UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES INTEGRATED MODEL FOR TAILORING GAMIFIED INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN A DEVELOPING ECONOMY BY KINGSLEY OFOSU-AMPONG (10247908) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF PHD IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEGREE. DEPARTMENT OF OPERATIONS AND MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEMS FEBRUARY 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I certify that this thesis, which I now submit for examination for the award of a Doctor of Philosophy, is the result of my work and has never been presented either in whole or in part for any other degree at this University or elsewhere. All references to other people’s work have been duly cited. This thesis has been prepared according to the regulations for postgraduate study by the University. ……………………………………………….. ………………………………. Kingsley Ofosu-Ampong Date (Candidate) ……………………………………… ………………. Professor Richard Boateng Date (Lead Supervisor) ……………………………………… …..…………… Professor Thomas Anning-Dorson Date (Co-Supervisor) ……………………………………… ………………… Dr. Emmanuel Awuni Kolog Date (Co-Supervisor) 8th February 2023 8th February 2023 8th February 2023 8th February 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ABSTRACT Gamification, a new concept for adding game design elements to make activities more engaging is pervading many information systems. As a multidisciplinary research area, gamification integrates human motivation, technology, task characteristics and human- computer interaction design. The motivation and fun surrounding gamified information systems (GIS) result from their potential benefits to institutions. However, a dearth of research and theory exists on how gamified interventions change behaviours in education, coupled with many challenges in conducting gamification research, particularly in developing economies (DE). Also, most of the GIS have been evaluated and adopted based on a one-size-fits-all approach. However, learners differ in their acceptance, motivation, engagement, and continuance use of technology. The thesis, therefore, examines the learner acceptance, engagement, and continuance use of GIS. Its purpose is to develop a theoretical and practical- oriented framework for tailoring gamification to a target audience in higher education institutions (HEIs) in Ghana. To achieve this purpose, the study employed three theories, namely, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), the Self- Determination Theory (SDT) and the Motivation-Opportunity-Ability (MOA). Posited in the tenants of the positivist research paradigm, 30 hypotheses were developed and tested through a quantitative survey by comparing their predictions with the observed gamified data collected from 442 participants in an HEI in Ghana. First, using the UTAUT theory, I investigated students’ (n=185) gaming experience, perception, and acceptance of adding game design elements to learning management systems (LMS) in HEIs in Ghana. The findings show that the learner characteristics necessary for technology acceptance encompass demographic features (age, gender), expectations (performance (PE), effort (EE)) and psychological components (social influence (SI), motivation) in Ghana’s higher education. The study found that institutional-based trust in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii existing technologies is a payoff to accepting new technologies. Prompting the need to re- establish trust in the digital era of accelerated innovation in education. The study further found that after the acceptance of the existing technologies (LMS), students' need to accept GIS is influenced by expected high performance, less effort, attitude, and the existence of social influence. Compared to the UTAUT model, this research found three typologies based on the significant factors in the data analysis that is critical for explaining behavioural intention and technology acceptance. The results from this study proved that two constructs (PE and EE) of the original UTAUT model may be considered as technology and learner attributes, while the remaining two (SI and facilitating conditions (FC)) may be considered as institutional factors or outcomes. A significant omission and less reliance in the conceptualisation of the original UTAUT model is the institutional-based trust (TR) and attitude (ATT). However, these factors produced a substantial improvement in the variance explained in technology acceptance and behavioural intention. Importantly, the extensions (TR and ATT) form the new psychological safety factors in the UTAUT model and serve as the necessary conditions for the uptake of information systems in DE. These typologies, hitherto missing in the original UTAUT model, suggested the concept of technology acceptance has gained prominence in HEIs in DE but in the context of technology and learner attributes, institutional factors, and psychological safety factors. Second, using the SDT, the study examined how game design elements support and enhance students’(n=124) basic psychological needs in learning and the need to clarify the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in GIS engagement. This study found three types of learning outcome measures (type of game elements, psychological need, and level of satisfaction) that is critical for a learner to make a decision and engage with the GIS. Importantly, feedback, interactivity and aesthetic appeal were identified as positive elements for maintaining and motivating engagement. The reward systems which include points, badges University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv and leaderboards were found to be stronger than competition-based elements in motivating learning outcomes. In this regard, competition-based learning on gamified platforms is not a salient practice to enhance students learning outcomes. The study further showed that merely providing students with reward systems does not necessarily lead to user competence, and a higher level of satisfaction is associated with a higher level of learner engagement, thus reducing students’ turnover intention. Hence, a diverse and not a one-size-fits-all reward system should be tailored towards the individual learning progress. Third, to show the feasibility of the GIS approach in education, I applied the MOA framework and developed a model to examine students' continuance use behaviour. To demonstrate the importance of learner characteristics and outcomes of gamification, I conducted an evaluation (n=133) of a gamified version and investigated the efficacy of aesthetic experience, information technology capability, and information quality regarding learner continuance behaviours. The study found the opportunity ability motivation (OAM) framework as the appropriate interplay between learner characteristics, the platform, and the gamification elements. In applying the OAM framework, the findings suggest that for a behaviour change to take place, there is a need for an opportunity to experience it or try it (triability). However, for triability to lead to acceptance or intention to use, there should be ability to perform the behaviour and this ability includes learner characteristics and the ease of cognitive understanding of the GIS. Motivation therefore becomes an outcome because an opportunity has been created to perform the behaviour. The findings also revealed that self-expansion and meaning are the key determinants of aesthetic experience (appeal) of GIS. These new findings suggested that the concept of aesthetic experience, an aspect of both hedonic and utilitarian value has gained prominence in Ghana’s higher education. The result of this finding draws scholarly attention to aesthetic experience as a parsimonious yet powerful construct that compliments the notion of continuance use behaviour and engagement with GIS. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v The originality and contribution of the study to research and practice are as follows. First, the findings of the three objectives culminate into an Integrated Theoretical Model of HEI- Gamification Configuration (HEIGC) for tailoring gamification offerings in HEIs based on three clusters: Learner characteristics, Learner outcomes (critical decision stage) and Learner continuance behaviour. The model priorities for policymakers suggest that attitudes about accepting these types of platforms in education is primarily driven by their affordances i.e., psychological safety (autonomy, competence and social influence) and personality traits (PE, EE, Trust, aesthetic appeal and gamification elements) in DE HEIs. Second, this study addresses the limited results and evaluation of gamification and uncovers the efficacy of engaging and motivating learning behaviour change in Ghana and West Africa’s higher education. Hitherto absent in literature, this doctoral study addresses the lack of gamification research findings from the DE context. Third, the model provides eight theoretical constructs on acceptance, motivation, engagement, and outcomes of gamification, including a six-step practitioners’ guideline for tailoring gamification strategy to motivate HEIs to become more purpose-driven. The contribution of the study has resulted in three peer-reviewed articles, one book chapter and three full conference papers. The candidate has served the Association of Information Systems (AIS) and Gamification Community as the Vice President and Secretary of the Special Interest Group on Game Design and Research (AIS SIGGAME) since November 2019. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi DEDICATION To God be the Glory, Honour, and Praise Hena na כye me yiye sen wo a wodom me daa!- PHB 551 v2 This PhD journey has inspired some beautiful and inspiring quotes. Among the quotes, these are my favourites: “Research makes you discover a lot of things, and all must draw you closer to God! Bless souls while they can be reached! We are not far from struggles, but you have to pick who you want to struggle with on a daily basis!” KOA® Quotes To my late mother, Mrs Leticia Owusu Ampong for the sacrifices, love, and care. Ultimately, I dedicate this work to the Almighty God Whom I refer to as ‘the I am that I am’, the Super Intelligence, my Refuge The One who’s grace is sufficient for my needs – precious grace and grace in fullness I am thankful for the knowledge and health Imparted in varying forms Through life and death Motivation and demotivation Sorrow and joy The heavens declare the glory of God; and the skies proclaim the work of His hands To Him who showed my mercy, success and protection during the Covid-19 pandemic stay in the heart of New Jersey – Roseville Ave In fear of Covid-19, the Gracious Lord guided my to publish a review paper from this thesis “the shift to gamification” in remembrance of Him in a foreign land Ultimately my most cited paper as of dissertation submission I dedicate this work To Him and Him alone – The God Almighty. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My ultimate gratitude goes to the Almighty God for the protection, direction, wisdom, tenacity, and diplomacy to undertake my PhD studies. I am truly grateful to Prof. Richard Boateng for the guidance, teaching and mentoring and opening up to me to undertake this PhD work. God bless you, Prof. Boateng for everything you have done for me. To my co-supervisors (Prof. Thomas Anning-Dorson and Dr. Emmanuel Awuni Kolog), I thank you very much for giving me a new direction to research with continuous support and guidance. God richly bless you. To Prof. John Effah, thank you for your advice and encouragement during the coursework part of the PhD program. To my PhD colleagues in Information Systems, OMIS faculty and Mr. Charles Turkson, I say thank you. It has been great exchanging ideas and collaborating with you. I acknowledge the efforts of student participants and lecturers at the Information Technology (College of Education) and Nursing and Midwifery department (2019/2020 academic year) for providing me with valuable information for my research. I could not have published early in this field without your input. God bless you all. Thank you, Dr. Charles A. Adjei for giving me access to the student participants at your department. I appreciate your time and efforts. To my external advisor, Prof. Jane Webster, I acknowledge your immense support in publishing my first article. I appreciate GETFund’s generous financial support in this PhD journey. I also thank UNICEF-Ghana/School of Public Health (KES) for recognising and awarding my research contributions to Innovative Initiative for Social and Behavioural Research in Ghana. To UG Business School, I say thank you for the generous travel grant to attend the AMCIS conference which opened many opportunities for my PhD career. To Prof. Divinus Oppong-Tawiah and Dr. Sheena L. Boateng, I am grateful for your “literature” guidance and support. Finally, I would like to thank Mr. Asiedu Ampong (father), my brothers (Oduro-Ampong, Darko Ampong), Wendy, Juliet, the entire family and Hon. Ohemeng- Tinyase (former MP – Kade) for their support. God richly bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii TABLE OF CONTENT Contents Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ................................................................................................................................. vi Acknowledgement ................................................................................................................... vii Table of Content .................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xvi List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... xviiii Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Problem .............................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Research Purpose .............................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Research Objectives .......................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 9 1.5 Significance and Contribution to Knowledge ................................................................. 10 1.6 Thesis Structure ............................................................................................................... 11 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 13 GAMIFICATION AND CONCEPTUALISATION ............................................................... 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 2. Chapter Overview ................................................................................................................ 13 2.1 Framing Gamification Research ........................................................................................ 13 2.2 Methodology for Gamification Review ............................................................................. 15 2.3 Dominant Game Design Elements ..................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Levels ........................................................................................................................... 17 2.3.2 Points............................................................................................................................ 18 2.3.3 Badges .......................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.4 Leaderboards ................................................................................................................ 18 2.3.5 Storyline ....................................................................................................................... 18 2.5 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 25 CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 26 GAMIFIED LEARNING: SURVEY OF EVIDENCE IN EDUCATION .............................. 26 3.1 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 26 3.2 Deconstructing Gamified Systems with Emphasis on Identified Determinants ................ 26 3.2.1 Transformation in Higher Education........................................................................... 26 3.2.2 Survey of Evidence on Gamification In Education ..................................................... 28 3.3 Research Gaps for Future Gamification Research ............................................................. 32 3.4 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 33 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 34 THEORY-DRIVEN GAMIFICATION FRAMEWORK........................................................ 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 4. Overview .............................................................................................................................. 34 4.1 Theory in Gamification Research ...................................................................................... 34 4.2 Development of a Theory-Driven Integrated Framework ................................................. 35 4.4 Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use Of Technology ................................................... 38 4.4.1 UTAUT Constructs ..................................................................................................... 39 4.4.2 Application of UTAUT to Education Research .......................................................... 40 4.4.2.1 Criticism of the UTAUT Theory .............................................................................. 42 4.4.3 Hypothesis Development ............................................................................................ 42 4.5 Self-Determination Theory ................................................................................................ 52 4.5.1 Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness in Education Research .............................. 54 4.5.2.1 Criticism of the SDT Theory .................................................................................... 56 4.5.3 Hypothesis Development of SDT ............................................................................... 57 4.6 Motivation-Opportunity-Ability Theory ............................................................................ 64 4.6.1 MOA Constructs ......................................................................................................... 64 4.6.2 Application of MOA to Education Research .............................................................. 66 4.6.2.1 Criticism of MOA Theory ........................................................................................ 66 4.6.3 Hypothesis Development of MOA Theory ................................................................. 67 4.5 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 77 CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 78 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................................. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi 5.1 Chapter Overview .............................................................................................................. 78 5.2 Research Paradigm and Philosophy ................................................................................... 78 5.3 Research Approach ............................................................................................................ 81 5.3.1 Survey.......................................................................................................................... 83 5.4 Sampling Technique .......................................................................................................... 84 5.4.1 Selection of Student Participants................................................................................. 85 5.4.2 Selection of the Gamification Platform ....................................................................... 89 5.4.3 Selection of the University .......................................................................................... 91 5.6 Research Methods for the Research Questions .................................................................. 93 5.6.1 Research Methods for Gamification Acceptance ........................................................... 93 5.6.1.1 Research Instrument.................................................................................................. 93 5.6.2 Research Methods for User Engagement ........................................................................ 95 5.6.2.1 Research Instrument ................................................................................................. 95 5.6.3 Research Methods for Gamification Continuance .......................................................... 96 5.6.3.1 Research Instrument ................................................................................................. 97 5.7 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 98 5.7.1 Assessment of Measurement Model ............................................................................... 98 5.7.1.1 Indicator Reliability ................................................................................................. 99 5.7.1.2 Internal Consistency Reliability ............................................................................... 99 5.7.1.3 Convergent Validity ............................................................................................... 100 5.7.1.4 Evaluation of Discriminant Validity ...................................................................... 100 5.7.1.5 Composite Reliability ............................................................................................. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii 5.7.2 Structural Model Assessment ....................................................................................... 101 5.7.2.1 Assessing Structural Model for Multicollinearity Issues ....................................... 101 5.7.2.2 Assessing the Effect Size and Test of Significance ............................................... 102 5.8 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 103 CHAPTER SIX ...................................................................................................................... 104 THEORY-DRIVEN GAMIFICATION EVALUATION RESULTS ................................... 104 6. Overview ............................................................................................................................ 104 6.1 Gamification Acceptance – RO1 ..................................................................................... 104 6.1.1 Preliminary Data Preparation ........................................................................................ 104 6.1.1.1 Demographic Information ...................................................................................... 105 6.2.2 Assessment of Measurement Model ............................................................................. 106 6.1.2 Reliability .................................................................................................................. 106 6.1.3 Acceptance of Gamification: Constructs Validation ................................................. 107 6.1.4 Computation of Predictive Factors ............................................................................ 110 6.1.5 Reliability of the Constructs ...................................................................................... 