacy for the building or use of nuclear power plants for electricity generation or its applications. Anti-nuclear stands for the opposition to the use of /or production of electricity from nuclear technology. Neutral stands for having neither a pro-nuclear nor anti-nuclear stance. Frames: These are defined as the working frames associated with the pro-nuclear, anti-nuclear and neutral movements. The working frame for the pro-nuclear movement is ‘Progress.’ The working frame for the anti-nuclear movement is ‘Public Accountability’ and there is the non-contested frame of ‘Runaway.’ 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dominant story frame: This is defined as the dominant frame of conflict or economic consequences. Conflict frame is used to describe stories that focus on conflict between two or more subjects like people versus technology or government versus government whereas economic consequences frame is used to describe stories that focus on monetary or economic factors involved in nuclear technology problems or solutions. People/ Science focus: This is defined as the central point around which the story evolves. People focus signifies the emphasis is on people whereas science focus signifies that the emphasis is on science. Nuclear technology: Any technology that relates strictly to a nucleus or the use of energy released from nuclear fission or fusion. Nuclear issues: All stories on the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, ‘nuclear,’ and related stories. 1.9 Organisation of the Study This work is grouped into five (5) chapters. Chapter One (1) gives a brief introduction to the study; Chapter Two (2) covers theoretical review and literature on the study; Chapter Three (3) covers the data and procedures used in carrying out the study; Chapter Four (4) covers the results and discussions of the study and Chapter Five (5) covers the conclusions and recommendations made based on the study. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.10 Summary This Chapter captures a brief introduction to the study. It also talked about the issues relating to the history of the industry, the nuclear industry in Ghana; giving highlights on the history of the nuclear technology, its uses, benefits and some harm associated with the technology. It discussed the problem informing the study, its research objectives, research questions, hypotheses and the relevance of the study. It finally gave the outline of the study. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction In order to systematically assess newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana, this section presents previous works published in this area in relation to media discourse. The chapter reviews and discusses works in the social sciences on nuclear technology, media coverage of nuclear issues and how nuclear experts use the media. In a nutshell, the chapter presents both theoretical framework and literature review. 2.2 Theoretical Framework 2.2.1 Introduction Communication theory addresses the processes that allow communications to occur. Communication theories are aimed at improving our understanding of the process of mass communication to help predict and control the outcomes of mass communications efforts in the real world. This explains why most mass communications researches are accompanied by communication theories (Severin & Tankard, 2001). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.2 Framing Framing falls under the broad category of mass media effects and it is typically concerned with the salience of issues attributes (Scheufele, 2000). It refers to the way events and issues are organized and made sense of, especially by media, media professionals, and their audiences (Reese, 2001). The concept of framing is useful for assessing media coverage of news. It is specifically useful in understanding the media’s role in political life and at the same time, it is the lens through which people interpret issues (Bales, 2005). Some functions of media framing are: frames define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgements and suggest remedies (Entman, 1993). One of its shortcomings is that it ignores the link between population growth and environmental problems and that the public under the influence of the media coverage, would also fail to make that link (Severin & Tankard, 2001). There are two main concepts of framing: media frames and audience frames (Scheufele, 1999). Media frames are the particular ways in which journalists compose a news story to optimize audience accessibility whereas audience frames refer to the mentally stored clusters of ideas that guide people in their processing of information (Entman, 1993). Media frames are used by journalists to frame the news. This occurs in two forms: frame-sending and frame-setting. The former implies that journalists mostly frame their coverage in line with their personal interpretations of what is at issue whilst the latter denotes the practice of merely relaying the frames as presented by different public actors (Brüggemann, 2014). Although journalists can use multiple ways of framing the news, literature points to the fact that the four main frames used in news framing are: conflict frame, human 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interest frame, responsibility frame and the economic consequence frame (Valkenburg et al., 1999). Conflict frame emphasizes conflict between individuals, groups, or institutions (Neuman et al., 1992). It is widely used in framing news stories on politics as well as during routine news periods. This kind of coverage makes winning and losing the central concern; the language of war, games, and competition is featured, with an emphasis on the performance and style of a party or an individual (Jamieson, 1992). By human interest frame refers to the framing of news such that an individual’s story or an emotional angle is added to the presentation of an event, issue, or problem. It is a way of making the news personal, sentimental and dramatic (Valkenburg et al., 1999). By responsibility frame is meant by the frame that presents an issue or problem in such a way as to attribute responsibility for causing or solving the problem to the government or to an individual or to a group (Valkenburg et al., 1999). The economic consequences frame renders an event, problem, or issue in terms of the economic consequences it would have on an individual, group, institution, region, or country. News is often framed in terms of the actual or potential economic impact or consequences on the audience (Neuman et al., 1992). The economic impact of an event has an important news value and journalists use the economic consequence frame to make an issue relevant to their audience (Gamson, 1992). These frames can further be classified as episodic or thematic. In other words, episodic frames present issues as series of disconnected episodes, random events or case studies whereas thematic frames provide details about trends and identify the flaws at the community or systems level that have contributed to the problem (Bales, 2005). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Some of the advantages of using framing in media research are: it allows for more clever analyses of news coverage and it helps to understand how people process news (Severin & Tankard, 2001). Inasmuch as the concept of framing has been used in media research and other related studies (political science, communications and sociology), further research work that could be carried out on framing are frame building, frame-setting, individual–level effects framing and frames of journalists as audiences (Scheufele, 1999; Brüggemann, 2014).These are particularly relevant because research in these areas is under developed (Reese, 2001). In this study, the framing theory was used to address the four (4) research questions on frames, direction of story, placement of story and sources cited on the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. 2.3 Literature Review This section reviews and discusses works in the social sciences on the nuclear technology, media coverage of nuclear issues and how nuclear experts use the media. 2.3.1 Media Coverage of Nuclear Issues The issues concerning the nuclear industry that gets media attention are nuclear accidents (Kaspersky et al., 1988; Albakina & Melikhova, 2006); risk perceptions associated with the industry (Kaspersky et al., 1988; Albakina & Melikhova, 2006; Grimston, 2006) and the concerned public opinions and perceptions of the industry (Grimston, 2006). This is a little confusing to the nuclear community because the risks and accidental deaths associated with the nuclear technology is minimal as 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compared to the normal day-to-day activities like construction, transportation, mining and so on (Kaspesky et al. 2006). Meanwhile, there are so many untold success stories of the nuclear technology. These include the phenomenal breakthrough of its applications in medicine, industry, research, agriculture, education and job creation (Arulchevan, 2013). 