ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF EFFLUENT FROM BARIMA FUEL SERVICE CENTER (MALLAM-ACCRA) AND ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF SOME FUEL SERVICE STATIONS IN ACCRA-TEMA METROPOLITAN AREAS OF GHANA MICHAEL ONWONA-KWAKYE Department of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA M.Phil 2001 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Title: Environmental Monitoring of Effluent from Barirna Fuel Service Centre (Ma 11am-Accra) and Environmental Audit of some Fuel Service Stations in Accra-Tema Metropolitan Areas of Ghana A Thesis presented to the Department of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA By (Michael Onwona-Kwakye; (10041377) BSc (Ghana), 1998 In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY in ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE September 2001 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh : Q 3 6 8 1 9 1 TDiifc’Pif Oa6! ^ jd-Cttvn University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION “This thesis is the result of research work undertaken by Michael Onwona-Kwakye in the Department of Environmental Science, University of Ghana, underlie supervision of Dr. Chris Gordon.” Sign (MICHAEL ONWpNA-KWAKYE) Sign PROF. C S GORDON MR. CHARLES ASARE University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION TO MY MOTHER AND LATE FATHER, no parents could have done any more. ‘To up and coming generations whose very survival depends bn a clean and sustainable environment and to our God Almighty’. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have contributed to the development of this research. I sincerely acknowledge the assistance given me by Miss Florence Awonore of Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) Food and Agric Department, Mr. Robert Puni of Pharmacy Council, Mr. Richard Mensah and Ken Prempeh for their immense help. I am indebted to the late Mr. J. K. Nimako (former head of AMA, Food and Agric Department) for urging me on to do this programme, his advice and encouragement is well acknowledged. I am grateful to CSIR Water Research Institute and especially Mr.Sampon Abu and Mr Albert Essien of the Quality Control Laboratory during my laboratory work. Many thanks go to Professor M. B. Salami, formerly of the Geology Department, University of Ghana, Legon who initially was my supervisor but had to leave the University after his sabbatical. I appreciate his brilliant ideas. My appreciation goes to Dr. Chris Gordon for accepting to be on my supervisory board and leading me to a successful completion of the work after the departure of Professor Salami. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is important to know that during the course of study I interacted with many individuals who together with their rich experience and patience contributed profoundly to shape and refine my ideas on this Subject. First, Mr. Charles Asare of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) who helped in structuring my proposal and subsequently became my co-supervisor. Also Mr. S. O. Kwankye of the Regional Institute of Population Studies (RIPS), Legon who corrected most of my initial encountered mistakes. It is worth mentioning the role Dr. Owoodo of EPA played in linking me to Dr. Abugri Ali of Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) on so much needed information on petroleum products. I am also very much thankful to Mrs. Kate Amoateng (TOR) and Dr. A. E. Addison (TOR Clinic) for the numerous discussions that I had with them and the patience with which they assisted me. May God richly bless them. There is a unique person whose input cannot go without mention. Mr. W. A. Asante of the Crop Science Department, Legon for his contribution to the work. My family has been immensely supportive of this undertaking from inception to completion and a very special vote of appreciation goes to them. ii Y University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, I would like to thank my classmates (Mrs. Anku, Mrs. Hudgson-Cudjoe, Mr. Nukpezah, Miss Tweneboah, Mr. Kyei, Mr. Addo, Mr. Woasey and Mr. Hogarh). I express my deep gratitude to them for their contribution, suggestions, enthusiasm, professionalism and encouragement for plain hard work without which successful completion of this project would have been impossible. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION................................................................................................................. H DEDICATION ...... ....................................................... HI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..............................................................................................IV TABLE OF CONTENTS.......................................................... VH ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW....................... 4 1.0 BACKGROUND..................................................... 4 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY............................................................................6 1.2 SOME IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ON THE GHANAIAN ENVIRONMENT............................. 7 1.3 TRANSITION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT...................................... 8 1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ACT, 1994 ACT (490).........10 1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REGULATION, 1994 (L. 1. 1652)........11 1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN GHANA........................... 11 1.7 THE EIA PROCEDURE IN GHANA................. 14 1.8 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN....................17 1.9 . THE EMERGING TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (EM) AND INDUSTRY RESPONSIBILITY ....................................................... 20 1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT (El) OF FUEL SERVICE STATIONS/IMPACTS MANAGEMENT.................. Z ...........................21 1.10.1 Activities that Expose Petroleum Products to the Atmosphere in Service Stations..................... 22 1.10.2 Sources o f Waste.........................................................................................23 1.10.3 Traffic Congestion.......................................................................................26 1.10.4 Fire Hazard............................. 26 1.11 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT..................... 27 1.12 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT .............................................................................28 1.13.1 Auditing in Practice................... 30 1.13.2. Bottlenecks in'EIA Auditing........................................................................31 CHAPTER TWO: STUDY AREA...............................................................................31 2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:.........................................................................32 2.2 CLIMATE:....................................... 32 2.3 RELIEF:................................................................................................................32 2.4 VEGETATION:.................................................................................................... 33 2.5 DRAINAGE:......... 33 2.6 POPULATION:.................................................................................................... 33 2.7 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:..............................!................................................ 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS............................................35 3.1 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT............................................................................35 3.1.1 Site Selection and Effluent Assessment....................................................... 35 3.1.2 Method o f Sampling Effluent..................................................... 36 3.2 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS ....... 36 3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSIS..............................................................................37 3.3.1 Determination o f Dissolved Oxygen (Acid Modification o f Winkler’s Method) .......................................... 37 3.3.2 Determination o f Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Dilution Method) .......................................................................................................................... .38 3.3.3 Extraction o f Organic Substances from Water (Extraction With Organic Solvent)..................................................................................... 39 3.3.4 Determination o f Ammonia - Nitrogen in Water (Direct Nesslerization) 40 3.3.5 Determination o f Nitrate - Nitrogen in Water (Hydrazine Reduction Method)...................................................................... 41 3.3. 6 Determination o f Nitrite - Nitrogen in Water.............................................41 3.3.7 Determination o f Available Phosphorous in Soil....................................... 42 3.3.8 Determination o f Soil Ammonium - N and Nitrate - N ..............................43 3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT (DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE).................................. 43 3.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Environmental Audit o f Fuel Service Stations... 44 3.4.2 Research Design for Environmental Audit o f Fuel Service Stations..........44 3.5 INSTRUMENT USED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF FUEL SERVICE STATIONS....................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS.................................................... 47 4.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS......................................... 47 4.1.1 Temperature.................. 48 4.1.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)............................................................... 49 4.1.3 Conductivity (uS/cm).....................................................................................51 4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)................................................................................ 52 4.1.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BODs)...................................... 54 4.1 . 6 Oil and Grease ....................................................................................55 4.1.7 Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N).........................................................................57 4.1.8 Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P)............................................................................. 58 4.1 .9 Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N)............................................................................59 4.1 .10 Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N ).............................................................................61 4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT RESULTS......................................................... 62 4.2.1 Waste Minimization And Pollution Measures/Control................................6 6 4.2.2 Traffic Congestion and Control....................................................................67 4.2.3 Fire Hazard Management............................................................................ 6 8 4.2.4 Waste Management....................................................................................... 69 4.2 .5 Oil Spill Management....................................................................................70 4.2. 6 Oil Leakages Management......................... ,................................................ 70 4.2.7 Occupational Health & Safety Management................................................71 4.2 . 8 Public Participation/Perception O f Enterprise........................................... 71 \ yin University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS............................................................................... 73 5.2 NUTRIENTS.........................................................................................................74 5.3 OIL/GREASE........................................................................................................ 75 5.4 CHANGES IN DO AND BOD5........................................................................... 76 5.5 DISCUSSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT.............................................. 77 5.5.1 General Discussion on Fuel Service Stations A udited. ...................77 5.5.2 Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures/Control.................................78 5.5.3 Traffic Congestion Management............................................................. 79 5.5.4 Fire Hazard Management.......................................... 79 5.5.5 Waste Management....................................................................................... 80 5.5.6 Oil Spillage Management............................................................................. 81 5.5.7 Oil Leakage Management...............................r........................................... 82 5.5.8 Occupational Health and Safety...................................................................82 5.5.9 Public Participation/Perception o f Enterprise............................................83 6.1 CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................88 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................. ....89 REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 91 APPENDIX A : Questionnaire.................................................................................96 APPENDIX B: Tables Showing Activities o f Fuel Service Stations.....................101 APPENDIX C: Statistical results o f Physico-chemical Analysis.........................102 APPENDIX D: Correlation Matrix for Water and Soil Analysis......................... 107 APPENDIX E: Fuel Filling Stations A udited....................... .............................. 108 APPENDIX F: Map o f Study Area ....................................................................... 109 APPENDIX G: Tables o f Field and Laboratory Data.......................................... 110 APPENDIXH: List o f Acronyms............................................................................121 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS....................... 73 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF FIGURES Fig. 4.1 Variation in Effluent Temperature with Time........................................... 48 Fig. 4.2 Variation in Effluent Temperature with Location.....................................48 Fig. 4.3 Variation in Effluent pH with Time.................................... 49 Fig. 4.4 Variation in Effluent pH with Location................................................................. 50 Fig. 4.5 Variation in Effluent Conductivity with Time...........................................51 Fig. 4.6 Variation in Effluent Conductivity with Location.....................................51 Fig. 4.7 Variation in Effluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with. Time:...................................... 53 Fig. 4.8 Variation in Effluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Location................................. 53 Fig. 4.9 Variation in Effluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Time...............54 Fig. 4.10 Variation in Effluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Location 55 Fig. 4.11 Variation in Effluent Oil and Grease with Time................................................. 56 Fig. 4.12 Variation in Effluent Oil and Grease with Location...........................................56 Fig. 4.13 Variation in Effluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with Time.. 57 Fig. 4.14 Variation in Effluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with Location ...................................................................................................................................... 58 Fig. 4.15 Variation in Effluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P) Concentration with Time 59 Fig. 4.1 Variation in Effluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P Concentration with Location ...59 Fig. 4.17 Variation in Effluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Time........60 Fig. 4.18 Variation in Effluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Location. 60 Fig. 4.19 Variation in Effluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Time.........61 Fig. 4.20 Variation in Effluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Location.. 61 Fig. 4. 21 Oil Marketing Companies Selling Vehicle Lubricants.......................................62 Fig. 4.22 Oil Marketing Companies selling LPG in filled Cylinders................................63 Fig. 4.23 Oil Marketing Companies with LPG Dispensing Plant ............................63 Fig. 4.24 Oil Marketing Companies offering Shopping Mart Services..............................64 Fig. 4.25 Oil Marketing Companies offering Washing Bay Service.................................. 64 Fig. 4.26 Oil Marketing Companies selling Kerosene................................................ 65 Fig. 4.26 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Minimization and Pollution Measures Control............................................................................... 66 Fig. 4.28 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Traffic Congestion and Control ...................................................................................................................................... 67 Fig. 4.29 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Fire Hazard Management....... 68 Fig. 4.30 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Management.................69 Fig. 4.31 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Oil Spill Management.............70 Fig. 4.32 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Occupational Health & Safety Management................................................................................... 71 Fig. 4.33 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Public Participation/Perception o f Enterprise........................................................................................................72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 1. Stream with Effluent from a Fuel Service Station................................................ 85 Plate 2. Sign Rules for Fire Hazard Management at a Fuel Service Station................... 85 Plate 3. A Covered Interceptor ...............................................................................86 Plate 4. Uncovered Interceptor filled with Sludge..............................................................86 Plate 5. Spill Containment Chamber for Bulk Oil Discharge...........................................87 Plate 6. Run-off o f Oil and Water into a Neighbour's Compound................................... 