111 6.1.5.1 Discriminant Validity ............................................................................................. 112 6.1.6 Moderation Analysis ................................................................................................. 113 6.2 Learner Engagement – RO2............................................................................................. 114 6.2.1 Preliminary Data Preparation .................................................................................... 114 6.2.1.1 Demographic Information ...................................................................................... 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii 6.2.2 Assessment of Measurement Model ............................................................................. 115 6.2.2.1 Indicator Reliability. ........................................................................................ ..12416 6.2.2.2 Convergent Validity ........................................................................................... …117 6.3.3.2 Discriminant Validity ........................................................................................... ..124 6.2.3 Structural Model ..................................................................................................... ..12618 6.2.3.1 Assessing Multicollinearity Issues ................................................................... ..12719 6.3.4.3 Assessing the Significance Path Coefficient ...................................................... ..1270 6.3 Gamification Continuance Use – RO3 ............................................................................ 122 6.3.1 Preliminary Data Preparation ..................................................................................... 122 6.3.2 Demographic Information ......................................................................................... 122 6.3.3 Assessment of Measurement Model ............................................................................. 123 6.3.3.1 Measurement Model Validation ............................................................................. 123 6.3.3.2 Convergent Validity ............................................................................................... 124 6.3.3.3 Discriminant Validity ............................................................................................. 126 6.3.4 Structural Model ........................................................................................................... 126 6.3.4.1 Assessing Multicollinearity Issues ......................................................................... 127 6.3.4.3 Assessing the Significance of Path Coefficient...................................................... 127 6.3.4.5 Estimation of the Dimensions in the Model ........................................................... 129 6.4 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiv CHAPTER SEVEN ............................................................................................................... 132 DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................................ 132 7.0 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 132 7.1 Summary of Hypothesized Results .................................................................................. 132 7.2 Adoption and Acceptance of Gamification ...................................................................... 135 7.3 Learner Engagement with GIS......................................................................................... 138 7.4 Continuance Use of GIS .................................................................................................. 142 7.5 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 146 CHAPTER EIGHT ................................................................................................................ 147 CONTRIBUTIONS, REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSION .............................................. 147 8.1 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 147 8.2 Research Summary and Major Findings .......................................................................... 147 8.3 Reflections ....................................................................................................................... 155 8.3.1 Reflections on Theories ............................................................................................. 155 8.3.2 Reflection on Conceptual Framework....................................................................... 158 8.3.3 Reflection on Methodology ....................................................................................... 160 8.4 Contributions and Implications of the Research .............................................................. 162 8.4.1 Development of Quantitative Inference and Meta-Inference .................................... 164 8.4.2 Model-Driven HEI-Gamification Configuration (HEIGC)....................................... 168 8.4.2.1.1 Measures – Post-Study Integrated Conceptual Model ........................................ 172 8.5 Implications for Management and Practice ..................................................................... 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xv 8.5.1 Tailoring Gamification in HEI – Practitioners’ Guide .............................................. 180 8.5.2 Covid-19 Pandemic: SWOT Analysis ...................................................................... 186 8.5.2.1 Insight from Ghana on Covid-19 Pandemic ........................................................... 187 8.5.3 Implications for Learners’ Interest in Future Learning Technologies ....................... 191 8.5.4 Topical Priorities for Policymaker ............................................................................. 191 8.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 195 8.7 Research Limitations and Future Research Directions .................................................... 197 REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 202 APPENDICES ....................................................................................................................... 225 Appendix I: Analysis of Literature Review on Gamification ............................................ 225 Appendix A: Psychometric Measures and Cross Loadings ............................................... 228 Appendix B: Gamification Survey Instruments ................................................................. 231 Appendix BII: Post-Study Interview with Lecturer ..................................................... …2316 Appendix C: My Peer Reviewed Publications and Recognition from this Thesis ...... ..23140 Appendix D: Ethical Clearance .................................................................................. …23141 Appendix E: Recognition from Assoction for Information Systems 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Process Involved in Selecting the Papers ................................................................. 16 Figure 2. Screening Process in Flow Diagram......................................................................... 17 Figure 3. Display of Players on a Kahoot leaderboard ............................................................ 19 Figure 4.1 Research Framework .............................................................................................. 36 Figure 4.2 Conceptual Framework on Acceptance .................................................................. 43 Figure 4.3 The Spectrum of Motivation according to SDT ..................................................... 53 Figure 4.3.1 Conceptual Framework on Motivation ................................................................ 58 Figure 4.4 Conceptual Framework on Continuance Use ......................................................... 68 Figure 5 Game as Projected on Screen and Mobile Phone ...................................................... 91 Figure 8. Post-Study (HEIGC) Theoretical Framework for Tailoring Gamification ............ 172 Figure 8.1 Post-Study Integrated Conceptual Model ............................................................. 173 Figure 8.2 How to Apply Gamification in HEIs in Ghana .................................................... 184 Figure 8.3 Questions Guiding Decisions about Gamification ............................................... 185 Figure 8.3.1 Phases of Gamification Learning Systems Innovation ...................................... 186 Figure 8.4 The Frontiers of Gamification .............................................................................. 194 Figure AA 6.1 Result of Structural Analysis ......................................................................... 228 Figure B3A Themes Resulting from Lecturer’s Interview .................................................... 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xvii LIST OF TABLES Table 2. 1. Some definitions of Gamification ......................................................................... 14 Table 2.2 Studies on Gamification Research underpinning the RO ........................................ 21 Table 2.3 Decision Choice Based on Gamification and Quantitative Method Outcomes ....... 23 Table 3.1 Gamification Design Principles in Education .......................................................... 27 Table 3.2 Game Design Elements for Education ..................................................................... 30 Table 5.1 Summary of Scale Items on Acceptance ................................................................. 96 Table 5.2 Summary of Scale Items on Motivation/User Engagement ..................................... 97 Table 5.3 Summary of Scale Items on Continuance Use ......................................................... 99 Table 6. 1 Demographics of Respondents ............................................................................. 106 Table 6.2. Testing the mean and standard deviation of the construct items .......................... 108 Table 6.3 Correlations between Key Variables ..................................................................... 110 Table 6.4 Model summary ..................................................................................................... 111 Table 6.5. ANOVA ................................................................................................................ 111 Table 6.6 Regression coefficients .......................................................................................... 112 Table 6.7. Summary of hypothesis test ................................................................................ 113 Table 6.7.1 Results of Moderation Analysis ........................................................................ 114 Table 6.8 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ....................................................... 115 Table 6.9 Construct Reliability .............................................................................................. 116 Table 6.10 Convergent and Discriminant Validity ................................................................ 117 Table 6.13 Structural Model Results .................................................................................... 120 Table 6. 15 Demographics of Respondents ........................................................................... 123 Table 6. 16 Measurement Items ............................................................................................. 