2.3.2 Media Discourse and Influence on the Nuclear Technology Media messages act as teachers of values, ideologies and beliefs for interpreting the world around us (Brüggemann, 2014; Gamson, 1992). These interpretations result in public perceptions which are the products of intuitive biases and economic interests that reflect cultural values (Kasperson et al., 1988). Media discussion is therefore relevant because it is an essential context for understanding the formation of public opinion or citizen action. In the matters of the nuclear technology, this appears in the form of pro-nuclear or anti-nuclear movements (Gamson, 1992). These pro-nuclear or anti-nuclear movements are as a result of disproportionate coverage accorded to rare or dramatic risks, or risk events associated with the nuclear technology. Hence, it is not surprising that people’s estimates of the principal causes of death and damages are related to the amount of media coverage they receive (Kasperson et al., 1988). Attributes of media messages that account for heightened public fears are volume, the degree to which the media message is disputed and dramatization or the symbolic meanings of the media message. Firstly, high volumes of information mobilize latent fears about a particular risk. This enhances the recollection of previous accidents or management failures or 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh enlarges the extent to which particular failures, events, or consequences can be imagined. In this way, nuclear technologies or activities may come to be viewed as dangerous due to the high volumes of information (Kasperson et al., 1988). Secondly, debates among experts heighten public uncertainty about what the facts really are; increase doubts about whether the hazards are really understood, and decrease the credibility of official spokespersons. This implies that if the risks are already feared by the public, then increased concern is the likely outcome (Kasperson et al., 1988). Thirdly dramatization also increases public fears. Sensational headlines like “Thousands Dead!” following the Chernobyl accident increased the fame of that accident and the perceived devastating potential of nuclear power. If erroneous information sources find ready access to the mass media without effective antidotes, then large social impacts, even for minor events, become entirely possible (Kasperson et al., 1988). Typical examples of the outcome of these reasons for public fears are the analyses of media coverage of the Three Mile Island and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accidents. The massive quantity of media coverage not only reported the events but defined and shaped the issues and associated risks (Knight, 2013; Kasperson et al., 1988) thereby contributing to the apprehension of the public on the nuclear technology. Furthermore, media influence on the nuclear technology helps to account for such survey results as the decline in support for nuclear power after the Three Mile Island nuclear accident and a rebound after the burst of media publicity had died out (Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). A survey conducted by Ipsos MORI (a leading marketing research company in the United Kingdom and Ireland) in Britain also revealed the same trend. The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster that occurred on 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh March 11, 2011 also resulted in a decline in statistics in support for the nuclear technology for electricity generation from 47% to 36% and an increase in opposition from 19% to 28% in June 2011 when the nuclear accident due to a natural disaster was given media publicity. In December 2011, the statistics for those in support rose from 36% to 50% and statistics for those in opposition dropped from 28% to 20% on the same issue due to the limited media publicity accorded it at that time (Knight, 2013). 2.3.3 Utilization of the Media by Nuclear Experts and Authorities Nuclear experts need media visibility to put forth their message for the acceptance of the nuclear technology. Science and technology news is almost nonexistent in the media for obvious presumptions such as science news do not ‘sell,’ scientists are not open to the media, they are unavailable and inaccessible to journalists and often times use technical language (Arulchelvan, 2013). There is also a lack of dedicated and trained science reporters on science and technology beats (Arulchelvan, 2013) and poor communications from the nuclear industry (Abalkina & Melikhova, 2006). It has however been proven that greater attention to science media contributes to individuals being knowledgeable about a given science topic (Yi-Fan Su et al., 2014). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.4 News Frames on Nuclear Technology The essence of a news story is to inform. People get information from the media (print, broadcast or online); through news, a review, profile, feature or the listings of an upcoming event. News is said to be any new information about something that has happened recently. Newspapers are the source of most of the news we consume. Whilst it is clear that legacy media that is, newspapers, magazines, radio and broadcast television are being severely damaged by new media forms like cable television and the internet; 85% of fact-based news stem from newspapers. Another notable thing about newspapers is that, they still remain the most dominant source of information in developing countries (Arulchelvan, 2013). The news media frames issues in so many ways. Frames normally suggest what the controversy is about, that is, the essence of the issue. A frame can therefore be said to be the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion and elaboration. Frames are devices used in the news making process like headlines, leads and catch phrases (Brüggemann, 2014). The use of frames is known as framing and it occurs on different locations. Journalists frame their news stories and audience frame information received from the media (Brüggemann, 2014; Gamson, 1992). Frames represent cognitive structures and form an important element of public discourse (Gamson, 1992). Frame setting implies that journalists frame their news coverage in line with personal interpretations of what is at issue whereas frame sending implies sending the frames as presented by other public actors like advocacy groups, experts and scientists (Brüggemann, 2014). 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The three main frames identified in an older research that was used to define the nuclear technology are ‘progress,’ ‘public accountability’ and ‘runaway’. Both pro- nuclear and anti-nuclear movements are competing for the loyalties of the public with the pro-nuclear movement framing the nuclear technology as progressive. This is to say that the nuclear technology suggests technological progress which is the engine for economic growth and promises jobs and better living standards for all (Gamson,1992). Conversely, one anti-nuclear frame is the public accountability frame. Here, operators of nuclear power plants are portrayed as dishonest, greedy and arrogant and public officials who are to monitor and regulate the industry are held captives of the industry (Gamson, 1992). The non-contested frame is the runaway frame that describes the industry as uncontrollable and a time bomb waiting to explode. A Frankenstein monster that might turn on its creator because radiations are invisible and its harmful effects are often times not deterministic (immediately) but stochastic (lethally later) and can cause mutations (Gamson, 1992). 2.3.5 Future Developments – Nuclear Journalism in Africa Nuclear knowledge and technology is fast growing on the African continent with the establishment of the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences in Ghana which is serving as a designated African Regional Cooperative Agreement for Research, Development and Training related to Nuclear Science & Technology (AFRA) training centre for the continent (IAEA, 2012). Journalists covering nuclear issues are familiar with the challenges of not only a ‘difficult’ subject matter, but also classified information and secrecy. But journalists in the developing world may also 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh face a shortage of independent experts, dysfunctional media environments, and tight political controls over press freedom (Arulchelvan, 2013). The departing words are there is the need for the introduction of nuclear journalism into the journalism practices in the country to help educate the society on nuclear issues as this is one of the most important actions that would facilitate the acceptance of the technology by the people. 