87 LIST OF PLATES xj University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT City authorities the world over are lamenting on the ever increasing liquid and solid waste management problems, and are in continuous search for inexpensive and easy solutions to these waste problems. Ghana, like many other developing countries, in its effort to controlling these problems enacted an Act (Act 490) through Parliament in 1994, which charged the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to demand for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on all developmental projects which are likely to impact significantly on the environment. The operation of fiiel service stations happens to be one such projects of concern. Since not much work has been done on the compliance to this Act, this.study was designed to monitor a fuel service station to generate data on pollution levels. Subsequently an environmental audit was conducted on some seventy-five (75) fuel service stations made up of fifteen each from Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total and Goil oil companies to assess their compliance to the Act. The study employed two methods i.e., laboratory analysis and questionnaire administration. The focus was on fuel service station managers and their attendants. The physical and laboratory analysis revealed that except for pH, and nitrate concentration all the parameters determined were well above the EPA permissible levels. The results showed that the surrounding of the station was polluted indicated by the elevated levels i of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Oil/Grease and low Dissolved Oxygen (DO) T University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concentration. There was significant positive and negative correlation between some parameters, which indicated that the effluent from the Barima Service Station in Accra has contributed to the pollution of a stream at least within its environs. Other human activities also contribute. The Environmental Audit of fuel service stations was scored in percentages. A lowest best performance score of 50 and a high of 100 were used._ The study revealed that, all the fuel service stations (100%) of all the marketing companies (Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total and Goil) dispensed petrol and diesel. Total had the highest of 73.3% for kerosene and 33.3% for Shell being the lowest. Vehicle lubrication was 93.3%, 80%, 73.3%, 66.7% and 60% for Mobil, Shell, Elf, Goil and Total respectively. Sales of LPG filled cylinders, 73.3%, 73.3%, 60%, 40% and 20% for Mobil, Total, Elf, Shell and Goil respectively. Most of the enterprises audited had shopping marts and restaurants attached. They were 100%, 100%, 66.7%, 60% and 60% for Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total and Goil respectively. Washing bay, which is fast becoming a prominent feature in fuel service station design was 46.7%, 40%, 33.3%, 33.3% and 20% for Shell, Mobil, Elf, Goil and Total. Pollution control/minimization measures determined revealed the following mean percentage best performance of 47.73% to 45.17%. Traffic congestion and control showed mean best performance of 100% to 86.67%. Fire hazards management was 65.96% - 56.31%. Waste management was 100% for all companies. Occupational health and safety management, 99%-94% and Public participation/perception of enterprise was 93.34%-77.79%. ii 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is evident from the findings that stringent enforcement measures are needed from Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is the enforcement authority to control the effluent that operators of fuel service stations release into the environment. Further, adequate monitoring is required of EPA to determine problems that proponent of fuel service stations and the public encounter so that they are addressed to avoid operational conflicts. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW 1.0 BACKGROUND Human beings kept their sustenance and survival by depending heavily on raw materials and products from the environment, for goods and services. Regrettably however, this dependence often generates and releases into the environment, waste materials that destroy the integrity of the environment. Over the past few years, the government’s vision of projecting the country into a middle-income country by the year 2020 as enshrined in Ghana’s Vision 2020, has resulted in the establishment of several industries and undertakings. Proponents often ignore the environmental impacts associated with these activities. The increase in vehicular traffic of Accra and Tema has resulted in the establishment of many fuel service stations. Data available at the Audit Department of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) indicate that during the 1996 - 2000 period alone, 128 enterprises requested for permits to establish fuel seivice stations in the Accra, Tema and Ga Districts of the Greater Accra Region. Of these, more than 50% were granted permits. The activities of these fuel service stations include the re-sale of petroleum products (petrol, diesel, kerosene, engine oil, etc.), and operation of vehicle lubrication bays where waste oil from vehicles are collected through the changing of engine oil. In instances where washing bays are attached to fuel service stations, large quantities of waste water containing detergents and waste engine oil are discharged. If these were inappropriately discharged into the ecosystem, would pollute surface and ground waters, thereby disrupting the existing natural processes and consequently making way for loss of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh biodiversity. Frequent fire hazards are also envisaged if proper fire emergency response plans are not put in place. It is this pollution problem and that associated with any other developmental projects, which pose threats to the environment. The Government through an Act of Parliament in 1994 (Act 490), charged the EPA to demand for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for any developmental project which, in its view, is likely to impact significantly on the environment. The EPA therefore put in place guidelines for such developmental projects. After a thorough EIA conducted, an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is submitted to the EPA. The EIS presents the mitigative measures to be used in minimizing or reducing waste. The EPA must accept the EIS before a project can commence. On the other hand, for projects, which were in operation before the coming into force of the Act, proponents were obliged to submit an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) also to EPA, which spells out how the Environmental Impacts could be mitigated. The fundamental rationale for this study is the absence of any audit on fuel service stations despite the numerous permits that have been issued to developers. The key issues are whether: There is compliance to the EIS/ EMP, The EPA carries out monitoring, The EPA carries out Audit and The EPA permits are just formality for obtaining permits and not the environmental concerns. ii 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Information gathered from the EPA Audit Department indicates that data on audit in this area is not available. The problem is often attributed to lack of funds, logistics and skilled personnel, but these are only part of the main problem. On the other hand, the lack of technical know-how on emergency response of some fuel service station managers and attendants has also been observed. Pollution of the environment of fuel service stations is also evident. Public participation, which forms a critical fulcrum of any sound EIS and EMP, has been absent in certain instances. 1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY This study was designed to: Assess the EIS process and its administration, including public participation, in relation to fuel service stations, Review and identify probable gaps/weaknesses in the EIS administration and that of EMPs for fuel service stations in the energy sector, Formulate strategies to maximise/improve EIS administration in the energy sector, Audit fuel service stations to generate information on their compliance and performance of the EMP, Find out the perception of residents near fuel service stations as regards the activities of the fuel service station undertakings, Identify the waste disposal methods of fuel service stations and Monitor the effluent of a fuel service station, determine and create data on the contaminant levels in effluents from the fuel service station through laboratory and field analyses. t University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 SOME IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ON I HE GHANAIAN ENVIRONMENT The accelerated industrial development of Ghana in the post-independence era is characterised by rapid creation and expansion of the manufacturing sector of the economy. The development of the sector was however achieved without adequate consideration of mitigative measures to minimise adverse impact on the environment (EPA, Audit Department). Manufacturing industries were predominantly sited along watercourses and coastal wetlands and the discharge of untreated effluents into these water bodies has resulted in their gross pollution. For instance in Accra and Tema metropolis where about 60% of the major manufacturing industries are located, the Korle lagoon/Odaw river and the Chemu lagoon catchments have been the recipients for waste water from industries producing textiles, food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, leather, soap and detergents, paper and printing, paint, glue and varnishes, etc. Furthermore, so little is known about the threats that hydrocarbon pollution is imparting into the Ghanaian environment (Tema Oil Refinery, 2000). Recent biological and physico-chemical studies carried out on these water bodies indicate that, the discharge o f untreated effluents with high pollution loads in excess of their assimilative capacities has destroyed their ability to support aquatic life. The effluents are characterised by high levels of acidity, alkalinity, suspended solids, conductivity, salinity, sulphides, biological and chemical oxygen demands, ammonia and heavy metals when compared to background values for sea and coastal waters. The very high oxygen demand ii 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of these effluents has resulted in oxygen depletion in some parts of the receiving water bodies with records of zero dissolved oxygen values. 1.3 TRANSITION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT The requirement for any state to conduct Environmental Impact Assessment in respect of activities that are likely to significantly affect the environment has been reflected in Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Article 5 of the Legal Principle for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development was adopted by the Expert Group on Environmental Law of the World Commission on Environment and Development. In 1987, Goals Assessment developed under the auspices of United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) by the Working Group of Experts on Environmental Law were adopted by the UNEP’s Governing Council at its 14* session, and recommended to states to be considered for use as basis for preparing appropriate national measures including legislation. The issue to be addressed here is how environmental damage can be avoided or reduced so as to ensure that development initiatives and their benefits are sustainable. The direction of environmental management in EIAs is to enable prospective developers to achieve their goal by using or disrupting the available natural resources without reducing their potential to meet future needs. According to information collected by UNEP, EIA provisions now exist in the framework of environmental legislation of 55 developing countries. In addition, at least 22 developing countries currently have specific laws, decrees or regulations, which contain criteria or procedures applicable to EIA. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana, like many other nations of the world, has endorsed the sustainable concept of economic development that integrates environmental concerns in its developmental programmes. In 1991, the Government adopted the National Environmental Action Plan (EPC - 1991), and National Environment Policy, which provided the broad policy framework for the implementation of the Action Plan. Ghana’s Environmental Policy aims at ensuring a sound management of resources and the environment in such a manner so as to avoid over-exploitation and damage to the environment. Among other things, the policy seeks to: Ensure environmentally sound use of all the country’s natural resources for a sustainable development, Establish and implement appropriate standards and guidelines for an acceptable level of public health and environmental protection and Assess the potential impacts of all major projects on the environment in order to integrate mitigative measures with planning policy. In an effort to ensure that the country follows a sustainable development path, the EPA through EPA Act 490 and lately Environmental Assessment Regulation LI 1652, initiated appropriate procedures to ensure that all developmental projects are assessed environmentally before they are undertaken. Following the promulgation of the EPA Act 490 in 1994 proponents who wish to undertake projects in the country are requested to provide EIA reports. ii 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ACT, 1994 ACT (490) In 1994, Ghana enacted the Environmental Protection Agency Act (Act 490). This marked an important milestone in Ghana’s attempt at codifying EIA requirements in the developmental process. Act 490 [Section 2 (i)] created a body corporate called the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Among its functions, the Agency was given the power “ to ensure compliance with any laid down environmental implementation assessment procedures in the planning and execution of development projects, including compliance in respect of existing projects.” Under Section 12 (1) of the Act, the Agency “may by notice in writing require any person responsible for any undertaking which, in the opinion of the Agency has or is likely to have adverse effects on the environment, to submit to the Agency, in respect o f the undertaking, an environmental impact assessment containing such information within such period as shall be specified in the notice. Where a notice is issued within the terms of Section 12 (1), the Agency shall inform any organ or department of government that has responsibility for the issue of any licence, permit, approval or consent in connection with any matter affecting the environment that the notice has been issued, and the organ or department shall not grant the licence, permit, approval or consent unless it has been notified by the Agency that the notice has been complied with. lO University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section 28 of the Act deals with Regulations. It provides under sub-section 2(b) that regulations may be made to provide for the category of undertaking, enterprises, constructions, or development in respect of which environmental impact assessment or environmental management plan is required by the Agency. 1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REGULATION, 1994 (L.l. 1652) The vision of the law makers in respect of regulations have been realised in the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 1999 (L.l. 1652) which came into force on 24th June, 1999. Divided into three parts, the Regulations have a total of 30 sections in addition to Schedules. The provisions in the Regulations deal with the various procedures to be followed prior to the granting of a permit. This also includes how to file complaints, offences and penalty. 1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN GHANA The Environmental Impact Assessment procedure in Ghana has been developed primarily as an aid to an environment planning of new development projects, the expansion of existing development projects or the management of existing facilities. It can be compared with similar techniques, which have been devised for the technical and economic planning of projects such as financial feasibility studies. The procedure and guidelines have been tailored specifically to the assessment of development project proposals. It is therefore appropriate that the procedure be mandatory, and be it University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh administered by a public agency, as in the United Kingdom (Annon. (a) Accessed 12/ 12/00). Pollution control has been promoted in Ghana for several years essentially as a curative process. EIA however is essentially a preventive process. It seeks to avoid costly mistakes in project planning and development; mistakes, which can be costly either because of environmental losses or financial cost implications because of modification that, may be required subsequently, to make the project environmentally acceptable to the Government and to the community. EIA, pollution control and resource planning are together a total approach to environmental management. This also compares favourably with the Global Compact tools on EIA (The Global Compact - Environmental Impact Assessment (accessed, 12/12/00). The aim of environmental impact assessment in Ghana is to assess the overall impact on the environment of development projects proposed by the public and private sectors. The objectives include the following: To identify and incorporate into the project plan appropriate abatement and mitigating measures, To predict significant residual environmental impacts, To determine the significant residual environmental impacts predicted and 1 o identify the environmental costs and benefits of the project to the community This is outlined in the Global Compact - EIA (accessed 12/12/00) 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When properly executed, the following are envisaged benefits of the EIA: EIA provides guidelines and information, which help reduce conflicts, It identifies and reduces risks associated with long term projects, Incorporating EIA at the initial stages for a project tends to be cheaper because the process will identify and address unforeseen issues during the planning and implementation stages, which reduce capital and recurrent cost, and avoid environmental damages as well as social disruption, It provides opportunity for co-ordination and negotiation between stakeholders, EIA broadens the boundaries of project appraisal so that consideration can be made for alternative approaches and designs and And it avoids conflicts, between proponents and the public, stakeholders etc. These benefits are also revealed in the Global Compact - EIA and also an extract of the Report of the Seventh EIA Tripartite Workshop held in Canberra, 1994. To complete an environmental impact assessment in an efficient manner and to realise the objectives discussed earlier, the assessor should take the following steps in sequence: Describe the proposed project as well as the options, Describe the existing environment, Select the impact indicators to be used, Predict the nature and the extent of the environmental effects, Identify the relevant human concerns, Assess the significance of the impacts, Incorporate appropriate mitigating and abatement measures into the project plan, i 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Identify the environmental costs and benefits of the project to the community and And report on the assessment. 