125 Table 6.17 Discriminant Validity .......................................................................................... 126 Table 6.20 Structural Model Results .................................................................................... 129 Table 6.22 Estimation of dimensions in the model................................................................ 130 Table 7.1 Summary of Hypothesized results ......................................................................... 135 Table 8.1 Research Questions and summary of Major Findings ........................................... 152 Table 8.2 Development of Quantitative Inferences and Meta-Inference ............................... 167 Table 8.3 SWOT Analysis of Gamified E-Learning During Covid-19 Pandemic ................ 189 Table 8.4 The Dimensions and Facets of Gamification Frontiers ......................................... 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xviii ABBREVIATIONS UTAUT ................................................ Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology SDT ................................................................................................. Self-Determination Theory MOA ......................................................................................... Motivation Opportunity Ability IS ................................................................................................................ Information Systems RO ................................................................................................................. Research Objective GIS ............................................................................................. Gamified Information Systems DE ............................................................................................................ Developing Economy AE ................................................................................. Continuance Use Aesthetic Experience AE ............................................................................................................. Aesthetic Experience ITC ...................................................................................... Information Technology Capability IQ ................................................................................................................. Information Quality HEI ................................................................................................ Higher Education Institution PBL ............................................................................................. Points, Badges, Leaderboards LMS ............................................................................................ Learning Management System HEIGC ......................... Higher Education Institution Gamification Configuration Framework GETFund....................................................................................... Ghana Education Trust Fund UNI-GAMI ........................................................................ University of Gamification Systems UNESCO...................... The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF ................................................................ United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund SWOT .............................................................. Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats Gamification ........ Technology designed intentionally to change attitudes with game elements Gamification Strategy ... Technique in GIS designed to motivate change in learning behaviour Behavioural Determinants ....................................... Factors that influence learning behaviours Learner Characteristics ........................................................ Distinctive attributes of the learner Learner Outcomes .......................................................... Indication of learning accomplishment Learner Continuance Behaviour .......................... Prevailing learning environment in existence Psychological Safety ..... Shared belief and safety held by students of the learning technologies and environment Persuasive Technology (PT) .... Intentionally designed technology to change human behaviour University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION In recent times, research has demonstrated the potential of technology to enhance positive learning outcomes (Rigby & Ryan, 2011; Rapp, 2022) – help students track their learning behaviour and control their learning and engage in self-discovery of knowledge behaviour (Suh, 2017). With the motivational potential of games, few institutional technologies have started delivering their interventions in game format. These types of technologies that address the lack of motivation, poor student engagement and harness the potential of game design elements have been referred to as gamification or gamified information systems (GIS) (Sailer & Sailer, 2021). However, extant literature has revealed a dearth of research and theory exists on how gamified interventions motivate behaviours in education, particularly in developing economies. Also, most of the GIS have been evaluated and adopted based on a one-size-fits- all theoretical approach, although learners differ in their acceptance, motivation, engagement, and continuance use of technology. Extant literature has also revealed the lack of an empirical model and clear understanding of the concept of gamification in education (Yang, Asaad & Dwivedi, 2017; Yamani, 2021; Yang & Gong, 2021). The term ‘gamification’ was initially coined by Nick Pelling and first originated in the digital and online spheres in 2002 but gained popularity in the academic spheres around 2010 (Deterding, Dixon, Khaled, & Nacke, 2011). Due to its infancy, many practitioners and researchers have defined gamification in their own terms, mostly focusing on game design or “game thinking”, to address non-entertaining objectives (Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011; Liu, Santhanam & Webster, 2017). However, the most popular and generally accepted definition in human-computer interaction is proposed by Deterding et al. (2011), who defined gamification as the use of game design elements in non-game contexts. The definition describes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 the importance of games (playing by rules towards goals) in gamification and not play (unstructured activity). In this instance, the description highlights the use of game design elements as the means and the non-game setting as the application context and provides the instrumental goal to be achieved. Further, the definition differentiates games with purpose or serious games, in which a full- fledged game is employed to achieve instrumental goals. Deterding et al. (2011) describe the game elements as the design elements mostly found in (but not necessarily all) games, and readily associated with games, and importantly play a significant role in gameplay. Game elements purposely designed to include utilitarian value (productivity) and hedonic value (fun, excitement) is termed gamified information systems (GIS) (Koivisto & Hamari, 2019). Over the past decade, many organisations and higher education institutions (HEI) are adopting gaming strategies and game elements techniques to increase engagement (Gartner, 2011; Parra- González et al., 2021). Despite the importance of gamification, there remains a paucity of evidence (anecdotal) and academic rigour in current gamification literature (Yang, Asaad & Dwivedi, 2017). Because the concept of gamification is relatively new, conceptualising gamification and ascertaining whether gamification measures up to the positive predictions about its value and effectiveness have been rarely provided in various gamification research (Sailer et al., 2017). In other words, how institutions realise the effectiveness of gamification design is largely unclear, mainly in the context and purpose of deploying gamification. Subhash and Cudney (2018) posit that the expectation of success in deploying gamification in HEI is often unrealistic. Accordingly, many HEIs fail to conduct an extensive examination to know whether gamification is the right teaching and learning platform for their educators and students before implementing it (Burke, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Importantly, in the field of information systems (IS), there is an increasing prevalence that interventions to change behaviours should be informed by theories of behaviour change (Michie et al., 2008; Siponen & Baskerville, 2018). Previous studies have proposed a strategy for evaluating interventions to suit a context, which begins with a theory stage before advancing to modelling and then exploratory trial (experimental stage) (Campbell et al., 2007; Al-Mamary et al., 2019). The process of developing and implementing gamification especially in HEI in developing economies is seen as challenging. The problem arises in the evaluation of gamification because researchers in DE have not fully defined, identified, and developed the gamification intervention in teaching and learning in HEIs. This study, therefore, advocate for the use of theory in developing and evaluating gamified interventions. The reason for advocating a theory-driven behaviour change in gamification is that the intervention is likely to be more effective if the evaluation is theoretical informed and the causal determinants are well understood and explored. Thus, a theory-driven gamified intervention provides a clear understanding of what works in DE and facilitates the development of better theory across different economies and contexts (Michie et al., 2008). Therefore, this research used behavioural theories to investigate how gamification can motivate and engage interactive learning behaviour in Ghana. 1.1 RESEARCH PROBLEM The research problem to be addressed in this thesis is that: the low adoption rate of most existing (gamified) information systems takes a one-size-fits-all adoption approach in developing economies, rather than tailoring gamification to the target audience (learner) level of acceptance, motivation (engagement) and continuance intention to use. Research has shown that considering users as a homogeneous group in a gamified learning environment is a poor evaluation technique (Nkwo & Orji, 2018, Nah et al., 2019) and therefore has pointed out the limitation and unintended consequences of gamification, especially those designed to motivate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 and engage learning behaviours. The following paragraphs highlight the research problems for this thesis. Despite gamification hype and widespread demonstration of its effectiveness in motivating behaviour change, evaluation of gamification successes has also been associated with negative results and unexpected failures (Nah et al., 2019). For example, inconsistent evidence was found about the impact of gamification on user engagement (Lee & Yang, 2011) as a result of using ineffective gamification strategies. The effectiveness of gamification strategies in a target system for promoting enhanced learning varies for various user personality types and contexts of learning. Likewise, I reviewed the literature and examined the influence of adoption of behavioural determinants and gamification strategies on learners, and found that certain determinants (e.g. classroom environment, trust and facilitating conditions) and strategies inhibit the acceptance of educational technologies for changing behaviours. To address such concerns, gamification research has embraced several theoretical frameworks that explore gamification's potential in restructuring