2.4 Summary In conclusion, this chapter highlights both theoretical framework and the literature review for this study. The main communication theory associated with this study for answering the four (4) research questions is framing because it primarily allows for the analysis of media coverage of news. The literature reviewed made mention of the media coverage of nuclear issues; how nuclear experts make use of the media as well as media discourse and influence on the nuclear technology; the main frames used by the media to frame the nuclear technology, the possibility of some future research work and the possibility of the introduction of nuclear journalism in Ghana for that matter Africa. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter highlights the research method, data and procedures used for the study. These comprise data sources, the population size, sample size, research method and design, the units of analysis, method of data collection and data analysis and interpretation. It also gives a brief validation for the two newspapers that were selected for this study. The research method used for this study is the quantitative content analysis. 3.2 Research Design This study examines newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana within thematic time periods. The newspaper coverage was studied through content analysis. The unit of analysis were stories on the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and other related stories in two major newspapers in Ghana: the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times. Since the newspapers are not archived on any academic research portal, article search was carried out using each newspaper’s archived copies at the Public Records and Archives Administration Department (PRAAD), the Graphic Communications Group, New Times Corporation and the Balme Library of the University of Ghana. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.1 Population and Sample Size The universe is all the 4, 384 editions of the two newspapers that fall within the period of study. However, based on the constructed week sampling which was employed, population sample size is 168 copies each of the two newspapers making a total of 336 copies. However a sample size of 100 was used. 3.2.2 Sampling Procedure A system of constructed week sampling was used to achieve a representative sample for the study. The study period covers the periods 1962 to 1964 (period when the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission was established); 1966 to 1968 (period when the first coup d’état was staged); 2005 to 2007 (periods that Ghana experienced one of its severe power crisis, the Graduate School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences was established) and 2011 to 2013, (periods when the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurred, celebration of the Golden Jubilee of GAEC and the processing of the Ghana Nuclear Regulatory Bill which is required for the regulation of the nuclear power plant). All editions of the two newspapers within the selected period had an equal chance of being selected or sampled. These periods were selected to aid in tracking the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana since the establishment of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission in 1963 (GAEC, 2012). Using these years, some stories on the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and related stories were obtained. Using the constructed week sampling (Dotson et al., 2012; Song & Chang, 2011; Lacy et al., 2001; Riffe et al., 1993), a total of 336 newspapers were selected for 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh analysis. Here, the calendar was used as the sampling frame. All 52 Mondays of the year were identified and one Monday was selected randomly to represent the first day of the week. The procedure was repeated for Tuesday, Wednesday through to Saturday to ‘construct’ a week. This was to ensure that all days of the week were equally represented. Two (2) constructed weeks were conducted for each year. This was because a ‘two (2) constructed week for a year’ has been accepted as the best way to select newspapers for investigation (Song & Chang, 2011). This was conducted for all the 12 years selected for analysis. With two (2) constructed weeks per year yielding 14 samples for a year, a total of 336 samples were selected for the 12 years for the two newspapers (Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times). A total of 100 editions for both newspapers were selected and analysed from the total population of 336 publications. The editions formed about 30% of the total population. 3.2.3 Coding and Data Collection Technique For each selected edition, headline, story leads and the mention of Ghana Atomic Energy Commission or ‘nuclear’ were the suggestive criteria for stories for analysis. Identified stories were then read and coded. Data collection was carried out using a coding guide developed based on the objectives of the study, theory, research questions and hypotheses. The level of data measurement used was the nominal level that deals with frequency. All 100 articles were coded into an SPSS file for statistical analysis. Previously, a pilot study was carried out in which articles were numbered and data collection was primarily by hand coding and tallying on the data collection sheet. This was to help 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh minimise potential errors, prior to data entry and conversion into the SPSS file for the statistical analysis. 3.3 Content Analysis Content analysis is a “method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables” (Kerlinger, 2000). It is widely used for analysing text data. In content analysis, content to be examined is selected based on some explicit and applied rules. Operational definitions and rules for the classification of variables are done such that other researchers could repeat the research and obtain the same results. This makes it objective and its goal is an accurate representation of a body of messages. Some of the uses of content analysis are: it is used for describing communication content to identify what exists and to help identify developments of a subject matter over a period of time; it serves as a reality check for comparing media content to real life situations. It is also used for the analysis of media content to determine the importance of new topics (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). Steps involved in content analysis are: the formulation of the research questions or hypothesis; definition of the universe; selection of the most appropriate sample from the population; definition of the unit of analysis; construction of the categories of the content to be analysed and the determination of a quantification system; training coders and conducting a pilot study; coding the content according to established definitions; analysis of the data and drawing conclusions from the analysis. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 Data Source Data sources were the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. Selection of these newspapers was based on: popularity (most read), most widely circulated, ownership (state-owned versus private), affiliations and the communities these newspapers serve. Newspapers and news paper clippings on nuclear issues were obtained from reliable sources like the Public Records and Archives Administration Department (PRAAD), the Graphic Group of Communications, New Times Corporation and the Balme Library of the University of Ghana. 3.4.1 Daily Graphic The Daily Graphic is a state-owned daily newspaper owned in Ghana. It was established in 1950 by Cecil King of the London Daily Mirror Group. It is the most widely read newspaper in the country with about 100, 000 circulation nation-wide. Being state-owned, it regularly covers stories on the government, issues and policies that are of national interest. The paper, owned by the Graphic Communication Group Limited (which is owned by government), also prints two weekly entertainment newspapers, namely The Mirror and Graphic Showbiz; The Graphic Sports, which is a sports newspaper; the Junior Graphic news is aimed at a younger audience; The Graphic Business is a business and financial newspaper, the Graphic Advertiser, is a free ads paper, and the Nsɛmpa, is a regional weekly newspaper for the Ashanti Region (Addy, 2012). 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.2 The Ghanaian Times The Ghanaian Times is also a state-owned daily newspaper and is published in Accra. The newspaper is published six times per week and is regarded as one of the most circulated state-owned paper in Ghana with a circulation of about 22,000 copies a day. It is printed by the New Times Corporation (NTC), formerly known as the Guinea Press Limited (Ghanaian Times, 2014). The Guinea Press Limited was established in 1957 by Ghana’s first President Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as the printing house for his political party, the People’s Convention Party (CPP) (Addy, 2012). Since The Ghanaian Times was established by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, there is the possibility that The Ghanaian Times would cover news on most of the projects he initiated which includes the nuclear industry through the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission. This basically informed the decision to use The Ghanaian Times as a data source for this study. 