1.7 THE EIA PROCEDURE IN GHANA EIA starts with the proponent registering the undertaking, which might have an impact on the environment with the Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA has the responsibility for determining what constitutes an impact on the environment. Within 25 days from the time a completed registration form is received, the EPA with the assistance of a cross-sectoral technical committee, including the Ministry of Environment and Science, makes a decision by placing the undertaking at the appropriate level of assessment. In making the decision at this stage, an inspection by EPA officers may be necessary and consideration will be given to the following: The location, size and output of the proposed undertaking, The technology to be used, Concerns of the general public, Land use considerations and Any other factors relevant to the particular undertaking. The outcome of the above screening may be one of the following: Environmental approval granted, Environmental approval declined, Preliminary Environmental Assessment required and Full EIA required. i 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The requirement for a PER is to provide sufficient information on the undertaking as a sound basis for the decision-making on whether an EIA is required for the undertaking or not. If the decision indicates that an EIA is required, then an Environmental Permit cannot be issued on the basis of the PER, and the proponent will accordingly be required to submit an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) resulting from a thorough Environmental Impact Assessment. The first stage in the conduct of an EIA is a Scoping Exercise of the proposed (alternative) site (s). This involves consultations with interested/affected parties such as government officials, (and relevant ministries, departments, local authorities), traditional authorities and members of the public. The objective is to determine how their concerns and others will be addressed in the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA. The proponent then prepares a scoping report, which would include draft a “Terms of Reference” (TOR) for the EIA study, and submit ten (10) copies to the EPA. If the EPA agrees with the TOR, then the proponent is mandated to proceed with EIA. The proponent shall then be required to commission a detailed Environmental Impact Assessment. This study will involve baseline survey and inventory, development of proposal options, identification of potential impacts and considerations for mitigation. In the course of gathering data for the EIA, the proponent is required to initiate a public information programme for the area likely to be affected by the undertaking. ii 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Once the final draft of the Environmental Impact Statement is completed, the proponent shall submit 12 copies of the EIA to the EPA. A cross-sectoral Technical Committee including the Ministry of Environment and Science (MES) and other agencies shall assist the EPA in the review of the EIS. Copies shall be made available at appropriate public places. A 21-day public notice of the EIS publication shall be served by the EPA for public information and reaction, through newspaper advertisement or posting at appropriate places as part of the review process. The EPA will collate public views and shall undertake a field/site verification exercise if considered necessary. If a strong public concern over the undertaking is indicated and impacts are extensive and far-reaching, the EPA shall hold a public hearing relating to the assessment. The EPA shall appoint a panel, which will organise the public hearing on the proposed undertaking. The information received at these hearings, together with the final report and any recommendations of the panel may be made public. In the event where a public hearing is held on an undertaking, the processing of the application may extend beyond the normal 90-day period for processing an application. iI 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Issues raised during the public hearing will have to be addressed and incorporated in the final EIS. If all addressed issues are found to be satisfactory, an Environmental Permit will then be issued. However, some nations have other requirements the details of which can help Ghana do an extensive assessment on projects. In Canada for example, the Department o f the Environment and Local Government which is responsible for EIA has in its requirements, of the undertaking attached, large - scale (1:12,500 preferred, 1:50,000 acceptable) original base map(s) and /or recent air photo(s) clearly indicating the site location relative to existing communities and transportation facilities and showing the proposed route of access. They also attach the topographic map(s), (EIA - Registration Guide, accessed, 11/12/00). Further, the source of funding for the project is given. Due to the effect of effluents that may be released into the environment and which might have significant impact on the environment, as part of the EIA, prospective developers are required to outline the type of effluents and emissions that will get into the environment and thereby design strategies for eliminating or minimising these impacts hence the emergence of Environmental Management Plan (EMP). 1.8 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN The failure of many environmental policies in many countries has generally been attributed to the exclusive concentration on the development of policies, laws and standards to the neglect of implementation including compliance, enforcement, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh monitoring and auditing. Indeed, compliance and enforcement has been identified as the weakest link in regulatory cycle (Buckley, 1991). The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) procedure is not only a regulatory tool to be enforced pursuant to section 24 of LI 1652, but also a compliance promotion tool to ensure effective prevention and minimisation of potential impact of industries that existed as at February 1999 on the coming into force o f LI 1652. The EMP was proactively initiated as a compliance promotion tool to create awareness and encourage environmental management systems development in industry. The programme is an evolving process beginning from a situation o f no environmental regulations and an ill - informed industry on environmental issues to one where industry would be well informed of their environmental obligations and make choices in self - regulation and compliance with regulations and standards that were then being anticipated. The specific objectives of developing and implementing EMP include the following: To ensure the clear recognition of the distinction and the inter - relationship between the external and the working environments, factors/activities that impact on them; and the appropriate legislation regulating them, To effectively identify potential releases into air, water and land media from the various process activities, iI 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To encourage the development of capabilities and capacities of industry to obtain accurate information on sources of emissions, effluents and solid waste generation in order to put in place minimisation and to address them, To determine qualitatively, the characteristics (i.e. pollution, indicator/parameter levels) of emissions, effluent and solid wastes as a basis of potential impact and reduction plan, To develop material balances as appropriate including water balance, and raw material balance as basis of obvious waste reduction plan, To appreciate the effect of potential impact of the various activities if ‘business as usual’ or ‘no action attitude is adopted where the pollution indicators exceed regulatory levels, To encourage self - regulations and compliance through institution of prevention, reduction of waste generation at source and the selection of a combination of primary process and pollution abatement techniques which constitute the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO), Ensure that the Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATNEEC) will be used in preventing or minimising and rendering harmless any release of described substances into the environment, Ensure the institution of relevant monitoring regime to ensure compliance with any international or national regularity limits as appropriate and Obtain detailed information about specific individual processes for the development of Process Guidance Notes or Company Profiles for the purposes of authorisation or permitting. ii 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The approach of the Agency to achieve industry compliance has been a mix regulatory and non-regulatory measure. These are primarily; Compliance promotion through seminars, workshops on environmental management, pollution studies, and dissemination of results to industry and Enforcement of registration and permitting of industries based on the Environmental Management Plan Procedure. 1.9 THE EMERGING TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (EM) AND INDUSTRY RESPONSIBILITY The Environmental Protection Agency Act 1994 (ACT 490) defines a range of tools, regulatory and non-regulatory that can be used to protect the environment to achieve environmental goals. Facilitating and encouraging high standards of environmental performance in industry always make considerable gains. This implies emphasising compliance promotion tools in addition to those used as part of the traditional regulatory approach. This embodies the Client Manager approach, which emphasises advising and assisting industry on how to meet its environmental responsibilities. These compliance promotion activities include: Giving advice on installation of clean technology and waste minimization options, Encouraging co-operation between industry, regulators, the community and local government and Assisting in the development of environmental management systems to ensure that environment protection is built into the way a plant operates and is integrated into good business management. iI 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The specific national emerging tools for developing environment management systems (EMS) are: * Environment Management Plans (EMP), ■ Environment Improvement Plans (EIP), ■ Waste Management Plans (WMP) and ■ Environmental Incident Reporting (EIR). These tools are designed to eventually assist industries to seek registration o f the emerging global Environmental Management System, ISO 14001, which is fast becoming a competitive environmental tool in the global market place just as ISO 9000 is a global Total Quality Management tool and its consistent with the United Nations Global Compact Network on EIA. (The Global Compact - EIA, accessed 12/12/00). 1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT (El) OF FUEL SERVICE STATIONS/IMPACTS MANAGEMENT The nature of a typical fuel service station of our time is one, which undertakes a variety of services ranging from the sale of petroleum products to last foods. To be precise, the activities include the dispensing of fuel (petrol, diesel and kerosene), vehicle lubrication, sale of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) filled cylinders, LPG dispensing, shopping mart, washing of cars, vulcanising as well as quick automobile repair and service. The potential Environmental Impacts (El) of the industry on the environment may be grouped as constructional phase environmental impacts and operational phase environmental impacts. The constructional phase will have impacts such as noise from 2.1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh equipment and heavy-duty machinery. The use of new machinery, regular maintenance of equipment and the synchronising of working hours to avoid unwanted noise to residents usually mitigate these. Dust from grading and digging are watered to clog dust particles. Subsequently the loss of aesthetics is compensated by landscaping and architectural designs of interest. For purposes of this study, the focus is limited to the operational phase environmental impacts are primarily due to the wastes generated. These include Volatile Organic Carbons (VOCs) and wastewater of which may affect air, water and soil. Other impacts may arise from traffic congestion and fire hazard. 1.10.1 Activities that Expose Petroleum Products to the Atmosphere in Service Stations VOCs escape into the atmosphere on the slightest exposure of tank farms or fuel dispensing nozzles. The sources of these exposures have been found to include unloading (discharge of bulk oil transport vehicles, dispensing and leakages/leachates). Diesel, kerosene and other lubricants may escape through spillage, leakages and leachates. The mitigative measure for evaporative emissions is achieved by conscious effort at keeping fuels in closed systems. Dispenser pump nozzles are manufactured not to allow fuel exposure and that all stock products are stored underground. Lubricants are normally stored in drums for disposal by contracted waste management companies. In unavoidable cases, minimum exposure is ensured. For example, dipping is done in the mornings or evenings when the atmosphere is cool to prevent excessive evaporation. The dipsticks are made of slender non — absorbing metallic bar, .while exposure time during University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dipping can be very short. Also, tank farms occupy spacious areas to avoid pressure build up. A vent pipe of approximate height of 3.5m is used to disperse any accidental vapour into the air. If these measures are not taken, there is the possibility of fire outbreak since the petroleum products are very flammable. There is the possibility of spills running into water bodies thereby covering the surface and impeding oxygen circulation. This will then affect many organisms in the aquatic environment by disrupting their body mechanisms. 1.10.2 Sources of Waste Due to the varied operations that occur at the fuel service stations, a lot of effluent is generated for example, from the washing of vehicles and effluent from kitchens. The sources of the effluent have been mainly waste waters, rain water run off, washing bay discharges, waste oils, spills and leaks, maintenance and repairs, ware house, storage and improper fuelling operations. The effluent and other waste sources from fuel service stations if not well-handled can also result in a variety of damage to the receiving media. For example, waste oils and that of spill and leaks from accidental spills and those from the repair of vehicles when they get into water bodies can cause a lot of harm to many organisms. Again, by design of most fuel service stations liquid waste is channelled into drains and then to city drains that either join small streams and then into the sea or the city drains connect straight to the sea, hence the sea becomes the ultimate recipient of such effluents. This situation, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh coupled with the general absence of pre — treatment before final disposal into the sea, poses a serious threat to the environment. The presence of waste oils in the discharges can kill organism directly through coating and asphyxiation (e.g. barnacles and other intertidal life), and can kill by poisoning via contact or ingestion (e.g. vascular plants and preening birds). Water-soluble compounds can be lethal to fish and invertebrates. This can also lead to the destruction of the sensitive eggs and larval forms of fish. Disruption of the body insulation of birds will also result in their death. Oil causes harmful effects on ecosystem as well. The disruption of food chain is obvious. There may be synergistic effects, which reduce the resistance to other stresses, and it has been suggested that carcinogenic chemicals may enter food chains from oil. Reproductive success may be reduced and the chemical clues vital to the survival, reproduction or feeding o f some organisms may be wasted by the petroleum (Simmons, 1986). When high levels of detergents are not properly disposed off, it could lead to serious environmental consequences. Detergents are synthetic materials based on the molecular design of soap. Most common detergent used contains phosphate groups. Phosphorus present in synthetic detergents foams and reduces photosynthesis and inhibits oxygenation of water. Concentrations of less than 1 mg/L may also inhibit oxygen uptake by organisms (US Congress 1970). The introduction of large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus into water bodies is one of the major problems of wastes today (Sawyer 1966). Phosphorous is a scarce resource in the lithosphere and many ecosystems are adjusted to its scarcity. The large quantities made available by human induced concentration (Washing Bay) lift such limits and algal 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh blooms result even at concentrations as low as 50 mg/L of phosphorus. Nitrogen may then become a limiting factor and organisms such as blue — green algae take over from the plankton. To mitigate this problem, oil and grease traps are constructed along drains to contain accidental spillage on the forecourt. There are also spill containment chambers constructed around fill pipes to contain any spillage during bulk oil discharges. Dispenser pumps, which have special nozzles that cut off oil delivery automatically when vehicle tanks get filled, are used. Also, proponent should show how they have put in place measures that will ensure that discharge valves and hoses of bulk road tankers are inspected and certified periodically to prevent hauling spillages. Oil leakages are also controlled by regular stock check of products by dipping to check on the level of fuel in the underground tanks. This is done once or twice a day and compared to volume of fuel sold out. Further, observation wells are constructed in tank farm to check for ground water contamination. This also serves as a leak detector against rusting, bubbles and pressure build up to prevent product leakage on storage. Regular repair, maintenance and replacement of kinky pipes and faulty nozzles are done. Interceptors are constructed to trap effluent and separate it into oil and water. The oil could then be collected and the water join public rains. The oil is then disposed off to other users, e.g. furnace burners. Where, solid waste are generated, the proponent is expected to show how such waste would be disposed off including evidence of the contractual terms. Emergency Response plans-for oil spillage and waste oil from the lube bay should be provided. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.10.3 Traffic Congestion Traffic comprises (a) cars (b) vans (c) goods vehicles (d) buses (e) motor cycles and (f) pedal cycles. The mix of different vehicle types and their relationship to the immediate built environment will determine how changes in traffic flow might impact on the wider environment. There is also the pedestrian vehicular conflict on pavements and forecourts. Proponents are required to clearly mark Exit and Entry points and which would be separated by not less than 30 meters. The distance of separation should be made so as to allow for easy manoeuvring of customers vehicles. This lessens traffic build up on the main access road and forecourt. Further, pavements along the roads are reserved to enhance pedestrian movement along the highway. On the forecourt, kerosene is sold on the side kerb, while pump attendants are to prevent thoroughfare and hawking on forecourt. 1.10.4 Fire Hazard Due to the flammable nature of petroleum products an efficient system of fire prevention and control is very necessary. The Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) is the main fire prevention and control organisation in the country. Proponents are supposed to show evidence of the acceptance of GNFS in respect of the siting of the fuel service station. The report should show that the undertaking is not going to pose any serious threat to the neighbours and the 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environment. The proponent should show evidence that the GNFS is prepared to give them fire prevention and control training and update this training as time goes on. Again, proponents are expected to show willingness to provide fire prevention and combating facilities at the service station. These include the presence of fire extinguisher e.g. 2 No. 1 x 3kg (Carbon dioxide), 2 No. 2 x 3kg (Dry Chemical Extinguisher) and 1 No. 4 x 6kg (Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher) are encouraged. In addition, sand buckets should be provided by the proponent and positioned for easy access. “No Smoking”, “Switch Off Engine” rules should strictly be ensured, as well as other preventive fire notices are displayed boldly for easy view. Smoke detectors should be part of the structural design installed in rooms to enhance early detection o f fire. Fire alarms and fire hydrants in the premises are also of utmost importance. Furthermore, fire emergency response plans would be required to show how prepared the management would handle emergency fire crisis. 