task activities (de la Peña Esteban, Torralbo, Casas., & García, 2020). However, the process of designing, developing, and evaluating gamification intervention is a challenge. The problem is more evident in DE where researchers have not fully defined, identified, developed and evaluated the complex gamified intervention in higher education in terms of adoption, engagement and usage. Thus, the field of gamification lacks an integrated theory for developing gamified interventions in HEIs. The Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by Deci and Ryan (1985) is a dominant theory used to understand game motivation, either by intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. SDT assumes that humans have innate tendencies towards psychological growth – a unified self, autonomous and responsible behaviour. A recent study by van Roy and Zaman (2019) represents success in applying SDT in unravelling gamification potential in education. However, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 interrelationship between game elements needs satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and gamification outcomes were not explored in the study by van Roy and Zaman. Further, the scholars precisely reported the ambivalent motivational power of gamification but the mediating role of the psychological need satisfaction between game design elements and learning outcomes was not reported. To conclude on SDT tenability, van Roy and Zaman's (2019) study results show insufficient and limited. Hence, more research is needed to validate SDT in tailoring gamification in education. Moreover, empirical research on motivational information systems has started to mature by investigating information systems continuance use and its relationship with aesthetic experience (Suh, 2017; Jahn et al., 2021), user satisfaction, information technology capability (Panda & Rath, 2021) and information quality (Wixom & Todd, 2005; Afful-Dadzie et al., 2021). However, available literature shows that these dimensions have often been overlooked in gamification research, i.e., limited research exists in investigating the relationship between aesthetic experience, information technology capability, and information quality and the effect on students learning behavioural outcomes in higher education (Suh et al., 2017). Motivational affordances are the fundamental properties of the IS that determines how it can support one’s motivational needs (Deterding, 2011); information quality is the system output the IS produces (DeLone & McLean, 1992); user satisfaction is the perceived use of IS as enjoyable; information technology capability is the individual competence and capabilities for navigating and managing an IS (Fink & Neumann, 2007). Thus, researchers in gamification have not looked at the true nature of enhancing user engagement through gamification. Thereby, little attention has been paid to whether users have a satisfying experience. Hence, the consequence of understudying user satisfaction in gamified learning may include motivational affordances - aesthetic, quality of information and information technology capability, which ultimately reduce meaningful engagement (Liu et al., 2017). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Moreover, the MOA framework has been extensively applied in organisational behaviour research, unlike persuasive technology (PT) research. The lack of literature research may be due to the unresolved relationship among MOA factors in the gamification context and operationalisation challenges (motivation, opportunity and ability). While gamification is an infant research area, motivation has been valued as a critical factor in predicting the continuance use of gamified IS. However, the effect of opportunity and ability are inconsistent in IS literature across gamification research (Nicholson, 2012; Xu, 2011). Thereby placing the MOA framework in the gamification context addresses the effect of these factors. Further, the three dimensions of the MOA framework – motivation, opportunity and ability – have been overlooked in gamification studies (Holzer et al., Gillet, 2020). They have been studied as individual constructs, although existing literature shows that the lack of any of the factors would cause a bottleneck in gamification application and that a change to the MOA factors can influence the direction of MOA elements in a proposed framework (Kettinger et al., 2015). Thus, the HEI provides an external learning platform service to motivate a learner in a congruent way with the instructors’ goal and not solely act on the individual self-interest (Kang & Kim, 2017). To this end, the instructor provides the opportunity and ability for the learners to deliver their learning goals. Consequently, new insight can be gained from an individual-learner perspective if studied together. Therefore, exploring the gamification elements on MOA factors is essential, as mediated by aesthetic experience and information technology capability. Furthermore, after reviewing these important pieces of literature about technology adoption, self-determination (engagement) and continuance use of GIS, it can be realized that no scholar has yet connected all aspects of the three dimensions from the original relationship between the learner and the GIS to find a broader justification for including in HEI teaching and learning strategy. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 In summary, this thesis seeks to address the following identified research gaps: a) studies on gamification have primarily been from the developed economy perspective (Suh, Wagner & Liu 2018; Koivisto & Hamari, 2019). Researchers in this context have applied gamification to various disciplines and mostly from economies like Finland, South Korea, United States and Canada. From the DE context, there is relatively less demonstration of gamification research and gameful experiences in education and the available literature remain relatively silent on the emergence of gamification in education (Adukaite et al., 2017; Rahi & Abd. Ghani, 2019). Accordingly, this study offers an opportunity to understand how gamification is applied in higher education where comparably gamification research and usage is just at its nascent stages in developing economies (Adukaite et al, 2017). b) The second research problem to be addressed is validating the self-determination theory in a gamified learning context. As previously stated, the works of van Roy and Zaman (2019) represent success in the application of SDT in unravelling the gamification potential in education. However, the interrelationship between needs satisfaction, intrinsic motivation, and gamification outcomes were not explored in their study. c) Lastly, this study responded to Liu et al. (2017) and Zainuddin et al. (2020) call for researchers to consider using other motivational theories rather than the default cognitive evaluation theory and flow theory commonly used in the literature. Finally, due to the lack of gamification guidelines, there is increased acceptance of specific gamified information systems (e.g. Kahoot) without consideration of the appropriate game design elements for the target audience. The lack of readily available gamification guidelines for tailoring learning experiences in higher education in DE for students has led to instructors adopting GIS with a one-size-fits-all approach and intuition. Understanding the students and the appropriate game design elements that would enhance their learning require time, money and experience. The instructors and designers may not have the resources needed to understand University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 and develop guidelines for the target behaviours before and after the implementation of gamification. 1.2 RESEARCH PURPOSE The purpose of this research is to develop a theoretical and practical-oriented framework for tailoring gamification to a target audience in higher education. 1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES This study draws on the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (Venkatesh et al., 2003), self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) and the motivation-opportunity-ability framework (Maclnnis & Jaworski, 1989) to examine the value of tailoring gamification to students. To achieve the purpose, the following research objectives (RO) were identified: RO1: Defining and exploring gamification 1. To explore students’ gaming experience, perception and acceptance of adding game design elements in higher education institutions in a developing economy context (evidence from Ghana). RO2: Learner engagement and motivation with gamified information systems in education 2. To determine how gamification supports higher education students' basic psychological needs (aligning with the self-determination theory). These objectives respond to the call for future studies to explore the progressive development of gamification in education institutions (Liu et al., 2017). Based on literature review on gamification, the objectives rely on the UTAUT and the SDT to distil the key factors and contingencies that relate to the prediction of behavioural intention to use technology. The objectives also seek to explain the behavioural motivation behind the interaction with digital University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 technologies. The behavioural motivation underlying the use of gamification can be understood from three psychological need perspectives: autonomy, competence and relatedness (see Chapter five). RO3: Continuance use of gamified information systems in education 3. To determine how learner’s aesthetic experience (motivation), information technology capabilities (abilities), and information quality (opportunity) contribute to continuance use of gamification in education (aligning with the MOA theoretical perspective). To address the need for an integrated model that explains the need to tailor gamification to the target audience, this objective responds to Suh et al.’s (2017) call. Specifically, this research presents a more comprehensive view of what underlies the learner's continual use behaviour with digital technologies. The objective relies on the MOA framework to understand the individual learning process in a gamified platform and specify the components that drive learners to a desired outcome. Even though different factors have been explored, few studies have attempted to pull them together in a single explanatory model. This objective fills the gap by integrating the factors in a single model to improve our understanding of tailoring gamification. This framework suggests that continuance use is driven by three primary factors – motivation to use, opportunity to use and ability to use. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The following research questions (RQ) are formulated to guide the process to achieve this thesis's objectives. RQ1: What are students’ gaming experiences, perceptions and acceptance of adding game design elements to learning in higher education institutions in Ghana? RQ2: How can gamification motivate and engage students in their basic psychological needs in a technology-enhanced learning environment? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 RQ3: Do learners’ aesthetic experience (motivation), information technology capabilities (abilities), and information quality (opportunity) contribute to continuance use of gamification? 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE As gamification becomes a popular technique, research is needed to investigate its validity as an organisational learning strategy. This thesis contributes to advancing the field of gamified information systems and the development of interactive systems for enhancing learning performance. The thesis not only demonstrated the need to explore the behavioural determinants through extensive conceptual models and large-scale data, but it also established the need to tailor gamification to the target audience to increase engagement and motivation. Specifically, the thesis made three main contributions to the field of gamification in higher education First, to demonstrate the applicability of gamification approach in education, I developed three main conceptual models for tailoring gamification based on learner acceptance, engagement and continuance intention to use. I further conducted a large-scale study (N=185, N=124, N=133) that examined the determinants of gamification for students from different education levels but same university, of both genders, of different ages and from a developing economy context. Based on these results from the studies, I developed a decision table for quantitative inferences and meta-deduction inferences to deconstruct a meaningful and engaging integrated framework for higher education. Second, based on the findings of the studies and the need to make the results actionable for instructors and designers in higher education, I mapped the significant determinants of the three studies to develop an integrated model for gamification configuration – Chapter 8. Having an integrated model for gamification strategy that motivates students learning performance provides an important methodological bridge between instructors and gamification researchers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 Finally, to bridge the gap between instructors, practitioners, and designers of gamification in education, I proposed an appropriate guideline for tailoring gamification in higher education in developing economies. The practitioner-driven guideline provides an immediate actionable blueprint for designers to build an effective gamified information system for engaging and motivating learning behaviour change. In terms of policy, the study provides directions to higher education institutions on policies to effectively integrate gamification in existing learning management systems rather than developing GIS from scratch. The next section focused on the breakdown of the chapters. 1.6 THESIS STRUCTURE The dissertation presents eight chapters. Chapter One comprises the introduction of the study, research problem, the research purpose and objectives of the study. It also contains the research questions, significance and contribution of the study, and the structure of the study. Chapter Two contains the conceptualisation of gamification to address the definitions underlying the discipline as a study. It includes the methodology for review of gamification articles in this dissertation and presents the dominant game design elements used to motivate and engage users. Chapter Three presents a deconstruction of gamification to emphasise the transformation in higher education and provides a survey of evidence of the acceptance and behavioural change in education. Chapter Four presents the theoretical concepts underlying this study. Specifically, this chapter reviews the three theories underlying this study (UTAUT, SDT and MOA). The chapter also presents the research framework and hypothesises of the behavioural determinants. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Following the identified theories and development of the thesis hypothesis, Chapter Five presents the research methodology, which contains the research paradigm guiding the study. It includes a selection of the study area, the gamification platform and summary of the research strategy for the research objectives. Chapter Six analyses the data from the quantitative and follow-up study on acceptance, engagement and continuance use of gamified information systems. The analysis is aimed at investigating the effectiveness of the proposed theory-driven gamification research framework by examining whether gamification elements promote engagement and continuance use of persuasive technologies in teaching and learning. Chapter Seven summarises the main findings from the study results and discusses key issues underlying gamified information systems deployed in a developing economy context for behavioural change and motivation in education. Chapter Eight briefly summarises the work contained in this dissertation, recaps reflections on theories, conceptual framework, methodology, contributions, and limitations and outlines the future direction for gamification research in developing economies. Based on the reflections on theories and results of quantitative inferences and meta-deduction presented in this dissertation, a post-study theoretical framework and an integrated model was proposed for future research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 CHAPTER TWO GAMIFICATION AND CONCEPTUALISATION 2. CHAPTER OVERVIEW The previous chapter introduced the research background, objective, problem, significance, and contribution to knowledge. This chapter focused on defining and conceptualising gamification to address the issues with definition and emphasize the decision choices based on gamification and quantitative method outcomes. Importantly, the chapter provides the methodological approach that this thesis followed for reviewing articles. The chapter also highlights the relevant gaps and approaches underlining gamification research design. 2.1 FRAMING GAMIFICATION RESEARCH In workplaces and schools, there is a history of institutions leveraging games (Hanus et al., 2015) and competitions. With innovations in digital platforms, the concept of gamification has sprung as a new field of study with some reproof. Despite criticism of the word and its phenomenon gamification has stuck (Werbach, 2014). Appropriately, gamification is to intentionally transform activities and engage users to the desired outcome. By way of adoption and interest in education, it has witnessed significant growth. Notwithstanding, critics argue that gamification is exploitative, and the question of the uniqueness and value of gamification still remains, and more research is needed (Leclercq, Poncin & Hammedi, 2017). The interest of this study is to better understand gamification research in Ghana. Since there is no agreed definition for the term gamification, the long-established definition applied is the use of game design in a non-game context. The generalization of what constitutes game elements is not known to gamification, making gamification research problematic. In appreciating the value of gamification, some scholars view it as a process of making activities more game-like. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 The appropriateness of this definition is that it incorporates both practitioners and academic viewpoints and bridges the persuasive gap design in gamification. On the other hand, gamification fosters problem-solving and promotes desired behaviours in two ways. The game components such as leaderboards, badges, point systems, and levels that translate inputs to outputs are called game mechanics. While the game elements (achievements, competition, rewards, and self-expression) that regulate interactions among players with game mechanics are game dynamics. The definitions are categorised in Table 2.1 and conceptualised to identify gamification as either a design element (Deterding et al., 2011; Werbach & Huotari, 2012; Zichermann & Cunningham, 2011), process technique (Werbach, 2014; Fitz-Walter, 2015) or as a service package (Huotari & Hamari, 2012). Given Deterding et al.'s (2011) definition of gamification and the aim to explore gamification in education, the term has been conceptualised as the application of game elements to execute functions of business in dealing with internal and external stakeholders' motivation to solve problems and promote the desired learning behaviours. Table 2.1 Some definitions of Gamification Author(s) Definition/conceptualisation Huotari & Hamari (2012) “A form of service packaging where a core service is enhanced by a rules- based service system that provides feedback and interaction mechanisms to the user to facilitate and support the users' overall value creation”. Deterding et al. (2011) “The use of game design elements in non-game contexts (p.5).” Werbach & Hunter (2012) The use of game elements and game design techniques in non-game contexts. Werbach (2014) The process of making activities more game-like. Fitz-Walter (2015) “A design strategy where game elements are used in non-game applications to promote behaviour change and enhance the hedonistic qualities of the user experience”. Zichermann & Cunningham (2011) The process of game-thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 The definitions stated in Table 2.1 seem to suggest gamification is easy to implement. However, the definitions suggest that gamification requires more game thinking and game mechanics to be successful. Hence, it is easy to fail in implementation, especially in an educational context. According to Fitz-Walker (2015), the main reason for the failure of most gamification projects in an educational context is the lack of game thinking. This approach mandates designers to rethink the teaching curriculum and practices. Thus, game elements should be integrated with activities when there is a clear understanding of how gamification works for the target audience. Gamification is not just developing a game that imparts a lesson; rather it is applying game thinking to how we impart that lesson and develop it based on the feedback from the players (Folmar, 2015). It should be noted that GIS is not the only innovation tailored towards user motivation and behavioural change in a non-game context. Instead, GIS indicates a component of persuasive technologies. Persuasive technologies represent a broader concept that describes technologies that attempt to reinforce and shape behaviours, promote knowledge sharing (Wiafe et al., 2020) and foster the use of game design elements. In this regard, Fogg (2003) defined Persuasive Technology as a device or computing system designed intentionally to change an individual’s behaviour in a predetermined way without using deception or coercion. 2.2 METHODOLOGY FOR GAMIFICATION REVIEW The need to situate this study in an education context led to the review of relevant and current materials. The purpose of the review is to better understand gamification in all spheres and organise the literature around gamification in education. Most of the insights in this Chapter and the next spun from this methodological approach. The process for the review is as follows. First, a search for the review materials was conducted in the Scopus database. Scopus was preferred because it indexes all the potentially relevant databases such as Springer, IEEE, ACM University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 and AISel (Pare et al., 2015). Second, the search terms used in the database were: TITLE-ABS- KEY (gamification education, gamif*, gamification in Africa, gamification in developing economies). Figure 3 shows the process involved in selecting the papers for the review. The year for the search ranged from 2010 to January 2020. This is because the concept of gamification commenced in 2008, however, it gained popularity in the academic environment in 2010. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: As shown in Figure 1, the initial search resulted in 1,978 hits. Further screening was done to ascertain useful results. The abstract, keywords and full text were screened for relevance, and duplicate articles were deleted. Based on the search descriptors, the retrieved papers were classified according to the domain of study and publication type. The overall process resulted in 101 reviews as full and empirical research papers. Figure 1. Process Involved in Selecting the Papers Empirical papers met the following condition 1. Evidence of data collected 2. Reporting on data gathered 3. Analysis and results of the data obtained. To gain much insight into gamification in education, the researcher first runs an analysis to ascertain the a) dominant issues in gamification research in developing economies b) dominant conceptual approaches – research frameworks in gamification research c) dominant domains in gamification research University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 and d) methodological approaches to the gamification study. The analysis of these results can be found in Appendix I (Table 1-4). Figure 2. Screening Process in a Flow Diagram Excluded after title and abstract screening (N=1305) 1978 articles 673 articles Excluded book chapters and duplicates (N=354) Full text unavailable (N=139) Excluded after full-text reading (N=180) 319 articles 281 articles 101 articles 2.3 DOMINANT GAME DESIGN ELEMENTS Five dominant game design elements used in education and learning were identified in the literature review in the developing economy context. The game elements include: 2.3.1 Levels The game level is a section of a game that players complete to move to the next stage. Games have different levels that give the players a sense of progression or movement. One level requires less effort to move toward the end of the game. At the same time, the other requires more experience, effort, and skills – degree of difficulty. Players gain more experience as they progress through the game. However, students learning abilities may not progress as a result of levelling, even though levelling serves as a form of reward or incentive (Goldhill & Roodt, 2018) to the learner for completing assignments or quizzes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2.3.2 Points The point system is recognised as a measure of how well a learner has performed or achieved. The points come in the form of rewards or feedback for further progress towards the assignment. For example, points (experience) provide immediate feedback for learners to correct errors and indicate their current standing and progress. The literature reviewed revealed that feedback influences learners’ answers, activities, and behaviour. Hence, points must be designed to provide feedback and act as a roadmap for making the right decisions. 2.3.3 Badges Badges functions as a mark of accomplishment, social relevance, mastery, or achievement that can be displayed for colleagues to see – a digital symbol, medallion, or stamp. The use of badges helps maintain learners' motivation and engage them in future learning tasks. To preserve the value of badges, it must have a social relevance – thus, must be valued by the learner who earned them and the group or community of learners. 2.3.4 Leaderboards An effective way to create a competitive environment among learners is the use of leaderboards – ranking per the highest score or points. The objective of a leaderboard is to keep the learners motivated and not demotivated, as it tends to demotivate the last 10 members in a group and motivate the first 10 in a group. Advice: Instructors or designers should only display the top 5 or 10 achievers to avoid demotivating other students. This motivates other players to compete for the top spot or scorers by closing the point gaps. An example of top five (5) players on a Kahoot leaderboard is displayed in Figure 3 - Player 10622901 leading the board. Kahoot! is a game-based learning application with an average of 50 million active users.1 1 “Kahoot! is used as an educational technology in schools and other educational institutions. Its learning games, "kahoots", are user-generated multiple-choice quizzes that can be accessed via a web browser or the Kahoot app.” https://kahoot.com/schools-u/ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 2.3.5 Storyline Several researchers have utilised a storyline to gamify education and help learners stay motivated throughout the learning process. Storyline refers to the story in the game or narrative. Figure 3. Display of Players on a Kahoot Leaderboard Exposition: From the discussion of the five-game design elements, gamification primarily attempts to provide users with feedback. The feedback provided by gamification includes affective, cognitive and social (see Appendix I, Table 2 for review). Affective feedback is central to the affordances that the game presents, such as the type of game design elements to use to arouse excitement, enjoyment, and interest. Cognitively, gamification thrives on individual behaviours rather than organisational activities. Consequently, game design elements can be seen as a decision support system that provides cognitive and instrumental data about the learners’ activities. Finally, gamification affords users social comparison with interactive classroom goals that strengthen learning environments and create a sense of social belonging and community. 2.4 GAMIFICATION RESEARCH: CONCEPTUAL APPROACHES Educational technology behaviour theories support understanding of educational behaviour problems. These theories also help in developing educational systems and interventions based on predominant determinants that affect behaviours and examine the acceptance and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 effectiveness of such programs. Highly adopted and accepted behaviour change systems usually occur when the system is behaviourally theory-driven (Consolvo et al., 2009). Therefore, gamified systems can be made optimally accepted, if informed by adoption and behavioural theories. Using adoption and behavioural models increases usability and acceptance of the intervention in realizing the desired goal (Granić & Marangunić, 2019). In this regard, theory helps researchers move beyond conceptualization to evaluating education behaviour interventions. Several theories and research have sprung on human behaviour and what motivates individuals to change their behaviours (Deci & Ryan, 2012). These theories address education behaviour and have informed recent gamified education systems, for example, the Technology Acceptance Model, Theory of Planned Behaviour and UTAUT (Yang et al., 2017). The most dominant and recently applied education technology theory is the UTAUT, shown in Table 2.2. This theory is explained in detail in Chapter 4, however, it remains one of the most widely used theories in technology adoption behaviour and focused on why people reject or accept educational measures. From a classical educational perspective, it explains how and why the existing education system has evolved. Decades of research on motivation and engagement have also resulted in many theories on human behaviour which includes self-determination and motivation opportunity ability theory. The most recent theory that has informed gamification design and evaluation is SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2012). The SDT explains human motivation in a social context that differentiates motivation in terms of controlled or autonomous (freewill) behaviour. However, the MOA theory remains one of the few employed theories of human behaviour which postulates that, for any occurrence or non-occurrence of behaviour, the learner is affected by the characteristics and the external environment (Maclnnis et al., 1991), as shown in Table 2.2. The SDT and MOA theory is explained further in Chapter 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Table 2.2 Results of studies on gamification underpinning the research objectives Research study Research Focus and technology context Characteristics Underpinning theory and framework Relevant gaps for future research Theories from Technology Acceptance Baptista & Oliviera (2017) Yang, Asaad & Dwivedi, 2017 Fitz-Walter (2015) Identifying the potential impact of game design techniques in the acceptance of mobile services Acceptance Learner characteristics Personal traits Background Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT2) Proposes general demographic, behavioural or technology- related factors. No specific factors related to gamification in the education context. Need to introduce new constructs such as institutional-based trust or risk in progressing the user acceptance model in predicting user attitudes Need to understand what works in a particular context and plan for the appropriate user interactions (culture can influence the game techniques and hedonic way of applying)  Need to re-examine the over-reliance on technology acceptance models constructs and introduce new Facilitating conditions Social influence Learner attributes Gender The development phase of gamification acceptance Quantitative research method Samar & Mazuri (2019) Rahi & Ghani (2019) Examining how game design elements influence the user’s intention to recommend a mobile app to others Motivators and drivers of technology acceptance Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Quantitative research method Need for an integrated model that combines UTAUT constructs and self-confidence Routinisation of technology influence by individual antecedents – however specific factors related to e-learning gamification intentions not studied Theories from motivation van Roy & Zaman (2018) Vanduhe, Nat & Hasan (2020) Jeno et al. (2019) Probing students’ experiences with game design elements Motivation/ Engagement Type of game elements Task or assignment characteristics Challenges or competition Rewards systems Self-Determination Theory (See 2.3.2 gamification and motivation) Qualitative mixed method Need to explore the precise nature of how individual satisfaction develops following the application of different gamification elements in learning activities Need to scrutinise the impact of potential feedback on timing. Need to explore other developing contexts to address generalisability University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Suh, Wagner & Liu (2018) Wiggins (2016) Examining how game design elements enhance user engagement Autonomy, competence, Social relatedness (SDT) Self-growth Discussion/ task variety Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) Quantitative research method Need to investigate the effect of different competition structures on competence in a gamification context. Need to detail guidelines for tailoring gamification in education No specific determinants of continuance use of gamification in education  Huge potential to maximise the impact of gamification in various learning platforms Framework-based approaches Schobel & Sollner (2016) Hamari et al. (2020) Gamifying information systems—adapting gamification to individual preferences Continuance intention to use Aesthetic experience Self-efficacy, capabilities Opportunity Information quality System quality Self-meaning Task to students Expectation Disruptions Four- different specifications for each of the nine-gamification elements Motivation Affordance (opportunity and ability to use) – Psychological – Behavioural outcomes Quantitative research method Need to consider learner preferences, motivational structures and cooperative dynamics of system users. Need for a long-term analysis of game design elements from an adaptive and non-adaptive observation to develop motivation for use and actual use of gamified information system. No integrated theoretical framework in IS to address the adoption, motivation and hedonic value of gamified systems Integrated framework Yamani (2021) Holzer et al. (2020) Conceptual framework to integrate gamification in e- learning Trust Learner outcomes Immediate feedback Perceived usefulness Platform architecture System evaluation Proposed a conceptual framework based on an instructional design model but failed to incorporate the level of acceptance and post- acceptance behaviours characterising gamified e-learning There is a necessity to develop an integrated theoretical framework that ensures acceptance, motivation and engagement and continuance use (post-adoption/acceptance behaviours) of gamified information systems, especially in HEI developing economies. To avoid the risk of demotivating users with gamification Source: Author University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 The process of implementing a gamified intervention in higher education can be challenging because researchers have not taken a keen interest in fully defining and developing the intervention in gamification. This is the motivation behind the researchers’ interest to provide a theoretical framework for developing and designing gamification interventions necessary to change behaviour in HEIs in developing economies. The main reason for promoting the use of theory in implementing gamification is that such interventions are more likely to be adopted and effective if the theoretical mechanism of the change and the causal determinants of behaviour are targeted and understood (Michie et al., 2008). Importantly, a theory-driven gamified intervention enables an understanding of what works best and serves as a basis for developing a theory that suits the developing economy context, higher education, and different behaviours. Also, since theory can be developed and tested when the gamified intervention is theoretically informed, it helps facilitate evaluations and measures of effectiveness for outcome improvement. In conclusion, the review on behavioural theories reveals UTAUT, SDT and MOA as relevant single theories that can influence the target behaviour in HEIs in DE. These theories answer each of the proposed research questions and are applicable in determining the identified behaviours of the target audience. The result of this study is to provide a detailed guideline for tailoring gamification in education from the DE perspective; since there is no known integrated theoretical framework in IS that has addressed the adoption, motivation, continued use and hedonic value of gamified systems. The following section presents the approaches to gamification research design. 2.4.1 Approaches to Gamification Research Design The conceptualisation of literature on gamification falls within the early adopters of the dominant research design. Since gamification is a new research area in DE, the objective of the review on research design is to generalise from a sample to a population to make inferences about some characteristics or behaviour exhibited in GIS. The review showed the dominance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 of deductive quantitative approach (Nelson, Todd & Wixom, 2005). The preferred survey was cross-sectional with self-administered questionnaires – data collected at one point in time, compared to the longitudinal data collected over time. The choice of the research model and quantitative reasoning of this study was informed by this review. As shown in Table 2.3 is an elaboration of gamification decision choices on quantitative design. Based on the applicable gamification elements, the quantitative method outcomes revealed both the intended and unintended outcomes of gamification in addressing behaviours. In this regard, Table 2.3 indicates how the researcher followed the established criteria for a quantitative design in unravelling the potential of gamification in a DE context. Table 2.3 Decision Choices based on Gamification and Quantitative Method Outcomes Gamification elements Quantitative method outcomes Decision and reference to study objectives in developing context Reference Points, Levels, Leaderboards, Progress bar, Feedback, Chat Badges, Avatar, Storyline Positive attitudes, Engagement, Determinants of adoption and acceptance, Motivation, Interest Research question Decision on research method: Quantitative method is adequate to address the determinants of adoption in Ghana. Identify potential research questions:  The candidate wrote the quantitative research questions first  Quantitative questions include “what are adoption theories?” and “which of them can address the issue of gamification in education?”  Other question was “what are the determinants and salient factors of gamification adoption, motivation and continued use?”  There was a predetermined relationship between the research question and the research process Denden et al. (2017) Darwish, 2017 Stages, Levels, Scoring, Badge, Results An improved students’ performance, motivation Khalee et al. (2019) Progress bar, Challenger goals, Badge, Notifications Awareness creation, Interaction Brehil et al. (2017) Points, Badges, Leaderboards, Progress bar, Performance graphs, Avatars Engagement Purpose of quantitative method research Ezezika et al. (2018) Ismail et al. (2018) Leaderboard, Scoresheet, Points Motivation Decision on strategies to collect data and analyse quantitatively  Largely, quantitative study from similar population. Thus, the quantitative and qualitative research approaches were not equally important in dominance and application to gamification research  Exploratory investigation and design  Closed-ended questions was adopted  In conclusion, the most dominant research approaches are design and sample design strategies, data collection and analysis strategies and theoretical reasoning Goldhill & Roodt (2018) Mikka- Muntuumo et al. (2018) Badges, Points, Level, Narrative, Storyline Leaderboards, Virtual Rewards Motivation, Preventing victimisation Purpose of the study Leaderboard, Badges, Badges counter, Quiz, Points, Teams, Feedback Motivation, Engagement, Attitude, Knowledge, Stimulation Haruna et al. (2018) Mloza-Banda et al. (2017) Points, Leaderboard, Badges, Story Lines, Competition, Missions, Loop, Challenges, Levels Achievement, Attitudinal change in wanting to learn new things Theoretical reasoning University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 Virtual rewards Increased perceived competence, Decision on developing and testing hypothesis to make a prediction Quantitative inference: reliability, and internal and statistical conclusion of validity Katule et al. (2016) Compulsory badges, Challenge badges Interest in implementing and integrating technology to support teaching and learning, Enthusiasm Botha and Herselman (2017) Source: Author In summary, the decision choice based on gamification and quantitative method outcomes revealed three main decision contexts a) Decision on research method b) Decision on strategies to collect data and analyse quantitatively and c) Decision on developing and testing hypothesis to make a prediction. These decisions inform this study on how gamification can be tailored to meet an individual or target audience in achieving the intended learning behavioural change in HEIs in DE. 2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY The chapter explored the definition of gamification and conceptual approaches in game elements implementation. Several important gaps were identified and the need to explore the interrelationship between game design elements and other constructs like intrinsic motivation and gamification outcomes and trust was established. Also, the need to examine how game design elements support and enhance students’ basic psychological needs in learning and the need to clarify the individual roles of autonomy, competence, and relatedness in continuous learning behaviour. The chapter concludes with the decision choice based on gamification and quantitative method outcomes. The next chapter further the discussion on gamification in developing economies, specifically in education. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 CHAPTER THREE GAMIFIED LEARNING: SURVEY OF EVIDENCE IN EDUCATION 3.1 OVERVIEW In Chapter 2, I framed gamification and highlighted key definitions that are relevant to this study. The chapter also discussed conceptual approaches and identified decision choices for analysing gamification based on quantitative methods. In this chapter, I examine the applicability of the GIS approach for enhancing teaching and learning from existing literature and identify research gaps for future gamification research. 3.2 DECONSTRUCTING GAMIFIED SYSTEMS IN HEIs The field of games in education has matured in recent years, and educational institutions in DE are exploring the growing trend of tailoring games. Research has shown that games, when applied effectively, can affect behaviour change to the desired outcome (Deterding et al., 2011). Gamification has been applied in many domains, including health, education, political campaigns, marketing and sustainability. In the education domain, gamification can be categorized into two main areas: transformation in higher education and survey of evidence on gamification in education. In the following subsection, I present a review of gamification in each section with a deconstructed explication of the determinants addressed in the RO (see Appendix I & II for extended Analysis of Literature Review on Gamification, pg. 225). 3.2.1 Transformation in Higher Education Transformation may be difficult for everyone, and for students and instructors in HEI it is becoming obvious that transformation is constant (Pearce & Wood, 2019). Lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic in early 2020 reveal that transformation is synonymous to change as the education sector was not spared the brunt of the virus. There was a huge transformation in teaching methods and resource allocation to enable school business continuation, frustrating University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 both instructors and learners. Education transformation expert Michael Fullan (2014) who has studied schools in the last forty years asserts that the introduction of technology solutions in schools is reported with mixed results and success. The review of literature reveals that two main factors affect the implementation of innovation in HEIs (Ketelhut & Schifter, 2011). These include: a) the characteristics of the transformation (e.g. the need to transform, the complexity and levels of the transformation, the practicality of the transformation and the goals and means of the transformation); and b) the characteristics of the main characters (e.g. the HEI, the instructors, and students). The shared factors are similar to Venkatesh et al.'s (2012) measure for adopting an innovation. The factors also espouse the concerns affecting the continuance use of innovation after implementation. Concerning the two main stakeholders in the classroom, instructors are likely to reject an innovation if it is too complex, unclear and difficult to implement and seems impractical for teaching (Ketelhut & Schifter, 2011). Instructors or teachers in recent times have also bemoaned the lack of time to practice and develop an interest to see the application of technology used in the classroom to fend off innovation rejection. Similarly, if students and the learning environment are not supportive of the transformation, embracing the innovation will be difficult. These factors often stem from a lack of technology support staff, the anxiety of failure and low perceived self-efficacy (Raeder et al., 2019). To u