3.4.3 Unit of Analysis Unit of analysis comprise all news stories that appeared in the two dailies with focus on the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission. ‘nuclear’ or any other related stories. For each unit, information collected included: name of newspaper, year, day of publication, type of story, news segment section where story was placed, placement of the story on pages, primary focus of the story, tone of story, sources cited, author of the story, language of story, direction of story, frames (pro-nuclear, anti-nuclear and non-contested), dominant story frame and whether the stories were people or science focused. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Data Analysis and Interpretation Data analysis was executed using the SPSS statistical analysis tool. Percentages, frequencies, bar charts, pie charts and nonparametric chi-square (χ2) tests were used for the description and testing of statistical or significant differences of results obtained (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). The interpretation and discussion of the results which follows in the next chapter were based on the link between the theory, research questions, hypotheses, experience, other research works and the results obtained (Cronk, n.d.). In hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis (H0) is either rejected or accepted. The level of significance is normally set at 0.05 (p≤ 0.05) (Wimmer & Dominick, 2006). The frequency table generated is checked to determine whether there is a relationship or not. After which, the relationship is tested to determine whether the relationship is statistically significant or not. After which conclusions are drawn (Wimmer & Dominick, 2006). 3.6 Summary In summary, this chapter primarily discussed the research method, data and procedures used for this study, that is, quantitative content analysis was used to examine the text data obtained from the newspapers; the population and sample size, that is, publication of the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times from within the thematic periods of 1962-1964, 1966-1968; 2005-2007 and 2011-2013. The method of sampling, that is, the constructed week sampling yielded 100 samples which were analysed; data analyses and interpretation of results and discussions. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Introduction This section highlights the results, hypothesis testing and discussions. The study objectives were to firstly, identify the frames used to define nuclear issues; secondly determine the direction of story of nuclear issues; thirdly, verify the importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story and finally, identify the sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. 4.2 Results Overall, The Ghanaian Times published 65 articles on nuclear issues based on the study periods of 1962-1964, 1966-1968, 2005-2007 and 2011-2013 – and the Daily Graphic published 35 articles in the same periods. For the Daily Graphic, data were obtained for the years 1962, 1964, 1966, 2005, 2006, 2011 and 2013 (Appendix B3). For The Ghanaian Times, data was obtained for the years 1962, 1964, 1966, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2012 and 2013 (Appendix C3) respectively. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.1 Days of Publication Rationally, stories reported in the early days of the week (Mondays and Tuesdays) tend to be widely read and generate public discussions on different platforms. It was observed that Mondays and Tuesdays carried the least number of articles on nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times whereas Wednesdays, Thursdays and Fridays carried the highest number of articles on nuclear issues. A possible reason for this could be that advertising rates, ‘best selling’ and prominent news are published on Mondays and Tuesdays in both newspapers. The other days are flexible and ‘less selling’ news like nuclear issues are published. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1 20 15 10 5 0 Figure 4.1: Days of publications of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2 Type of Story Type of story in media terms refers to whether the story is straight news, feature story, editorial, profile, entertainment or an opinion story. The study examined straight news stories, feature stories, editorials and profile stories. Here, 87.0% of the news stories on nuclear issues were straight news, and 11.0% of the news stories were feature stories. This implies that there are limited educational articles on nuclear issues in the media. Editorial and profile stories were 1.0% each indicating a very little interest in the writing of editorials and profile stories on nuclear issues and experts. This is illustrated by Figure 4.2. 11.0% 1.0% 1.0% Straight News Feature Story Editorial 87.0% Profile Figure 4.2 Type of Story on nuclear issues in both newspapers 4.2.3 News Segment Here, news segment is defined as the grouping of news stories based on geographical location that is, local news, international news and regional news. During the analysis, it was observed that most stories on nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times were foreign news. This is represented by 70.0% of the entire 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh news stories analysed for the study. Local stories were less. This is represented by 29.0% of the entire news stories analysed. Nuclear story from the region (Africa) was only 1.0%, which is negligible. This implies that there are limited local news stories on nuclear issues in Ghana and Africa. This is illustrated in Figure 4.3. 29.0% Local News 70.0% Regional News 1.0% International News Figure 4.3: News segment sections of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 4.2.4 Placement of Story Placement of news stories on the front page, centre page and back pages signify the importance and value attached to that story. Results from the study indicate that 93.0% of stories on nuclear issues were placed on pages other than the front page, centre back and back page. This means that not much importance is attached to stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers. This is illustrated by Figure 4.4. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.0% 1.0% 1.0% Front page Back page Centre page 93.0% Other Figure 4.4: Placement of stories on nuclear issues in the pages of the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers 4.2.5 Primary Focus of Story Some primary focus of nuclear issues are: advocacy for nuclear power, applications of nuclear technology, nuclear weapons issues, educational tips on nuclear safety and security, training courses, nuclear tests, nuclear accident issues and other related issues. The scope of coverage shows that stories on nuclear weapons issues (46.0%) were highest with educational tips on nuclear safety and security (2.0%) being the least are shown in Figure 4.5. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Figure 4.5: Primary focus of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 4.2.6 Tone of Story This is defined as the ‘voice’ of the story. A positive tone suggests a reassuring ‘voice’ and a negative tone suggests an alarming ‘voice’. A neutral tone suggests a ‘voice’ which is neither reassuring nor alarming. Figure 4.6 shows that both newspapers had a more positive tone (48.0%) in the coverage of stories on nuclear issues than a negative tone (40.0%). However, the neutral tone (40.0%) could be as a result of the conflict that was present in most of the stories. This is illustrated in Figure 4.6. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40.0% 48.0% Positive Negative Neutral 12.0% Figure 4.6: Tone of stories on nuclear issues in both newspapers 4.2.7 Sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in the newspapers Information on nuclear issues could come from government officials, nuclear experts, international organisations, civil societies, religious bodies, health officials, environmentalists and civil societies. The study examined the sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in the two newspapers. 1.0% 17.0% 28.0% Government Source GAEC Source News agency 54.0% Other Figure 4.7: Sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in both newspapers 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.7 shows that the main sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in both newspapers were the news agencies (BBC, Reuters, GNA). Information from government sources (1.0%) was the least. Thus, it can be inferred that the two newspapers obtained their stories from the media instead of the nuclear experts. 4.2.8 Authors of Story Here, authors refer to the writers of the stories. Results obtained from this study indicate that the identity of majority of the authors was unclear (76.0%) that is, could not be established. Scientists (3.0%) were the least authors of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers. This goes to buttress the fact that most of the sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in both newspapers were the news agencies (Figure 4.7). This is illustrated in Figure 4.8 3.0% 21.0% Scientist Journalist 76.0% Unclear Figure 4.8: Authors of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.9 Language of Story Language here refers to written communication which could be simple or technical. Scientists are known to use technical language in their writings therefore the study examined the language used in communicating nuclear issues in the two newspapers. Results indicate that simple language (90.0%) was used in communicating nuclear issues in the two newspapers whereas technical language (10.0%) was used in communicating nuclear issues. This indicates that the least authors of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers were scientists who had the right information on all issues concerning the nuclear technology (Figure 4.8). This is illustrated in Figure 4.9. 10.0% Simple Technical 90.0% Figure 4.9: Language used in the articles on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.10 Direction of Story Direction of story refers to the leanings of the stories on nuclear issues either in support of the nuclear technology or against it. Results indicate that most stories were neutral (54.0%) on their stance in support of the nuclear technology. This is illustrated in Figure 4.10. 36.0% Pro-nuclear 54.0% Anti-nuclear 10.0% Neutral Figure 4.10: Direction of story on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 4.2.11 Frames Research has proven that the pro-nuclear and anti-nuclear movements all have associated with them peculiar frames that they use to define nuclear issues. These are ‘Progress’ for the pro-nuclear movement, ‘Public Accountability’ for the anti-nuclear movement and ‘Runaway’ which is a non-contested or neutral frame. Results indicate that most stories were framed with the ‘Public Accountability’ frame (39.0%) implying that government officials and regulators are more concerned about the protection of the nuclear technology than the public. This is shown in Figure 4.11. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8.0% 36.0% Progress 39.0% Runaway Public Accountability 17.0% Other Figure 4.11: Frames used in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers 4.2.12 Dominant Story Frame Two frames that were considered for the identification of the dominant story frame were the frames of conflict or economic consequences. The conflict frame focussed on conflict between two or more subjects like people versus technology or governments versus technology whereas economic consequences focussed on monetary or economic factors involved in nuclear technology problems or solutions. Results indicate that stories that had the dominant story frame of conflict (55.0%) were more than stories that had the dominant story frame of economic consequences (45.0%). This is shown in Figure 4.12. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45.0% 55.0% Economic consequence Conflict Figure 4.12: Dominant story frames used in the coverage of nuclear issues in the two newspapers 4.2.13 People/ Science Focus People focus signifies the emphasis is on people whereas science focus signifies that the emphasis is on science. Results indicate that majority of the stories on nuclear issues were focused on science (81.0%) than they were on people (19.0%). 19.0% People Science 81.0% Figure 4.13: People /Science focus of stories on nuclear issues in the two newspapers 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Research Hypotheses 4.3.1 Reasons for Hypothesis I (H1) Frames make us think about social phenomena in a certain way, often by appealing to basic psychological biases (Reese, 2001). Frames that are being used to construct news stories on the nuclear technology are: directly harmful (fatal and injurious); disease causing and environmentally damaging (Gupta et al., 2011; Parkins & Haluza-DeLay, 2011; Kasperson et al., 1988). At the same time, some other frames identified through research that are used in framing news stories on the nuclear technology are: ‘progress’ (for pro-nuclear movements), ‘no public accountability’ (for anti-nuclear movements) and ‘runaway’ (non-contested frame) (Gamson, 1992). For this reason, newspaper coverage of the nuclear issues in Ghana would reflect the anti-nuclear movement frame of there being inadequate public accountability by those who control nuclear power as well as government officials and regulators seeking to protect the technology and not people (Gamson, 1992). 4.3.2 Reasons for Hypothesis II (H2) Although beneficial, the nuclear technology is ranked as a controversial technology in the society; this is so because it evokes fear and anxiety (Gamson, 1992). Nonetheless, it still stands out as a controversial topic in both developed and developing countries (Arulchelvan, 2013; Parkins & Haluza-DeLay, 2011; Grimston, 2002). It has been ascertained that the positive factors that promote public acceptance of controversial technologies are: trust, perceived benefits, knowledge, individual differences and attitudes whereas the negative factors that promote its rejection include: general negative impact, negative health impact, negative environment impact and perceived risks (Gupta et al., 2011). Consequently, since the nuclear 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh technology is perceived to be a technology that evokes fear and anxiety (Gupta et al., 2011; Grimston, 2002; Gamson, 1992), most newspaper coverage and stance on the nuclear technology would suggest anti-nuclear sentiments or opinions. 4.3.3 Reasons for Hypothesis III (H3) Science and technology do not enjoy much media attention (Arulchelvan, 2013). For this reason, minimum articles are being published on nuclear issues except for emergencies like nuclear incidents and accidents (Arulchelvan, 2013; Knight, 2012; Abalkina & Melikhova, 2006). Accordingly, this supports the fact that there would not be much importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story on noticeable pages in the newspapers. 4.3.4 Reasons for Hypothesis IV (H4) News frames sometimes determine which sources (government, protest groups, experts, and journalists) would be cited in news stories (Brüggemann, 2014; Dotson et al., 2012). Sources in social issues coverage function as claims-makers, helping to construct the definition of what is at issue. Sources quoted most frequently tend to have more direct access to framing the issue to meet their own desires, which could be different depending on the sources involved. Furthermore, research shows that as social issues’ coverage mature (story stage of maturation), primary sources tend to change from experts to government sources (Dotson et al., 2012). 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Hypotheses Testing The objectives of the study led to the formulation of four (4) hypotheses. These hypotheses sought to test for the significant differences (that is, observed and expected chi-square (χ2) values) (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011) in the definition of nuclear issues; the direction of story in the coverage of nuclear issues; placement of story on nuclear issues and sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. 4.4.1 Frames used to Define Nuclear Issues Frames for the pro-nuclear, anti-nuclear and the non-contested movements had been developed for use in the analysis of media materials on nuclear issues in an older research (Gamson, 1992). These frames were used to identify these same elements in Hypothesis I of this study which sought to identify the frames used to define nuclear issues in the two newspapers. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Frames used to define nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers Working frame Total Progress Runaway Public Other Accountability Daily 12 6 15 2 35 Graphic 34.3% 17.1% 42.9% 5.7% 100.0% Name of Newspaper The 24 11 24 6 65 Ghanaian 36.9% 16.9% 36.9% 9.2% 100.0% Times Total 36 17 39 8 100 36.0% 17.0% 39.0% 8.0% 100.0% χ2 = 0.60 df = 3 ρ = 0.89 Results indicate that 39 out of 100 articles (39.0%) had the anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘Public Accountability’ signifying insufficient public accountability by those who control the nuclear technology; 36 out of 100 (36.0%) had the pro-nuclear movement frame of ‘Progress’. Seventeen (17) out of 100 (17.0%) had the non- contested frame of ‘Runaway’ and eight (8) out of 100 (8.0%) articles did not use any of the frames (‘Public Accountability,’ ‘Progress,’ and ‘Runaway’) to define nuclear issues. The Daily Graphic had 15 out of its 35 (42.9%) articles using the anti-nuclear frame of ‘Public Accountability’; 12 out of 35 (34.3%) articles had the pro-nuclear frame of ‘Progress’; six (6) out of 35 (17.1%) articles had the non-contested frame of ‘Runaway’ and 2 out of 35 (5.7%) articles did not use any of the frames (‘Public Accountability,’ ‘Progress,’ and ‘Runaway’). However, The Ghanaian Times had 24 out of 65 (36.9%) articles using the anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘Public Accountability’; another 24 out of 65 (36.9%) articles using the pro-nuclear frame of 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ‘Progress’; 11 out of 65 (17.1%) articles had the non-contested frame of ‘Runaway’ and 6 out of 65 (5.7%) articles did not use any of the frames (‘Public Accountability,’ ‘Progress,’ and ‘Runaway’) to define nuclear issues. 4.4.1.1 What frames are being used to define nuclear issues in the newspapers? Frames that are being used to construct news stories on the nuclear technology are: directly harmful (fatal and injurious); disease causing and environmentally damaging. For this reason, newspaper coverage of the nuclear issues in Ghana would reflect the anti-nuclear movement frame of there being inadequate public accountability by those who control the nuclear technology (Gamson, 1992). H1: The anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘Public Accountability’ is more likely to be used to define nuclear issues than the pro-nuclear movement frame of ‘Progress’ in the newspapers. This hypothesis was formulated based on the assumption that the two newspapers would use the anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘public accountability’ to define nuclear issues. H0: The anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘Public Accountability’ is not likely to be used to define nuclear issues than the pro-nuclear movement frame of ‘Progress’ in the newspapers. The nonparametric chi-square testing was calculated comparing the frames used to define nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. At a significant level of 0.05, Table 4.1 shows that (χ2 (3) = 0.60; ρ = 0.89). These results support Hypothesis I, that the anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘Public Accountability’ is more likely to be used to define nuclear issues than the pro-nuclear movement frame of ‘Progress’ in the two newspapers. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.2 Determination of the direction of story on nuclear issues in the newspapers Secondly, the study sought to determine the direction of story in articles on nuclear issues in the two newspapers. Table 4.2: Direction of stories on nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers Direction of Story Total Pro-nuclear Anti- Neutral nuclear 15 1 19 35 Daily Graphic 42.9% 2.9% 54.3% 100.0% Name of Newspaper The Ghanaian 21 9 35 65 Times 32.3% 13.8% 53.8% 100.0% Total 36 10 54 100 36.0% 10.0% 54.0% 100.0% χ2 = 3.45 df = 2 ρ = 0.17 Results indicate that more than half of articles (54.0%) were neutral (that is, neither pro-nuclear nor anti-nuclear) on their stance on nuclear issues; nine (9) out of twenty-five (25) articles (36.0%) were pro-nuclear and one out of every ten articles (10.0%) was anti-nuclear. In the Daily Graphic, nineteen (19) out of 35 articles (54.4%) were neutral; three (3) out of seven (7) articles (42.9%) were pro-nuclear and one (1) out of thirty-five (35) was anti-nuclear. Likewise, in The Ghanaian Times, 35 out of 65 (53.8%) articles were neutral; 21 out of 65 (31.3%) articles were pro-nuclear and nine (9) out of 65 (13.8%) articles were anti-nuclear. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.2.1 How are nuclear issues represented in the newspapers? Since the nuclear technology is perceived to be a technology that evokes fear and anxiety (Gupta et al., 2011; Grimston, 2002; Gamson, 1992), it was assumed that most newspaper coverage and stance on the nuclear technology would suggest anti- nuclear sentiments or opinions. H2. Anti-nuclear stories are likely to be more than pro-nuclear stories in the newspapers. It was hypothesized that anti-nuclear stories are likely to be more than pro-nuclear stories in both newspapers. H0. Anti-nuclear stories are not likely to be more than pro-nuclear stories in the newspapers. A nonparametric chi-square testing for statistical differences was calculated comparing the direction of story for both the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. At a significant level of 0.05, a significant interaction was found (χ2 (2) = 3.45; ρ = 0.17). These results do not support Hypothesis II, that anti-nuclear stories are likely to be more than pro-nuclear stories in both newspapers. This is illustrated by Table 4.2 above. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.3 Importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story The study also sought to verify the importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of stories on nuclear issues in the pages of the two newspapers. Table 4.3: Placement of stories on nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers Placement of Story Total Front Page Back Page Centre Page Other 2 1 1 31 35 Daily 100.0 Graphic 5.7% 2.9% 2.9% 88.6% % Name of Newspaper The 3 0 0 62 65 Ghanaian 100.0 4.6% 0.0% 0.0% 95.4% Times % 5 1 1 93 100 Total 100.0 5.0% 1.0% 1.0% 93.0% % χ2 = 3.88 df = 3 ρ = 0.27 Results point out that an overwhelming 93 out of 100 (93.0%) articles in the two Ghanaian newspapers were placed on other pages other than the front page, back page and centre page for both newspapers. Five (5) out of 100 (5%) articles were placed on the front page; one (1) out of 100 (1.0%) articles was placed on the back page and one (1) out of 100 (1.0%) articles was placed on the centre page. In the Daily Graphic, 31 out of 35 (88.6%) articles were placed on other pages; two (2) out of 35 (5.7%) articles were placed on the front page; one (1) out of 35 (2.9%) articles was placed on the back page, another one (1) out of 35 (2.9%) articles was placed on the centre page. However, The Ghanaian Times had a different story to tell. 62 out of the 65 (95.4%) articles were placed on other pages; three (3) out of 65 (4.6%) articles 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were placed on the front page and had no article placed on either the back page or the centre page. 4.4.3.1 What importance do the newspapers place on nuclear issues? Science and technology do not enjoy much media attention (Arulchelvan, 2013). Accordingly, this supports the fact that there would not be much importance placed on stories on nuclear issues by way of placement of nuclear stories on noticeable pages in the newspapers. H3. It is likely that both newspapers do not place much importance on nuclear issues It was hypothesized that both newspapers do not place much importance on nuclear issues by way of the placement of stories on nuclear issues. H0. It is likely that both newspapers place much importance on nuclear issues Testing for the nonparametric chi-square significant difference, at a significant level of 0.05, Table 4.3 shows that (χ2 (3) = 3.88; ρ = 0.27). These results support Hypothesis III, that it is likely that both newspapers do not place much importance on nuclear issues. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.4 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana News frames sometimes determine which sources (government, protest groups, experts, and journalists) would be cited in news stories. Furthermore, research shows that as social issues’ coverage mature (story stage of maturation), primary sources tend to change from experts to government sources (Dotson et al., 2012). Table 4.4: Source cited on the coverage of nuclear issues in Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers Source of Story Total Government GAEC News Other source source Agency 0 4 23 8 35 Daily 100.0 Graphic 0.0% 11.4% 65.7% 22.9% % Name of Newspaper The 1 13 31 20 65 Ghanaian 100.0 1.5% 20.0% 47.7% 30.8% Times % 1 17 54 28 100 Total 100.0 1.0% 17.0% 54.0% 28.0% % χ2 = 3.39 df = 3 ρ = 0.33 The types of sources cited in the coverage of nuclear issues in both Ghanaian newspapers in ascending order were firstly, the news agencies ((BBC, Reuters and GNA), after this, other sources (correspondents); then, scientists and lastly, a government source. 54 out of 100 (54.0%) articles cited news agencies as sources of stories on nuclear issues; 28 out of 100 (28.0%) cited other sources like correspondents; 17 out of 100 (17.0%) cited scientists as sources and one (1) out of 100 (1.0%) cited a government source. The Daily Graphic had 23 out of 35 (65.7%) articles citing news agencies as sources of stories on nuclear issues; eight (8) out of 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 (22.9%) articles citing other sources like correspondents; four (4) out of 35 (11.4%) articles citing scientists as sources and no government source was cited as a source of a story on nuclear issues. On the other hand, The Ghanaian Times had 31 out of 65 (47.7%) articles citing news agencies as sources; 20 out of 65 (30.8%) articles citing other sources like correspondents; 13 out 65 (20.0%) articles citing scientists as sources and one (1) out of 65 (1.5%) cited a government official as a source. 4.4.4.1 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana Sources quoted most frequently tend to have more direct access to framing the issue to meet their own desires, which could be advantageous or disadvantageous. H4. The two newspapers are likely to cite more scientific sources than governmental sources in the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. It was hypothesized that the two newspapers are likely to use more scientific sources than governmental sources in the coverage of nuclear issues. H0. The two newspapers are not likely to cite more scientific sources than governmental sources in the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. Testing for the nonparametric chi-square for significant differences, at a significant level of 0.05, Table 4.4 shows that (χ2 (3) = 3.39; ρ = 0.33). These results do not support Hypothesis IV that, the two newspapers are likely to use more scientific sources than governmental sources (indicating the stage of story maturation) in the coverage of nuclear issues. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Discussions The objectives of this study were to firstly, identify the frames used to define nuclear issues; secondly determine the direction of story of nuclear issues; thirdly, verify the importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story in pages and finally, identify the sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times newspapers. 4.5.1 Frames used to define nuclear issues Frames had been developed using catch phrases and organising ideas that were used to describe the nuclear technology in developed countries (Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). The once prominent pro-nuclear frame of ‘Progress’ became a minority frame after the Three Mile Island and Chernobyl nuclear accidents in the United States of America and Ukraine respectively. Unfortunately, it has been replaced by the anti- nuclear frame of ‘Public Accountability.’ Research elsewhere shows that the anti- nuclear movements are becoming visible. This therefore supports Hypothesis I that says it is likely that the anti-nuclear frame of ‘Public Accountability’ would be used to define nuclear issues than the pro-nuclear frame of ‘Progress’ in the newspapers. 4.5.2 Determination of the direction of story on nuclear issues in the newspapers Based on the reasons for Hypothesis II that suggested that because the nuclear technology is considered a controversial technology (Gupta et al., 2011); it was expected that the direction of story on nuclear issues in the two newspapers would be anti-nuclear. Contrarily, most of the stories were neutral (neither pro-nuclear nor 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh anti-nuclear). This could be as a result of the fact that most of the stories had conflict frames as the dominant story frame (Figure 4.12). These stories were more on the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in 2011; the controversial Iranian nuclear programme; nuclear weapon issues, nuclear weapon testing and the advocacy for nuclear ban. 4.5.3 Importance placed on nuclear issues by way of placement of story From this study, it was realised that stories on nuclear issues were not noticeable due to the fact that they were placed on other pages other than the front, centre and back pages. It was also realised that there was limited local stories in both newspapers than there were foreign stories on nuclear issues. This could be as a result of the gap amongst the media, the general public and the local nuclear industry. Findings also support the fact that minimum articles are being published on nuclear issues except for emergencies like nuclear incidents and accidents and nuclear weapon issues (Arulchelvan, 2013; Knight, 2012; Abalkina & Melikhova, 2006). The beneficial aspects of the nuclear technology (which were more in the local stories on nuclear issues) like advocacy for nuclear power, training courses and educational tips on nuclear safety and security were minimal. This supports the basis for Hypothesis III that science and technology do not enjoy much media attention (Arulchelvan, 2013) and that not much importance is placed on the nuclear issues by way of placement of nuclear story in the pages of newspapers. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.4 Sources cited in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana Scientists were not the primary sources of information on nuclear issues in the two newspapers. Rather news agencies, correspondents and journalists were. This is somehow disturbing because sources quoted most frequently tend to have more direct access to framing issues to meet their own agendas. As is typical of the media, sensational and dramatic news stories sell and hyping the unfortunate events like nuclear accidents would create fear and apprehension in the general public concerning the nuclear technology whilst the media makes its money. The findings do not support Hypothesis IV that says both newspapers are likely to use more scientific sources than governmental sources (indicating the stage of story maturation) in the coverage of nuclear issues. Therefore, it is obvious that the nuclear issues are still not being communicated well in the country and the stage of story maturation has not yet began. 4.6 Summary In summary, this chapter highlights primarily the results, hypotheses testing and discussions based on the results obtained for this study. It captured the overall coverage content of the newspaper editions analysed and discussed the results which in summary are:the anti-nuclear frame of ‘public accountability’ representing 39.0% was used to define nuclear issues; the direction of story on nuclear issues in the two newspapers was neutral represented by 54.0% articles; both newspapers did not place much importance on stories on nuclear issues as 93.0% of the articles were published on other pages other than the front page, centre page and back page and the majority of sources cited in both newspapers were the news agencies represented by 54.0% of 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the articles analysed. These results were obtained by comparing them with other research done elsewhere. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction The conclusions, recommendations and future research work drawn from the findings of the study based on the content analysis of two newspapers’ coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana on frames, direction of story, placement of story and sources cited are reported in this chapter. 5.2 Conclusion The main research question of identifying the news reporting factors present in the newspaper coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana has been answered. On the average, there are some stories on nuclear issues in the newspapers in Ghana. However, most of these stories are foreign news. Locally, there were fewer stories on nuclear issues and these stories highlighted the benefits of the nuclear technology. The major frame used to define nuclear issues in the two newspapers was identified as an anti-nuclear movement frame of ‘public accountability’. The direction of story on nuclear issues in both newspapers was neutral that is, neither pro-nuclear nor anti- nuclear. A significant number of articles on nuclear issues were placed on pages other than the front page, centre page or the back page. At the same time, these articles were not visible and were more like advertisements. It was interesting to note that some of the articles (foreign news) had no connection to the day to day life of the average Ghanaian. The main sources of articles on nuclear issues in the Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times were international 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh news agencies like Reuters and the BBC and not scientists as is to be expected on such a technical industry like the nuclear industry. 5.3 Limitations Some of the challenges encountered in carrying out this study are: firstly, due to the unavailability of database for the two newspapers, some data had to be taken from the archives of the news agencies; secondly, the sampling technique restricted data to be analysed from 336 to 100 as some of the dates selected did not have stories on nuclear issues in them. 5.4 Recommendations Recommendations are hereby made based on the finding that there are fewer local stories on nuclear issues in Ghana (Figure 4.3). This implies that there is some gap between both local nuclear experts (Ghana Atomic Energy Commission) and media experts (Ghana Journalists’ Association). 5.4.1 The Ghana Atomic Energy Commission From the findings and conclusions, it is recommended that:  The Ghana Atomic Energy Commission in consultation with the relevant stakeholders should develop a brochure on how to report and communicate nuclear issues in Ghana.  The media houses should be encouraged to pay regular visits to the nuclear facilities in the country. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Nuclear scientists should make themselves available and accessible to journalists. 5.4.2 The Ghana Journalists’ Association  The Ghana Journalists’ Association should consider the possibility of introducing a vibrant science journalism for that matter nuclear journalism into their journalistic activities. 5.5 Future Research Work Future research work could be on: 1. The determination of the deficits and challenges of both journalists and nuclear experts in communicating nuclear issues in Ghana (that is, Communications Needs Assessment). 2. The determination of factors that could influence public acceptability of the nuclear technology in Ghana. 3. The examination of the influence of political ideology on the coverage of nuclear issues in Ghana. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 Summary In conclusion, this chapter captured the final words, recommendations made and future research works that could be carried out based on findings to the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and the Ghana Journalists’ Association as to how to familiarise themselves with the activities of each other for the effective dissemination of relevant news on nuclear issues. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abalkina, I. & Melikhova, E. (2006). Barriers to Effective Public Communication on Nuclear Issues in Russia. 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Available at: http://scx.sagepub.com/content/36/3/352. [Retrieved on July 21, 2014]. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A: SUPPORTING INFORMATION A1: DATA COLLECTION FORM Data Collection Form Topic: How Newspapers Cover Nuclear Issues in Ghana Q1. Newspaper ID No. Category Tally Total 1. Daily Graphic 2. The Ghanaian Times Q2. Year No. Category Tally Total 1. 1962 2. 1963 3. 1964 4. 1966 5. 1967 6. 1968 7. 2005 8. 2006 9. 2007 10. 2011 11. 2012 12. 2013 Q3. Day of Week No. Category Tally Total 1. Monday 2. Tuesday 3. Wednesday 4. Thursday 5. Friday 6. Saturday 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q4. Type of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Straight news 2. Feature story 3. Opinion 4. Letter to the editor 5. Profile 6. Politics 7. World News 8. Science News 9. Other Q5. News segment No. Category Tally Total 1. Local news 2. Foreign news Q6. Placement of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Front page 2. Back page 3. Centre page 4. Other Q7. Primary focus of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Advocacy for nuclear power 2. Applications of nuclear technology 3. Nuclear weapon issues 4. Educational tips on nuclear safety and security 5. Training course 6. Other 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q8. Tone of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Positive 2. Negative 3. Neutral Q9. Source of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Government source 2. GAEC source 3. News Agency 4. Other Q10. Author of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Nuclear Scientist 2. Journalist 3. Unclear Q11. Language of story No. Category Tally Total 1. Technical 2. Simple Q12. Direction of Story No. Category Tally Total 1. Pro – nuclear 2. Anti- nuclear 3. Neutral Q13. Advocacy Frames No. Category Tally Total 1. Progress 2. Runaway 3. Public Accountability 4. Other 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Q14. Dominant Story frame No. Category Tally Total 1. Economic consequences 2. Conflict Q15. Interest (People/Science focus) No. Category Tally Total 1. People 2. Science 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON DAILY GRAPHIC NEWSPAPER B1: A Sample of Daily Graphic Newspaper analysed 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh B2: Selected Dates of Daily Graphic Newspaper Editions 1962 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Sep 17 June 12 May 23 June 7 Nov 30 Jan 13 Week 2 Dec 17 Oct 2 Feb 14 Aug 30 June 29 Nov 10 1963 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 May 6 Apr 2 June 12 Aug 1 Dec 27 May 4 Week 2 Aug 12 July 16 Mar 13 Oct 24 Sep 13 June 8 1964 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Mar 30 Sep 29 Nov 11 Feb 20 Dec 18 Feb 15 Week 2 Dec 14 Feb 4 Oct 28 Apr 2 Dec 25 June 6 1966 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Oct 3 Aug 9 July 20 Dec 8 Sep 2 Dec 3 Week 2 June 20 Nov 22 Dec 28 July 7 Aug 19 Oct 29 1967 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Aug 21 May 23 Aug 30 Jan 19 Aug 25 June 16 Week 2 May 15 Sep 12 June 21 Jun 15 June 30 June 3fe 1968 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Feb 26 June 25 Aug 21 July 4 Nov 1 Nov 23 Week 2 July 8 Jan 9 July 3 Nov 21 Aug 9 Sep 7 2005 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Feb 14 Apr 12 June 29 Jan 13 Dec 2 Mar 12 Week 2 Sep 19 May 17 Nov 23 July 14 July 15 Mar 5 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2006 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 May 8 Nov 28 Mar 8 Nov 22 Mar 31 Mar 4 Week 2 Mar 13 June 26 Jan 24 Mar 23 Mar 3 Mar 18 2007 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Jan 15 May 22 Oct 3 June 21 June 15 May 26 Week 2 July 16 Oct 2 Oct 31 July 26 Dec 21 May 5 2011 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Aug 8 Mar 29 Mar 9 Mar 31 Mar 18 Aug 27 Week 2 Mar 14 Mar 15 Mar 16 Aug 25 Mar 25 Mar 19 2012 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Aug 20 Aug 21 Aug 8 Jan 26 Aug 24 June 30 Week 2 June 18 Jan 24 June 20 Aug 23 Apr 20 Jan 21 2013 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Mar 18 Oct 8 Apr 10 Nov 28 Aug 16 Dec 21 Week 2 Apr 8 Apr 6 Sep 4 Apr 11 Jan 18 Jul 20 B3: Editions of Daily Graphic Analysed Year Mar Apr Jun July Aug Sept Nov Dec e 1962 7, 29 10, 30 1964 11 1966 9, 19 2005 5, 12, 23 29 30, 2006 3, 4, 8, 9, 13, 18 2011 14, 15, 25, 16 16,18, 19,25, 29, 31, 2013 8, 10, 11 10 4 21 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C: ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON THE GHANAIAN TIMES NEWSPAPER C1: A Sample of The Ghanaian Times Newspaper Analysed 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C2: Selected Dates of The Ghanaian Times Newspaper Editions 1962 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Sep 17 Sep 4 Feb 28 Jan 3 Oct 19 Dec 15 Week 2 Nov 26 Jan 16 Sep 5 Jan 17 Feb 23 Oct 27 1963 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Feb 11 Feb 5 Feb 9 Jan 3 Jan 4 May 25 Week 2 Feb 25 Jan 11 Jan 30 Jan 17 Oct 25 Aug 24 1964 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Nov 9 Oct 20 Nov 17 June 18 Apr 3 Sep 5 Week 2 Dec 14 Nov 10 Oct 21 Sep 17 Nov 27 Jan 11 1966 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 July 4 July 12 Feb 16 Jan 6 Aug 19 Mar 5 Week 2 Dec 19 Aug 9 Aug 10 Apr 6 Jan 28 Sep 24 1967 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 July 10 Jan 31 Mar 15 Jun 1 Jan 6 June 28 Week 2 Mar 13 June 22 Nov 1 Aug 31 Jan 20 June 24 1968 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Nov 18 May 28 Oct 9 Dec 19 Apr 5 Apr 20 Week 2 Mar 18 May 14 Aug 7 May 23 June 7 Aug 3 2005 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Jan 24 Jan 25 July 6 Dec 22 Feb 18 Jan 15 Week 2 Feb 28 Mar 24 Aug 10 Aug 4 Jan 14 Oct 22 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2006 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 May 15 Oct 10 Jan 3 Oct 26 Jan 6 Dec 23 Week 2 Sep 11 June 13 Mar 28 Nov 23 Oct 13 July 29 2007 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Apr 2 May 22 Apr 11 Apr 12 Nov 2 Mar 31 Week 2 Oct 22 Apr 10 Feb 21 Nov 22 Dec 14 July 28 2011 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Jan 10 Oct 18 Jan 12 Nov 3 Jan 14 Oct 29 Week 2 Sep 26 Nov 15 Mar 16 Sep 8 July 15 June 18 2012 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Mar 19 May 8 Sep 18 Feb 23 May 4 Nov 10 Week 2 July 2 Jan 31 July 31 Nov 8 Mar 2 Feb 18 2013 Week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Week 1 Apr 8 Feb 5 Sep 25 Feb 7 Apr 19 Apr 13 Week 2 Apr 15 Oct 22 Oct 30 June 20 Jan 11 Sep 7 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C3: Editions of The Ghanaian Times Analysed Year Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec 1962 17 27 26 1963 3, 5, 9, 24 4, 11 11, 17, 30 1964 5 20, 9, 21, 10, 25 17, 27 1966 16 5 4 9, 10 2005 14, 28, 24 24 2006 15 13 29 11 10, 23 23 13, 26 2007 21, 31 10, 22 2, 22 5, 14 11, 12 2012 18, 2 4 2, 18, 8, 2013 11, 23 8, 20 7, 25 22, 13, 30 15, 19, 80