1.11 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT Here protective clothing is supposed to be made available to the station attendants and its usage is to be strictly enforced by their managements. Periodic in - service training should be organised to update personnel on good working practices. Fire is the most dangerous accident envisaged at fuel service stations. To forestall its occurrence, regular fire fighting drills for staff in collaboration with GNFS should be organised. Fire extinguishers are replaced regularly to conform to expiry dates. Regular checks on valves, nozzles of dispensing pumps and lid — tightness to prevent evaporative emissions 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and gaseous inhalations are advised. Regular and prompt cleaning of oil film deposits on site to prevent slippery conditions. A water reservoir on site to facilitate cleanliness of toilets and bathrooms should be part of the structural design. 1.12 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT Environmental audit is an independent assessment of the current status of a party’s compliance with applicable environmental requirements or of party’s environmental compliance policy practices and controls. On the other hand, environmental audit is the assessment of the compliance of environmental administration and performance of an operating business with environmental protection requirements with sound environmental practice in general and with principles of sustainable development. Environmental auditing is mandatory only in cases stipulated by law (Annon. (c) 12/12/00). Environmental audits are being used as a tool and aid to test the effectiveness of environmental efforts at local levels. In other words, an environmental audit is a systematic, independent internal review to check whether due results of environmental work tally with the targets. An environmental audit also focuses on whether the methods used to achieve goals are effective. To be more precise an environmental audit is a study of documents and reports to assess whether there are any deviations between targets and results. Interviewing key people in the organisation does this. An environmental audit will confirm whether or not the environmental targets have been attained. (Annon (c) 12/12/00). 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The concept of environmental auditing is closely related to monitoring, norms and standards. Environmental monitoring is the systematic observation of the state of environment and of the factors influencing it. The main purpose of environmental monitoring is to assess changes to the state of the environment and to provide initial data for planning documents, programmes and projects. Law establishes the procedure of environmental monitoring. Environmental norms refer to figures or use rates of natural resources per production unit established for the quality of the environment, the volume of waste, or per production unit. The environmental standards are documents setting rules, guidelines and numeric values, defined by the involved parties and regulating activities or results of activities which either have or are likely to have impact on the state of the environment (Annon. (c) accessed 12/12/00). Monitoring and auditing of outcome can contribute to an improvement in aE aspects of the EIA process, from understanding baseline conditions to the framing of effective mitigation measures (Sadler, 1988). Greene et al (1985) stated that monitoring and auditing reduce time and resource commitment to EIA by allowing all participants to learn from past experience.- They also contribute to the general enhancing o f the credibility of proponents, regulatory agencies, and EIA processes. They note, “we are on an upward learning curve, and there is a considerable growth of interest in examining the effectiveness of the EIA process in practice”. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.13.1 Auditing in Practice Auditing has already developed into a considerable variety of types. Tomlinson & Atkinson (1987 a, b) have attempted to standardize definitions with a set o f terms for seven different points of audit in the “standard” EIA process as follows: ♦ Decision point audit (draft EIS) - by regulatory authority in the planning approval process, ♦ Decision point audit (final EIS) - also by regulatory authority in the planning approval process, ♦ Implementation audit - covers start up, and could include scrutiny by government and public, with focus on the proponent’s compliance with mitigation and other imposed conditions, ♦ Performance audit - covers full operation and could also include government and public scrutiny, ♦ Predictive techniques audit - compares actual with predicted impacts as a means of comparing the value of different predictive techniques, ♦ Project impact audits - also compares actual impacts with predicted, and provides feed back for improved project management and for future projects and ♦ Procedure audit - external review (e.g. by public) of procedures used by government and industry during EIA process. These terms can and do overlap. The focus here is on project performance and implementation audits. The Ghana EIA procedure prescribes post — project auditing which more or less embraces performance audit. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.13.2. Bottlenecks in EIA Auditing Whatever the focus, auditing faces major problems. Buckley (1991) identifies the following: ♦ Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) often contain very few testable predictions, which may only relate to relatively minor impacts, ♦ Monitoring techniques may not enable predictions to be tested, because, inter alia, of mismatch of time periods and locations, too few samples, etc, ♦ Projects are almost always modified between the design used for the EIA and in practice, ♦ Monitoring data provided by the developers/project operators may possibly be biased towards their interest and ♦ The environmental parameter that is monitored may not correspond with those on which predictions were made. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO: STUDY AREA 2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION: The study was conducted in the Accra - Tema metropolitan which and lies within longitude 0 ° 00' and 0° 20' to the west and boarders the south with the Gulf of Guinea and within latitudes 5° 40' and 5 °31' N. This could not however be exact due to the ever- expanding nature of the metropolis (Appendix H). 2.2 CLIMATE: Accra - Tema area experiences tropical savannah climate and receives more than 90% of its annual rainfall within six to seven months distributed in a major and a minor season. The major rains come between March/April and July and the minor rains between September and November. A short dry spell occurs in August with November to March constitute the major dry season (Dickson and Benneh, 1988). 2.3 RELIEF: The area is generally a coastal plain and are very flat. Various types of rocks are found here, but the most widespread are the granites, which also form most of the hills (Dickson and Benneh, 1988). 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 VEGETATION: The vegetation is basically coastal scrub and grassland. This is the belt, which receives the least amount of rainfall in Ghana (75 - 89cm/annum). Relative humidity is however high throughout the year and thus compensates for the scanty annual rainfall (Dickson and Benneh, 1988). 2.5 DRAINAGE: The area is endowed with streams, rivers and lagoons. Due to population pressure most of these have become mere waste channels as a result of gross human pollution. Examples include the Odaw River, Chemu Lagoon, and Korle Lagoon (Biney, 1990). 2.6 POPULATION: The 2000 population and housing census recorded a population of 1,657,856 for Accra and 511,459 for Tema with a total of 2,169,315. Accra and Tema alone form 11.8% of the national population (Census, 2000). 2.7 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES: Accra being the capital city of Ghana can boast of a lot of economic activities ranging from industry through buying and selling to agriculture. The influx of people to Accra to seek for jobs has led to a high population density. Tema has one of the main harbours in the country. The city is also heavily populated with similar economic activity as that of 3.3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Accra. Coupled with the rapid expansion and urbanisation of these cities, daily commuting from homes to working places has become a significant phenomenon of the two cities. This has led to an increasingly high demand for fuel and the consequent rapid establishment of fuel service stations. Information obtained at the Driver Vehicle and Licensing Authority (DVLA), indicate that between January and December 1999 a total of 64,751 vehicles were registered in Ghana. This makes an average of 177 vehicles per day, and of these close to 50% was concentrated in Accra and Tema metropolitan area. Accra - Tema Metropolitan Area was selected because it was close to where the researcher lives, and also was seen to be the area of high concentration of fuel service stations in Ghana. With the brisk economic activities and the demand for petroleum products, it was anticipated that interesting results would be achieved. Further, the head offices of all the oil-marketing companies are located within the metropolis, which would allow for easy access to environmental policy makers and their implementers. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT A case study approach was adopted. This started with a review of the Environmental Management Plan (EMPs) of fuel service stations. This included a reconnaissance survey of 20 fuel service stations in the study area to establish their compliance to these EMPs. Also, detailed questionnaires were administered to attendants and managers of some fuel service stations. Their knowledge on issues addressed in the EMPs were also carried out. There was audit of the facilities. This took place after establishing the environmental impact controls of fuel service stations from the heads of the environmental departments of the fuel marketing companies. A fuel station (Barima Service Centre) which is sited on the fringes of the Densu Ramsar site and whose effluents empty into a stream which flow into the Ramsar site was selected for a detailed laboratory analysis. Water samples from selected points along the stream were taken for physical, and chemical analysis. 3.1.1 Site Selection and Effluent Assessment In all six (6 ) sites were selected for sampling of effluent. The selection was partly based on the closeness to the source and ease of identification of the sites. The sites included 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confluence), 5m upstream then at 10m intervals downstream from the confluence. 3.1.2 Method of Sampling Effluent Samples meant for the physical and chemical parameters identification were collected using plastic containers of two litre capacity by immersing the container gently to a depth of about 25cm until it was almost full. However with samples meant for the determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) were taken to fill the DO and BOD bottles so as to prevent air bubbles from entering. Sampling for hydrocarbon analysis was also made using 1 L plastic bottles at all the six sampling sites. Sediment and soil samples for analysis were taken at these six (6 ) sites at the bed o f the stream to a depth of 50 cm and at .the banks at right angles to the depth of 25 cm using the soil auger. 3.2 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS The pH, temperature and conductivity were determined. The determination of the pH was carried out using a pH meter (model santix SP — 701). Temperature was measured using mercury in thermometer. A conductivity meter (model - Jenway PCM3) was used in the measurement. The conductivity of the soil samples was measured using a 1:2.5 dilution ratio with distilled water. the source where the effluent from the fuel service centre joins the stream (i.e. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSIS The samples for Dissolved Oxygen (DO) determination were pre-treated by fixing with 2 ml manganous sulphate followed by 2 ml alkali iodide - azide, re-stoppered and contents mixed by inverting the bottle about 15 times. The bottle was shaken again after 3 minutes. As soon as possible, the fixed samples were determined as follows: The stopper from the DO bottle was removed and 2.0 niLconcentrated Ffe S04 added along the neck and shaken till dissolution was complete. A 100 ml of the solution was titrated with M/80 sodium thiosulphate solution to a straw yellow colour. About 2 ml starch solution was then added and the titration continued to a point where the blue colour changed to a colourless end - point.The standard thiosulphate solution was prepared by dissolving 0.892 g potassium iodate, previously dried at 120°C for one hour in distilled water and diluted to 1 litre. 10 ml M/40 (0/0250 M) potassium iodate was pipetted into a conical flask containing 1 0 0 ml water, then 1ml alkaline iodide - azide solution and titrated with M/80 thiosulphate, adding 2 ml starch indicator when a pale straw colour was reached. This was titrated to a colourless end point. Calcula t ion Molarity of thiosulphate ■'= 0.025 x 10 (3 .1) v Where V = volume of thiosulphate used, ml The calculation of the DO Mg/102 = vol. of M/80 thiosulphate used x 101.6 (3.2) Vol. of sample used APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995). UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987a) 3.3.1 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (Acid Modification of Winkler’s Method) 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The procedure for Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was followed however the calculation of the BOD was as follows: When dilution water is not seeded: 3.3.2 Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Dilution Method) BOD5, mg/1 (D ,-D 2)/P (3.3) When dilution water is seeded: BOD5, mg/1 [(D !-D 2) - ( B ! - B 2) f l /P (3.4) Where, D, = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/1 D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5 day incubation at 20°C, mg/1 P decimal volumetric fraction of sample used Bi = DO of seed control before incubation, mg/1 B2 = DO of seed control after incubation, mg/1 f ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seed control (% seed in diluted sample) / (% in seed control) if seed material is added directly to sample or to seed control bottles: f = (volume of seed in diluted samples) / (volume of seed in seed control) APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.3 Extraction of Organic Substances from W ater (Extraction With Organic Solvent) A litre of the sample was taken per each sample site and acidified at the time of collection with 5ml HCL acid (6:1). After mixing the sample, the pH was checked by using pH paper to ensure that the pH was 2 or lower. Then 30ml CCL4 was added to the sample bottle and rotated to rinse the sides. The mixture was then transferred into a separator funnel, and extracted by shaking the bottle vigorously for 2 minutes. The layers were then allowed to separate. The solvent layer was then filtered through a funnel containing solvent - moistened filter paper into a 100 ml volumetric flask. The extraction procedure was repeated twice more with 30ml portions of fresh solvent, combining all solvent into the volumetric flask. The tip of the separating funnel, filter paper, and the funnel were rinsed with about 1 0ml solvent and the rinse was collected in the flask and diluted to 1 0 0 ml. About 10 ml of the solvent from the volumetric flask was discarded and 3g silica gel (60 - 200 mesh, Davidson grade 950 or equivalent) added. With the volumetric flask stoppered, the solvent was stirred with a stirring bar for 5 minutes on a magnetic stirrer. The contents were then transferred into a distilling flask of known weight and distilled in a water bath at 70°C till the flask was dry. The contents were then dried in a dessicator for 30 minutes and re-weighed. If the organic solvent is free of residue the gain in weight of the flask is mainly due to oil and grease. I Calcula t ion 1 t Mg oil and grease/1 = (A -B ) x 1 0 0 0 xi 1 0 0 0 (3 .5 ) Ml sample 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Where, A = total gain in the weight of the flask in grams B = solvent blank APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) 3.3.4 Determination of Ammonia - Nitrogen in Water (Direct Nesslerization) Sampled water was allowed to settle and 5ml of the supernatant pipetted into a conical flask and made up to 50 ml mark-using ammonia - free water and 2 drops of Rochelle salt added. The contents were mixed well and 2 ml of Nessler’s reagent added. A blank solution was prepared using 50ml ammonia - free water plus 5 drops Rochelle salt and 2ml Nessler’s reagent. The samples were allowed to stand for 10 minutes for colour development and its absorbance determined using a UY/VIS spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 410 nm using a 1cm light path cuvette. The spectrophotometer was zeroed with the blank solution. A calibration curve previously prepared was used to determine the concentration of the ammonia - nitrogen in the unknown sample, (APHA, AWWA, WEF (1989); UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987b)). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.5 Determination of Nitrate - Nitrogen in Water (Hydrazine Reduction Method) To a test tube 10 ml of the sample was pipetted into a test tube and 1.0ml of 0.3M NaOH added and mixed gently. Further, 1.0ml of a reducing mixture was added and mixed gently. The mixture was then warmed to 60°C in a water bath for 10 minutes, and cooled to room temperature followed by the addition of 1 .0 ml of colour developing reagent. The mixture was shaken and the absorbance read at 520nm. The concentrations of nitrate and nitrite were computed directly from an already prepared calibration curve. To obtain the concentration of NO3 - N, NO2 - N was determined separately. APHA, A W A , WEF (1995). 3.3.6 Determination of Nitrite - Nitrogen in Water A calibration curve was prepared with a series of standards in 50 ml Nessler tubes. In addition 2 ml of buffer - colour reagent was added to each standard sample, mixed and allowed for colour to develop for at least 15 minutes, the pH was then made to 2. The absorbance was measured in- the spectrophotometer at 540nm against the blank and the concentration of nitrite - nitrogen plotted against absorbance. NO2 - N in mg/1 = fmg/1 from standard curve x 501 (3.6) Ml sample APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995), UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987c) 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Available phosphorus in soil was determined using the method of Bray and Kurtz (1945). 30g of soil was weighed into 100 ml centriftige bottle and 60 ml of Bray 1 solution (0.03M NH4F in 0.025m HCL) was added. The suspension was shaken for 1 minute on a reciprocating shaker and filtered through a No.42 Whitman filter paper into a 100ml volumetric flask. Available phosphorus in the filtrate was determined colorimetricaUy with the molybdate ascorbic acid method of Watanabe and Olsen (1965) as follows: A 20 ml aliquot of the filtrate was pipetted (in duplicate) into a 50 ml volumetric flask. The pH was adjusted using p - nitrophenol indicator and neutralised with few drops 4N ammonium hydroxide (NH4 OH) until the solution turned yellow. The solution was diluted to 40 ml with distilled water after which 8ml reagent B (a mixture of ascorbic acid and ammonium - molybdate solution) was added and made up to 50 ml volume with more distilled water. The solution was mixed thoroughly shaken and allowed to stand for 15 minutes for the colour to stabilise, A blank was prepared with distilled water and 8 ml reagent B. The method was calibrated using 5 (ml/L) Standard P solution in the manner as shown earlier. The intensity of the blue colour was measured using the Philips PU 8620 spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 712 nm. 3.3.7 Determination of Available Phosphorous in Soil 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.8 Determination of Soil Ammonium - N and Nitrate - N Five grams of fresh soil sample was weighed into an Erlenmeyer flask and 50 ml of 2M KCL solution added. The contents were shaken for 30 minutes. Then 20 ml of the filtrate was transfered into 100 ml micro Kjeldahl steam distillation apparatus and 200 mg of MgO previously dried at 300°C for one hour was added. The flask was connected to the distillation apparatus and about 40 ml distillate was collected in 15 ml of 0.005M HCL solutions for ammonium - N determination. To determine nitrate - N, a fresh flask containing 15ml of 0.005m HCL was used to which was added 20g of Devarda’s alloy. In each case the distillate was titrated with 0.005M NaOH solutions. The NH4 - N and the NO3 - N were calculated as: YN = YO.A m/L....................... (3.7) 2 Where A, is the difference between the millilitres of HCL used to reduce NH4CL and the millilitres of NaOH to neutralise HCL. 3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT (Description of sample) Seventy-five fuel service stations from the Accra — Tema Metropolitan area were sampled comprising fifteen fuel service stations each of MOBIL, ELF, SHELL GOIL and TOTAL. In these fuel service stations, the managers, the fuel service attendants and car washing attendants were the target. Seventy-five was the largest sample size that could be available for the project. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Environmental Audit of Fuel Service Stations A disproportionate random sampling method was used. It was disproportionate because even though the numbers of enterprises considered were the same, their activities within the entire study area were not the same. It was random because every individual fuel service station in the sample had an equal probability of being selected to enable one to generalise the findings of the study to the entire population. 3.4.2 Research Design for Environmental Audit of Fuel Service Stations Generally, the descriptive survey method was used in the study. This method inquires into what exists without questioning why it exist (Ary et, al 1979). Creswell (1994) defines a survey design as that which provides a quantitative or numeric description of some fraction of the population, which is the sample, through the data collection process of asking questions of the people. This data collection in turn enables a researcher to generalise the findings from a sample of responses to a population. The research was to describe, “what existed” with respect to the variables mentioned in the situations. 3.5 INSTRUMENT USED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF FUEL SERVICE STATIONS The instrument used was a structured interview with a closed and open format designed by the researcher. The format was in two parts and administered using the participatory approach solely by the researcher. The first part was made up of 19 statements, which solicited general information on the subjects. The second part was made up of 52 4+ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh statements based on Environmental Audit of fuel service stations. This part was determined based on eight mitigative measures as follows: Problem A - Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures Problem B - Traffic Congestion Problem C - Fire Hazards Problem D - Waste Management Problem E - Oil Spill Management Problem F - Oil Leakage Management Problem G - Occupational Health and Safety and Problem H - Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise Each statement was accompanied by a “Yes” or “No” response to indicate the presence or otherwise of a requirement. Each questionnaire was administered to the station manager and the attendants of the appropriate departments. (Refer to Appendix A). The questionnaire was constructed in English and where the researcher made necessary translation for respondents who do not understand English to facilitate response. The researcher recorded scores obtained for each category of marks obtained at the station. Each interview lasted between 4 5 - 5 0 minutes. 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS FOR RESULTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT AND LABORATORY ANALYSIS The score was recorded in percentages as scores obtained in a category upon the maximum marks obtainable. In this wise a minimum of 0% and maximum of 100% were 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh anticipated at the different categories, with the lowest being minimum compliance and the highest being maximum compliance. The mean, probability, standard error, least significant difference (LSD) were computed. The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was also computed. This same analysis was carried out on measurements made at the laboratory on water and soil samples. Furthermore, the performance levels were determined including correlation of the values for the various parameters o f the water and soil analysis for probable inter- relationships. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 4.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS The results of the review of the EIA administration in Ghana revealed the following weaknesses. Generally there is the lack of effective monitoring of environmentally permitted projects. There is also the lack of enforcement of the penalties of offending proponents by the Environmental Protection Agency. It was also realized that the EPA had no standard designs, which are environmentally friendly for proponents to adopt or at least factor into their structural designs. The problems encountered above were identified to have come about as a result of the lack of skilled personnel, lack of logistics and the lack of motivation for personnel. On physicochemical analysis, the following revelations were made. The sampling was done for a period spanning from January 2001 to May 2001. In all three samplings were made, one in January, the second in March and the third in May. The sampling was also done at six locations along the waste stream. The mean values for the months and the sampling locations were determined. An Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was run on the data. The Least Significance Difference (LSD) was computed using the Minitab statistical package, and where significance existed, the LSD was used to separate the means. A correlation matrix was run to investigate the relationships that existed between the parameters measured. 5 % and 1% significance levels were used. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G9 shows that temperature of water samples recorded from January 2001 to May 2001 ranged from 27°C-30°C, and did not show any definite pattern. 4.1.1 Temperature Time (month) Fig. 4.1 Variation in E ffluent Temperature with Time Sampling Locations (m) Fig. 4.2 Variation in E ffluent Temperature with Location There was however a high water temperature in January as shown in Fig. 4.1. Between sampling sites, there were not much differences. This was supported by the lack of 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variation in the ANOVA (Appendix Cl). The mean temperature recorded from January to May ranged between 28.5°C-29.2°C. Between sampling sites it ranged between 28.3°C-29.3°C. Water temperature did not show any correlation with the other parameters measured. The EPA specifies that effluent into receiving water bodies should not exceed 3°C above ambient temperature. In Ghana, the average water temperature is mostly given as approximately 26°C during most periods of the year. If this is applied, then the mean water temperature of 29.2°C for January and 29.3°C for sampling site 0.0 fell outside the required range. 4.1.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Appendix G10 shows that, the water pH ranged from 7.3-8.0 for the period of study. However, the mean water pH ranged between 7.4-7.7 from January to May (Appendix Cl). Between samplings locations it was 7.4-7.8 (Appendix C2) Time (month) Fig. 4.3Variation in E ffluent pH with Time 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.4 Variation in E ffluent pH with Location From Fig. 4.3 and 4.4, it is evident that there was a general decrease in pH from January to May and also for sampling locations (0.0m to 45m) except the value at 25m along the sampling locations. There were however no significant differences between the means at both 5% and 1% significant levels. Appendix C2 shows that the soil pH varied significantly at both 5% and 1% significance levels from January to May for the Stream Bank. There was also a significant variation at 5% level of significance for bank soil pH with sampling locations (Appendix C6 ). The pH at the stream bank between months ranged from 7.6-7.9 and betweens sampling sites 7.4-8.1. The streambed sediment pH did not show any significant variations and ranged between 7.6-7.9 for the months of January to May and 7.4-8.1 for sampling locations (Appendix C8 ). A correlation matrix showed that the pH of the soil from the stream bank was highly negatively correlated to the Ammonia-Nitrogen in the soil of the river- bank sediment(r=-0.720, p<0.05) Appendix D. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The conductivity during the period of study was greatest for the effluent. The highest value of 2300|iS/cm was recorded in March at sampling location 0.0m and the lowest of 1400|iS/cm was recorded for all the months though, at different locations (Appendix Gil). Soil conductivity had a high of 720fiS/cm in soil sediment and a low of 140pS/cm in soil bank for January and May as indicated in Appendices G20 and G21 respectively. 4.1.3 Conductivity (fiS/cm) Fig. 4.5 Variation in E ffluent Conductivity with Time □ o 95 .0 (S) □ 15 □ 25 ■ 34 □ 45 Sampling Locations (m) Fig. 4.6 Variation in E ffluent Conductivity with Location 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig 4.5 shows the pattern of conductivity in the effluent. January recorded the highest and March the lowest. Fig 4.6. shows the pattern for the different locations. In Appendix Cl the mean conductivity ranged between 1542-1742 (j.S/cm for months and 1467-2017 pS/cm for sampling locations (Appendix C2). The results obtained indicate that, even the lowest conductivity recorded was in excess of about 100% above the EPA permissible level of 750ps/cm. There were 5% and 1% significant differences of the conductivity levels within the soil bank and streambed sediment respectively. This is shown in Appendices C6 and C8 respectively. 4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) The DO levels measured at the sampling sites spanning the period of monitoring ranged between 0.00 mg/L -6.4 mg/L (Appendix G12). The results of the DO levels for the period are listed below. Month Range (mg/L) January 2001 0.00-6.2 March 2001 0.00-6.4 May 2001 0.00-5.2 Although some of the sites recorded values within the WHO concentration for portable water (i.e. 5.0-7.0 mg/L) WHO (1984) their means were grossly low. Mean dissolved oxygen concentrations of 0.05 mg/L - 2.4 mg/L for months and 0.00 mg/L-5.9 mg/L for sampling sites were recorded and shown in Appendix Cl and C2 respectively. 5X University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh □ JAN B MARCH □ MAY Fig. 4.7 Variation in E ffluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Time Fig. 4.8 Variation in E ffluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Location A clear-cut pattern could be established for the DO concentration for sampling sites for the various months as shown in the figures. There is a high DO concentration above the confluence and decreases sharply at the confluence and regenerates slowly down stream, (Fig. 4.8). There was low mean DO concentration for the month of March, Fig. 4.7. There was also significant differences between DO at sampling locations levels at both 5% and 1% as shown in Appendix C2. □o □ 5.0 (S) □ 15 □ 25 a 35 □ 45 Sampling Location (m) 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, BOD5 levels showed exceptionally high levels in most instances above the EPA maximum permissible level for discharge into water bodies. The highest level was recorded in January (4800 mg/L) and the lowest in March and May (12.0 mg/L)- Appendix G13 However, the mean values recorded indicated values in excess o f the EPA permissible level of 50 mg/L for effluent discharge. A monthly BOD5 mean of 461mg/L-1117 mg/L was recorded, and 15mg/L-4200 mg/L was recorded for the sampling locations (Appendices C3 and C4 respectively) and represented in Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10 respectively. 4.1.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) □ JAN. a MAR. □ MAY Fig. 4.9 Variation in E ffluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Time 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.10 Variation in E ffluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Location There was however a regular pattern which it followed. The BOD5 level was low before the confluence and decreased with distance downstream. There were significant differences between sampling locations at both 5% and 1% significant levels (Appendix C4). A negative interrelationship also existed between water biochemical oxygen demand and soil Nitrate-Nitrogen at the soil bank (r=-0.504, p<0.05) Appendix D. 4.1.6 Oil and Grease Oil analysis carried out showed that January recorded the highest concentration of 175.7 mg/L and March the lowest with 17.5 mg/L (Appendix G14). The mean concentration of oil and grease recorded were 55 mg/L-101.7 mg/L for the months from January to May and 23.4 mg/L - 154.3 mg/L between sampling locations Appendices C3 and C4 respectively. None could however satisfy the EPA permissible level of 10 mg/L for discharge of oil and grease. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.11 Variation in E ffluent Oil and Grease with Time BO □ 5 □ 15 □ 25 ■ 35 0 45 Fig. 4.12 Variation in E ffluent Oil and Grease with Location There was also a clear pattern of the distribution of the oil and grease, as shown in figures 4.11 and 4.12 above. The concentration of oil and grease recorded was less up the confluence and it was concentrated in and around the confluence. This then decreased with distance down the 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stream. There existed a significant difference between the means at sampling sites at 5% and 1% significance levels. (Appendix C4). The correlation matrix revealed negative interaction between oil/grease and water dissolved oxygen (r=-820, p<0.05) Appendix D. 4.1.7 Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) The concentrations recorded were mostly less than 1.0 mg/L, Ammonia-Nitrogen in water (Appendix G16). However, the mean water values recorded showed a range of 0.553 mg/L -1.2 mg/L for months, and 0.41mg/L~1.5 mg/L for sampling locations (Appendices C3 and C4) respectively. Here too, no definite pattern was realized for the sampling locations shown in the figure 4.14 below. There were significant differences between the recorded values between months and also between locations. Time (month) Fig. 4.13 Variation in E ffluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NHs-N) Concentration with Time 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sampling Location (m) Fig. 4.14 Variation in E ffluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with Location The monthly mean values showed an increase in concentration with time. Fig. 4.13. These values could not be compared with guideline values, as these are non-existent at EPA. 4.1.8 Ortho-Phosphate (P04-P) Phosphate concentrations showed no distinct distributional pattern. The highest concentration recorded was 1.1 mg/L in March at 0.0m and the lowest was 0.09 mg/L in May at 0.0m (Appendix G15). However, the mean concentrations measured showed a range of 0.5 mg/L-0.6 mg/L for the months and 0.5 mg/L-0.7 mg/L for the sampling locations (Appendices C3 and C4) respectively. The soil analysis showed higher values probably, they had not dissociated into solution. The figures below show the mean concentration for the month and sampling locations. 5S University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.15 Variation in E ffluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P) Concentration with Time Fig. 4.16 Variation in E ffluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P Concentration with Location These values obtained could also not be compared to any guideline values from EPA because there were non-existent. 4.1.9 Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) The highest concentration of NO3-N in water was measured in March as 2.2 mg/L and the lowest of 0.01 mg/L in January (Appendix G17). However, the mean nitrate-nitrogen 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concentration ranged from 0.9 mg/L to 1.7 mg/L for the months. Concentration for the soil analysis was also low. However, significant variation existed between concentration values. (Appendices C4, C5, C6 , C7, and C8 ). Correlation matrix results revealed a negative interaction between water nitrate-nitrogen and water conductivity (r=-0.635, p<0.05). This also could not be compared due to the lack of guideline values. The diagram below shows the nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the water. 0 JAN. SMAR. □ MAY Fig. 4.17 Variation in E ffluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Time Sampling Location (m) Fig. 4.18 Variation in E ffluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Location 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The concentrations generally increase from January-May and a similar trend was observed for the locations as well. 4.1.10 Nitrite-Nitrogen (N02-N) Nitrite concentration were generally low and were below l.Omg/lL (Appendix G17) □ JAN. B MAR. □ MAY Fig. 4.19 Variation in E ffluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Time Sampling Location (m ) 15 □ 15 □ 25 135 □ 45 Fig. 4.20 Variation in E ffluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Location 6 \ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The mean values were also low. The mean range was 0.0308 mg/L-0.0398 mg/L for months January, March and May. The mean concentrations for the sampling locations were 0.0090 mg/L-0.0607 mg/L (Appendices C3 and C4 respectively). In general, March recorded the least concentration, Fig. 4.19. There was however no definite pattern for the sampling locations Fig. 4.20. 4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT RESULTS The fuel service stations audited are shown in Appendix E and their locations on Appendix H. The background information gathered on the sampled fuel service stations during the study indicated that they undertake activities and services including, dispensing of fuel, vehicle lubrication, sale of LPG filled cylinders, LPG dispensing, shopping marts, vehicle washing bay among others. The dispensing of fuel included petrol, diesel and kerosene. These were scored as percentages and shown in Appendix B1 and B2 respectively. On vehicle lubrication, Mobil had the highest percentage of 93.3% and Total the least at 60% with mean value of 74.7. 60. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sale of LPG filled cylinders was 73.3% for Mobil and Total and 20% for Goil with a mean of 53.3% (Fig 4.22). MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL Fig. 4.22 Oil Marketing Companies selling LPG in filled Cylinders LPG dispensing plant was 6.7% and mean of 1.34% (fig 4.23). 05 £ C 6 2 g 5 ® 4- c , § £ 2 ’ f ' 1 | □ LPG dispensing plant | S | 0+ MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL Fig. 4.23 Oil Marketing Companies with LPG Dispensing Plant For all the stations sampled, Mobil and Shell had shopping marts, whilst Total and Goil had 60% with Elf at 66.7% with a mean of 77.3% (fig 4.24). 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fig. 4.24 Oil Marketing Companies offering Shopping Mart Services Shell had the highest number of washing bays at 46.7% with Total the lowest at 20%. The mean however was 34.7% (fig 4.25). MOBIL SHELL TOTAL GOIL | □ Washing Bay | Fig. 4.25 Oil Marketing Companies offering Washing Bay Service Kerosene had low percentages as compared to petrol and diesel products and it ranged from 73.3% for Total to 33.3% for Shell fig. 4.29 and a mean of 54.7% as shown in Appendix B2. Other activities such as vulcanising, mechanical and electrical quick services were 53.3% for Mobil and 2 0 % for Shell in that decreasing order, with a mean of 34.7% (fig 4.26). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh g. is. c I 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 B MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL QKerosene Fig.4.26 Oil Marketing Companies selling Kerosene The criteria for the percentage best performance for the second part of the Audit were as follows; Any mark obtained that was below 50% was considered a failure to the set down guidelines and 100% was the highest best performance obtainable. Further, the following breakdown was used for the assessment. NUMERICAL MARKS (%) INTERPRETATION 80 -100 Excellent 70 - 79 Very Good 60 — 69 Good 50 - 59 Fair 0 - 4 9 Fail Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to calculate for variations, between enterprises. The total scores, mean, sum of squares, standard error, mean square, degree of freedom, 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh F-calculated, the probability and the Least Significant Difference (LSD) were computed. The statistical package used was Minitab. 4.2.1 Waste Minimization And Pollution Measures/Control The percentage scores recorded for the Oil Marketing Companies (OMC) revealed that; Mobil ranged between 46.2%-61.5% with a mean of 47.73%. SheE and ELF had 46.2% throughout. Total and Goil likewise had a mean of 45.17% ranging from 38.5%-46.2% (Appendix Gl) The mean scores obtained on the entire data for waste minimization and poEution control ranged within 45.17% - 47.73% for aE the oil marketing companies. Oil Marketing Company (OMC) □ MOBIL a SHELL □ ELF □TOTAL BGOIL Fig. 4.26 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Minimization and Pollution Measures Control From the Means shown in Fig. 4.27 it is evident that none of the stations satisfied the conditions for the minimisation of waste and poEution control, because none scored 50% 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and above. However, there were variations between the performance of Mobil, Total and Goil, at 5% significance level. (Appendix C9) 4.2.2 Traffic Congestion and Control The percentage score obtained for Total and Shell was 100% throughout. Mobil scored between 50%-100% with a mean of 96.67%. The score for Elf was between 50%-100% with a mean of 86.67%, while Goil had 50%-100% with a mean of 86.33% (Appendix G2). The score obtained for the five OMC’s are shown in Appendix CIO and ranged between 86.67% - 100% with Shell and Total registering the highest mean of 100% and Goil lowest at 88.33%. The figure 4.28 shows the trend. □ MOBIL HSHELL □ ELF □TOTAL ■ GOIL Oil Marketing Company (OMC) Fig. 4.28 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Traffic Congestion and Control 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the means it is seen that the enterprises satisfied the conditions for the traffic congestion within the excellent bracket. Shell and Elf were significantly different at 5% significant level. Shell and Goil were also significantly different at 5% level (Appendix CIO). 4.2.3 Fire Hazard Management The fire hazard management recorded revealed that following trend of scores. Mobil ranged between 33.33%-77.8%. Shell ranged between 55.6%-66.7%, Elf, 44.4%-66.7%; Total, 55.6%-66.7%; and Goil, 44.4%-77.8%. (Appendix G3). The observed means ranged from 56.31% - 65.95% (Appendix Cll). Total recorded the highest best performance at 65.96% and the least was at 56.31%, shown in the figure 4.29. 0 MOBIL @SHELL □ ELF □TOTAL ■ GOIL Fig. 4.29 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Fire Hazard Management 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Means indicate that the performance with regard to fire hazard management is fairly good, and there exist no significant difference between the OMC’s at 5% significance level, but it was at 1% significance level. 4.2.4 Waste Management Waste Management scores ranged between 60%-100% for Mobil, 80%-100% for Shell, 80%-100% for Elf, 80%-100% for Total and 60%-100% for Goil (Appendix G4). The mean value recorded for waste management showed percentages above 85% for all the OMC’s. The range was 86.05% - 90.67%, (Appendix C12). Fig. 4.30 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Management Mobil and Shell recorded the highest score at 90.67% and Goil the least at 86.5% as shown in the figure 4.30. In all the performance was encouraging. There was however no significant difference between the enterprises, at 5% significance level. (Appendix C12). □ MOBIL mSHELL □ ELF □ TOTAL ■ GOIL Oil Markeing Company (OMC) 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The recorded scores was 57.1%-100% for Mobil, 71.4%-100% for Shell, 71.4%-85.7% for Elf, 71.4%-100% for Total and 42.9%-100% for Goil. (Appendix G5). The observed mean values for oil spill management indicate that Total recorded 96.19%, which was the highest score, and Goil had 78.01% as the lowest. 4.2.5 Oil Spill Management Fig. 4.31 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Oil Spill Management The means shown were within the very good and excellent performance brackets. However difference exist between Mobil and Total, Shell and Goil at 5% significance level (Appendix C13). Figure 4.34 shows the trend. 4.2.6 Oil Leakages Management The results obtained indicate that, all the enterprises were operating at the best of performances with 100% score by each enterprise. (Appendix G6 ). 70 > University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.7 Occupational Health & Safety Management Mobil scored between 85%-100%, Shell, 85%-100%; Elf, 85%-100%; Total, 85%-100%; and 85%-100% for Goil (Appendix G7). Figure 4.32 shows the mean percentage responses to occupational health and safety management. The mean score ranged from 94% - 99% the highest score was obtained by Total and ELF had the lowest at 94%. (Appendix C15). f i Oil Marketing Company (OMC) Fig. 4.32 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Occupational Health & Safety Management High level of performance recorded. This was within the excellent region of the scaling. There were no significant difference between the enterprises at both 5% and 1% significance levels. (Appendix C l5). 4.2.8 Public Participation/Perception Of Enterprise On the issue of Public Participation/Perception of oil marketing companies, Mobil had 66,7%-100%, Shell (33.3%-100%), Elf (33.3%-100%), Total (33.3%-100%) and Goil (33.3%-100%). (Appendix G8 ). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The performance levels showed a mean range of 77.79% - 93.34%. Mobil had the highest score whilst Total and Goil had the 77.79%. (Appendix C l6 ). These scores are shown in the figure 4.33. □ MOBIL BSHELL □ ELF □ TOTAL ■ GOIL Oil Marketing Company (OMC) Fig. 4.33 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Participation/Perception o f Enterprise The performance could be described as very good through to excellent. Public 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS 5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS The pH indicates the intensity of the acidic or basic character of a solution. The pH of the effluent samples recorded a mean high of 7.7 for the months and 7.8 for the locations. These fall within the EPA specific guideline value of 6-9. However, since neither primary productivity nor chlorophyll measurements were made, it is not possible to explain clearly the slight changes in pH. Running waters are normally influenced by the nature of deposits over which they flow (Hynes, 1970) while shallow lentic environments which favour the growth of phytoplankton are more influenced by photosynthetic activities which increase pH values (Symoens et al., 1981). From Appendices Cl and C2 showed maximum temperature values of 29.2°C for months sampled and 29.3°C for sampling locations. These fell above the EPA prescribed guidelines for effluent discharge. The temperatures that were comparatively high can be attributed to the shallow nature of stream. The very high levels of conductivity also signified the extent of mineralization of the stream. This is also related to the concentration of total dissolved solids and major ions. The high values of 1742|j.S/cm for January and 2017 |j.S/cm for locations 5m upstream from the confluence showed, 232% and 269% higher than EPA’s permissible level of 750(iS/cm in water, respectively. The temperature increase has the potential of 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh increasing growth of some bacteria and phytoplankton, which will lead to increase turbidity, macrophyte growth and algal blooms when nutrient conditions are suitable. The high conductivity levels also points to the fact that nutrients are also available in solution that could trigger algal blooms. 5.2 NUTRIENTS Nutrients at the site originate normally from domestic, agricultural and organic industrial wastes. Domestic waste for example are characterised by the presence of human excreta, unconsumed food residues and cleansing agents especially from the washing of vehicles from the Barima Service Station. The concentrations of nutrients were especially high at certain stretches of the stream. Orthophosphate (PO4 -P) levels ranged from 0.516 - 0.673 mg/L for the months sampled and 0.446 - 0.69 mg/L for the sampling locations, while nitrate was 0.89 - 1.72 mg/L and 0.070 - 2.2 mg/L for months and sampling locations respectively. The concentration of Ammonia - Nitrogen (NH3-N) showed the extent of recent pollution of the stream from domestic wastewater from the suburb. The high concentration of dissolved nutrients are able to support nuisance growth of aquatic plants notably Pistia stratoites. These weeds further contribute to the nutrients enrichment and organic loading of the water by their decomposition after death. The nutrients followed no pattern between months and between locations. The concentrations of nutrients are generally high. This high level of nutrients has the capacity of enriching the Ramsar ecosystem, thereby leading to algal blooms, which are already evident. This high nutrient level is indicative of industrial effluent and is often associated with unsatisfactory microbiological quality of water. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 OIL/GREASE The trend shown in Appendix C4 indicates that the main source o f oil in the stream was from the Barima Service Station. This was much higher than the EPA permissible level of 10 mg/L and the trend established along the sampling location was reflected in the DO and BOD5 levels in Appendices C2 and C4 respectively. This goes to prove that the oil prevented the natural mixing of air and water by acting as barrier between the water and the air, coupled with the high demand for oxygen for biochemical activities. 0.0 mg/L of DO levels were even recorded pointing to the extent of gross pollution of the stream. Other domestic sources of oil could also be attributed to this fact. The high level of oil and grease are associated with fuel service station operations. Asante (1999a) obtained a similar high result of 105 mg/L for. the effluent from Total Service Station on the Ring Road, Accra against a background of 0.12 mg/L in 1996. Asante (1999b) who did a similar study on this stretch of stream down the current study area observed a 49.5 mg/L upstream location and 89.0 mg/L downstream. This upstream was roughly 70 m from the confluence of the Barima effluent discharge point and this compares favourably with these findings. These developments will reduce oxygen in the water thereby disrupting the normal activities of organisms in the water. This will have consequential effect by killing organisms which intend will disrupt the food chain and the loss of biodiversity. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 CHANGES IN DO AND BODs Dissolved oxygen concentrations measures were extremely low for both months and sampling location. The use of the dissolved Oxygen in water for biochemical reactions and unusual layer of oil on the Stream may account for their low concentrations. Excessive Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) concentrations usually reduce oxygen in receiving waters and create septic conditions. The BOD5 levels recorded were probably a true reflection of the distribution pattern of organic and domestic pollution along the stream. This is evident from the highly correlated negative significant relationship that exist between oil/grease and water dissolved oxygen. A negative relationship also exist between water-dissolved oxygen and water Nitrate - Nitrogen, probably as a result of mineralization. A negative relationship also existed between water biological oxygen demand and soil bank nitrate - nitrogen. The values obtained in the study were for below the EPA guideline value of 50 mg/L. Asante (1999b) results gave DO value of 1.9 mg/L upstream and 1.3 mg/L downstream, showing that the situation has not changed. There was a regular pattern of both the DO and BOD concentrations. The levels measured were comparatively lower at areas devoid of high oil film and was high at the areas surrounding the confluence. This part also happened to be concentrated with oil. Another reason for low DO concentrations was either due to low flows or stagnation (Plate 1). Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration is a fundamental part of any water quality assessment since oxygen is involved in; or influences, nearly all chemical and biological 1& University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh processes within the water body. Concentrations below 5 mg/L may adversely affect the functioning and survival of biological communities and below 2 mg/L may lead to the death of most fish. The levels observed in the study point to the fact that immediate remediation is necessary. 5.5 DISCUSSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT 5.5.1 General Discussion on Fuel Service Stations Audited During the audit and interactions it became apparent that the fuel service stations enterprise was conceived with the parent marketing companies serving the energy needs of the people, before their profit. The reverse however is the motive of the individual fuel service stations operators. Hence, had it not been a requirement to put in place environmental concerns into the overall set up the service stations, serious environmental problems would have been envisaged. In this line the EPA Act (ACT 490) could be said to have made some successes as would be revealed in subsequent discussion. Generally, the dispensing of petroleum products appears to be the main activities that occur at the service stations. Petrol and diesel are sold by all the service stations, (Appendix B2). * The springing up of shopping marts, washing bays has been a recent feature, which intends to reduce the hustle of people to get essential commodities by having to drive long distances. Also it compliments the general income as well as creating jobs. The opening of other activities, such as vulcanising, electrical and mechanical quick checks is not a prominent feature. Companies like Mobil and Shell appear to have it as part of the 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh service station design. In the study it was established that LPG dispensing plants are not a feature of the fuel service station design. This was attributed to the fact that, it makes supervision difficult and the initial capital is difficult to come by. Also, supply constraints were identified. People then consider it wise to have it as a separate enterprise (Appendix Bl) 5.5.2 Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures/Control Appendix C9 indicates that all the fuel service stations could not pass for the waste minimisation and pollution measures/control. The reasons were due to the lack of facilities, which could allow for effluent to be treated and re-used. (Separated into oils and other petroleum compounds, solids and then water). The recycling of refrigerant, solvents, oil, batteries and water are absent. It was however observed that the knowledge of holding/storing solvents in closed airtight containers to prevent emissions as well as the conduct of fuel transfers in a manner that prevents overflows and spills is well known among the respondents. Further, the respondents were well aware of the need to prevent contamination of run off by mopping instead of cleaning area with water hose, due to its knock on effect on other water bodies. Likewise, when there are spills, there are mechanisms in place for its speedy cleaning. There was the measuring of underground fuel by dipping in all the stations visited. Though it is for record purposes, it is used as one of the means of detecting the state of underground storage at the moment. This is seen as an old and not very effective msans of detecting leakage of underground storage tanks as by nature petroleum products can I leak as gases. Thus in minute quantities it could not be detected by underground IS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measurements. Thus, the recent approach which uses remote sensors are highly recommended. 5.5.3 Traffic Congestion Management From the study, traffic congestion management was encouraging. All the oil marketing companies audited showed high best performance. Their scores were within the excellent bracket of the grading system. This has been realised to be due to the constructional design of most of the fuel service stations, such that they do not unduly delay the entry and exit of their prospective customers, which if not well done could lead to loss of income. This score has more to do with the ease of going about business and its related economic limitations. Also, by design most of the stations are sited along highways that already have developed pedestrian alleys, hence taking care of the vehicular - pedestrian conflict. 5.5.4 Fire Hazard Management On fire hazard management, the different fuel service stations sampled revealed that, there was a fairly good knowledge about the threat fire poses to petroleum chemicals. Also, the economic risk at stake makes people or managers of fuel service station take appropriate caution of conditions that could spark fire. This finding supports that of Lucas (1981) that most people’s environmental attitude tended to be positive except when the issue of concern impinges on their own lives. The use of gadgets such as smoke detectors were virtually absent, except for ELF at the North Industrial area of Accra. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other lapses encountered were expired fire extinguishers, the general absence of fire hydrants and to some extent fire alarms. On the other hand, such facilities as the sign rules (No Smoking and Switch off Engine) were prominent (plate 2). It is however worth noting that there is no recorded incident of fire in any of the sampled stations audited. 5.5.5 Waste Management On waste management, the means calculated indicate an excellent performance by the fuel service stations. All means fell within the excellent bracket. This has been due to the awareness that has been created on good sanitation for better health. Further, waste oil generated from vehicles and which if not carefully handled could lead to serious environmental problems. The collection of waste oil has become serious economic venture. People have found other uses for it. It is used for operating old motor engines at the mines. Others also use it as wood preservative and in other cases as solvent for paints. Other revelation that also needs further studies is that, the waste oil is used in reclaiming waterlogged areas. They do this by impounding soil/sand on the waterlogged plot and spill used oil on it, in layers and pounded. The roller is used to level it. This is done overtime and the land hardens and it is reclaimed. As a result, the demand for used oil has kept going up and hence not allowed to go to waste. In fact, companies and individuals exist who buy the dirty oil. As a result, there are waste oil storage facilities some in-built and designed to collect used oil as soon as it is changed. Mobil Oil Ghana Limited has that design, and during the study it was seen that other entrepreneurs had adopted it. Others collect from discharge pits and store in tanks for sale. As a result the dirty SO University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bil/waste oil commonly observed in effluents of fuel service stations, are due to the washing of vehicle engines and accidental spills. In all the study, Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) Waste Management Department and City and Country waste were identified to be taking care of the solid waste generated. Further, most fuel service stations visited had interceptors which separate oil and solid waste from others, and which are collected for onward disposal. Although these facilities exist a few drains when it rains or dries and its wind blown back into the interceptor. A typical interceptor is shown in plates 3 & 4. 5.5.6 Oil Spillage Management The results of this study and the means show that generally fuel service stations showed positive response to the control of oil spillage. This attitude may also support Lucas (1981) findings that most people’s environmental attitude tended to the positive except when the issue of concern impinges on their own likes. Generally forecourts of fuel service stations were without oil and grease, because the loss, poses fire threat to the enterprise and the humans around and economically it impinges on the profit margin. Most of the stations visited had installed automatic oil delivery nozzles that cut off when tanks are full to avoid spillage. Other preventive features encountered were spill containment chambers for collecting bulk discharge spills (Plate 5). The study also revealed that most of the fuel service stations were provided with absorbent materials (sawdust, sand, rags, etc), which are used to mop oil spills on accidental spills. It was also observed that attendants and managers had received University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adequate training on emergency response and some even have the plan boldly written and erected at the stations for easy view. The presence of oil and leakages observed on the forecourts were largely due to leaks from vehicles that come to fuel their tanks. 5.5.7 Oil Leakage Management This is the only parameter that gave an all round 100% for best percentage performance (Appendices C6 , C l4). This was obvious and economics considerations are the reasons for the proper handling of issues related to oil leakages. However, determining the level of fuel by dipping does not give the accurate results. And this situation can be improved if remote sensing facilities are used from time to time to detect the possibility of evaporating gaseous petroleum products. Also, the infiltration of underground water into underground storage tanks can be detected. 5.5.8 Occupational Health and Safety The study revealed really high indicating how best issues related to occupational health and safeties are handled. It came out that attendants know the chemicals/petroleum products that they handle but had very little knowledge to the harm it could cause. The best-known harm identified was fire. Though, not much occupational health reports were encountered, it was evident that evaporation of petrol during dispensing does not take long and dispensing is carried out in a manner, which does not allow for spills and even if it occurs does not stay long before it evaporates. The general absence of occupational 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accidents could be attributed to the fire and spill management training that managers and attendants receive. Information gathered from the Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) clinic indicates that, there are problems associated with the petrol products and that comparatively, diesel is more harmful than petrol, due to its retention time when it spills. Diseases that have been associated with the continuous exposure to petroleum products have been, skin disorders, catarrh, frequent cough, stomach aches which could be due to the Pb. However, not much work has been done as at this time. It is also worthy to note that, temperature and humidity can increase the incidence of these diseases. At ambient temperature (28 ° C - 32 ° C), conditions appear moderate and increase in temperature increases evaporation and thus increase diseases, often related to respiration. In like manner, increase in humidity also increases disease frequency. However, the watchword has been CARE and where allergy or disease conditions are encountered, substitution and segregation of affected people is employed, such that those who do not fit for specific places are substituted for those who fit or are segregated. It is important that fuel service station managers in addition to the above give continuous medical examination to their attendants, because petroleum products are dangerous. 5.5.9 Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise The means for public participation/perception indicate high percentage best performance. This trend was observed because most; of the fuel service - stations are sited at places 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh where there is no human habitation hence no serious consultations were made in that respect. A few however, are found in the city centre and most had done the consultations. Notwithstanding, there were other complaints and problems. Typical of them includes the Goil service station at Ofankor where residents complained of noise and indiscriminate parking of long vehicles containing petroleum products' and the dirtying of the surroundings. This noise comes from the warming of vehicular engines and also generating plants, which are employed during power outages. Another serious complaint was about the Goil service station at Darkuman Official Town where the run off and oil waste go straight into the house of a neighbour (Plate 6 ). The report has it that all complaints to the authorities of the fuel service station has fallen on deaf ears, and that does not encourage good neighbourliness. Another prominent complaint was at Darkuman Junction Mobil, where run - off empties into a neighbour’s house and persistent reports have fallen on deaf ears. Several others were also noted and noise from generating plants appears to be the most prominent. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 1. Stream with Effluent from a Fuel Service Station Plate 2. Sign Rules for Fire Hazard Management at a Fuel Service Station University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 3. A Covered Interceptor Plate 4. Uncovered Interceptor filled with Sludge University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 5. Spill Containment Chamber for Bulk Oil Discharge Plate 6. Waste oil and water from a Fuel Service Station into a Neighbour’s Compound. QH University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 CONCLUSIONS Except for pH, all other parameters determined showed concentrations well above the EPA permissible levels. This result indicates that the stream water shows traces of organic pollution. The elevated levels of BOD, and low concentration of Dissolved oxygen indicate this. The significant positive and negative correlations observed also point to the fact that the activities of the Barima Service Station have contributed to the pollution of the stream. Other sources include poor sanitation and environmental conditions prevailing at the site along the stream. This has created anoxic conditions in the stream leading to low concentration of dissolved oxygen. A survey of the study area indicates that the stream receive overflows from the land during downpour. The overflow contained among others human excreta. These with abundant sunshine, create the ideal conditions for the proliferation of weeds over the surface of the stream (plate 2 ) On the Environmental Audit except for the pollution control/minimization measures, which was a failure, all the other Environmental Audit concerns showed fairly good to excellent performance worth commending. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS From the results and discussions; 1. Most of the fuel service stations are constructed without the knowledge of the residents. This has often led to conflicts between the proponents and residents. It is recommended that the EPA supervise and ensure that all details spelt out in the EIS processes are carried out, that is public participation, so that the conflicts observed are avoided. 2. It is recommended that the EPA act promptly on complaints made by people who have problems with the activities of some fuel service operators to avoid conflicts, which were encountered during the study. 3. It is recommended that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) continuously analyse the effluent from Fuel Service Stations to know the levels of nutrients, BOD, DO etc levels. This will help in formulating policy guidelines and direction of action for policy makers to safeguard the environment for sustainable development. 4. It is recommended that due to the elevated levels of BOD, DO, Conductivity and other nutrients concentrations, the possibility of eutrophication is imminent, thus the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which is the enforcement authority, stems up its effort at ensuring the compliance of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP) of fuel service stations including the prosecution of offenders. 5. It is recommended that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should conduct seminars and public lectures to sensitise people on the importance of 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh water bodies and the need to keep them clean. This will help conserve the much- needed biodiversity, which is also important in the propagation of life. 6 . Since the Environmental Audit conducted showed good compliance, it is assumed that these results were obtained probably due to the proximity of the enforcement authorities in Accra. It is therefore recommended that further Environmental Audit be done in other parts of the country to compare the results and also direct policy makers and enforcement authorities to act accordingly. 7. The high level of BOD and DO in the wastewater analysis were primarily due to the high concentration of oil and grease films on the water. This phenomenon was also due to the virtual absence of water minimization facilities as shown by the low best performance records obtained for the Environmental Audit. It is therefore recommended that the EPA ensure the compulsory design of interceptors before effluents get into city drains. This will enable the proponents to mechanically remove the waste oils, soap scum and waste materials which can be furnace burnt to reduce the waste concentrations in the effluent. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES AMUZU, A.T. (1975) A Survey of the water quality of the River Densu. Wat. Resour. Res. Inst. Ghana. Tech. Rep. 57pp APHA, AWWA, WEF (1989) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 17* Edition, Washington D.C. p.4-117 to 4-120 APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition, Washington D.C. APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th Edition, Washington D.C. p.4-113 APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 19* ed. Washington D.C. Pp 4-90 APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20* ed. Washington D.C. pp 5-34 to 5-35 APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20* ed., Washington D.C. pp5-2, 5-6. ANNON, (a) http://www.brad.ac.uk/staff/pghopkin/whatisea.html University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ANNON, (b) June (1997) http://www.envirornnent.gov.an/epg/eianet/notifications/ Ml 7_draftguidelines.html. ANNON, (c) Impact Assessment and Environmental Auditing, http://www.gdrc .org/uem/eia/eia_audit.html Ary, D., Jacobs C.L. and Razavieh, A. (1979) Introduction to Research in Education. Holt, Rinehart and Winsten, Inc. Chicago U.S.A. 233-407. Asante, K.A. (1999a). Assessment of Drain Wastewater Behind Total Petroleum Station on the Ring Road, Accra. Results. Water Research Institute, CSIR, 5p. Asante, K.A. (1999b). A Baseline Water Quality Assessment of a Stream at the Proposed Site for Petroleum Service Station on the Kwashieman-Mallam Highway, Accra. Results. Water Research Inst. CSIR, 5p. Biney, C. A. (1990) A review of some characteristics of freshwater and coastal ecosystems in Ghana. Hydrobiologia 208: 45-53 BLUMMER, M.1969: Oil Pollution of the Ocean. In D.P. Hoult (ed.), 5-13. Bray, R.H. and L.T. Kurtz. (1945). Determination of Total Organic and Available forms of Phosphorus in Soils. Soil Sci. 59:39-45 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Buckley, R. (1991). Auditing the Precision and Accuracy of Environmental Impact Predictions in Australia. CANBERRA, 1994. http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/eianet/eastudy.html Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Sage Publications Inc. Calif. USA. 117,149-151 Dickson, K.B. and Benneh, G (1988) A New Geography of Ghana pg. 18-40. EIA Registration Guide, http://www.gnb.ca/elg-egl/0377/0002/0001-e.html Environmental Protection Agency ACT (490), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Accra, Ghana. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1997), - Guideline values for Effluent. EPA, Ghana. Green, G., J.W. MacLaren, B. Sadler (1985). Workshop Summary. In Audit and Evaluation in Environmental Assessment and Management: Canadian and International Experience. Hynes, H.B.N., (1970) The Ecology of Running Waters. Liverpool Univ. Press, Liverpool, 555p. Lucas, A.M. (1981). Science and Environmental Education. Journal of Environmental Education. 12(2) 33-37. $3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)(1991), - Environmental Protection Council. EPC, Ghana National Population and Housing Census (2000), - Ghana Statistical Service. GSS, Ghana Sadler, B. (1988) The Evaluation of Assessment: Post-EIS Research and Process. In Environmental Impact Assessment, P. Wathem (ed.), 129-42. London: Unwin Hyman. Sawyer, C.N. 1966: Basic Concepts of Eutrophication. F. Wat. Polln. Control Fedn. 38, 737-44. Simmons, I.G. 1986: The Ecology of Natural Resource. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. Symeon, J. J., Burgis,-M. and Gaudet, J. J., (1981). The Ecology and Utilization of Africa Inland Waters, UNEP, Nairobi, 1191 pp. THE GLOBAL COMPACT- EIA http://www.unglobal compact.org/gc/un. web.nsfi'content/eia.html. Tomlinson, P and S.F. Atkinson 1987a. Environmental Audits: Proposed Terminology Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 8 , 187-98 Tomlinson, P and S.F. Atkinson 1987b. Environmental Audits: A Literature Review. Environmental, Monitoring and Assessment 8 , 239. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tema Oil Refinery /Residual Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit -Environmental Impact Assessment Report(2000). Vol 1 pp70-75. McBean, EA and F.A. Rovers (1998) Statistical Procedures for Analysis of Environmental Monitoring Data and Risk Assessment, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall pg 177-186 UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) GEMS Water Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 Rev.l, pp 157-159 UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) GEMS Water Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 Rev.l, pp 129-130. UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) Global Environmental Monitoring System. GEMS/WATER Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 Rev.l, pp 160-163 US CONGRESS (1970): Phosphate in Detergents and the Eutrophication of America’s Waters Washington, D.C. House of Representatives Report 91-1004 Watanabe, F.S. and S.R. Olsen-1965 Test of an Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Phosphorus in water and NaHC03 Extracts from Soil. Soil. Sc. Soc. Am. Proc. 29: 677-678. World Health Organisation, (1984) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, vol.l. Recommendations. W.H.O. Geneva, 130p, 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A: Questionnaire This questionnaire is meant to in vite your contribution to Environm ental Management and Compliance to m itigative measures on the operation o f fuel service station enterprises, in the study area by the U niversity o f Ghana and w ill therefore be kept confidential fo r this purpose only. Your participation is appreciated and thanks for sparing your tim e for us PARTI 1.0 PARENT O IL M AR KETIN G COM PANY 2.0 T IT LE OF UN D ER TAKIN G (T IT LE W HERE APPROPRIATE) I. Dispensing o f fuel □ II. Vehicle lubrication □ H I. Sale o f LPG fille d cylinders □ IV . LPG dispensing plant □ V . Shopping m art □ V I. W ashing Bay □ V II. Other (S pe cify)............................ □ 2.1 LIS T OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS/CHEMICALS 3.0 PO TEN TIAL EN VIR O N M EN TAL IMPACTS 3.1 SOURCES OF V O LA T ILE ORGANIC CARBON (VOCs) EM ISSIO N IN TO THE ATMOSPHERE: □ NoDa) U nloading (discharge o f bulk road vehicles (BROS) Yes b) Dispensing Yes □ No □ c) Leakage/Leachates Yes □ N ° □ 3.2 EFFLUENT/W ASTE SOURCES a) Waste waters Yes |— 1 No ^ b) Rain water rim o ff Yes| | N o D 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C) W ashing bay discharges Y e , Q No □ cl) Waste oils Yes Q No □ e) S pills and leaks Yes No □ f) Maintenance and repairs Yes [ ~ j No □ g) Ware house and storage Yes f ] No □ h) Im proper fue llin g operation Yes' No □ PART II AUDIT A WASTE MINIMISATION AND POLLUTION MEASURES: (Indicate which of the following is in use in your station) ( i) Do you recycle wastes such as a) Refrigerant Yes □ No □ b) Solvents Yes □ No □ c) O il Yes □ No □ d) Batteries Yes □ No □ e) Water Yes □ No □ ( ii) Do you wash w ith water in stages? I f yes, do you re-use any o f the water and/or solvents after the firs t stage? Yes j— j No |— j ( iii) Storage o f solvents in closed a irtig h t containers to prevent emission V es |— | No j j (iv ) Washed vehicles in areas where waste can be collected, treated and/or recycled/re - used Yes j~~ j No j j (v) Conduct fuel transfers in manner that prevents overflows and spills Yes j j No j~- ■ j (v i) Prevent water from coming into contact w ith m aterials stored outside Yes n No n (v ii) Prevent contam ination o f run o ff by mopping instead o f cleaning area w ith water hose ^ □ ' N° □ 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (v iii) Measurin g o f commotion early w arning to detect leaks from underground storage tanks (UST) Yes j— ] No |— | (ix ) Prevent contam ination o f rainwater run o ff by cleaning spillage when it occurs Yes I— I No □ □ B TRAFFIC CONGESTION i) E ntry [ ] E x it [ ] D irection/S ign [ ] ii) Pedestrian signs/vehicular pavement Yes Q N o [ FIRE HAZARDS (i) 0 0 Have you any link/contact w ith the Ghana N ational F ire Service for control o f fire outbreak? Yes n No n Have you been givin g fire fig h tin g tra in in g skills to your attendant? I f yes, how often have th is tra in in g been? Yes ,— , N o .— . ( iii) Presence o f smoke detectors Yes Q No □ (iv ) Presence o f fire extinguishers. I f yes, what can you say o f its operational condition Yes n No n (v) F ire alarm Y " □ No □ (v i) “ No Smoking” signs/rule v « n Yes n No □ □ (v ii) F ire hydrant No (v iii) “ Switch o ff engine” sign/rule Yes n No □ D WASTE MANAGEMENT (i) Do you have waste o il storage facility? Yes n No □ ( ii) Do you have interceptors? Yes [ | No □ ( iii) Do you have response to waste o il spill? Yes Q No □ (iv ) A re your sta ff trained in fire fighting? Y “ □ No □ 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I-Iow many fire d rills do you have in a ye a r.......................................... (v) Do you have waste o il collection schedule Yes | | N o j (v i) Do you have an arrangement w ith a waste management company for the disposal o f your solid waste? Yes i— i No i— i If yes, which company? I—I I— I E OIL SPILLAGE ( i) Do you have o il and grease on forecourt? Yes' Q N o j j ( ii) Do you have s p ill o il containment chambers fo r bu lk o il discharges? Yes n NO ^ ( iii) Do you have autom atic o il delivery nozzles? Yes □ N ° □ (iv ) Do you carry out inspection o f bulk road tankers, periodically? Yes |— | No |— , I f yes, how often is th is carried out in a y e a r............... L_J I I (v) Do you have on site absorbent m aterials (sawdust, sand, rags etc)? Yes j - j No |— j (v i) Do you keep a logbook o f MSDS (M aterial Safety Data Sheet)? Yes j~~j No j— j (v ii) Have your attendant received tra in in g on adverse effects o f m aterials they handle? Yes n N o n (v iii) Do you have emission response plan? Yes |——| No j— | F OIL LEAKAGES ( i) Do you carry out regular stock check by dipping? Yes I I No I I ( ii) Do you have observation w ells fo r ground w ells contam ination? b d Yes L j No l J ( iii) Do you have maintenance regime for fuel pumps? Yes I I No | I I f yes, how often is th is carried out in a year. — — G OCCUPATION HEALTH AND SAFETY ( i) Do you get occupational health and safety training? Yes ( ii) Do you get fire and o il s p ill management training? Yes ( iii) Presence o f canopy? Yes (iv ) Have you observed boils on your body since you started this job? Yes (v) Do you have any other skin disorders? Yes [ □ No □ □ No □ □ No □ □ No □ ] No □ 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (v i) Do you frequently cough? Yes (v ii) Do you get frequent catarrh? Yes (v iii) Do you experience stomachaches? Yes (ix ) Do you frequently fa ll sick since you started this job? Yes H PUBLIC PARTICIPATION/PERCEPTION OF ENTERPRISE ( i) A ny com plaints from your neighbours? Yes I f yes, specify the nature o f com plaint/s..................................... ( ii) A re there any suggestions you can give? Yes ( iii) D o you have any problem w ith this set up? Yes I f yes, specify. □ No □ □ N o □□ N o □□ No □ □ No □ □ No □ □ No □ 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: Tables Showing Activities o f Fuel Service Stations B1: Title Of Undertaking in Percentage (%) ACTIVITY MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL MEAI Dispensing of fuel 100 100 100 100 100 100 Vehicle lubrication 93.3 80 73.3 60 66.7 74.7 Sales of LPG filled cylinder 73.3 40 60 73.3 20 53.3 LPG dispensing plant - - - 6.7 1.34 Shopping Mart 100 100 66.7 60 60 77.3 Washing Bay 40 46.7 33.3 20 33.3 34.7 Other (Specify) 53.3 . ■ 20 26.7 40 33.3 34.7 B2: Percentage Petroleum Products/Chemicals ACTIVITY MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL ME At' Petrol 100 100 100 100 100 100 Diesel 100 100 100 100 100 100 Kerosene 46.7 33.3 66.7 73.3 53.3 54.7 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C: Statistical results o f Physico-chemical Analysis Table Cl :Physical Quality of streamwaters-Mean Monthly Values. Month Temp.u C pH Conductivity (j,/cm Dissolved Oxygen mg/1 JAN 29.17 7.7 1742 2.98 MARCH 28.50 7.5 1542 0.50 MAY 28.67 7.4 1650 ■ 1.27 LSD 1.546 0.2886 316.0 2.548 Table C2: Physical Quality of streamwaters-Mean Values for Locations. LOCATION/M TEMP. ° C pH Conductivity n/cm Dissolved Oxygen mg/1 0 .0 29.33 7.8 2017 5.933 a 5.0 (S) 28.67 7.6 1567 0 .0 0 0 b 15.0 28.67 7.5 1667 0 .0 0 0 b 25.0 29.00 7.6 1467 0.033 b 34.0 28.33 7.5 1517 1 .0 0 0 c 45.0 28.67 7.4 1633 2.533 d LSD 2.481 0.4337 373.9 0.5032 Table C3:Nutrients and other Chemicals in water-Mean Monthly Values (mg/L) Month P04 -P NH3 -N * NO3 -N NO2 -N BOD Oil & Grease JAN. 0.516 0.553 b 0.89 0.0308 1117 55.0 MAR. 0.673 0.885 b 1.47 0.0148 2118 101.4 MAY 0.636 1.207 a 1.72 0.0398 461 101.7 LSD 0.2446 0.5033 0.767 0.03630 1794.9 51.99 Table C4:Nutrients and other .Chemicals in water-Mean Values for Locations (mg/L) Location (m) PO4 -P NH3-N ** NO3 -N ** NO2 -N BOD ** Oil & Grease ** 0 .0 0.586 1.066 b 0.070 d 0.0140 1893 b 23.4 e 5.0 0.650 0.878 c 1.515 b 0.0090 4200 a 122.7 b 15.0 0.633 0.906 c 1.236 c 0.0607 907 c 154.3 a 25.0 0.446 0.041 d 1.720 b 0.0477 340 d 8 6 .6 c 35.0 0.696 1 0.893 c 1.420 c 0.0107 35 d 80.2 c 45.0 0.638 1.509 a 2 .2 0 0 a 0.0190 15 d 49.2 d LSD 0.3843 0.3197 0.3004 0.04774 534.0 19.77 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table C5: Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bank of stream water-Mean Monthly Values Month pH** Conductivity |aS/cm P04-P g/1 NH3-N g/1 NO3-N* g/1 JAN 7.733b 317 0.0730 4.90 0 .2 1 b MAR 7.950a 2 2 0 0.785 2.40 0 .1 1b MAY 7.617c 173 0.0342 4.14 0.78a LSD 0.3701 120.7 0.04756 2.289 0.566 Table C6 : Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bank of stream water-Mean Values for Location Location (m) PH* Conductivity** US/cm PO4-P g/1 NH3-N** g/1 NO3-N** g/1 0 .0 8 .1 0 0 a 463.3a 0.0930 2.932c 0 .0 0 1 c 5,0(s) 8 .1 0 0 a 243.3b 0.1147 3.034c 0.044c 15.0 7.467c 150.0c 0.0137 6.214b 0.131c 25.0 7.367c 170.0c 0.0530 6 .8 6 8 a 0.423b 35.0 7.800b 196.7c 0.0423 1.760d 0.186c 45.0 7.7667b 196.7c 0.0547 2.070d 1.432a LSD 0.2717 47.81 0.05042 0.3532 0.2988 Table C7: Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bed of stream water-Mean Monthly Values Month PH Conductivity uS/cm PO4-P NH3-N* NO3-N* JAN 7.583 540 - 6 .2 2 a 0.65a MAR 7.883 443 - 4.23b 1.53a MAY 7.733 .347 - 4.85c 0.42b LSD 0.4155 2 0 0 .2 - 1.400 0.882 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bed of stream water-Mean Values for Location. Table C8: Location (m) PH Conductivity** |iS/cm P04-P g/1 NH3-N* g/1 NO3-N** g/1 0 .0 7.800 680a - 5.58b 0.427e 5.0 8.133 617a - 4.07b 2.542a 15.0 7.867 447b - 5.66b 0.348f 25.0 7.367 400c - 6.85a 0.874b 35.0 7.633 270d - 4.40b 0.508c 45.0 7.600 247d - 4.04b 0.486d LSD 0.4997 101.7 - 1.842 0.5681 Table C9: Waste Minimization and Pollution Measures/Control Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 47.73 b Shell 46.20 ab Elf 46.20 ab Total 45.17 c Goil 45.17 c LSD 1.807 Table CIO: Traffic Congestion and Control Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 96.67 ac Shell 1 0 0 .0 0 a Elf 86.67 b Total 1 0 0 .0 0 a Goil 88.33 be LSD 9.698 J04 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table Cl 1: Fire Hazard Management Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 61.49 ab Shell 65.22 a Elf 64.47 a Total 65.96 a Goil 56.31 b LSD 6.671 Table C12:Waste Management Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 90.67 a Shell 90.67 a Elf 89.73 a Total 91.50 a Goil 86.05 a LSD 8.247 Table C13:0il Spill Management Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 84.75 be Shell 90.47 ab Elf 79.98 c Total 96.19 a Goil 78.09 c LSD 9.345 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table C14:Occupational Health and Safety Management Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 97.00 a Shell 98.00 a Elf 94.00 a Total 99.00 a Goil 98.00 a LSD 3.906 Table C15:Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise Fuel Enterprise Mean Mobil 1.402 a Shell 1.376 a Elf 1.320 a Total 1.040 b Goil 1.040 b LSD 0.259 * * Significant at both 5 % and 1 % * Significant at 5 %. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D: Correlation Matrix for Water and Soil Analysis Watemp 1.000 WapH -0.285 1.000 Wacond 0.337 0.117 1.000 Wadissox 0.175 0.379 0.623 1. 000 Wabioox -0.033 0.293 0.100 -0.016 1.000 Wapo4p -0.125 0.327 0.036 0. 090 0.079 1.000 Wanh3n -0.079 -0.257 0.303 0.420 0.014 0.017 1.000 Wano3n -0.205 -0.401 -0.591 -0.635 -0.292 0.050 -0.008 Wano2n -0.024 0.210 -0.222 -0.346 -0.106 -0.045 -0.301 SopHbank 0.087 0.182 0.329 0.519 0.604 0.275 0.423 SopHbed 0.047 -0.210 0.296 -0.005 0.594 0.177 0.222 Soconbed 0.085 0.625 0.371 0.342 0.782 0.009 -0.114 Soconban 0.182 0.521 0.622 0.865 0.370 0.037 0.214 Sopo4p 0.044 0. 438 0.154 0.281 0.689 0.039 0.023 Sonh3nbk 0.069 0.072 -0.161 -0.449 -0.101 -0.281 -0.691 Sonh3nbd 0.372 0.166 -0.091 -0.028 -0.178 -0.415 -0.526 Sono3nbk 0.023 -0.430 -0.112 0.049 -0.504 -0.048 0.389 Sono3nbd -0.015 -0.038 -0.220 -0.373 0.772 0.014 -0.153 Oilgreas -0.235 -0.223 -0.360 -0.820 0.258 0.034 -0.267 Watemp WapH Wacond Wadissox Wabioox Wapo4p Wanh3n Wano3n Wano2n SopHbank SopHbed Soconbed Soconban 1.000 0.237 -0.376 -0.264 -0.666 -0.790 1.000 -0.365 -0.250 0.072 -0.320 1.000 0.529 0.452 0.660 1. 000 0.355 0.224 1.000 0.672 1.000 Sopo4p -0.211 -0.199 0.621 0.268 0. 612 0.547 1.000 Sonh3nbk 0.023 0.569 -0.720 -0.195 0.114 -0.361 -0.337 Sonh3nbd -0.222 0.415 -0.408 -0.403 0.190 -0.037 -0.019 Sono3nbk 0.621 -0.187 -0.225 -0.329 -0.668 -0.343 -0.204 Sono3nbd 0.171 -0.114 0.364 0.469 0.363 -0.020 0.449 Dilgreas 0.271 0.427 -0.345 0.351 0.011 -0.633 -0.244 Wano3n Wano2n SopHbank SopHbed Soconbed Soconban Sopo4p 3onh3nbk 3onh3nbd 3ono3nbk >ono3nbd )ilgreas 1.000 0.640 -0.207 -0.075 0.502 1.000 -0.191 -0.372 0.020 1.000 -0.248 -0.332 1.000 0.326 1.000 Sonh3nbk Sonh3nbd Sono3nbk Sono3nbd Oilgreas University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX E: Fuel Filling Stations Audited TOTAL ELF MOBIL SHELL GOIL 1 Tema Motorway 37 Military Hospital Zongo Junction Osu (La Road) Tema Comm. 1 2 La Osu Abossey Okai Burma Camp Road La 3 Trade Fair Trade Fair North Kaneshie La Beach Osu 4 Zongo Junction North Kaneshie I Kasoa Barrier Osu Kasoa Barrier 5 Abossey Okai North Kaneshie II Darkuman Junction Ringway Lapaz 6 Legon New Town Barima (Mallam) Lapaz Darkuman 7 Kasoa Pig Farm Head Office Abeka Odorkor 8 Over Head Adabraka Head Office Accra (Electricity) Legon Dansoman 9 Pig Farm Neoplan Station Legon New Town (Accra) 37 10 Abeka Industrial Area Tesano Mallam Atta Ofankor 11 Achimota Caprice Ofankor (Barrier) Adabraka New Achimota 12 Adabraka Avenor Achimota Tesano Achimota { 13 Mallam Avenue Club (Adabraka) Avenor Avenor Kaneshie 14 Ringway Adabraka (Farisco) . Kaneshie (Abossey Okai Roundabout) Kaneshie Mandela 1f t 15 Tema Osu Lapaz Kasoa Odorkor Official Town Ii 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX F: Map o f Study Area o i 18* f ■&?*- * * 'r« SB P 3$MimiMMt■ ? K ^ . , . v . ;.y >. O ° 16 > 'm s • SSsssi o vi vi tn « t o University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX G: Tables o f Field and Laboratory Data Tables G1: Minimization and Pollution Measures/Control (% Best Performance) Number Mobil Shell ELF Total Goil 1 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 2 61.5 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 3 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 4 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 5 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 6 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 7 46.2 46.2 46.2 38.5 38.5 8 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 9 53.8 46.2 46.2 46.2 38.5 10 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 11 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 12 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 13 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 14 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 15 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 Mean 47.7 46.2 46.2 45.2 45.2 Table G2: Traffic Congestion/Control (% Best Performance) NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL 1 100 100 100 100 100 2 100 100 100 100 100 3 100 100 50 100 100 4 100 100 50 100 100 5 100 .100 75 100 100 6 100 100 100 100 100 7 100 100 75 100 75 8 100 100 100 100 100 9 100 100 100 100 100 10 100 100 100 100 100 11 100 100 100 100 100 12 100 100 100 100 50 13 100 100 100 100 50 14 50 100 50 100 100 15 100 100 75 100 50 Mean 96.7 1 86.7 88.3 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G3: Fire Hazard (% Best Performance) Number MOBIL SHELL 1 66.7 66.7 2 33.33 66.7 3 77.8 66.7 4 33.3 66.7 5 55.5 66.7 6 66.7 66.7 7 77.8 66.7 8 66.7 66.7 9 66.7 66.7 10 66.7 66.7 11 66.7 66.7 12 66.7 55.6 13 33.3 66.7 14 66.7 66.7 15 77.8 55.6 Mean 61.5 65.2 ELF TOTAL GOIL 66.7 66.7 44.4 66.7 55.6 55.6 66.7 66.7 66.7 66.7 66.7 55.6 66.7 66.7 66.7 66.7 66.7 77.8 66.7 66.7 55.6 66.7 66.7 55.6 66.7 66.7 44.4 77.8 66.7 55.6 66.7 66.7 44.4 66.7 66.7 66.7 44.4 66.7 44.4 66.7 66.7 66.7 44.4 66.7 44.4 64.5 66.0 56.3 Table G4: Waste Management (% Best Performance) NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL 1 100 80 100 100 100 2 80 80 100 100 100 3 100 100 100 100 100 4 80 100 100 80 100 5 100 100 100 100 60 6 100 100 80 100 100 7 100 100 80 100 60 8 100 100 80 100 100 9 80 100 100 80 80 10 100 100 100 - 100 11 100 100 100 - 100 12 100 80 100 - 80 13 100 100 - - 14 60 - - - - 15 60 - - - Mean 90.7 90.7 89.7 91.5 86.1 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G5: Oil Spill Management (% Best Performance) NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL 1 100 85.7 85.7 100 85.7 2 57.1 100 71.4 85.7 85.7 3 71.4 71.4 85.7 100 71.4 4 85.7 100 85.7 100 85.7 5 100 100 71.4 71.4 85.7 6 100 100 85.7 100 71.4 7 85.7 85.7 85.7 100 57.1 8 85.7 100 71.4 100 57.1 9 57.1 85.7 71.4 100 42.9 10 100 71.4 71.4 100 100 11 85.7 100 85.7 100 100 12 85.7 100 85.7 100 100 13 85.7 100 85.7 85.7 85.7 14 71.4 71.4 71.4 100 100 15 100 85.7 85.7 100 42.9 Mean 84.8 90.5 80.0 96.2 78.1 Table G6: Oil Spillage Management (% Best Performance) NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL 1 100 100 100 100 100 2 100 100 100 100 100 3 100 100 100 100 100 4 100 100 100 100 100 5 100 100 100 100 100 6 100 100 100 100 100 7 100 100 100 100 100 8 100 100 100 100 100 9 100 100 100 100 100 10 100 100 100 100 100 11 100 100 100 100 100 12 100 100 100 100 100 13 100 100 100 100 100 14 100 100 100 100 100 15 100 100 100 100 100 Mean 100 100 100 100 100 n a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Me Ta Nl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Occupational Health and Safety Management (% Best Performance) MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL 100 100 85 100 85 85 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 . 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 85 100 100 100 100 85 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 85 100 100 85 85 100 85 100 85 100 100 100 100 100 85 85 100 85 100 100 85 100 100 97 98 94 99 98 Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise (% Best Performance) MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL 100 100 ' 100 100 100 100 66.7 100 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 66.7 100 100 100 100 66.7 100 100 100 100 33.3 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 100 100 .100 100 100 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 66.7 100 100 100 100 66.7 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 100 100 100 100 66.7 66.7 66.7 33.3 100 66.7 66.7 33.3 66.7 66.7 100 100 100 66.7 100 33.3 93.3 91.1 88.9 77.8 77.8 11.3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G9: Temperature (°C of water) LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 28 30 30 29.3 5.0 27 29 30 28.7 15.0 27 30 29 28.7 25.0 29 28 30 29.0 35.0 30 27 28 28.3 45.0 30 27 29 28.7 Mean 28.5 28.5 29.5 Table G10: pH of Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.8 5.0 7.8 7.5 7.4 7.6 15.0 7.4 7.6 7.4 7.5 25.0 7.5 8.0 7.3 7.6 35.0 7.3 7.8 7.3 7.5 45.0 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.4 Mean 7.6 7.7 7.4 Table G il: Conductivity (qS/cm) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 1500 2300 2250 2016.7 5.0 1600 1700 1400 1566.7 15.0 1700 1600 1700 1666.7 25.0 1400 1400 1600 1466.7 35.0 1500 1500 1550 1516.7 45.0 1800 1600 1500 1633.3 Mean 1583.3 1683.3 1666.7 H4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G12: Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 6.2 6.4 5.2 5.9 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 25.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 35.0 1.2 0.8 1.0 1.0 45.0 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.5 Mean 1.7 1.6 1.4 Table G13: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 2200 1800 1680 1893.3 5.0 4800 3600 4200 4200.0 15.0 1200 800 720 906.7 25.0 500 400 120 340.0 35.0 80 14.0 12.0 35.3 45.0 20 12.0 12.0 14.7 Mean 1466:7 1104.3 1124.0 Table G14: PO4-P (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 0.560 1.109 0.090 0.59 5.0 0.650 0.632 0.668 0.65 15.0 0.633 0.674 0.592 0.63 25.0 0.446 0.562 0.330 0.45 35.0 0.696 0.760 0.632 0.70 45.0 0.638 0.656 0.620 0.64 Mean 0.60 0.73 0.49 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G15: NH3 -N (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 Mean 1.066 0.878 0.906 0.040 0.893 1.509 0.88 0.638 0.886 0.860 0.062 0.902 1.600 0.83 1.493 0.69 0.952 0.020 0.884 1.418 0.94 1.07 0.88 0.91 0.04 0.81 1.51 Table G16: N O 3 -N (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (01) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 0.019 0.100 0.099 0.07 5.0 1.515 1.566 1.464 1.52 15.0 1.260 1.418 1.03 1.24 25.0 1.750 2.056 1.353 1.72 35.0 1.420 1.464 1.376 1.42 45.0 2.20 2.240 2.160 2.20 Mean 1.42 1.47 1.25 Table G17: N 02-N (mg/1) in Water LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 0.014 0.009 0.019 0.01 5.0 0.019 0.020 0.018 0.02 15.0 0.061 0.110 0.011 0.06 25.0 0.048 0.090 0.005 0.05 35.0 0.011 0.007 0.014 0.01 45.0 0.019 0.014 0.024 0.02 Mean 0.03 0.04 0.02 i 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G18: Oil/Grease (mg/1 in water) TION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 29.3 17.5 23.4 23.4 5.0 135.0 123.0 110.0 122.7 15.0 173.1 137.3 152.0 122.7 25.0 84.2 96.8 78.9 86.6 35.0 79.6 69.8 91.2 80.2 45.0 53.4 45.8 48.3 49.2 Mean 92.4 81.7 84.0 SOIL ANALYSIS Table G19: pH (Stream Bank) LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.1 5.0 8.1 8.0 8.2 8.1 15.0 7.5 7.6 7.3 7.5 25.0 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.6 35.0 7.8 7.5 8.1 7.8 45.0 7.8 7.8 7.7 7.8 Mean 7.8 7.8 7.8 Table G20: pH (Stream Bed) LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 7.6 8.0 7.8 7.8 5.0 8.0 8.2 8.2 8.1 15.0 8.2 7.4 8.0 7.9 25.0 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.4 35.0 7.6 7.2 8.1 7.6 45.0 7.6 7.4 7.8 7.6 Mean 7.7 7.6 7.9 J17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G21: COND (ijS/cm) stream Bed LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 720 680 640 680 5.0 680 640 530 617 15.0 430 480 430 447 25.0 450 450 300 400 35.0 300 300 210 270 45.0 240 220 280 247 Mean 470 462 319 Table G22: COND (qS/cm) Stream Bank LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 460 480 450 463 5.0 240 240 250 243 15.0 160 150 140 150 25.0 2001 160 150 170 35.0 150 220 220 197 45.0 220 150 220 197 Mean 238 233 238 Table G23: PO4-P (g/1) LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 0.093 0.098 0.088 0.09 5.0 0.172 0.088 0.084 0.11 15.0 0.007 0.033 <0.001 0.01 25.0 0,053 0.060 0.046 0.05 35.0 0.042 0.040 0.045 0.04 45.0 0.055 0.010 0.099 0.05 Mean 0.07 0.05 0.06 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G24: NH3-N (g/1) Stream Bank LOCATION (m) JANUARY 0.0 2.932 5.0 3.032 15.0 6.214 25.0 6.870 35.0 1.760 45.0 2.070 Mean 3.8 MARCH MAY MEAN 3.010 2.854 2.9 2.900 3.170 3.0 5.920 6.508 6.2 6.810 6.924 6.9 2.110 .. 1.411 1.8 2.090 2.050 2.1 3.8 3.8 Table G25: NH3-N (g/1) Stream Bed LOCATION (m) JANUARY 0.0 6.120 5.0 5.093 15.0 3.945 25.0 6.909 35.0 6.011 45.0 4:027 Mean 5.4 MARCH MAY MEAN 4.709 5.907 5.9 3.170 3.944 4.1 6.926 6.120 5.7 6.825 6.825 6.9 3.094 4.093 4.4 3.467 4.629 4.0 4.7 5.3 Table G26: N O 3 -N (g/1) Stream Bank L O C A T I O N (m ) J A N U A R Y 0.0 0.001 5.0 0.050 15.0 0.034 25.0 0.143 35.0 0.270 45.0 1.406 Mean 0.32 MARCH MAY MEAN <0.001 <0.001 0.0 0.040 0.041 0.0 0.090 0.270 0.1 0.270 0.856 0.4 0.154 0.134 0.2 1.504 1.386 1.4 0.34 0.45 H9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table G 27: NO3 -N (g/1) Stream Bed LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN 0.0 0.482 0.372 0.437 0.4 5.0 1.870 2.901 2.856 2.5 15.0 0.932 0.101 0.011 0.4 25.0 0.854 0.834 0.933 0.9 35.0 0.509 0.592 0.422 0.5 45.0 0.530 0.462 0.467 0.5 Mean 0.86 0.88 0.85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX H: List o f Acronyms DO Dissolved Oxygen LSD Least Significant Difference BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand PH Hydrogen Ion Concentration Mg/L Milligrams per litre g/L grams per litre Cond Conductivity Watemp water temperature wapH water pH wacond water conductivity wadissox water dissolved oxygen wabioox water biochemical oxygen demand waP04P water phosphate wanhsn water ammonia nitrogen wano2n water nitrous-nitrogen sopHbank soil pH steam bank sopHbed soil pH steam bed socondbed soil conductivity, steam bed socondbank soil conductivity, steam bank sopo4p oil phosphate sonhsnbk soil ammonia-nitrogen steam bank soriti3nbd soil ammonia-nitrogen steam bed sono3nbk soil nitrate-nitrogen steam bank sono3nbd soil nitrate-nitrogen steam bed oilgreas oil/grease waho3n water nitrate-nitrogen University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh