ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING OF EFFLUENT FROM 
BARIMA FUEL SERVICE CENTER (MALLAM-ACCRA) AND 
ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF SOME FUEL SERVICE 
STATIONS IN ACCRA-TEMA METROPOLITAN AREAS OF
GHANA
MICHAEL ONWONA-KWAKYE
Department of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
M.Phil
2001
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Title:
Environmental Monitoring of Effluent from Barirna Fuel Service Centre 
(Ma 11am-Accra) and Environmental Audit of some Fuel Service Stations 
in Accra-Tema Metropolitan Areas of Ghana
A Thesis presented to the Department of ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
By
(Michael Onwona-Kwakye; (10041377)
BSc (Ghana), 1998
In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of 
MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY
in
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
September 2001
i
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
: Q  3 6 8 1 9 1
TDiifc’Pif Oa6!
^ jd-Cttvn
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DECLARATION
“This thesis is the result of research work undertaken by Michael Onwona-Kwakye in the 
Department of Environmental Science, University of Ghana, underlie supervision of Dr. 
Chris Gordon.”
Sign
(MICHAEL ONWpNA-KWAKYE)
Sign 
PROF. C S GORDON
MR. CHARLES ASARE
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
DEDICATION
TO MY MOTHER AND LATE FATHER, no parents could have done any more.
‘To up and coming generations whose very survival depends bn a clean and sustainable 
environment and to our God Almighty’.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people have contributed to the development of this research. I sincerely 
acknowledge the assistance given me by Miss Florence Awonore of Accra Metropolitan 
Assembly (AMA) Food and Agric Department, Mr. Robert Puni of Pharmacy Council, 
Mr. Richard Mensah and Ken Prempeh for their immense help.
I am indebted to the late Mr. J. K. Nimako (former head of AMA, Food and Agric 
Department) for urging me on to do this programme, his advice and encouragement is 
well acknowledged.
I am grateful to CSIR Water Research Institute and especially Mr.Sampon Abu and Mr 
Albert Essien of the Quality Control Laboratory during my laboratory work.
Many thanks go to Professor M. B. Salami, formerly of the Geology Department, 
University of Ghana, Legon who initially was my supervisor but had to leave the 
University after his sabbatical. I appreciate his brilliant ideas.
My appreciation goes to Dr. Chris Gordon for accepting to be on my supervisory board 
and leading me to a successful completion of the work after the departure of Professor 
Salami.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
It is important to know that during the course of study I interacted with many individuals 
who together with their rich experience and patience contributed profoundly to shape and 
refine my ideas on this
Subject. First, Mr. Charles Asare of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) who 
helped in structuring my proposal and subsequently became my co-supervisor. Also Mr.
S. O. Kwankye of the Regional Institute of Population Studies (RIPS), Legon who 
corrected most of my initial encountered mistakes.
It is worth mentioning the role Dr. Owoodo of EPA played in linking me to Dr. Abugri 
Ali of Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) on so much needed information on petroleum products.
I am also very much thankful to Mrs. Kate Amoateng (TOR) and Dr. A. E. Addison 
(TOR Clinic) for the numerous discussions that I had with them and the patience with 
which they assisted me. May God richly bless them.
There is a unique person whose input cannot go without mention. Mr. W. A. Asante of 
the Crop Science Department, Legon for his contribution to the work.
My family has been immensely supportive of this undertaking from inception to 
completion and a very special vote of appreciation goes to them.
ii
Y
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Finally, I would like to thank my classmates (Mrs. Anku, Mrs. Hudgson-Cudjoe, Mr. 
Nukpezah, Miss Tweneboah, Mr. Kyei, Mr. Addo, Mr. Woasey and Mr. Hogarh). I 
express my deep gratitude to them for their contribution, suggestions, enthusiasm, 
professionalism and encouragement for plain hard work without which successful 
completion of this project would have been impossible.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION................................................................................................................. H
DEDICATION ...... .......................................................  HI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..............................................................................................IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS..........................................................   VH
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW....................... 4
1.0 BACKGROUND.....................................................    4
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY............................................................................6
1.2 SOME IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ON THE GHANAIAN
ENVIRONMENT.............................  7
1.3 TRANSITION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT...................................... 8
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ACT, 1994 ACT (490).........10
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REGULATION, 1994 (L. 1. 1652)........11
1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN GHANA........................... 11
1.7 THE EIA PROCEDURE IN GHANA.................   14
1.8 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN....................17
1.9 . THE EMERGING TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT (EM)
AND INDUSTRY RESPONSIBILITY ....................................................... 20
1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT (El) OF FUEL SERVICE
STATIONS/IMPACTS MANAGEMENT..................  Z ...........................21
1.10.1 Activities that Expose Petroleum Products to the Atmosphere in Service
Stations..................... 22
1.10.2 Sources o f  Waste.........................................................................................23
1.10.3 Traffic Congestion.......................................................................................26
1.10.4 Fire Hazard.............................  26
1.11 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT..................... 27
1.12 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT .............................................................................28
1.13.1 Auditing in Practice...................   30
1.13.2. Bottlenecks in'EIA Auditing........................................................................31
CHAPTER TWO: STUDY AREA...............................................................................31
2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:.........................................................................32
2.2 CLIMATE:.......................................   32
2.3 RELIEF:................................................................................................................32
2.4 VEGETATION:.................................................................................................... 33
2.5 DRAINAGE:.........     33
2.6 POPULATION:.................................................................................................... 33
2.7 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:..............................!................................................ 33
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS............................................35
3.1 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT............................................................................35
3.1.1 Site Selection and Effluent Assessment....................................................... 35
3.1.2 Method o f Sampling Effluent.....................................................  36
3.2 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS .......   36
3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSIS..............................................................................37
3.3.1 Determination o f Dissolved Oxygen (Acid Modification o f Winkler’s
Method) ..........................................    37
3.3.2 Determination o f Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Dilution Method)
.......................................................................................................................... .38
3.3.3 Extraction o f Organic Substances from Water (Extraction With Organic
Solvent).....................................................................................   39
3.3.4 Determination o f  Ammonia -  Nitrogen in Water (Direct Nesslerization) 40
3.3.5 Determination o f  Nitrate -  Nitrogen in Water (Hydrazine Reduction
Method)......................................................................  41
3.3. 6  Determination o f  Nitrite -  Nitrogen in Water.............................................41
3.3.7 Determination o f  Available Phosphorous in Soil....................................... 42
3.3.8 Determination o f  Soil Ammonium -  N  and Nitrate - N ..............................43
3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT (DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE).................................. 43
3.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Environmental Audit o f Fuel Service Stations... 44
3.4.2 Research Design for Environmental Audit o f Fuel Service Stations..........44
3.5 INSTRUMENT USED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF FUEL
SERVICE STATIONS....................................................................................... 44
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS....................................................   47
4.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS.........................................  47
4.1.1 Temperature..................  48
4.1.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)............................................................... 49
4.1.3 Conductivity (uS/cm).....................................................................................51
4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)................................................................................ 52
4.1.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BODs)......................................  54
4.1 . 6  Oil and Grease ....................................................................................55
4.1.7 Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N).........................................................................57
4.1.8 Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P)............................................................................. 58
4.1 .9 Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N)............................................................................59
4.1 .10 Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N ).............................................................................61
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT RESULTS......................................................... 62
4.2.1 Waste Minimization And Pollution Measures/Control................................6 6
4.2.2 Traffic Congestion and Control....................................................................67
4.2.3 Fire Hazard Management............................................................................ 6 8
4.2.4 Waste Management....................................................................................... 69
4.2 .5 Oil Spill Management....................................................................................70
4.2. 6  Oil Leakages Management......................... ,................................................ 70
4.2.7 Occupational Health & Safety Management................................................71
4.2 . 8  Public Participation/Perception O f Enterprise........................................... 71
\
yin
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS............................................................................... 73
5.2 NUTRIENTS.........................................................................................................74
5.3 OIL/GREASE........................................................................................................ 75
5.4 CHANGES IN DO AND BOD5........................................................................... 76
5.5 DISCUSSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT.............................................. 77
5.5.1 General Discussion on Fuel Service Stations A udited.  ...................77
5.5.2 Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures/Control.................................78
5.5.3 Traffic Congestion Management.............................................................   79
5.5.4 Fire Hazard Management..........................................   79
5.5.5 Waste Management....................................................................................... 80
5.5.6 Oil Spillage Management............................................................................. 81
5.5.7 Oil Leakage Management...............................r........................................... 82
5.5.8 Occupational Health and Safety...................................................................82
5.5.9 Public Participation/Perception o f  Enterprise............................................83
6.1 CONCLUSIONS...................................................................................................88
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................. ....89
REFERENCES................................................................................................................... 91
APPENDIX A : Questionnaire.................................................................................96
APPENDIX B: Tables Showing Activities o f Fuel Service Stations.....................101
APPENDIX C: Statistical results o f Physico-chemical Analysis.........................102
APPENDIX D: Correlation Matrix for Water and Soil Analysis......................... 107
APPENDIX E: Fuel Filling Stations A udited....................... .............................. 108
APPENDIX F: Map o f Study Area ....................................................................... 109
APPENDIX G: Tables o f  Field and Laboratory Data.......................................... 110
APPENDIXH: List o f Acronyms............................................................................121
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS.......................  73
iv
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
TABLE OF FIGURES
Fig. 4.1 Variation in Effluent Temperature with Time........................................... 48
Fig. 4.2 Variation in Effluent Temperature with Location.....................................48
Fig. 4.3 Variation in Effluent pH  with Time....................................   49
Fig. 4.4 Variation in Effluent pH  with Location................................................................. 50
Fig. 4.5 Variation in Effluent Conductivity with Time...........................................51
Fig. 4.6 Variation in Effluent Conductivity with Location.....................................51
Fig. 4.7 Variation in Effluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with. Time:...................................... 53
Fig. 4.8 Variation in Effluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Location................................. 53
Fig. 4.9 Variation in Effluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Time...............54
Fig. 4.10 Variation in Effluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Location 55
Fig. 4.11 Variation in Effluent Oil and Grease with Time................................................. 56
Fig. 4.12 Variation in Effluent Oil and Grease with Location...........................................56
Fig. 4.13 Variation in Effluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with Time.. 57 
Fig. 4.14 Variation in Effluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with Location
...................................................................................................................................... 58
Fig. 4.15 Variation in Effluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P) Concentration with Time 59
Fig. 4.1 Variation in Effluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P Concentration with Location ...59
Fig. 4.17 Variation in Effluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Time........60
Fig. 4.18 Variation in Effluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with Location. 60
Fig. 4.19 Variation in Effluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Time.........61
Fig. 4.20 Variation in Effluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with Location.. 61
Fig. 4. 21 Oil Marketing Companies Selling Vehicle Lubricants.......................................62
Fig. 4.22 Oil Marketing Companies selling LPG in filled Cylinders................................63
Fig. 4.23 Oil Marketing Companies with LPG Dispensing Plant  ............................63
Fig. 4.24 Oil Marketing Companies offering Shopping Mart Services..............................64
Fig. 4.25 Oil Marketing Companies offering Washing Bay Service.................................. 64
Fig. 4.26 Oil Marketing Companies selling Kerosene................................................  65
Fig. 4.26 Performance o f  Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Minimization and
Pollution Measures Control............................................................................... 66
Fig. 4.28 Performance o f  Fuel Service Stations towards Traffic Congestion and Control
...................................................................................................................................... 67
Fig. 4.29 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Fire Hazard Management....... 68
Fig. 4.30 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Management.................69
Fig. 4.31 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Oil Spill Management.............70
Fig. 4.32 Performance o f  Fuel Service Stations towards Occupational Health & Safety
Management...................................................................................  71
Fig. 4.33 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Public Participation/Perception 
o f Enterprise........................................................................................................72
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Plate 1. Stream with Effluent from a Fuel Service Station................................................ 85
Plate 2. Sign Rules for Fire Hazard Management at a Fuel Service Station................... 85
Plate 3. A Covered Interceptor  ...............................................................................86
Plate 4. Uncovered Interceptor filled with Sludge..............................................................86
Plate 5. Spill Containment Chamber for Bulk Oil Discharge...........................................87
Plate 6. Run-off o f Oil and Water into a Neighbour's Compound................................... 87
LIST OF PLATES
xj
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ABSTRACT
City authorities the world over are lamenting on the ever increasing liquid and solid 
waste management problems, and are in continuous search for inexpensive and easy 
solutions to these waste problems. Ghana, like many other developing countries, in its 
effort to controlling these problems enacted an Act (Act 490) through Parliament in 1994, 
which charged the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to demand for 
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on all developmental projects which are likely 
to impact significantly on the environment.
The operation of fiiel service stations happens to be one such projects of concern. Since 
not much work has been done on the compliance to this Act, this.study was designed to 
monitor a fuel service station to generate data on pollution levels. Subsequently an 
environmental audit was conducted on some seventy-five (75) fuel service stations made 
up of fifteen each from Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total and Goil oil companies to assess their 
compliance to the Act.
The study employed two methods i.e., laboratory analysis and questionnaire 
administration. The focus was on fuel service station managers and their attendants. The 
physical and laboratory analysis revealed that except for pH, and nitrate concentration all 
the parameters determined were well above the EPA permissible levels. The results 
showed that the surrounding of the station was polluted indicated by the elevated levels
i
of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Oil/Grease and low Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
T
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
concentration. There was significant positive and negative correlation between some 
parameters, which indicated that the effluent from the Barima Service Station in Accra 
has contributed to the pollution of a stream at least within its environs. Other human 
activities also contribute.
The Environmental Audit of fuel service stations was scored in percentages. A lowest 
best performance score of 50 and a high of 100 were used._ The study revealed that, all 
the fuel service stations (100%) of all the marketing companies (Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total 
and Goil) dispensed petrol and diesel. Total had the highest of 73.3% for kerosene and 
33.3% for Shell being the lowest. Vehicle lubrication was 93.3%, 80%, 73.3%, 66.7% 
and 60% for Mobil, Shell, Elf, Goil and Total respectively. Sales of LPG filled cylinders, 
73.3%, 73.3%, 60%, 40% and 20% for Mobil, Total, Elf, Shell and Goil respectively. 
Most of the enterprises audited had shopping marts and restaurants attached. They were 
100%, 100%, 66.7%, 60% and 60% for Mobil, Shell, Elf, Total and Goil respectively.
Washing bay, which is fast becoming a prominent feature in fuel service station design 
was 46.7%, 40%, 33.3%, 33.3% and 20% for Shell, Mobil, Elf, Goil and Total.
Pollution control/minimization measures determined revealed the following mean 
percentage best performance of 47.73% to 45.17%. Traffic congestion and control 
showed mean best performance of 100% to 86.67%. Fire hazards management was 
65.96% - 56.31%. Waste management was 100% for all companies. Occupational health 
and safety management, 99%-94% and Public participation/perception of enterprise was 
93.34%-77.79%.
ii
2
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
It is evident from the findings that stringent enforcement measures are needed from 
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is the enforcement authority to control 
the effluent that operators of fuel service stations release into the environment. Further, 
adequate monitoring is required of EPA to determine problems that proponent of fuel 
service stations and the public encounter so that they are addressed to avoid operational 
conflicts.
3
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
1.0 BACKGROUND
Human beings kept their sustenance and survival by depending heavily on raw materials 
and products from the environment, for goods and services. Regrettably however, this 
dependence often generates and releases into the environment, waste materials that 
destroy the integrity of the environment. Over the past few years, the government’s 
vision of projecting the country into a middle-income country by the year 2020 as 
enshrined in Ghana’s Vision 2020, has resulted in the establishment of several industries 
and undertakings. Proponents often ignore the environmental impacts associated with 
these activities.
The increase in vehicular traffic of Accra and Tema has resulted in the establishment of 
many fuel service stations. Data available at the Audit Department of the Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA) indicate that during the 1996 -  2000 period alone, 128 
enterprises requested for permits to establish fuel seivice stations in the Accra, Tema and 
Ga Districts of the Greater Accra Region. Of these, more than 50% were granted permits. 
The activities of these fuel service stations include the re-sale of petroleum products 
(petrol, diesel, kerosene, engine oil, etc.), and operation of vehicle lubrication bays where 
waste oil from vehicles are collected through the changing of engine oil. In instances 
where washing bays are attached to fuel service stations, large quantities of waste water 
containing detergents and waste engine oil are discharged. If these were inappropriately 
discharged into the ecosystem, would pollute surface and ground waters, thereby 
disrupting the existing natural processes and consequently making way for loss of
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
biodiversity. Frequent fire hazards are also envisaged if proper fire emergency response 
plans are not put in place. It is this pollution problem and that associated with any other 
developmental projects, which pose threats to the environment. The Government through 
an Act of Parliament in 1994 (Act 490), charged the EPA to demand for Environmental 
Impact Assessment (EIA) for any developmental project which, in its view, is likely to 
impact significantly on the environment. The EPA therefore put in place guidelines for 
such developmental projects. After a thorough EIA conducted, an Environmental Impact 
Statement (EIS) is submitted to the EPA. The EIS presents the mitigative measures to be 
used in minimizing or reducing waste. The EPA must accept the EIS before a project can 
commence. On the other hand, for projects, which were in operation before the coming 
into force of the Act, proponents were obliged to submit an Environmental Management 
Plan (EMP) also to EPA, which spells out how the Environmental Impacts could be 
mitigated.
The fundamental rationale for this study is the absence of any audit on fuel service 
stations despite the numerous permits that have been issued to developers.
The key issues are whether:
There is compliance to the EIS/ EMP,
The EPA carries out monitoring,
The EPA carries out Audit and
The EPA permits are just formality for obtaining permits and not the environmental 
concerns.
ii
5
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Information gathered from the EPA Audit Department indicates that data on audit in this 
area is not available. The problem is often attributed to lack of funds, logistics and skilled 
personnel, but these are only part of the main problem.
On the other hand, the lack of technical know-how on emergency response of some fuel 
service station managers and attendants has also been observed. Pollution of the 
environment of fuel service stations is also evident. Public participation, which forms a 
critical fulcrum of any sound EIS and EMP, has been absent in certain instances.
1.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
This study was designed to:
Assess the EIS process and its administration, including public participation, in relation 
to fuel service stations,
Review and identify probable gaps/weaknesses in the EIS administration and that of 
EMPs for fuel service stations in the energy sector,
Formulate strategies to maximise/improve EIS administration in the energy sector,
Audit fuel service stations to generate information on their compliance and performance 
of the EMP,
Find out the perception of residents near fuel service stations as regards the activities of 
the fuel service station undertakings,
Identify the waste disposal methods of fuel service stations and
Monitor the effluent of a fuel service station, determine and create data on the 
contaminant levels in effluents from the fuel service station through laboratory and field 
analyses. t
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.2 SOME IMPACTS OF DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS ON I HE GHANAIAN 
ENVIRONMENT
The accelerated industrial development of Ghana in the post-independence era is 
characterised by rapid creation and expansion of the manufacturing sector of the 
economy. The development of the sector was however achieved without adequate 
consideration of mitigative measures to minimise adverse impact on the environment 
(EPA, Audit Department). Manufacturing industries were predominantly sited along 
watercourses and coastal wetlands and the discharge of untreated effluents into these 
water bodies has resulted in their gross pollution. For instance in Accra and Tema 
metropolis where about 60% of the major manufacturing industries are located, the Korle 
lagoon/Odaw river and the Chemu lagoon catchments have been the recipients for waste 
water from industries producing textiles, food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, 
chemicals, leather, soap and detergents, paper and printing, paint, glue and varnishes, etc. 
Furthermore, so little is known about the threats that hydrocarbon pollution is imparting 
into the Ghanaian environment (Tema Oil Refinery, 2000).
Recent biological and physico-chemical studies carried out on these water bodies indicate 
that, the discharge o f untreated effluents with high pollution loads in excess of their 
assimilative capacities has destroyed their ability to support aquatic life. The effluents are 
characterised by high levels of acidity, alkalinity, suspended solids, conductivity, salinity, 
sulphides, biological and chemical oxygen demands, ammonia and heavy metals when 
compared to background values for sea and coastal waters. The very high oxygen demand
ii
7
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
of these effluents has resulted in oxygen depletion in some parts of the receiving water 
bodies with records of zero dissolved oxygen values.
1.3 TRANSITION TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
The requirement for any state to conduct Environmental Impact Assessment in respect of 
activities that are likely to significantly affect the environment has been reflected in 
Principle 17 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Article 5 of the 
Legal Principle for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development was adopted 
by the Expert Group on Environmental Law of the World Commission on Environment 
and Development. In 1987, Goals Assessment developed under the auspices of United 
Nation Environment Programme (UNEP) by the Working Group of Experts on 
Environmental Law were adopted by the UNEP’s Governing Council at its 14* session, 
and recommended to states to be considered for use as basis for preparing appropriate 
national measures including legislation. The issue to be addressed here is how 
environmental damage can be avoided or reduced so as to ensure that development 
initiatives and their benefits are sustainable. The direction of environmental management 
in EIAs is to enable prospective developers to achieve their goal by using or disrupting 
the available natural resources without reducing their potential to meet future needs. 
According to information collected by UNEP, EIA provisions now exist in the 
framework of environmental legislation of 55 developing countries. In addition, at least 
22 developing countries currently have specific laws, decrees or regulations, which 
contain criteria or procedures applicable to EIA.
9
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Ghana, like many other nations of the world, has endorsed the sustainable concept of 
economic development that integrates environmental concerns in its developmental 
programmes. In 1991, the Government adopted the National Environmental Action Plan 
(EPC -  1991), and National Environment Policy, which provided the broad policy 
framework for the implementation of the Action Plan. Ghana’s Environmental Policy 
aims at ensuring a sound management of resources and the environment in such a manner 
so as to avoid over-exploitation and damage to the environment. Among other things, the 
policy seeks to:
Ensure environmentally sound use of all the country’s natural resources for a sustainable 
development,
Establish and implement appropriate standards and guidelines for an acceptable level of 
public health and environmental protection and
Assess the potential impacts of all major projects on the environment in order to 
integrate mitigative measures with planning policy.
In an effort to ensure that the country follows a sustainable development path, the EPA 
through EPA Act 490 and lately Environmental Assessment Regulation LI 1652, initiated 
appropriate procedures to ensure that all developmental projects are assessed 
environmentally before they are undertaken. Following the promulgation of the EPA Act 
490 in 1994 proponents who wish to undertake projects in the country are requested to 
provide EIA reports.
ii
9
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ACT, 1994 ACT (490)
In 1994, Ghana enacted the Environmental Protection Agency Act (Act 490). This
marked an important milestone in Ghana’s attempt at codifying EIA requirements in the 
developmental process.
Act 490 [Section 2 (i)] created a body corporate called the Environmental Protection 
Agency (EPA). Among its functions, the Agency was given the power “ to ensure 
compliance with any laid down environmental implementation assessment procedures in 
the planning and execution of development projects, including compliance in respect of 
existing projects.”
Under Section 12 (1) of the Act, the Agency “may by notice in writing require any person 
responsible for any undertaking which, in the opinion of the Agency has or is likely to 
have adverse effects on the environment, to submit to the Agency, in respect o f the 
undertaking, an environmental impact assessment containing such information within 
such period as shall be specified in the notice.
Where a notice is issued within the terms of Section 12 (1), the Agency shall inform any 
organ or department of government that has responsibility for the issue of any licence, 
permit, approval or consent in connection with any matter affecting the environment that 
the notice has been issued, and the organ or department shall not grant the licence, 
permit, approval or consent unless it has been notified by the Agency that the notice has 
been complied with.
lO
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Section 28 of the Act deals with Regulations. It provides under sub-section 2(b) that 
regulations may be made to provide for the category of undertaking, enterprises, 
constructions, or development in respect of which environmental impact assessment or 
environmental management plan is required by the Agency.
1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT REGULATION, 1994 (L.l. 1652)
The vision of the law makers in respect of regulations have been realised in the
Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 1999 (L.l. 1652) which came into force 
on 24th June, 1999.
Divided into three parts, the Regulations have a total of 30 sections in addition to 
Schedules. The provisions in the Regulations deal with the various procedures to be 
followed prior to the granting of a permit. This also includes how to file complaints, 
offences and penalty.
1.6 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN GHANA
The Environmental Impact Assessment procedure in Ghana has been developed primarily
as an aid to an environment planning of new development projects, the expansion of 
existing development projects or the management of existing facilities. It can be 
compared with similar techniques, which have been devised for the technical and 
economic planning of projects such as financial feasibility studies. The procedure and 
guidelines have been tailored specifically to the assessment of development project 
proposals. It is therefore appropriate that the procedure be mandatory, and be
it
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
administered by a public agency, as in the United Kingdom (Annon. (a) Accessed 
12/ 12/00).
Pollution control has been promoted in Ghana for several years essentially as a curative 
process. EIA however is essentially a preventive process. It seeks to avoid costly 
mistakes in project planning and development; mistakes, which can be costly either 
because of environmental losses or financial cost implications because of modification 
that, may be required subsequently, to make the project environmentally acceptable to the 
Government and to the community. EIA, pollution control and resource planning are 
together a total approach to environmental management. This also compares favourably 
with the Global Compact tools on EIA (The Global Compact -  Environmental Impact 
Assessment (accessed, 12/12/00).
The aim of environmental impact assessment in Ghana is to assess the overall impact on 
the environment of development projects proposed by the public and private sectors. The 
objectives include the following:
To identify and incorporate into the project plan appropriate abatement and mitigating 
measures,
To predict significant residual environmental impacts,
To determine the significant residual environmental impacts predicted and 
1 o identify the environmental costs and benefits of the project to the community 
This is outlined in the Global Compact -  EIA (accessed 12/12/00)
12
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
When properly executed, the following are envisaged benefits of the EIA:
EIA provides guidelines and information, which help reduce conflicts,
It identifies and reduces risks associated with long term projects,
Incorporating EIA at the initial stages for a project tends to be cheaper because the 
process will identify and address unforeseen issues during the planning and 
implementation stages, which reduce capital and recurrent cost, and avoid environmental 
damages as well as social disruption,
It provides opportunity for co-ordination and negotiation between stakeholders,
EIA broadens the boundaries of project appraisal so that consideration can be made for 
alternative approaches and designs and
And it avoids conflicts, between proponents and the public, stakeholders etc.
These benefits are also revealed in the Global Compact -  EIA and also an extract of the 
Report of the Seventh EIA Tripartite Workshop held in Canberra, 1994.
To complete an environmental impact assessment in an efficient manner and to realise 
the objectives discussed earlier, the assessor should take the following steps in sequence: 
Describe the proposed project as well as the options,
Describe the existing environment,
Select the impact indicators to be used,
Predict the nature and the extent of the environmental effects,
Identify the relevant human concerns,
Assess the significance of the impacts,
Incorporate appropriate mitigating and abatement measures into the project plan,
i
15
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Identify the environmental costs and benefits of the project to the community and 
And report on the assessment.
1.7 THE EIA PROCEDURE IN GHANA
EIA starts with the proponent registering the undertaking, which might have an impact on 
the environment with the Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA has the 
responsibility for determining what constitutes an impact on the environment.
Within 25 days from the time a completed registration form is received, the EPA with the 
assistance of a cross-sectoral technical committee, including the Ministry of Environment 
and Science, makes a decision by placing the undertaking at the appropriate level of 
assessment. In making the decision at this stage, an inspection by EPA officers may be 
necessary and consideration will be given to the following:
The location, size and output of the proposed undertaking,
The technology to be used,
Concerns of the general public,
Land use considerations and
Any other factors relevant to the particular undertaking.
The outcome of the above screening may be one of the following:
Environmental approval granted,
Environmental approval declined,
Preliminary Environmental Assessment required and 
Full EIA required. i
14
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The requirement for a PER is to provide sufficient information on the undertaking as a 
sound basis for the decision-making on whether an EIA is required for the undertaking or 
not. If the decision indicates that an EIA is required, then an Environmental Permit 
cannot be issued on the basis of the PER, and the proponent will accordingly be required 
to submit an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) resulting from a thorough 
Environmental Impact Assessment. The first stage in the conduct of an EIA is a Scoping 
Exercise of the proposed (alternative) site (s).
This involves consultations with interested/affected parties such as government officials, 
(and relevant ministries, departments, local authorities), traditional authorities and 
members of the public. The objective is to determine how their concerns and others will 
be addressed in the Terms of Reference (TOR) for the EIA.
The proponent then prepares a scoping report, which would include draft a “Terms of 
Reference” (TOR) for the EIA study, and submit ten (10) copies to the EPA. If the EPA 
agrees with the TOR, then the proponent is mandated to proceed with EIA.
The proponent shall then be required to commission a detailed Environmental Impact 
Assessment. This study will involve baseline survey and inventory, development of 
proposal options, identification of potential impacts and considerations for mitigation. In 
the course of gathering data for the EIA, the proponent is required to initiate a public 
information programme for the area likely to be affected by the undertaking.
ii
15
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Once the final draft of the Environmental Impact Statement is completed, the proponent 
shall submit 12 copies of the EIA to the EPA. A cross-sectoral Technical Committee 
including the Ministry of Environment and Science (MES) and other agencies shall assist 
the EPA in the review of the EIS.
Copies shall be made available at appropriate public places. A 21-day public notice of the 
EIS publication shall be served by the EPA for public information and reaction, through 
newspaper advertisement or posting at appropriate places as part of the review process. 
The EPA will collate public views and shall undertake a field/site verification exercise if 
considered necessary.
If a strong public concern over the undertaking is indicated and impacts are extensive and 
far-reaching, the EPA shall hold a public hearing relating to the assessment. The EPA 
shall appoint a panel, which will organise the public hearing on the proposed 
undertaking.
The information received at these hearings, together with the final report and any 
recommendations of the panel may be made public. In the event where a public hearing is 
held on an undertaking, the processing of the application may extend beyond the normal 
90-day period for processing an application.
iI
16
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Issues raised during the public hearing will have to be addressed and incorporated in the 
final EIS. If all addressed issues are found to be satisfactory, an Environmental Permit 
will then be issued.
However, some nations have other requirements the details of which can help Ghana do 
an extensive assessment on projects. In Canada for example, the Department o f the 
Environment and Local Government which is responsible for EIA has in its requirements, 
of the undertaking attached, large -  scale (1:12,500 preferred, 1:50,000 acceptable) 
original base map(s) and /or recent air photo(s) clearly indicating the site location relative 
to existing communities and transportation facilities and showing the proposed route of 
access. They also attach the topographic map(s), (EIA -  Registration Guide, accessed, 
11/12/00). Further, the source of funding for the project is given.
Due to the effect of effluents that may be released into the environment and which might 
have significant impact on the environment, as part of the EIA, prospective developers 
are required to outline the type of effluents and emissions that will get into the 
environment and thereby design strategies for eliminating or minimising these impacts 
hence the emergence of Environmental Management Plan (EMP).
1.8 THE NEED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT PLAN
The failure of many environmental policies in many countries has generally been
attributed to the exclusive concentration on the development of policies, laws and
standards to the neglect of implementation including compliance, enforcement,
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
monitoring and auditing. Indeed, compliance and enforcement has been identified as the 
weakest link in regulatory cycle (Buckley, 1991).
The Environmental Management Plan (EMP) procedure is not only a regulatory tool to 
be enforced pursuant to section 24 of LI 1652, but also a compliance promotion tool to 
ensure effective prevention and minimisation of potential impact of industries that existed 
as at February 1999 on the coming into force o f LI 1652.
The EMP was proactively initiated as a compliance promotion tool to create awareness 
and encourage environmental management systems development in industry. The 
programme is an evolving process beginning from a situation o f no environmental 
regulations and an ill -  informed industry on environmental issues to one where industry 
would be well informed of their environmental obligations and make choices in self -  
regulation and compliance with regulations and standards that were then being 
anticipated. The specific objectives of developing and implementing EMP include the 
following:
To ensure the clear recognition of the distinction and the inter -  relationship between the 
external and the working environments, factors/activities that impact on them; and the 
appropriate legislation regulating them,
To effectively identify potential releases into air, water and land media from the various 
process activities,
iI
18
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
To encourage the development of capabilities and capacities of industry to obtain 
accurate information on sources of emissions, effluents and solid waste generation in 
order to put in place minimisation and to address them,
To determine qualitatively, the characteristics (i.e. pollution, indicator/parameter levels) 
of emissions, effluent and solid wastes as a basis of potential impact and reduction plan,
To develop material balances as appropriate including water balance, and raw material 
balance as basis of obvious waste reduction plan,
To appreciate the effect of potential impact of the various activities if ‘business as usual’ 
or ‘no action attitude is adopted where the pollution indicators exceed regulatory levels,
To encourage self -  regulations and compliance through institution of prevention, 
reduction of waste generation at source and the selection of a combination of primary 
process and pollution abatement techniques which constitute the Best Practicable 
Environmental Option (BPEO),
Ensure that the Best Available Techniques Not Entailing Excessive Cost (BATNEEC) 
will be used in preventing or minimising and rendering harmless any release of described 
substances into the environment,
Ensure the institution of relevant monitoring regime to ensure compliance with any 
international or national regularity limits as appropriate and
Obtain detailed information about specific individual processes for the development of 
Process Guidance Notes or Company Profiles for the purposes of authorisation or 
permitting.
ii
19
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The approach of the Agency to achieve industry compliance has been a mix regulatory 
and non-regulatory measure. These are primarily;
Compliance promotion through seminars, workshops on environmental management, 
pollution studies, and dissemination of results to industry and
Enforcement of registration and permitting of industries based on the Environmental 
Management Plan Procedure.
1.9 THE EMERGING TOOLS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 
(EM) AND INDUSTRY RESPONSIBILITY
The Environmental Protection Agency Act 1994 (ACT 490) defines a range of tools, 
regulatory and non-regulatory that can be used to protect the environment to achieve 
environmental goals. Facilitating and encouraging high standards of environmental 
performance in industry always make considerable gains. This implies emphasising 
compliance promotion tools in addition to those used as part of the traditional regulatory 
approach. This embodies the Client Manager approach, which emphasises advising and 
assisting industry on how to meet its environmental responsibilities. These compliance 
promotion activities include:
Giving advice on installation of clean technology and waste minimization options, 
Encouraging co-operation between industry, regulators, the community and local 
government and
Assisting in the development of environmental management systems to ensure that 
environment protection is built into the way a plant operates and is integrated into good 
business management.
iI
20
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The specific national emerging tools for developing environment management systems 
(EMS) are:
* Environment Management Plans (EMP),
■ Environment Improvement Plans (EIP),
■ Waste Management Plans (WMP) and
■ Environmental Incident Reporting (EIR).
These tools are designed to eventually assist industries to seek registration o f the
emerging global Environmental Management System, ISO 14001, which is fast becoming 
a competitive environmental tool in the global market place just as ISO 9000 is a global 
Total Quality Management tool and its consistent with the United Nations Global 
Compact Network on EIA. (The Global Compact -  EIA, accessed 12/12/00).
1.10 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT (El) OF FUEL SERVICE 
STATIONS/IMPACTS MANAGEMENT
The nature of a typical fuel service station of our time is one, which undertakes a variety 
of services ranging from the sale of petroleum products to last foods. To be precise, the 
activities include the dispensing of fuel (petrol, diesel and kerosene), vehicle lubrication, 
sale of Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) filled cylinders, LPG dispensing, shopping mart, 
washing of cars, vulcanising as well as quick automobile repair and service.
The potential Environmental Impacts (El) of the industry on the environment may be 
grouped as constructional phase environmental impacts and operational phase 
environmental impacts. The constructional phase will have impacts such as noise from
2.1
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
equipment and heavy-duty machinery. The use of new machinery, regular maintenance of 
equipment and the synchronising of working hours to avoid unwanted noise to residents 
usually mitigate these. Dust from grading and digging are watered to clog dust particles. 
Subsequently the loss of aesthetics is compensated by landscaping and architectural 
designs of interest.
For purposes of this study, the focus is limited to the operational phase environmental 
impacts are primarily due to the wastes generated. These include Volatile Organic 
Carbons (VOCs) and wastewater of which may affect air, water and soil. Other impacts 
may arise from traffic congestion and fire hazard.
1.10.1 Activities that Expose Petroleum Products to the Atmosphere in Service 
Stations
VOCs escape into the atmosphere on the slightest exposure of tank farms or fuel 
dispensing nozzles. The sources of these exposures have been found to include unloading 
(discharge of bulk oil transport vehicles, dispensing and leakages/leachates). Diesel, 
kerosene and other lubricants may escape through spillage, leakages and leachates.
The mitigative measure for evaporative emissions is achieved by conscious effort at 
keeping fuels in closed systems. Dispenser pump nozzles are manufactured not to allow 
fuel exposure and that all stock products are stored underground. Lubricants are normally 
stored in drums for disposal by contracted waste management companies.
In unavoidable cases, minimum exposure is ensured. For example, dipping is done in the 
mornings or evenings when the atmosphere is cool to prevent excessive evaporation. The 
dipsticks are made of slender non — absorbing metallic bar, .while exposure time during
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
dipping can be very short. Also, tank farms occupy spacious areas to avoid pressure build 
up. A vent pipe of approximate height of 3.5m is used to disperse any accidental vapour 
into the air.
If these measures are not taken, there is the possibility of fire outbreak since the 
petroleum products are very flammable. There is the possibility of spills running into 
water bodies thereby covering the surface and impeding oxygen circulation. This will 
then affect many organisms in the aquatic environment by disrupting their body 
mechanisms.
1.10.2 Sources of Waste
Due to the varied operations that occur at the fuel service stations, a lot of effluent is 
generated for example, from the washing of vehicles and effluent from kitchens. The 
sources of the effluent have been mainly waste waters, rain water run off, washing bay 
discharges, waste oils, spills and leaks, maintenance and repairs, ware house, storage and 
improper fuelling operations.
The effluent and other waste sources from fuel service stations if not well-handled can 
also result in a variety of damage to the receiving media. For example, waste oils and that 
of spill and leaks from accidental spills and those from the repair of vehicles when they 
get into water bodies can cause a lot of harm to many organisms. Again, by design of 
most fuel service stations liquid waste is channelled into drains and then to city drains 
that either join small streams and then into the sea or the city drains connect straight to 
the sea, hence the sea becomes the ultimate recipient of such effluents. This situation,
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
coupled with the general absence of pre — treatment before final disposal into the sea, 
poses a serious threat to the environment. The presence of waste oils in the discharges 
can kill organism directly through coating and asphyxiation (e.g. barnacles and other 
intertidal life), and can kill by poisoning via contact or ingestion (e.g. vascular plants and 
preening birds). Water-soluble compounds can be lethal to fish and invertebrates. This 
can also lead to the destruction of the sensitive eggs and larval forms of fish. Disruption 
of the body insulation of birds will also result in their death. Oil causes harmful effects on 
ecosystem as well. The disruption of food chain is obvious. There may be synergistic 
effects, which reduce the resistance to other stresses, and it has been suggested that 
carcinogenic chemicals may enter food chains from oil. Reproductive success may be 
reduced and the chemical clues vital to the survival, reproduction or feeding o f some 
organisms may be wasted by the petroleum (Simmons, 1986).
When high levels of detergents are not properly disposed off, it could lead to serious 
environmental consequences. Detergents are synthetic materials based on the molecular 
design of soap. Most common detergent used contains phosphate groups. Phosphorus 
present in synthetic detergents foams and reduces photosynthesis and inhibits 
oxygenation of water. Concentrations of less than 1 mg/L may also inhibit oxygen uptake 
by organisms (US Congress 1970).
The introduction of large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorus into water bodies is one 
of the major problems of wastes today (Sawyer 1966). Phosphorous is a scarce resource 
in the lithosphere and many ecosystems are adjusted to its scarcity. The large quantities 
made available by human induced concentration (Washing Bay) lift such limits and algal
24
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
blooms result even at concentrations as low as 50 mg/L of phosphorus. Nitrogen may 
then become a limiting factor and organisms such as blue — green algae take over from 
the plankton.
To mitigate this problem, oil and grease traps are constructed along drains to contain 
accidental spillage on the forecourt. There are also spill containment chambers 
constructed around fill pipes to contain any spillage during bulk oil discharges. Dispenser 
pumps, which have special nozzles that cut off oil delivery automatically when vehicle 
tanks get filled, are used. Also, proponent should show how they have put in place 
measures that will ensure that discharge valves and hoses of bulk road tankers are 
inspected and certified periodically to prevent hauling spillages.
Oil leakages are also controlled by regular stock check of products by dipping to check 
on the level of fuel in the underground tanks. This is done once or twice a day and 
compared to volume of fuel sold out. Further, observation wells are constructed in tank 
farm to check for ground water contamination. This also serves as a leak detector against 
rusting, bubbles and pressure build up to prevent product leakage on storage. Regular 
repair, maintenance and replacement of kinky pipes and faulty nozzles are done. 
Interceptors are constructed to trap effluent and separate it into oil and water. The oil 
could then be collected and the water join public rains. The oil is then disposed off to 
other users, e.g. furnace burners.
Where, solid waste are generated, the proponent is expected to show how such waste 
would be disposed off including evidence of the contractual terms. Emergency Response 
plans-for oil spillage and waste oil from the lube bay should be provided.
25
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.10.3 Traffic Congestion
Traffic comprises (a) cars (b) vans (c) goods vehicles (d) buses (e) 
motor cycles and (f) pedal cycles. The mix of different vehicle types and 
their relationship to the immediate built environment will determine how changes in 
traffic flow might impact on the wider environment. There is also the pedestrian 
vehicular conflict on pavements and forecourts.
Proponents are required to clearly mark Exit and Entry points and which would be 
separated by not less than 30 meters. The distance of separation should be made so as to 
allow for easy manoeuvring of customers vehicles. This lessens traffic build up on the 
main access road and forecourt. Further, pavements along the roads are reserved to 
enhance pedestrian movement along the highway. On the forecourt, kerosene is sold on 
the side kerb, while pump attendants are to prevent thoroughfare and hawking on 
forecourt.
1.10.4 Fire Hazard
Due to the flammable nature of petroleum products an efficient system of fire prevention 
and control is very necessary.
The Ghana National Fire Service (GNFS) is the main fire prevention and control 
organisation in the country. Proponents are supposed to show evidence of the acceptance 
of GNFS in respect of the siting of the fuel service station. The report should show that 
the undertaking is not going to pose any serious threat to the neighbours and the
26
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
environment. The proponent should show evidence that the GNFS is prepared to give 
them fire prevention and control training and update this training as time goes on. Again, 
proponents are expected to show willingness to provide fire prevention and combating 
facilities at the service station. These include the presence of fire extinguisher e.g. 2 No. 
1 x 3kg (Carbon dioxide), 2 No. 2 x 3kg (Dry Chemical Extinguisher) and 1 No. 4 x 6kg 
(Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher) are encouraged.
In addition, sand buckets should be provided by the proponent and positioned for easy 
access. “No Smoking”, “Switch Off Engine” rules should strictly be ensured, as well as 
other preventive fire notices are displayed boldly for easy view. Smoke detectors should 
be part of the structural design installed in rooms to enhance early detection o f fire. Fire 
alarms and fire hydrants in the premises are also of utmost importance. Furthermore, fire 
emergency response plans would be required to show how prepared the management 
would handle emergency fire crisis.
1.11 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT
Here protective clothing is supposed to be made available to the station attendants and its 
usage is to be strictly enforced by their managements. Periodic in -  service training 
should be organised to update personnel on good working practices. Fire is the most 
dangerous accident envisaged at fuel service stations. To forestall its occurrence, regular 
fire fighting drills for staff in collaboration with GNFS should be organised. Fire 
extinguishers are replaced regularly to conform to expiry dates. Regular checks on 
valves, nozzles of dispensing pumps and lid — tightness to prevent evaporative emissions
27
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
and gaseous inhalations are advised. Regular and prompt cleaning of oil film deposits on 
site to prevent slippery conditions. A water reservoir on site to facilitate cleanliness of 
toilets and bathrooms should be part of the structural design.
1.12 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT
Environmental audit is an independent assessment of the current status of a party’s 
compliance with applicable environmental requirements or of party’s environmental 
compliance policy practices and controls.
On the other hand, environmental audit is the assessment of the compliance of 
environmental administration and performance of an operating business with 
environmental protection requirements with sound environmental practice in general and 
with principles of sustainable development. Environmental auditing is mandatory only in 
cases stipulated by law (Annon. (c) 12/12/00).
Environmental audits are being used as a tool and aid to test the effectiveness of 
environmental efforts at local levels. In other words, an environmental audit is a 
systematic, independent internal review to check whether due results of environmental 
work tally with the targets. An environmental audit also focuses on whether the methods 
used to achieve goals are effective. To be more precise an environmental audit is a study 
of documents and reports to assess whether there are any deviations between targets and 
results. Interviewing key people in the organisation does this. An environmental audit 
will confirm whether or not the environmental targets have been attained. (Annon (c) 
12/12/00).
28
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The concept of environmental auditing is closely related to monitoring, norms and 
standards. Environmental monitoring is the systematic observation of the state of 
environment and of the factors influencing it. The main purpose of environmental 
monitoring is to assess changes to the state of the environment and to provide initial data 
for planning documents, programmes and projects. Law establishes the procedure of 
environmental monitoring.
Environmental norms refer to figures or use rates of natural resources per production unit 
established for the quality of the environment, the volume of waste, or per production 
unit. The environmental standards are documents setting rules, guidelines and numeric 
values, defined by the involved parties and regulating activities or results of activities 
which either have or are likely to have impact on the state of the environment (Annon. (c) 
accessed 12/12/00).
Monitoring and auditing of outcome can contribute to an improvement in aE aspects of 
the EIA process, from understanding baseline conditions to the framing of effective 
mitigation measures (Sadler, 1988). Greene et al (1985) stated that monitoring and 
auditing reduce time and resource commitment to EIA by allowing all participants to 
learn from past experience.- They also contribute to the general enhancing o f the 
credibility of proponents, regulatory agencies, and EIA processes. They note, “we are on 
an upward learning curve, and there is a considerable growth of interest in examining the 
effectiveness of the EIA process in practice”.
29
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.13.1 Auditing in Practice
Auditing has already developed into a considerable variety of types. Tomlinson & 
Atkinson (1987 a, b) have attempted to standardize definitions with a set o f terms for 
seven different points of audit in the “standard” EIA process as follows:
♦ Decision point audit (draft EIS) -  by regulatory authority in the planning approval 
process,
♦ Decision point audit (final EIS) -  also by regulatory authority in the planning 
approval process,
♦ Implementation audit -  covers start up, and could include scrutiny by government and 
public, with focus on the proponent’s compliance with mitigation and other imposed 
conditions,
♦ Performance audit -  covers full operation and could also include government and 
public scrutiny,
♦ Predictive techniques audit -  compares actual with predicted impacts as a means of 
comparing the value of different predictive techniques,
♦ Project impact audits -  also compares actual impacts with predicted, and provides 
feed back for improved project management and for future projects and
♦ Procedure audit -  external review (e.g. by public) of procedures used by government 
and industry during EIA process.
These terms can and do overlap. The focus here is on project performance and 
implementation audits. The Ghana EIA procedure prescribes post — project auditing 
which more or less embraces performance audit.
30
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1.13.2. Bottlenecks in EIA Auditing
Whatever the focus, auditing faces major problems. Buckley (1991) identifies the
following:
♦ Environmental Impact Statements (EIS) often contain very few testable predictions, 
which may only relate to relatively minor impacts,
♦ Monitoring techniques may not enable predictions to be tested, because, inter alia, of 
mismatch of time periods and locations, too few samples, etc,
♦ Projects are almost always modified between the design used for the EIA and in 
practice,
♦ Monitoring data provided by the developers/project operators may possibly be biased 
towards their interest and
♦ The environmental parameter that is monitored may not correspond with those on 
which predictions were made.
31
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER TWO: STUDY AREA
2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION:
The study was conducted in the Accra -  Tema metropolitan which and lies within 
longitude 0 °  00' and 0° 20' to the west and boarders the south with the Gulf of Guinea 
and within latitudes 5° 40' and 5 °31' N. This could not however be exact due to the ever- 
expanding nature of the metropolis (Appendix H).
2.2 CLIMATE:
Accra -  Tema area experiences tropical savannah climate and receives more than 90% of 
its annual rainfall within six to seven months distributed in a major and a minor season. 
The major rains come between March/April and July and the minor rains between 
September and November. A short dry spell occurs in August with November to March 
constitute the major dry season (Dickson and Benneh, 1988).
2.3 RELIEF:
The area is generally a coastal plain and are very flat. Various types of rocks are found 
here, but the most widespread are the granites, which also form most of the hills (Dickson 
and Benneh, 1988).
31
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
2.4 VEGETATION:
The vegetation is basically coastal scrub and grassland. This is the belt, which receives 
the least amount of rainfall in Ghana (75 -  89cm/annum). Relative humidity is however 
high throughout the year and thus compensates for the scanty annual rainfall (Dickson 
and Benneh, 1988).
2.5 DRAINAGE:
The area is endowed with streams, rivers and lagoons. Due to population pressure most of 
these have become mere waste channels as a result of gross human pollution. Examples 
include the Odaw River, Chemu Lagoon, and Korle Lagoon (Biney, 1990).
2.6 POPULATION:
The 2000 population and housing census recorded a population of 1,657,856 for Accra 
and 511,459 for Tema with a total of 2,169,315. Accra and Tema alone form 11.8% of 
the national population (Census, 2000).
2.7 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES:
Accra being the capital city of Ghana can boast of a lot of economic activities ranging 
from industry through buying and selling to agriculture. The influx of people to Accra to 
seek for jobs has led to a high population density. Tema has one of the main harbours in 
the country. The city is also heavily populated with similar economic activity as that of
3.3
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Accra. Coupled with the rapid expansion and urbanisation of these cities, daily 
commuting from homes to working places has become a significant phenomenon of the 
two cities. This has led to an increasingly high demand for fuel and the consequent rapid 
establishment of fuel service stations. Information obtained at the Driver Vehicle and 
Licensing Authority (DVLA), indicate that between January and December 1999 a total 
of 64,751 vehicles were registered in Ghana. This makes an average of 177 vehicles per 
day, and of these close to 50% was concentrated in Accra and Tema metropolitan area.
Accra -  Tema Metropolitan Area was selected because it was close to where the 
researcher lives, and also was seen to be the area of high concentration of fuel service 
stations in Ghana. With the brisk economic activities and the demand for petroleum 
products, it was anticipated that interesting results would be achieved. Further, the head 
offices of all the oil-marketing companies are located within the metropolis, which would 
allow for easy access to environmental policy makers and their implementers.
34
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 METHOD OF ASSESSMENT
A case study approach was adopted. This started with a review of the Environmental 
Management Plan (EMPs) of fuel service stations. This included a reconnaissance survey 
of 20 fuel service stations in the study area to establish their compliance to these EMPs. 
Also, detailed questionnaires were administered to attendants and managers of some fuel 
service stations. Their knowledge on issues addressed in the EMPs were also carried out. 
There was audit of the facilities. This took place after establishing the environmental 
impact controls of fuel service stations from the heads of the environmental departments 
of the fuel marketing companies.
A fuel station (Barima Service Centre) which is sited on the fringes of the Densu Ramsar 
site and whose effluents empty into a stream which flow into the Ramsar site was 
selected for a detailed laboratory analysis.
Water samples from selected points along the stream were taken for physical, and 
chemical analysis.
3.1.1 Site Selection and Effluent Assessment
In all six (6 ) sites were selected for sampling of effluent. The selection was partly based 
on the closeness to the source and ease of identification of the sites. The sites included
35
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
confluence), 5m upstream then at 10m intervals downstream from the confluence.
3.1.2 Method of Sampling Effluent
Samples meant for the physical and chemical parameters identification were collected 
using plastic containers of two litre capacity by immersing the container gently to a depth 
of about 25cm until it was almost full. However with samples meant for the 
determination of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) were 
taken to fill the DO and BOD bottles so as to prevent air bubbles from entering. Sampling 
for hydrocarbon analysis was also made using 1 L plastic bottles at all the six sampling 
sites.
Sediment and soil samples for analysis were taken at these six (6 ) sites at the bed o f the 
stream to a depth of 50 cm and at .the banks at right angles to the depth of 25 cm using the 
soil auger.
3.2 PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS
The pH, temperature and conductivity were determined. The determination of the pH was 
carried out using a pH meter (model santix SP — 701). Temperature was measured using 
mercury in thermometer. A conductivity meter (model -  Jenway PCM3) was used in the 
measurement. The conductivity of the soil samples was measured using a 1:2.5 dilution 
ratio with distilled water.
the source where the effluent from the fuel service centre joins the stream (i.e.
36
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3 LABORATORY ANALYSIS
The samples for Dissolved Oxygen (DO) determination were pre-treated by fixing with 2 
ml manganous sulphate followed by 2  ml alkali iodide -  azide, re-stoppered and contents 
mixed by inverting the bottle about 15 times. The bottle was shaken again after 3 
minutes. As soon as possible, the fixed samples were determined as follows:
The stopper from the DO bottle was removed and 2.0 niLconcentrated Ffe S04 added 
along the neck and shaken till dissolution was complete. A 100 ml of the solution was 
titrated with M/80 sodium thiosulphate solution to a straw yellow colour. About 2 ml 
starch solution was then added and the titration continued to a point where the blue 
colour changed to a colourless end -  point.The standard thiosulphate solution was 
prepared by dissolving 0.892 g potassium iodate, previously dried at 120°C for one hour 
in distilled water and diluted to 1 litre. 10 ml M/40 (0/0250 M) potassium iodate was 
pipetted into a conical flask containing 1 0 0  ml water, then 1ml alkaline iodide -  azide 
solution and titrated with M/80 thiosulphate, adding 2 ml starch indicator when a pale 
straw colour was reached. This was titrated to a colourless end point.
Calcula t ion
Molarity of thiosulphate ■'= 0.025 x 10  (3 .1)
v
Where V = volume of thiosulphate used, ml
The calculation of the DO
Mg/102 = vol. of M/80 thiosulphate used x 101.6 (3.2)
Vol. of sample used
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995). UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987a)
3.3.1 Determination of Dissolved Oxygen (Acid Modification of Winkler’s Method)
37
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The procedure for Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was followed however the calculation of the 
BOD was as follows:
When dilution water is not seeded:
3.3.2 Determination of Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (Dilution Method)
BOD5, mg/1 (D ,-D 2)/P  (3.3)
When dilution water is seeded:
BOD5, mg/1 [(D !-D 2) - ( B ! - B 2) f l /P  (3.4)
Where,
D, = DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/1
D2 = DO of diluted sample after 5 day incubation at 20°C, mg/1
P decimal volumetric fraction of sample used
Bi = DO of seed control before incubation, mg/1
B2 = DO of seed control after incubation, mg/1
f ratio of seed in diluted sample to seed in seed control (% seed in diluted
sample) / (% in seed control)
if seed material is added directly to sample or to seed control bottles: 
f  = (volume of seed in diluted samples) / (volume of seed in seed control) 
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998)
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3.3 Extraction of Organic Substances from W ater (Extraction With Organic 
Solvent)
A litre of the sample was taken per each sample site and acidified at the time of collection 
with 5ml HCL acid (6:1). After mixing the sample, the pH was checked by using pH 
paper to ensure that the pH was 2 or lower. Then 30ml CCL4 was added to the sample 
bottle and rotated to rinse the sides. The mixture was then transferred into a separator 
funnel, and extracted by shaking the bottle vigorously for 2 minutes. The layers were then 
allowed to separate. The solvent layer was then filtered through a funnel containing 
solvent -  moistened filter paper into a 100 ml volumetric flask. The extraction procedure 
was repeated twice more with 30ml portions of fresh solvent, combining all solvent into 
the volumetric flask. The tip of the separating funnel, filter paper, and the funnel were 
rinsed with about 1 0ml solvent and the rinse was collected in the flask and diluted to 1 0 0  
ml. About 10 ml of the solvent from the volumetric flask was discarded and 3g silica gel 
(60 -  200 mesh, Davidson grade 950 or equivalent) added. With the volumetric flask 
stoppered, the solvent was stirred with a stirring bar for 5 minutes on a magnetic stirrer. 
The contents were then transferred into a distilling flask of known weight and distilled in 
a water bath at 70°C till the flask was dry. The contents were then dried in a dessicator 
for 30 minutes and re-weighed. If the organic solvent is free of residue the gain in weight 
of the flask is mainly due to oil and grease.
I
Calcula t ion
1 t
Mg oil and grease/1 = (A -B )  x 1 0 0 0  xi 1 0 0 0  (3 .5 )
Ml sample
39
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Where, A = total gain in the weight of the flask in grams
B = solvent blank
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998)
3.3.4 Determination of Ammonia -  Nitrogen in Water (Direct Nesslerization)
Sampled water was allowed to settle and 5ml of the supernatant pipetted into a conical 
flask and made up to 50 ml mark-using ammonia -  free water and 2 drops of Rochelle 
salt added. The contents were mixed well and 2 ml of Nessler’s reagent added.
A blank solution was prepared using 50ml ammonia -  free water plus 5 drops Rochelle 
salt and 2ml Nessler’s reagent. The samples were allowed to stand for 10 minutes for 
colour development and its absorbance determined using a UY/VIS spectrophotometer at 
a wavelength of 410 nm using a 1cm light path cuvette. The spectrophotometer was
zeroed with the blank solution.
A calibration curve previously prepared was used to determine the concentration of the 
ammonia -  nitrogen in the unknown sample, (APHA, AWWA, WEF (1989); UNEP, 
WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987b)).
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3.5 Determination of Nitrate -  Nitrogen in Water (Hydrazine Reduction 
Method)
To a test tube 10 ml of the sample was pipetted into a test tube and 1.0ml of 0.3M NaOH 
added and mixed gently. Further, 1.0ml of a reducing mixture was added and mixed 
gently. The mixture was then warmed to 60°C in a water bath for 10 minutes, and cooled 
to room temperature followed by the addition of 1 .0  ml of colour developing reagent. 
The mixture was shaken and the absorbance read at 520nm. The concentrations of nitrate 
and nitrite were computed directly from an already prepared calibration curve. To obtain 
the concentration of NO3 -  N, NO2 -  N was determined separately. APHA, A W A , 
WEF (1995).
3.3.6 Determination of Nitrite -  Nitrogen in Water
A calibration curve was prepared with a series of standards in 50 ml Nessler tubes. In
addition 2  ml of buffer -  colour reagent was added to each standard sample, mixed and
allowed for colour to develop for at least 15 minutes, the pH was then made to 2. The
absorbance was measured in- the spectrophotometer at 540nm against the blank and the
concentration of nitrite -  nitrogen plotted against absorbance.
NO2 -  N in mg/1 = fmg/1 from standard curve x 501 (3.6)
Ml sample
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995), UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987c)
41
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Available phosphorus in soil was determined using the method of Bray and Kurtz (1945). 
30g of soil was weighed into 100 ml centriftige bottle and 60 ml of Bray 1 solution 
(0.03M NH4F in 0.025m HCL) was added. The suspension was shaken for 1 minute on a 
reciprocating shaker and filtered through a No.42 Whitman filter paper into a 100ml 
volumetric flask. Available phosphorus in the filtrate was determined colorimetricaUy 
with the molybdate ascorbic acid method of Watanabe and Olsen (1965) as follows:
A 20 ml aliquot of the filtrate was pipetted (in duplicate) into a 50 ml volumetric flask. 
The pH was adjusted using p -  nitrophenol indicator and neutralised with few drops 4N 
ammonium hydroxide (NH4 OH) until the solution turned yellow. The solution was 
diluted to 40 ml with distilled water after which 8ml reagent B (a mixture of ascorbic acid 
and ammonium -  molybdate solution) was added and made up to 50 ml volume with 
more distilled water.
The solution was mixed thoroughly shaken and allowed to stand for 15 minutes for the 
colour to stabilise, A blank was prepared with distilled water and 8  ml reagent B. The 
method was calibrated using 5 (ml/L) Standard P solution in the manner as shown earlier. 
The intensity of the blue colour was measured using the Philips PU 8620 
spectrophotometer at a wavelength of 712 nm.
3.3.7 Determination of Available Phosphorous in Soil
41
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3.8 Determination of Soil Ammonium -  N and Nitrate -  N
Five grams of fresh soil sample was weighed into an Erlenmeyer flask and 50 ml of 2M 
KCL solution added. The contents were shaken for 30 minutes. Then 20 ml of the filtrate 
was transfered into 100 ml micro Kjeldahl steam distillation apparatus and 200 mg of 
MgO previously dried at 300°C for one hour was added.
The flask was connected to the distillation apparatus and about 40 ml distillate was
collected in 15 ml of 0.005M HCL solutions for ammonium -  N determination. To
determine nitrate -  N, a fresh flask containing 15ml of 0.005m HCL was used to which
was added 20g of Devarda’s alloy. In each case the distillate was titrated with 0.005M
NaOH solutions. The NH4 -  N and the NO3 -  N were calculated as:
YN = YO.A m/L....................... (3.7)
2
Where A, is the difference between the millilitres of HCL used to reduce NH4CL and the 
millilitres of NaOH to neutralise HCL.
3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT (Description of sample)
Seventy-five fuel service stations from the Accra — Tema Metropolitan area were 
sampled comprising fifteen fuel service stations each of MOBIL, ELF, SHELL GOIL and 
TOTAL. In these fuel service stations, the managers, the fuel service attendants and car 
washing attendants were the target. Seventy-five was the largest sample size that could be 
available for the project.
43
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.4.1 Sampling Procedure for Environmental Audit of Fuel Service Stations
A disproportionate random sampling method was used. It was disproportionate because 
even though the numbers of enterprises considered were the same, their activities within 
the entire study area were not the same. It was random because every individual fuel 
service station in the sample had an equal probability of being selected to enable one to 
generalise the findings of the study to the entire population.
3.4.2 Research Design for Environmental Audit of Fuel Service Stations
Generally, the descriptive survey method was used in the study. This method inquires 
into what exists without questioning why it exist (Ary et, al 1979). Creswell (1994) 
defines a survey design as that which provides a quantitative or numeric description of 
some fraction of the population, which is the sample, through the data collection process 
of asking questions of the people. This data collection in turn enables a researcher to 
generalise the findings from a sample of responses to a population. The research was to 
describe, “what existed” with respect to the variables mentioned in the situations.
3.5 INSTRUMENT USED FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT OF FUEL 
SERVICE STATIONS
The instrument used was a structured interview with a closed and open format designed 
by the researcher. The format was in two parts and administered using the participatory 
approach solely by the researcher. The first part was made up of 19 statements, which 
solicited general information on the subjects. The second part was made up of 52
4+
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
statements based on Environmental Audit of fuel service stations. This part was 
determined based on eight mitigative measures as follows:
Problem A -  Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures
Problem B -  Traffic Congestion
Problem C -  Fire Hazards
Problem D -  Waste Management
Problem E -  Oil Spill Management
Problem F -  Oil Leakage Management
Problem G -  Occupational Health and Safety and
Problem H -  Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise
Each statement was accompanied by a “Yes” or “No” response to indicate the presence or 
otherwise of a requirement. Each questionnaire was administered to the station manager 
and the attendants of the appropriate departments. (Refer to Appendix A). The 
questionnaire was constructed in English and where the researcher made necessary 
translation for respondents who do not understand English to facilitate response.
The researcher recorded scores obtained for each category of marks obtained at the 
station. Each interview lasted between 4 5 - 5 0  minutes.
3.7 DATA ANALYSIS FOR RESULTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT AND 
LABORATORY ANALYSIS
The score was recorded in percentages as scores obtained in a category upon the 
maximum marks obtainable. In this wise a minimum of 0% and maximum of 100% were
45
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
anticipated at the different categories, with the lowest being minimum compliance and 
the highest being maximum compliance.
The mean, probability, standard error, least significant difference (LSD) were computed. 
The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was also computed. This same analysis was carried 
out on measurements made at the laboratory on water and soil samples. Furthermore, 
the performance levels were determined including correlation of the values for the 
various parameters o f the water and soil analysis for probable inter- relationships.
46
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
4.1 PHYSICO-CHEMICAL RESULTS
The results of the review of the EIA administration in Ghana revealed the following 
weaknesses. Generally there is the lack of effective monitoring of environmentally 
permitted projects. There is also the lack of enforcement of the penalties of offending 
proponents by the Environmental Protection Agency. It was also realized that the EPA 
had no standard designs, which are environmentally friendly for proponents to adopt or at 
least factor into their structural designs. The problems encountered above were identified 
to have come about as a result of the lack of skilled personnel, lack of logistics and the 
lack of motivation for personnel. On physicochemical analysis, the following revelations 
were made.
The sampling was done for a period spanning from January 2001 to May 2001. In all 
three samplings were made, one in January, the second in March and the third in May. 
The sampling was also done at six locations along the waste stream. The mean values for 
the months and the sampling locations were determined. An Analysis of Variance 
(ANOVA) was run on the data. The Least Significance Difference (LSD) was computed 
using the Minitab statistical package, and where significance existed, the LSD was used 
to separate the means. A correlation matrix was run to investigate the relationships that 
existed between the parameters measured. 5 % and 1% significance levels were used.
47
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G9 shows that temperature of water samples recorded from January 2001 to May 
2001 ranged from 27°C-30°C, and did not show any definite pattern.
4.1.1 Temperature
Time (month)
Fig. 4.1 Variation in E ffluent Temperature with Time
Sampling Locations (m)
Fig. 4.2 Variation in E ffluent Temperature with Location
There was however a high water temperature in January as shown in Fig. 4.1. Between 
sampling sites, there were not much differences. This was supported by the lack of
48
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
variation in the ANOVA (Appendix Cl). The mean temperature recorded from January 
to May ranged between 28.5°C-29.2°C. Between sampling sites it ranged between 
28.3°C-29.3°C. Water temperature did not show any correlation with the other parameters 
measured. The EPA specifies that effluent into receiving water bodies should not exceed 
3°C above ambient temperature. In Ghana, the average water temperature is mostly 
given as approximately 26°C during most periods of the year. If this is applied, then the 
mean water temperature of 29.2°C for January and 29.3°C for sampling site 0.0 fell 
outside the required range.
4.1.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)
Appendix G10 shows that, the water pH ranged from 7.3-8.0 for the period of study. 
However, the mean water pH ranged between 7.4-7.7 from January to May (Appendix 
Cl). Between samplings locations it was 7.4-7.8 (Appendix C2)
Time (month)
Fig. 4.3Variation in E ffluent pH  with Time
49
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.4 Variation in E ffluent pH  with Location
From Fig. 4.3 and 4.4, it is evident that there was a general decrease in pH from January
to May and also for sampling locations (0.0m to 45m) except the value at 25m along the 
sampling locations. There were however no significant differences between the means at 
both 5% and 1% significant levels.
Appendix C2 shows that the soil pH varied significantly at both 5% and 1% significance 
levels from January to May for the Stream Bank. There was also a significant variation 
at 5% level of significance for bank soil pH with sampling locations (Appendix C6 ).
The pH at the stream bank between months ranged from 7.6-7.9 and betweens sampling 
sites 7.4-8.1. The streambed sediment pH did not show any significant variations and 
ranged between 7.6-7.9 for the months of January to May and 7.4-8.1 for sampling 
locations (Appendix C8 ). A correlation matrix showed that the pH of the soil from the 
stream bank was highly negatively correlated to the Ammonia-Nitrogen in the soil of the 
river- bank sediment(r=-0.720, p<0.05) Appendix D.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The conductivity during the period of study was greatest for the effluent. The highest 
value of 2300|iS/cm was recorded in March at sampling location 0.0m and the lowest of 
1400|iS/cm was recorded for all the months though, at different locations (Appendix 
Gil).  Soil conductivity had a high of 720fiS/cm in soil sediment and a low of 140pS/cm 
in soil bank for January and May as indicated in Appendices G20 and G21 respectively.
4.1.3 Conductivity (fiS/cm)
Fig. 4.5 Variation in E ffluent Conductivity with Time
□ o
95 .0  (S)
□  15
□  25 
■  34
□  45
Sampling Locations (m)
Fig. 4.6 Variation in E ffluent Conductivity with Location
51
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig 4.5 shows the pattern of conductivity in the effluent. January recorded the highest 
and March the lowest. Fig 4.6. shows the pattern for the different locations. In Appendix 
Cl the mean conductivity ranged between 1542-1742 (j.S/cm for months and 1467-2017 
pS/cm for sampling locations (Appendix C2). The results obtained indicate that, even the 
lowest conductivity recorded was in excess of about 100% above the EPA permissible 
level of 750ps/cm. There were 5% and 1% significant differences of the conductivity 
levels within the soil bank and streambed sediment respectively. This is shown in 
Appendices C6  and C8  respectively.
4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
The DO levels measured at the sampling sites spanning the period of monitoring ranged 
between 0.00 mg/L -6.4 mg/L (Appendix G12). The results of the DO levels for the 
period are listed below.
Month Range (mg/L)
January 2001 0.00-6.2
March 2001 0.00-6.4
May 2001 0.00-5.2
Although some of the sites recorded values within the WHO concentration for portable 
water (i.e. 5.0-7.0 mg/L) WHO (1984) their means were grossly low.
Mean dissolved oxygen concentrations of 0.05 mg/L - 2.4 mg/L for months and 0.00 
mg/L-5.9 mg/L for sampling sites were recorded and shown in Appendix Cl and C2 
respectively.
5X
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
□  JAN
B MARCH
□  MAY
Fig. 4.7 Variation in E ffluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Time
Fig. 4.8 Variation in E ffluent Dissolve Oxygen (DO) with Location
A clear-cut pattern could be established for the DO concentration for sampling sites for 
the various months as shown in the figures. There is a high DO concentration above the 
confluence and decreases sharply at the confluence and regenerates slowly down stream, 
(Fig. 4.8). There was low mean DO concentration for the month of March, Fig. 4.7. 
There was also significant differences between DO at sampling locations levels at both 
5% and 1% as shown in Appendix C2.
□o
□  5.0 (S)
□  15
□  25 
a  35
□  45
Sampling Location (m)
53
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Generally, BOD5 levels showed exceptionally high levels in most instances above the 
EPA maximum permissible level for discharge into water bodies. The highest level was 
recorded in January (4800 mg/L) and the lowest in March and May (12.0 mg/L)- 
Appendix G13
However, the mean values recorded indicated values in excess o f the EPA permissible 
level of 50 mg/L for effluent discharge. A monthly BOD5 mean of 461mg/L-1117 mg/L 
was recorded, and 15mg/L-4200 mg/L was recorded for the sampling locations 
(Appendices C3 and C4 respectively) and represented in Fig. 4.9 and Fig. 4.10 
respectively.
4.1.5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5)
□  JAN. 
a  MAR.
□  MAY
Fig. 4.9 Variation in E ffluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with Time
54
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.10 Variation in E ffluent Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) with 
Location
There was however a regular pattern which it followed. The BOD5 level was low before 
the confluence and decreased with distance downstream. There were significant 
differences between sampling locations at both 5% and 1% significant levels (Appendix 
C4). A negative interrelationship also existed between water biochemical oxygen 
demand and soil Nitrate-Nitrogen at the soil bank (r=-0.504, p<0.05) Appendix D.
4.1.6 Oil and Grease
Oil analysis carried out showed that January recorded the highest concentration of 175.7 
mg/L and March the lowest with 17.5 mg/L (Appendix G14). The mean concentration of 
oil and grease recorded were 55 mg/L-101.7 mg/L for the months from January to May 
and 23.4 mg/L -  154.3 mg/L between sampling locations Appendices C3 and C4 
respectively. None could however satisfy the EPA permissible level of 10 mg/L for 
discharge of oil and grease.
55
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.11 Variation in E ffluent Oil and Grease with Time
BO
□  5
□  15
□  25 
■  35 
0  45
Fig. 4.12 Variation in E ffluent Oil and Grease with Location
There was also a clear pattern of the distribution of the oil and grease, as shown in figures 
4.11 and 4.12 above.
The concentration of oil and grease recorded was less up the confluence and it was 
concentrated in and around the confluence. This then decreased with distance down the
56
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
stream. There existed a significant difference between the means at sampling sites at 5% 
and 1% significance levels. (Appendix C4). The correlation matrix revealed negative 
interaction between oil/grease and water dissolved oxygen (r=-820, p<0.05) Appendix D.
4.1.7 Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N)
The concentrations recorded were mostly less than 1.0 mg/L, Ammonia-Nitrogen in 
water (Appendix G16). However, the mean water values recorded showed a range of 
0.553 mg/L -1.2 mg/L for months, and 0.41mg/L~1.5 mg/L for sampling locations 
(Appendices C3 and C4) respectively. Here too, no definite pattern was realized for the 
sampling locations shown in the figure 4.14 below. There were significant differences 
between the recorded values between months and also between locations.
Time (month)
Fig. 4.13 Variation in E ffluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NHs-N) Concentration with 
Time
57
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Sampling Location (m)
Fig. 4.14 Variation in E ffluent Ammonia-Nitrogen (NH3-N) Concentration with 
Location
The monthly mean values showed an increase in concentration with time. Fig. 4.13. 
These values could not be compared with guideline values, as these are non-existent at 
EPA.
4.1.8 Ortho-Phosphate (P04-P)
Phosphate concentrations showed no distinct distributional pattern. The highest 
concentration recorded was 1.1 mg/L in March at 0.0m and the lowest was 0.09 mg/L in 
May at 0.0m (Appendix G15). However, the mean concentrations measured showed a 
range of 0.5 mg/L-0.6 mg/L for the months and 0.5 mg/L-0.7 mg/L for the sampling 
locations (Appendices C3 and C4) respectively. The soil analysis showed higher values 
probably, they had not dissociated into solution. The figures below show the mean 
concentration for the month and sampling locations.
5S
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.15 Variation in E ffluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P) Concentration with 
Time
Fig. 4.16 Variation in E ffluent Ortho-Phosphate (PO4-P Concentration with 
Location
These values obtained could also not be compared to any guideline values from EPA 
because there were non-existent.
4.1.9 Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N)
The highest concentration of NO3-N in water was measured in March as 2.2 mg/L and the 
lowest of 0.01 mg/L in January (Appendix G17). However, the mean nitrate-nitrogen
59
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
concentration ranged from 0.9 mg/L to 1.7 mg/L for the months. Concentration for the 
soil analysis was also low. However, significant variation existed between concentration 
values. (Appendices C4, C5, C6 , C7, and C8 ). Correlation matrix results revealed a 
negative interaction between water nitrate-nitrogen and water conductivity (r=-0.635, 
p<0.05). This also could not be compared due to the lack of guideline values. The 
diagram below shows the nitrate-nitrogen concentration in the water.
0  JAN. 
SMAR. 
□  MAY
Fig. 4.17 Variation in E ffluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with 
Time
Sampling 
Location (m)
Fig. 4.18 Variation in E ffluent Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO3-N) Concentration with 
Location
60
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The concentrations generally increase from January-May and a similar trend was
observed for the locations as well.
4.1.10 Nitrite-Nitrogen (N02-N)
Nitrite concentration were generally low and were below l.Omg/lL (Appendix G17)
□  JAN. 
B MAR.
□  MAY
Fig. 4.19 Variation in E ffluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with 
Time
Sampling Location 
(m )
15
□ 15
□ 25 
135
□ 45
Fig. 4.20 Variation in E ffluent Nitrite-Nitrogen (NO2-N) Concentration with 
Location
6 \
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The mean values were also low. The mean range was 0.0308 mg/L-0.0398 mg/L for 
months January, March and May. The mean concentrations for the sampling locations 
were 0.0090 mg/L-0.0607 mg/L (Appendices C3 and C4 respectively). In general, March 
recorded the least concentration, Fig. 4.19. There was however no definite pattern for the 
sampling locations Fig. 4.20.
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT RESULTS
The fuel service stations audited are shown in Appendix E and their locations on 
Appendix H. The background information gathered on the sampled fuel service stations 
during the study indicated that they undertake activities and services including, 
dispensing of fuel, vehicle lubrication, sale of LPG filled cylinders, LPG dispensing, 
shopping marts, vehicle washing bay among others. The dispensing of fuel included 
petrol, diesel and kerosene. These were scored as percentages and shown in Appendix 
B1 and B2 respectively.
On vehicle lubrication, Mobil had the highest percentage of 93.3% and Total the least at 
60% with mean value of 74.7.
60.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Sale of LPG filled cylinders was 73.3% for Mobil and Total and 20% for Goil with a 
mean of 53.3% (Fig 4.22).
MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
Fig. 4.22 Oil Marketing Companies selling LPG in filled  Cylinders 
LPG dispensing plant was 6.7% and mean of 1.34% (fig 4.23).
05 £ 
C  6 
2
g  5
® 4- 
c  ,  §
£  2 ’
f '
1
| □  LPG dispensing plant |
S |
0+
MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
Fig. 4.23 Oil Marketing Companies with LPG Dispensing Plant
For all the stations sampled, Mobil and Shell had shopping marts, whilst Total and Goil 
had 60% with Elf at 66.7% with a mean of 77.3% (fig 4.24).
63
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Fig. 4.24 Oil Marketing Companies offering Shopping Mart Services
Shell had the highest number of washing bays at 46.7% with Total the lowest at 20%. 
The mean however was 34.7% (fig 4.25).
MOBIL SHELL TOTAL GOIL
| □  Washing Bay |
Fig. 4.25 Oil Marketing Companies offering Washing Bay Service 
Kerosene had low percentages as compared to petrol and diesel products and it ranged 
from 73.3% for Total to 33.3% for Shell fig. 4.29 and a mean of 54.7% as shown in 
Appendix B2. Other activities such as vulcanising, mechanical and electrical quick 
services were 53.3% for Mobil and 2 0 % for Shell in that decreasing order, with a mean of 
34.7% (fig 4.26).
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
g.
is.
c
I
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 B
MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
QKerosene
Fig.4.26 Oil Marketing Companies selling Kerosene
The criteria for the percentage best performance for the second part of the Audit were as 
follows;
Any mark obtained that was below 50% was considered a failure to the set down 
guidelines and 100% was the highest best performance obtainable. Further, the following 
breakdown was used for the assessment.
NUMERICAL MARKS (%) INTERPRETATION
80 -100  Excellent
70 -  79 Very Good
60 — 69 Good
50 -  59 Fair
0 - 4 9  Fail
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to calculate for variations, between enterprises. 
The total scores, mean, sum of squares, standard error, mean square, degree of freedom,
65
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
F-calculated, the probability and the Least Significant Difference (LSD) were computed. 
The statistical package used was Minitab.
4.2.1 Waste Minimization And Pollution Measures/Control
The percentage scores recorded for the Oil Marketing Companies (OMC) revealed that; 
Mobil ranged between 46.2%-61.5% with a mean of 47.73%. SheE and ELF had 46.2% 
throughout. Total and Goil likewise had a mean of 45.17% ranging from 38.5%-46.2% 
(Appendix Gl)
The mean scores obtained on the entire data for waste minimization and poEution control 
ranged within 45.17% - 47.73% for aE the oil marketing companies.
Oil Marketing Company (OMC)
□  MOBIL 
a  SHELL
□  ELF 
□TOTAL 
BGOIL
Fig. 4.26 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Minimization 
and Pollution Measures Control
From the Means shown in Fig. 4.27 it is evident that none of the stations satisfied the 
conditions for the minimisation of waste and poEution control, because none scored 50%
66
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
and above. However, there were variations between the performance of Mobil, Total and 
Goil, at 5% significance level. (Appendix C9)
4.2.2 Traffic Congestion and Control
The percentage score obtained for Total and Shell was 100% throughout. Mobil scored 
between 50%-100% with a mean of 96.67%. The score for Elf was between 50%-100% 
with a mean of 86.67%, while Goil had 50%-100% with a mean of 86.33% (Appendix 
G2).
The score obtained for the five OMC’s are shown in Appendix CIO and ranged between 
86.67% - 100% with Shell and Total registering the highest mean of 100% and Goil 
lowest at 88.33%. The figure 4.28 shows the trend.
□  MOBIL 
HSHELL
□  ELF 
□TOTAL 
■  GOIL
Oil Marketing Company (OMC)
Fig. 4.28 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Traffic Congestion and 
Control
61
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
From the means it is seen that the enterprises satisfied the conditions for the traffic 
congestion within the excellent bracket. Shell and Elf were significantly different at 5% 
significant level. Shell and Goil were also significantly different at 5% level (Appendix 
CIO).
4.2.3 Fire Hazard Management
The fire hazard management recorded revealed that following trend of scores. Mobil 
ranged between 33.33%-77.8%. Shell ranged between 55.6%-66.7%, Elf, 44.4%-66.7%; 
Total, 55.6%-66.7%; and Goil, 44.4%-77.8%. (Appendix G3).
The observed means ranged from 56.31% - 65.95% (Appendix Cll).  Total recorded the 
highest best performance at 65.96% and the least was at 56.31%, shown in the figure 
4.29.
0  MOBIL 
@SHELL 
□  ELF 
□TOTAL 
■  GOIL
Fig. 4.29 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Fire Hazard 
Management
68
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The Means indicate that the performance with regard to fire hazard management is fairly 
good, and there exist no significant difference between the OMC’s at 5% significance 
level, but it was at 1% significance level.
4.2.4 Waste Management
Waste Management scores ranged between 60%-100% for Mobil, 80%-100% for Shell, 
80%-100% for Elf, 80%-100% for Total and 60%-100% for Goil (Appendix G4).
The mean value recorded for waste management showed percentages above 85% for all 
the OMC’s. The range was 86.05% - 90.67%, (Appendix C12).
Fig. 4.30 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Waste Management
Mobil and Shell recorded the highest score at 90.67% and Goil the least at 86.5% as 
shown in the figure 4.30. In all the performance was encouraging. There was however 
no significant difference between the enterprises, at 5% significance level. (Appendix 
C12).
□  MOBIL 
mSHELL
□  ELF
□  TOTAL 
■  GOIL
Oil Markeing Company (OMC)
69
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The recorded scores was 57.1%-100% for Mobil, 71.4%-100% for Shell, 71.4%-85.7% 
for Elf, 71.4%-100% for Total and 42.9%-100% for Goil. (Appendix G5).
The observed mean values for oil spill management indicate that Total recorded 96.19%, 
which was the highest score, and Goil had 78.01% as the lowest.
4.2.5 Oil Spill Management
Fig. 4.31 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Oil Spill Management
The means shown were within the very good and excellent performance brackets. 
However difference exist between Mobil and Total, Shell and Goil at 5% significance 
level (Appendix C13). Figure 4.34 shows the trend.
4.2.6 Oil Leakages Management
The results obtained indicate that, all the enterprises were operating at the best of 
performances with 100% score by each enterprise. (Appendix G6 ).
70 >
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
4.2.7 Occupational Health & Safety Management
Mobil scored between 85%-100%, Shell, 85%-100%; Elf, 85%-100%; Total, 85%-100%; 
and 85%-100% for Goil (Appendix G7).
Figure 4.32 shows the mean percentage responses to occupational health and safety 
management. The mean score ranged from 94% - 99% the highest score was obtained by 
Total and ELF had the lowest at 94%. (Appendix C15).
f i  Oil Marketing Company (OMC)
Fig. 4.32 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards Occupational Health & 
Safety Management
High level of performance recorded. This was within the excellent region of the scaling. 
There were no significant difference between the enterprises at both 5% and 1% 
significance levels. (Appendix C l5).
4.2.8 Public Participation/Perception Of Enterprise
On the issue of Public Participation/Perception of oil marketing companies, Mobil had 
66,7%-100%, Shell (33.3%-100%), Elf (33.3%-100%), Total (33.3%-100%) and Goil 
(33.3%-100%). (Appendix G8 ).
71
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The performance levels showed a mean range of 77.79% - 93.34%. Mobil had the highest 
score whilst Total and Goil had the 77.79%. (Appendix C l6 ). These scores are shown in 
the figure 4.33.
□  MOBIL 
BSHELL
□  ELF
□  TOTAL 
■  GOIL
Oil Marketing Company (OMC)
Fig. 4.33 Performance o f Fuel Service Stations towards 
Participation/Perception o f Enterprise
The performance could be described as very good through to excellent.
Public
12
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS
5.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
The pH indicates the intensity of the acidic or basic character of a solution. The pH of the 
effluent samples recorded a mean high of 7.7 for the months and 7.8 for the locations. 
These fall within the EPA specific guideline value of 6-9.
However, since neither primary productivity nor chlorophyll measurements were made, it 
is not possible to explain clearly the slight changes in pH. Running waters are normally 
influenced by the nature of deposits over which they flow (Hynes, 1970) while shallow 
lentic environments which favour the growth of phytoplankton are more influenced by 
photosynthetic activities which increase pH values (Symoens et al., 1981).
From Appendices Cl and C2 showed maximum temperature values of 29.2°C for months 
sampled and 29.3°C for sampling locations. These fell above the EPA prescribed 
guidelines for effluent discharge. The temperatures that were comparatively high can be 
attributed to the shallow nature of stream.
The very high levels of conductivity also signified the extent of mineralization of the 
stream. This is also related to the concentration of total dissolved solids and major ions. 
The high values of 1742|j.S/cm for January and 2017 |j.S/cm for locations 5m upstream 
from the confluence showed, 232% and 269% higher than EPA’s permissible level of 
750(iS/cm in water, respectively. The temperature increase has the potential of
73
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
increasing growth of some bacteria and phytoplankton, which will lead to increase 
turbidity, macrophyte growth and algal blooms when nutrient conditions are suitable. 
The high conductivity levels also points to the fact that nutrients are also available in 
solution that could trigger algal blooms.
5.2 NUTRIENTS
Nutrients at the site originate normally from domestic, agricultural and organic industrial 
wastes. Domestic waste for example are characterised by the presence of human excreta, 
unconsumed food residues and cleansing agents especially from the washing of vehicles 
from the Barima Service Station.
The concentrations of nutrients were especially high at certain stretches of the stream. 
Orthophosphate (PO4 -P) levels ranged from 0.516 -  0.673 mg/L for the months sampled 
and 0.446 -  0.69 mg/L for the sampling locations, while nitrate was 0.89 -  1.72 mg/L and 
0.070 -  2.2 mg/L for months and sampling locations respectively. The concentration of 
Ammonia -  Nitrogen (NH3-N) showed the extent of recent pollution of the stream from 
domestic wastewater from the suburb. The high concentration of dissolved nutrients are 
able to support nuisance growth of aquatic plants notably Pistia stratoites. These weeds 
further contribute to the nutrients enrichment and organic loading of the water by their 
decomposition after death. The nutrients followed no pattern between months and 
between locations. The concentrations of nutrients are generally high. This high level of 
nutrients has the capacity of enriching the Ramsar ecosystem, thereby leading to algal 
blooms, which are already evident. This high nutrient level is indicative of industrial 
effluent and is often associated with unsatisfactory microbiological quality of water.
14
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5.3 OIL/GREASE
The trend shown in Appendix C4 indicates that the main source o f oil in the stream was 
from the Barima Service Station. This was much higher than the EPA permissible level 
of 10 mg/L and the trend established along the sampling location was reflected in the DO 
and BOD5 levels in Appendices C2 and C4 respectively. This goes to prove that the oil 
prevented the natural mixing of air and water by acting as barrier between the water and 
the air, coupled with the high demand for oxygen for biochemical activities. 0.0 mg/L of 
DO levels were even recorded pointing to the extent of gross pollution of the stream. 
Other domestic sources of oil could also be attributed to this fact. The high level of oil 
and grease are associated with fuel service station operations. Asante (1999a) obtained a 
similar high result of 105 mg/L for. the effluent from Total Service Station on the Ring 
Road, Accra against a background of 0.12 mg/L in 1996.
Asante (1999b) who did a similar study on this stretch of stream down the current study 
area observed a 49.5 mg/L upstream location and 89.0 mg/L downstream. This upstream 
was roughly 70 m from the confluence of the Barima effluent discharge point and this 
compares favourably with these findings.
These developments will reduce oxygen in the water thereby disrupting the normal 
activities of organisms in the water. This will have consequential effect by killing 
organisms which intend will disrupt the food chain and the loss of biodiversity.
75
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
5.4 CHANGES IN DO AND BODs
Dissolved oxygen concentrations measures were extremely low for both months and 
sampling location. The use of the dissolved Oxygen in water for biochemical reactions 
and unusual layer of oil on the Stream may account for their low concentrations. 
Excessive Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) concentrations usually reduce oxygen in 
receiving waters and create septic conditions. The BOD5 levels recorded were probably a 
true reflection of the distribution pattern of organic and domestic pollution along the stream. 
This is evident from the highly correlated negative significant relationship that exist 
between oil/grease and water dissolved oxygen. A negative relationship also exist 
between water-dissolved oxygen and water Nitrate -  Nitrogen, probably as a result of 
mineralization. A negative relationship also existed between water biological oxygen 
demand and soil bank nitrate -  nitrogen. The values obtained in the study were for below 
the EPA guideline value of 50 mg/L.
Asante (1999b) results gave DO value of 1.9 mg/L upstream and 1.3 mg/L downstream, 
showing that the situation has not changed. There was a regular pattern of both the DO 
and BOD concentrations. The levels measured were comparatively lower at areas devoid 
of high oil film and was high at the areas surrounding the confluence. This part also 
happened to be concentrated with oil. Another reason for low DO concentrations was 
either due to low flows or stagnation (Plate 1).
Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration is a fundamental part of any water quality 
assessment since oxygen is involved in; or influences, nearly all chemical and biological
1&
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
processes within the water body. Concentrations below 5 mg/L may adversely affect the 
functioning and survival of biological communities and below 2 mg/L may lead to the 
death of most fish. The levels observed in the study point to the fact that immediate 
remediation is necessary.
5.5 DISCUSSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT
5.5.1 General Discussion on Fuel Service Stations Audited
During the audit and interactions it became apparent that the fuel service stations 
enterprise was conceived with the parent marketing companies serving the energy needs 
of the people, before their profit. The reverse however is the motive of the individual fuel 
service stations operators. Hence, had it not been a requirement to put in place 
environmental concerns into the overall set up the service stations, serious environmental 
problems would have been envisaged. In this line the EPA Act (ACT 490) could be said 
to have made some successes as would be revealed in subsequent discussion.
Generally, the dispensing of petroleum products appears to be the main activities that 
occur at the service stations. Petrol and diesel are sold by all the service stations, 
(Appendix B2). *
The springing up of shopping marts, washing bays has been a recent feature, which 
intends to reduce the hustle of people to get essential commodities by having to drive 
long distances. Also it compliments the general income as well as creating jobs. The 
opening of other activities, such as vulcanising, electrical and mechanical quick checks is 
not a prominent feature. Companies like Mobil and Shell appear to have it as part of the
77
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
service station design. In the study it was established that LPG dispensing plants are not a 
feature of the fuel service station design. This was attributed to the fact that, it makes 
supervision difficult and the initial capital is difficult to come by. Also, supply constraints 
were identified. People then consider it wise to have it as a separate enterprise (Appendix 
Bl)
5.5.2 Waste Minimisation and Pollution Measures/Control
Appendix C9 indicates that all the fuel service stations could not pass for the waste 
minimisation and pollution measures/control. The reasons were due to the lack of 
facilities, which could allow for effluent to be treated and re-used. (Separated into oils 
and other petroleum compounds, solids and then water). The recycling of refrigerant, 
solvents, oil, batteries and water are absent. It was however observed that the knowledge 
of holding/storing solvents in closed airtight containers to prevent emissions as well as 
the conduct of fuel transfers in a manner that prevents overflows and spills is well known 
among the respondents. Further, the respondents were well aware of the need to prevent 
contamination of run off by mopping instead of cleaning area with water hose, due to its 
knock on effect on other water bodies. Likewise, when there are spills, there are 
mechanisms in place for its speedy cleaning.
There was the measuring of underground fuel by dipping in all the stations visited. 
Though it is for record purposes, it is used as one of the means of detecting the state of 
underground storage at the moment. This is seen as an old and not very effective msans 
of detecting leakage of underground storage tanks as by nature petroleum products can
I
leak as gases. Thus in minute quantities it could not be detected by underground
IS
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
measurements. Thus, the recent approach which uses remote sensors are highly 
recommended.
5.5.3 Traffic Congestion Management
From the study, traffic congestion management was encouraging. All the oil marketing 
companies audited showed high best performance. Their scores were within the excellent 
bracket of the grading system. This has been realised to be due to the constructional 
design of most of the fuel service stations, such that they do not unduly delay the entry 
and exit of their prospective customers, which if not well done could lead to loss of 
income. This score has more to do with the ease of going about business and its related 
economic limitations. Also, by design most of the stations are sited along highways that 
already have developed pedestrian alleys, hence taking care of the vehicular -  pedestrian 
conflict.
5.5.4 Fire Hazard Management
On fire hazard management, the different fuel service stations sampled revealed that, 
there was a fairly good knowledge about the threat fire poses to petroleum chemicals. 
Also, the economic risk at stake makes people or managers of fuel service station take 
appropriate caution of conditions that could spark fire. This finding supports that of 
Lucas (1981) that most people’s environmental attitude tended to be positive except when 
the issue of concern impinges on their own lives. The use of gadgets such as smoke 
detectors were virtually absent, except for ELF at the North Industrial area of Accra.
79
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Other lapses encountered were expired fire extinguishers, the general absence of fire 
hydrants and to some extent fire alarms. On the other hand, such facilities as the sign 
rules (No Smoking and Switch off Engine) were prominent (plate 2). It is however worth 
noting that there is no recorded incident of fire in any of the sampled stations audited.
5.5.5 Waste Management
On waste management, the means calculated indicate an excellent performance by the 
fuel service stations. All means fell within the excellent bracket. This has been due to the 
awareness that has been created on good sanitation for better health. Further, waste oil 
generated from vehicles and which if not carefully handled could lead to serious 
environmental problems. The collection of waste oil has become serious economic 
venture. People have found other uses for it. It is used for operating old motor engines at 
the mines. Others also use it as wood preservative and in other cases as solvent for paints. 
Other revelation that also needs further studies is that, the waste oil is used in reclaiming 
waterlogged areas. They do this by impounding soil/sand on the waterlogged plot and 
spill used oil on it, in layers and pounded. The roller is used to level it. This is done 
overtime and the land hardens and it is reclaimed. As a result, the demand for used oil has 
kept going up and hence not allowed to go to waste. In fact, companies and individuals 
exist who buy the dirty oil. As a result, there are waste oil storage facilities some in-built 
and designed to collect used oil as soon as it is changed. Mobil Oil Ghana Limited has 
that design, and during the study it was seen that other entrepreneurs had adopted it. 
Others collect from discharge pits and store in tanks for sale. As a result the dirty
SO
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
bil/waste oil commonly observed in effluents of fuel service stations, are due to the 
washing of vehicle engines and accidental spills.
In all the study, Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA) Waste Management Department 
and City and Country waste were identified to be taking care of the solid waste generated. 
Further, most fuel service stations visited had interceptors which separate oil and solid 
waste from others, and which are collected for onward disposal. Although these facilities 
exist a few drains when it rains or dries and its wind blown back into the interceptor. A 
typical interceptor is shown in plates 3 & 4.
5.5.6 Oil Spillage Management
The results of this study and the means show that generally fuel service stations showed 
positive response to the control of oil spillage. This attitude may also support Lucas 
(1981) findings that most people’s environmental attitude tended to the positive except 
when the issue of concern impinges on their own likes. Generally forecourts of fuel 
service stations were without oil and grease, because the loss, poses fire threat to the 
enterprise and the humans around and economically it impinges on the profit margin. 
Most of the stations visited had installed automatic oil delivery nozzles that cut off when 
tanks are full to avoid spillage. Other preventive features encountered were spill 
containment chambers for collecting bulk discharge spills (Plate 5).
The study also revealed that most of the fuel service stations were provided with 
absorbent materials (sawdust, sand, rags, etc), which are used to mop oil spills on 
accidental spills. It was also observed that attendants and managers had received
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
adequate training on emergency response and some even have the plan boldly written and 
erected at the stations for easy view. The presence of oil and leakages observed on the 
forecourts were largely due to leaks from vehicles that come to fuel their tanks.
5.5.7 Oil Leakage Management
This is the only parameter that gave an all round 100% for best percentage performance 
(Appendices C6 , C l4). This was obvious and economics considerations are the reasons 
for the proper handling of issues related to oil leakages. However, determining the level 
of fuel by dipping does not give the accurate results. And this situation can be improved 
if remote sensing facilities are used from time to time to detect the possibility of 
evaporating gaseous petroleum products. Also, the infiltration of underground water into 
underground storage tanks can be detected.
5.5.8 Occupational Health and Safety
The study revealed really high indicating how best issues related to occupational health 
and safeties are handled. It came out that attendants know the chemicals/petroleum 
products that they handle but had very little knowledge to the harm it could cause. The 
best-known harm identified was fire. Though, not much occupational health reports were 
encountered, it was evident that evaporation of petrol during dispensing does not take 
long and dispensing is carried out in a manner, which does not allow for spills and even if 
it occurs does not stay long before it evaporates. The general absence of occupational
82
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
accidents could be attributed to the fire and spill management training that managers and 
attendants receive.
Information gathered from the Tema Oil Refinery (TOR) clinic indicates that, there are 
problems associated with the petrol products and that comparatively, diesel is more 
harmful than petrol, due to its retention time when it spills. Diseases that have been 
associated with the continuous exposure to petroleum products have been, skin disorders, 
catarrh, frequent cough, stomach aches which could be due to the Pb. However, not much 
work has been done as at this time. It is also worthy to note that, temperature and 
humidity can increase the incidence of these diseases. At ambient temperature (28 °  C - 
32 °  C), conditions appear moderate and increase in temperature increases evaporation 
and thus increase diseases, often related to respiration.
In like manner, increase in humidity also increases disease frequency. However, the 
watchword has been CARE and where allergy or disease conditions are encountered, 
substitution and segregation of affected people is employed, such that those who do not 
fit for specific places are substituted for those who fit or are segregated. It is important 
that fuel service station managers in addition to the above give continuous medical 
examination to their attendants, because petroleum products are dangerous.
5.5.9 Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise
The means for public participation/perception indicate high percentage best performance. 
This trend was observed because most; of the fuel service - stations are sited at places
82
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
where there is no human habitation hence no serious consultations were made in that 
respect. A few however, are found in the city centre and most had done the consultations. 
Notwithstanding, there were other complaints and problems. Typical of them includes the 
Goil service station at Ofankor where residents complained of noise and indiscriminate 
parking of long vehicles containing petroleum products' and the dirtying of the 
surroundings. This noise comes from the warming of vehicular engines and also 
generating plants, which are employed during power outages.
Another serious complaint was about the Goil service station at Darkuman Official Town 
where the run off and oil waste go straight into the house of a neighbour (Plate 6 ). The 
report has it that all complaints to the authorities of the fuel service station has fallen on 
deaf ears, and that does not encourage good neighbourliness. Another prominent 
complaint was at Darkuman Junction Mobil, where run -  off empties into a neighbour’s 
house and persistent reports have fallen on deaf ears. Several others were also noted and 
noise from generating plants appears to be the most prominent.
84
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Plate 1. Stream with Effluent from a Fuel Service Station
Plate 2. Sign Rules for Fire Hazard Management at a Fuel Service Station
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Plate 3. A Covered Interceptor
Plate 4. Uncovered Interceptor filled with Sludge
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Plate 5. Spill Containment Chamber for Bulk Oil Discharge
Plate 6. Waste oil and water from a Fuel Service Station into a Neighbour’s Compound.
QH
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 CONCLUSIONS
Except for pH, all other parameters determined showed concentrations well above the 
EPA permissible levels. This result indicates that the stream water shows traces of 
organic pollution. The elevated levels of BOD, and low concentration of Dissolved 
oxygen indicate this. The significant positive and negative correlations observed also 
point to the fact that the activities of the Barima Service Station have contributed to the 
pollution of the stream. Other sources include poor sanitation and environmental 
conditions prevailing at the site along the stream. This has created anoxic conditions in 
the stream leading to low concentration of dissolved oxygen. A survey of the study area 
indicates that the stream receive overflows from the land during downpour. The overflow 
contained among others human excreta. These with abundant sunshine, create the ideal 
conditions for the proliferation of weeds over the surface of the stream (plate 2 )
On the Environmental Audit except for the pollution control/minimization measures, 
which was a failure, all the other Environmental Audit concerns showed fairly good to 
excellent performance worth commending.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
From the results and discussions;
1. Most of the fuel service stations are constructed without the knowledge of the 
residents. This has often led to conflicts between the proponents and residents. It 
is recommended that the EPA supervise and ensure that all details spelt out in the 
EIS processes are carried out, that is public participation, so that the conflicts 
observed are avoided.
2. It is recommended that the EPA act promptly on complaints made by people who 
have problems with the activities of some fuel service operators to avoid conflicts, 
which were encountered during the study.
3. It is recommended that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) continuously 
analyse the effluent from Fuel Service Stations to know the levels of nutrients, 
BOD, DO etc levels. This will help in formulating policy guidelines and direction 
of action for policy makers to safeguard the environment for sustainable 
development.
4. It is recommended that due to the elevated levels of BOD, DO, Conductivity and 
other nutrients concentrations, the possibility of eutrophication is imminent, thus 
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which is the enforcement authority, 
stems up its effort at ensuring the compliance of the Environmental Management 
Plan (EMP) of fuel service stations including the prosecution of offenders.
5. It is recommended that the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) should 
conduct seminars and public lectures to sensitise people on the importance of
89
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
water bodies and the need to keep them clean. This will help conserve the much- 
needed biodiversity, which is also important in the propagation of life.
6 . Since the Environmental Audit conducted showed good compliance, it is assumed
that these results were obtained probably due to the proximity of the enforcement 
authorities in Accra. It is therefore recommended that further Environmental 
Audit be done in other parts of the country to compare the results and also direct 
policy makers and enforcement authorities to act accordingly.
7. The high level of BOD and DO in the wastewater analysis were primarily due to
the high concentration of oil and grease films on the water. This phenomenon
was also due to the virtual absence of water minimization facilities as shown by
the low best performance records obtained for the Environmental Audit. It is 
therefore recommended that the EPA ensure the compulsory design of 
interceptors before effluents get into city drains. This will enable the proponents 
to mechanically remove the waste oils, soap scum and waste materials which can 
be furnace burnt to reduce the waste concentrations in the effluent.
90
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
REFERENCES
AMUZU, A.T. (1975) A Survey of the water quality of the River Densu. Wat. Resour. 
Res. Inst. Ghana. Tech. Rep. 57pp
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1989) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and 
Wastewater, 17* Edition, Washington D.C. p.4-117 to 4-120
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and 
Wastewater, 19th Edition, Washington D.C.
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and 
Wastewater, 20th Edition, Washington D.C. p.4-113
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1995) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 19* ed. Washington D.C. Pp 4-90
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 20* ed. Washington D.C. pp 5-34 to 5-35
APHA, AWWA, WEF (1998) Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 20* ed., Washington D.C. pp5-2, 5-6.
ANNON, (a) http://www.brad.ac.uk/staff/pghopkin/whatisea.html
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
ANNON, (b) June (1997) http://www.envirornnent.gov.an/epg/eianet/notifications/ 
Ml 7_draftguidelines.html.
ANNON, (c) Impact Assessment and Environmental Auditing, http://www.gdrc 
.org/uem/eia/eia_audit.html
Ary, D., Jacobs C.L. and Razavieh, A. (1979) Introduction to Research in Education. 
Holt, Rinehart and Winsten, Inc. Chicago U.S.A. 233-407.
Asante, K.A. (1999a). Assessment of Drain Wastewater Behind Total Petroleum Station 
on the Ring Road, Accra. Results. Water Research Institute, CSIR, 5p.
Asante, K.A. (1999b). A Baseline Water Quality Assessment of a Stream at the Proposed 
Site for Petroleum Service Station on the Kwashieman-Mallam Highway, Accra. 
Results. Water Research Inst. CSIR, 5p.
Biney, C. A. (1990) A review of some characteristics of freshwater and coastal 
ecosystems in Ghana.
Hydrobiologia 208: 45-53 
BLUMMER, M.1969: Oil Pollution of the Ocean. In D.P. Hoult (ed.), 5-13.
Bray, R.H. and L.T. Kurtz. (1945). Determination of Total Organic and Available forms 
of Phosphorus in Soils. Soil Sci. 59:39-45
91
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Buckley, R. (1991). Auditing the Precision and Accuracy of Environmental Impact 
Predictions in Australia.
CANBERRA, 1994. http://www.environment.gov.au/epg/eianet/eastudy.html
Creswell, J.W. (1994). Research Design. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Sage 
Publications Inc. Calif. USA. 117,149-151
Dickson, K.B. and Benneh, G (1988) A New Geography of Ghana pg. 18-40.
EIA Registration Guide, http://www.gnb.ca/elg-egl/0377/0002/0001-e.html
Environmental Protection Agency ACT (490), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 
Accra, Ghana.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1997), - Guideline values for Effluent. EPA, 
Ghana.
Green, G., J.W. MacLaren, B. Sadler (1985). Workshop Summary. In Audit and 
Evaluation in Environmental Assessment and Management: Canadian and 
International Experience.
Hynes, H.B.N., (1970) The Ecology of Running Waters. Liverpool Univ. Press,
Liverpool, 555p.
Lucas, A.M. (1981). Science and Environmental Education. Journal of Environmental 
Education. 12(2) 33-37.
$3
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP)(1991), - Environmental Protection Council. 
EPC, Ghana
National Population and Housing Census (2000), - Ghana Statistical Service. GSS, Ghana 
Sadler, B. (1988) The Evaluation of Assessment: Post-EIS Research and Process. In 
Environmental Impact Assessment, P. Wathem (ed.), 129-42. London: Unwin
Hyman.
Sawyer, C.N. 1966: Basic Concepts of Eutrophication. F. Wat. Polln. Control Fedn. 38, 
737-44.
Simmons, I.G. 1986: The Ecology of Natural Resource. Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd.
Symeon, J. J., Burgis,-M. and Gaudet, J. J., (1981). The Ecology and Utilization of Africa 
Inland Waters, UNEP, Nairobi, 1191 pp.
THE GLOBAL COMPACT- EIA http://www.unglobal 
compact.org/gc/un. web.nsfi'content/eia.html.
Tomlinson, P and S.F. Atkinson 1987a. Environmental Audits: Proposed Terminology 
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 8 , 187-98
Tomlinson, P and S.F. Atkinson 1987b. Environmental Audits: A Literature Review. 
Environmental, Monitoring and Assessment 8 , 239.
94
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Tema Oil Refinery /Residual Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit -Environmental Impact 
Assessment Report(2000). Vol 1 pp70-75.
McBean, EA and F.A. Rovers (1998) Statistical Procedures for Analysis of
Environmental Monitoring Data and Risk Assessment, Upper Saddle River, NJ: 
Prentice Hall pg 177-186
UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) GEMS Water Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 
Rev.l, pp 157-159
UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) GEMS Water Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 
Rev.l, pp 129-130.
UNEP, WHO, UNESCO, WMO (1987) Global Environmental Monitoring System. 
GEMS/WATER Operational Guide, ETS/78.8 Rev.l, pp 160-163
US CONGRESS (1970): Phosphate in Detergents and the Eutrophication of America’s 
Waters Washington, D.C. House of Representatives Report 91-1004
Watanabe, F.S. and S.R. Olsen-1965 Test of an Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining 
Phosphorus in water and NaHC03 Extracts from Soil. Soil. Sc. Soc. Am. Proc. 29: 
677-678.
World Health Organisation, (1984) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, vol.l. 
Recommendations. W.H.O. Geneva, 130p,
95
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX A: Questionnaire
This questionnaire is meant to in vite your contribution to Environm ental Management and Compliance to 
m itigative measures on the operation o f fuel service station enterprises, in  the study area by the U niversity 
o f Ghana and w ill therefore be kept confidential fo r this purpose only. Your participation is appreciated and 
thanks for sparing your tim e for us 
PARTI
1.0 PARENT O IL M AR KETIN G  COM PANY
2.0 T IT LE  OF UN D ER TAKIN G  (T IT LE  W HERE APPROPRIATE)
I. Dispensing o f fuel □
II. Vehicle lubrication □
H I. Sale o f LPG fille d  cylinders □
IV . LPG dispensing plant □
V . Shopping m art □
V I. W ashing Bay □
V II. Other (S pe cify)............................ □
2.1 LIS T  OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS/CHEMICALS
3.0 PO TEN TIAL EN VIR O N M EN TAL IMPACTS
3.1 SOURCES OF V O LA T ILE  ORGANIC CARBON (VOCs) EM ISSIO N IN TO  THE
ATMOSPHERE:
□ NoDa) U nloading (discharge o f bulk road vehicles (BROS) Yes
b) Dispensing Yes □ No □
c) Leakage/Leachates Yes □ N °  □
3.2 EFFLUENT/W ASTE SOURCES
a) Waste waters Yes |— 1 No ^
b) Rain water rim  o ff Yes| | N o D
96
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
C) W ashing bay discharges Y e , Q No □
cl) Waste oils Yes Q No □
e) S pills and leaks Yes No □
f) Maintenance and repairs Yes [ ~ j No □
g) Ware house and storage Yes f ] No □
h) Im proper fue llin g operation Yes' No □
PART II 
AUDIT
A WASTE MINIMISATION AND POLLUTION MEASURES: (Indicate
which of the following is in use in your station)
( i) Do you recycle wastes such as
a) Refrigerant Yes □ No □
b) Solvents Yes □ No □
c) O il Yes □ No □
d) Batteries Yes □ No □
e) Water Yes □ No □
( ii)  Do you wash w ith  water in  stages? I f  yes, do you re-use any o f the water and/or solvents
after the firs t stage? Yes j— j No |— j
( iii)  Storage o f solvents in  closed a irtig h t containers to prevent emission
V es |— | No j j
(iv ) Washed vehicles in  areas where waste can be collected, treated and/or recycled/re -  used
Yes j~~ j No j j
(v) Conduct fuel transfers in  manner that prevents overflows and spills
Yes j j No j~- ■ j
(v i) Prevent water from  coming into contact w ith  m aterials stored outside
Yes n  No n
(v ii) Prevent contam ination o f run o ff by mopping instead o f cleaning area w ith water hose
^  □ '  N° □
97
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(v iii)  Measurin g  o f commotion early w arning to detect leaks from  underground storage tanks
(UST) Yes j— ] No |— |
(ix ) Prevent contam ination o f rainwater run o ff by cleaning spillage when it  occurs
Yes I— I No
□  □
B TRAFFIC CONGESTION
i)  E ntry [ ]
E x it [ ]
D irection/S ign [ ]
ii)  Pedestrian signs/vehicular pavement Yes Q  N o [ 
FIRE HAZARDS
(i)
0 0
Have you any link/contact w ith the Ghana N ational F ire Service for control o f fire  outbreak?
Yes n  No n
Have you been givin g fire  fig h tin g  tra in in g skills  to  your attendant? I f  yes, how often 
have th is tra in in g  been? Yes ,— , N o .— .
( iii) Presence o f smoke detectors Yes Q No □
(iv ) Presence o f fire  extinguishers. I f  yes, what can you say o f its operational condition
Yes n  No n
(v) F ire alarm Y "  □ No □
(v i) “ No Smoking”  signs/rule v « n
Yes n
No
□
□
(v ii) F ire hydrant No
(v iii) “ Switch o ff engine”  sign/rule Yes n No
□
D WASTE MANAGEMENT
(i) Do you have waste o il storage facility? Yes n No □
( ii) Do you have interceptors? Yes [  | No □
( iii) Do you have response to waste o il spill? Yes Q No □
(iv ) A re your sta ff trained in  fire  fighting?
Y “  □
No
□
98
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
I-Iow many fire  d rills  do you have in  a ye a r..........................................
(v) Do you have waste o il collection schedule Yes | | N o j
(v i) Do you have an arrangement w ith  a waste management company for the disposal o f your
solid waste? Yes i— i No i— i
If yes, which company? I—I I— I
E OIL SPILLAGE
( i) Do you have o il and grease on forecourt? Yes' Q  N o j j
( ii)  Do you have s p ill o il containment chambers fo r bu lk o il discharges?
Yes n  NO ^
( iii)  Do you have autom atic o il delivery nozzles? Yes □  N °  □
(iv ) Do you carry out inspection o f bulk road tankers, periodically?
Yes |— | No |— ,
I f  yes, how often is th is carried out in  a y e a r...............   L_J I I
(v) Do you have on site absorbent m aterials (sawdust, sand, rags etc)?
Yes j - j  No |— j
(v i) Do you keep a logbook o f MSDS (M aterial Safety Data Sheet)?
Yes j~~j No j— j
(v ii) Have your attendant received tra in in g on adverse effects o f m aterials they handle?
Yes n  N o n
(v iii)  Do you have emission response plan? Yes |——| No j— |
F OIL LEAKAGES
( i)  Do you carry out regular stock check by dipping? Yes I I No I I
( ii)  Do you have observation w ells fo r ground w ells contam ination? b d
Yes L j  No l J
( iii)  Do you have maintenance regime for fuel pumps? Yes I I No | I
I f  yes, how  often is th is carried out in  a year. —  —
G OCCUPATION HEALTH AND SAFETY
( i)  Do you get occupational health and safety training? Yes
( ii)  Do you get fire  and o il s p ill management training? Yes
( iii)  Presence o f canopy? Yes
(iv ) Have you observed boils on your body since you started this job? Yes
(v) Do you have any other skin disorders? Yes [
□ No □
□ No □
□ No □
□ No □
] No □
99
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(v i) Do you frequently cough? Yes
(v ii) Do you get frequent catarrh? Yes
(v iii)  Do you experience stomachaches? Yes
(ix ) Do you frequently fa ll sick since you started this job? Yes
H PUBLIC PARTICIPATION/PERCEPTION OF ENTERPRISE
( i)  A ny com plaints from  your neighbours? Yes
I f  yes, specify the nature o f com plaint/s.....................................
( ii)  A re there any suggestions you can give? Yes
( iii)  D o you have any problem  w ith  this set up? Yes
I f  yes, specify.
□ No □
□ N o □□ N o □□ No □
□ No □
□ No □
□ No □
100
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX B: Tables Showing Activities o f  Fuel Service Stations
B1: Title Of Undertaking in Percentage (%)
ACTIVITY MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL MEAI
Dispensing of fuel 100 100 100 100 100 100
Vehicle lubrication 93.3 80 73.3 60 66.7 74.7
Sales of LPG 
filled cylinder
73.3 40 60 73.3 20 53.3
LPG dispensing plant - - - 6.7 1.34
Shopping Mart 100 100 66.7 60 60 77.3
Washing Bay 40 46.7 33.3 20 33.3 34.7
Other (Specify) 53.3 . ■ 20 26.7 40 33.3 34.7
B2: Percentage Petroleum Products/Chemicals
ACTIVITY MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL ME At'
Petrol 100 100 100 100 100 100
Diesel 100 100 100 100 100 100
Kerosene 46.7 33.3 66.7 73.3 53.3 54.7
101
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX C: Statistical results o f  Physico-chemical Analysis
Table Cl :Physical Quality of streamwaters-Mean Monthly Values.
Month Temp.u C pH Conductivity
(j,/cm
Dissolved 
Oxygen mg/1
JAN 29.17 7.7 1742 2.98
MARCH 28.50 7.5 1542 0.50
MAY 28.67 7.4 1650 ■ 1.27
LSD 1.546 0.2886 316.0 2.548
Table C2: Physical Quality of streamwaters-Mean Values for Locations.
LOCATION/M TEMP. °  C pH Conductivity
n/cm
Dissolved 
Oxygen mg/1
0 .0 29.33 7.8 2017 5.933 a
5.0 (S) 28.67 7.6 1567 0 .0 0 0  b
15.0 28.67 7.5 1667 0 .0 0 0  b
25.0 29.00 7.6 1467 0.033 b
34.0 28.33 7.5 1517 1 .0 0 0  c
45.0 28.67 7.4 1633 2.533 d
LSD 2.481 0.4337 373.9 0.5032
Table C3:Nutrients and other Chemicals in water-Mean Monthly Values (mg/L)
Month P04 -P NH3 -N
*
NO3 -N NO2 -N BOD Oil &
Grease
JAN. 0.516 0.553 b 0.89 0.0308 1117 55.0
MAR. 0.673 0.885 b 1.47 0.0148 2118 101.4
MAY 0.636 1.207 a 1.72 0.0398 461 101.7
LSD 0.2446 0.5033 0.767 0.03630 1794.9 51.99
Table C4:Nutrients and other .Chemicals in water-Mean Values for Locations (mg/L)
Location (m) PO4 -P NH3-N  ** NO3 -N
**
NO2 -N BOD
**
Oil &
Grease
**
0 .0 0.586 1.066 b 0.070 d 0.0140 1893 b 23.4 e
5.0 0.650 0.878 c 1.515 b 0.0090 4200 a 122.7 b
15.0 0.633 0.906 c 1.236 c 0.0607 907 c 154.3 a
25.0 0.446 0.041 d 1.720 b 0.0477 340 d 8 6 .6  c
35.0 0.696 1 0.893 c 1.420 c 0.0107 35 d 80.2 c
45.0 0.638 1.509 a 2 .2 0 0  a 0.0190 15 d 49.2 d
LSD 0.3843 0.3197 0.3004 0.04774 534.0 19.77
102
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table C5: Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bank of stream water-Mean
Monthly Values
Month pH** Conductivity
|aS/cm
P04-P
g/1
NH3-N
g/1
NO3-N*
g/1
JAN 7.733b 317 0.0730 4.90 0 .2 1 b
MAR 7.950a 2 2 0 0.785 2.40 0 .1 1b
MAY 7.617c 173 0.0342 4.14 0.78a
LSD 0.3701 120.7 0.04756 2.289 0.566
Table C6 : Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bank of stream water-Mean 
Values for Location
Location (m) PH* Conductivity**
US/cm
PO4-P
g/1
NH3-N**
g/1
NO3-N**
g/1
0 .0 8 .1 0 0 a 463.3a 0.0930 2.932c 0 .0 0 1 c
5,0(s) 8 .1 0 0 a 243.3b 0.1147 3.034c 0.044c
15.0 7.467c 150.0c 0.0137 6.214b 0.131c
25.0 7.367c 170.0c 0.0530 6 .8 6 8 a 0.423b
35.0 7.800b 196.7c 0.0423 1.760d 0.186c
45.0 7.7667b 196.7c 0.0547 2.070d 1.432a
LSD 0.2717 47.81 0.05042 0.3532 0.2988
Table C7: Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bed of stream water-Mean
Monthly Values
Month PH Conductivity
uS/cm
PO4-P NH3-N* NO3-N*
JAN 7.583 540 - 6 .2 2 a 0.65a
MAR 7.883 443 - 4.23b 1.53a
MAY 7.733 .347 - 4.85c 0.42b
LSD 0.4155 2 0 0 .2 - 1.400 0.882
103
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Physical and Nutrient Quality of soil sediment at bed of stream water-Mean Values for 
Location.
Table C8:
Location (m) PH Conductivity**
|iS/cm
P04-P
g/1
NH3-N*
g/1
NO3-N**
g/1
0 .0 7.800 680a - 5.58b 0.427e
5.0 8.133 617a - 4.07b 2.542a
15.0 7.867 447b - 5.66b 0.348f
25.0 7.367 400c - 6.85a 0.874b
35.0 7.633 270d - 4.40b 0.508c
45.0 7.600 247d - 4.04b 0.486d
LSD 0.4997 101.7 - 1.842 0.5681
Table C9:
Waste Minimization and Pollution Measures/Control
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 47.73 b
Shell 46.20 ab
Elf 46.20 ab
Total 45.17 c
Goil 45.17 c
LSD 1.807
Table CIO:
Traffic Congestion and Control
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 96.67 ac
Shell 1 0 0 .0 0  a
Elf 86.67 b
Total 1 0 0 .0 0  a
Goil 88.33 be
LSD 9.698
J04
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table Cl 1: Fire Hazard Management
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 61.49 ab
Shell 65.22 a
Elf 64.47 a
Total 65.96 a
Goil 56.31 b
LSD 6.671
Table C12:Waste Management
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 90.67 a
Shell 90.67 a
Elf 89.73 a
Total 91.50 a
Goil 86.05 a
LSD 8.247
Table C13:0il Spill Management
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 84.75 be
Shell 90.47 ab
Elf 79.98 c
Total 96.19 a
Goil 78.09 c
LSD 9.345
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table C14:Occupational Health and Safety Management
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 97.00 a
Shell 98.00 a
Elf 94.00 a
Total 99.00 a
Goil 98.00 a
LSD 3.906
Table C15:Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise
Fuel Enterprise Mean
Mobil 1.402 a
Shell 1.376 a
Elf 1.320 a
Total 1.040 b
Goil 1.040 b
LSD 0.259
* * Significant at both 5 % and 1 %
* Significant at 5 %.
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX D: Correlation Matrix for Water and Soil Analysis
Watemp 1.000
WapH -0.285 1.000
Wacond 0.337 0.117 1.000
Wadissox 0.175 0.379 0.623 1. 000
Wabioox -0.033 0.293 0.100 -0.016 1.000
Wapo4p -0.125 0.327 0.036 0. 090 0.079 1.000
Wanh3n -0.079 -0.257 0.303 0.420 0.014 0.017 1.000
Wano3n -0.205 -0.401 -0.591 -0.635 -0.292 0.050 -0.008
Wano2n -0.024 0.210 -0.222 -0.346 -0.106 -0.045 -0.301
SopHbank 0.087 0.182 0.329 0.519 0.604 0.275 0.423
SopHbed 0.047 -0.210 0.296 -0.005 0.594 0.177 0.222
Soconbed 0.085 0.625 0.371 0.342 0.782 0.009 -0.114
Soconban 0.182 0.521 0.622 0.865 0.370 0.037 0.214
Sopo4p 0.044 0. 438 0.154 0.281 0.689 0.039 0.023
Sonh3nbk 0.069 0.072 -0.161 -0.449 -0.101 -0.281 -0.691
Sonh3nbd 0.372 0.166 -0.091 -0.028 -0.178 -0.415 -0.526
Sono3nbk 0.023 -0.430 -0.112 0.049 -0.504 -0.048 0.389
Sono3nbd -0.015 -0.038 -0.220 -0.373 0.772 0.014 -0.153
Oilgreas -0.235 -0.223 -0.360 -0.820 0.258 0.034 -0.267
Watemp WapH Wacond Wadissox Wabioox Wapo4p Wanh3n
Wano3n
Wano2n
SopHbank
SopHbed
Soconbed
Soconban
1.000
0.237
-0.376
-0.264
-0.666
-0.790
1.000
-0.365
-0.250
0.072
-0.320
1.000
0.529
0.452
0.660
1. 000 
0.355 
0.224
1.000
0.672 1.000
Sopo4p -0.211 -0.199 0.621 0.268 0. 612 0.547 1.000
Sonh3nbk 0.023 0.569 -0.720 -0.195 0.114 -0.361 -0.337
Sonh3nbd -0.222 0.415 -0.408 -0.403 0.190 -0.037 -0.019
Sono3nbk 0.621 -0.187 -0.225 -0.329 -0.668 -0.343 -0.204
Sono3nbd 0.171 -0.114 0.364 0.469 0.363 -0.020 0.449
Dilgreas 0.271 0.427 -0.345 0.351 0.011 -0.633 -0.244
Wano3n Wano2n SopHbank SopHbed Soconbed Soconban Sopo4p
3onh3nbk
3onh3nbd
3ono3nbk
>ono3nbd
)ilgreas
1.000
0.640
-0.207
-0.075
0.502
1.000
-0.191
-0.372
0.020
1.000
-0.248
-0.332
1.000
0.326 1.000
Sonh3nbk Sonh3nbd Sono3nbk Sono3nbd Oilgreas
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX E: Fuel Filling Stations Audited
TOTAL ELF MOBIL SHELL GOIL
1 Tema
Motorway
37 Military 
Hospital
Zongo Junction Osu (La Road) Tema Comm. 1
2 La Osu Abossey Okai Burma Camp Road La
3 Trade Fair Trade Fair North Kaneshie La Beach Osu
4 Zongo
Junction
North Kaneshie I Kasoa Barrier Osu Kasoa Barrier
5 Abossey Okai North Kaneshie II Darkuman
Junction
Ringway Lapaz
6 Legon New Town Barima (Mallam) Lapaz Darkuman
7 Kasoa Pig Farm Head Office Abeka Odorkor
8 Over Head Adabraka Head 
Office
Accra
(Electricity)
Legon Dansoman
9 Pig Farm Neoplan Station Legon New Town (Accra) 37
10 Abeka Industrial Area Tesano Mallam Atta Ofankor
11 Achimota Caprice Ofankor (Barrier) Adabraka New Achimota
12 Adabraka Avenor Achimota Tesano Achimota {
13 Mallam Avenue Club 
(Adabraka)
Avenor Avenor Kaneshie
14 Ringway Adabraka 
(Farisco) .
Kaneshie 
(Abossey Okai 
Roundabout)
Kaneshie Mandela
1f t
15 Tema Osu Lapaz Kasoa Odorkor 
Official Town
Ii
108
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX F: Map o f Study Area
o i  18* f  ■&?*- * * 'r« SB P 3$MimiMMt■ ? K ^ . , . v . ;.y
>. O ° 16 >
'm s  •
SSsssi
o vi vi tn «  t o
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX G: Tables o f  Field and Laboratory Data
Tables G1: Minimization and Pollution Measures/Control (%  Best Performance)
Number Mobil Shell ELF Total Goil
1 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
2 61.5 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
3 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
4 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
5 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
6 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
7 46.2 46.2 46.2 38.5 38.5
8 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
9 53.8 46.2 46.2 46.2 38.5
10 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
11 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
12 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
13 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
14 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
15 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2 46.2
Mean 47.7 46.2 46.2 45.2 45.2
Table G2: Traffic Congestion/Control (%  Best Performance)
NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
1 100 100 100 100 100
2 100 100 100 100 100
3 100 100 50 100 100
4 100 100 50 100 100
5 100 .100 75 100 100
6 100 100 100 100 100
7 100 100 75 100 75
8 100 100 100 100 100
9 100 100 100 100 100
10 100 100 100 100 100
11 100 100 100 100 100
12 100 100 100 100 50
13 100 100 100 100 50
14 50 100 50 100 100
15 100 100 75 100 50
Mean 96.7 1 86.7 88.3
110
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G3: Fire Hazard (% Best Performance)
Number MOBIL SHELL
1 66.7 66.7
2 33.33 66.7
3 77.8 66.7
4 33.3 66.7
5 55.5 66.7
6 66.7 66.7
7 77.8 66.7
8 66.7 66.7
9 66.7 66.7
10 66.7 66.7
11 66.7 66.7
12 66.7 55.6
13 33.3 66.7
14 66.7 66.7
15 77.8 55.6
Mean 61.5 65.2
ELF TOTAL GOIL
66.7 66.7 44.4
66.7 55.6 55.6
66.7 66.7 66.7
66.7 66.7 55.6
66.7 66.7 66.7
66.7 66.7 77.8
66.7 66.7 55.6
66.7 66.7 55.6
66.7 66.7 44.4
77.8 66.7 55.6
66.7 66.7 44.4
66.7 66.7 66.7
44.4 66.7 44.4
66.7 66.7 66.7
44.4 66.7 44.4
64.5 66.0 56.3
Table G4: Waste Management (% Best Performance)
NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
1 100 80 100 100 100
2 80 80 100 100 100
3 100 100 100 100 100
4 80 100 100 80 100
5 100 100 100 100 60
6 100 100 80 100 100
7 100 100 80 100 60
8 100 100 80 100 100
9 80 100 100 80 80
10 100 100 100 - 100
11 100 100 100 - 100
12 100 80 100 - 80
13 100 100 - -
14 60 - - - -
15 60 - - -
Mean 90.7 90.7 89.7 91.5 86.1
111
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G5: Oil Spill Management (%  Best Performance)
NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
1 100 85.7 85.7 100 85.7
2 57.1 100 71.4 85.7 85.7
3 71.4 71.4 85.7 100 71.4
4 85.7 100 85.7 100 85.7
5 100 100 71.4 71.4 85.7
6 100 100 85.7 100 71.4
7 85.7 85.7 85.7 100 57.1
8 85.7 100 71.4 100 57.1
9 57.1 85.7 71.4 100 42.9
10 100 71.4 71.4 100 100
11 85.7 100 85.7 100 100
12 85.7 100 85.7 100 100
13 85.7 100 85.7 85.7 85.7
14 71.4 71.4 71.4 100 100
15 100 85.7 85.7 100 42.9
Mean 84.8 90.5 80.0 96.2 78.1
Table G6: Oil Spillage Management (%  Best Performance)
NUMBER MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
1 100 100 100 100 100
2 100 100 100 100 100
3 100 100 100 100 100
4 100 100 100 100 100
5 100 100 100 100 100
6 100 100 100 100 100
7 100 100 100 100 100
8 100 100 100 100 100
9 100 100 100 100 100
10 100 100 100 100 100
11 100 100 100 100 100
12 100 100 100 100 100
13 100 100 100 100 100
14 100 100 100 100 100
15 100 100 100 100 100
Mean 100 100 100 100 100
n a
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Me
Ta
Nl
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Occupational Health and Safety Management (% Best Performance)
MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL GOIL
100 100 85 100 85
85 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 . 100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 85 100 100
100 100 85 100 100
100 100 100 100 100
100 100 85 100 100
85 85 100 85 100
85 100 100 100 100
100 85 85 100 85
100 100 85 100 100
97 98 94 99 98
Public Participation/Perception of Enterprise (% Best Performance)
MOBIL SHELL ELF TOTAL
100 100 ' 100 100 100
100 66.7 100 66.7 100
100 100 66.7 66.7 100
100 100 100 66.7 100
100 100 100 33.3 66.7
100 100 100 66.7 100
100 .100 100 100 66.7
100 100 100 66.7 66.7
100 100 100 66.7 66.7
100 100 100 100 66.7
66.7 100 100 100 66.7
100 100 100 100 66.7
66.7 66.7 33.3 100 66.7
66.7 33.3 66.7 66.7 100
100 100 66.7 100 33.3
93.3 91.1 88.9 77.8 77.8
11.3
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G9: Temperature (°C of water)
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 28 30 30 29.3
5.0 27 29 30 28.7
15.0 27 30 29 28.7
25.0 29 28 30 29.0
35.0 30 27 28 28.3
45.0 30 27 29 28.7
Mean 28.5 28.5 29.5
Table G10: pH of Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 8.0 8.0 7.5 7.8
5.0 7.8 7.5 7.4 7.6
15.0 7.4 7.6 7.4 7.5
25.0 7.5 8.0 7.3 7.6
35.0 7.3 7.8 7.3 7.5
45.0 7.3 7.4 7.4 7.4
Mean 7.6 7.7 7.4
Table G il: Conductivity (qS/cm) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 1500 2300 2250 2016.7
5.0 1600 1700 1400 1566.7
15.0 1700 1600 1700 1666.7
25.0 1400 1400 1600 1466.7
35.0 1500 1500 1550 1516.7
45.0 1800 1600 1500 1633.3
Mean 1583.3 1683.3 1666.7
H4
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G12: Dissolved Oxygen (DO) (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 6.2 6.4 5.2 5.9
5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0,0
15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
25.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
35.0 1.2 0.8 1.0 1.0
45.0 2.7 2.5 2.4 2.5
Mean 1.7 1.6 1.4
Table G13: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 2200 1800 1680 1893.3
5.0 4800 3600 4200 4200.0
15.0 1200 800 720 906.7
25.0 500 400 120 340.0
35.0 80 14.0 12.0 35.3
45.0 20 12.0 12.0 14.7
Mean 1466:7 1104.3 1124.0
Table G14: PO4-P (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 0.560 1.109 0.090 0.59
5.0 0.650 0.632 0.668 0.65
15.0 0.633 0.674 0.592 0.63
25.0 0.446 0.562 0.330 0.45
35.0 0.696 0.760 0.632 0.70
45.0 0.638 0.656 0.620 0.64
Mean 0.60 0.73 0.49
115
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G15: NH3 -N (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0
5.0
15.0
25.0
35.0
45.0 
Mean
1.066
0.878
0.906
0.040
0.893
1.509
0.88
0.638
0.886
0.860
0.062
0.902
1.600
0.83
1.493
0.69
0.952
0.020
0.884
1.418
0.94
1.07
0.88
0.91
0.04
0.81
1.51
Table G16: N O 3 -N  (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (01) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 0.019 0.100 0.099 0.07
5.0 1.515 1.566 1.464 1.52
15.0 1.260 1.418 1.03 1.24
25.0 1.750 2.056 1.353 1.72
35.0 1.420 1.464 1.376 1.42
45.0 2.20 2.240 2.160 2.20
Mean 1.42 1.47 1.25
Table G17: N 02-N (mg/1) in Water
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 0.014 0.009 0.019 0.01
5.0 0.019 0.020 0.018 0.02
15.0 0.061 0.110 0.011 0.06
25.0 0.048 0.090 0.005 0.05
35.0 0.011 0.007 0.014 0.01
45.0 0.019 0.014 0.024 0.02
Mean 0.03 0.04 0.02
i 16
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G18: Oil/Grease (mg/1 in water)
TION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 29.3 17.5 23.4 23.4
5.0 135.0 123.0 110.0 122.7
15.0 173.1 137.3 152.0 122.7
25.0 84.2 96.8 78.9 86.6
35.0 79.6 69.8 91.2 80.2
45.0 53.4 45.8 48.3 49.2
Mean 92.4 81.7 84.0
SOIL ANALYSIS
Table G19: pH (Stream Bank)
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.1
5.0 8.1 8.0 8.2 8.1
15.0 7.5 7.6 7.3 7.5
25.0 7.4 7.4 7.3 7.6
35.0 7.8 7.5 8.1 7.8
45.0 7.8 7.8 7.7 7.8
Mean 7.8 7.8 7.8
Table G20: pH (Stream Bed)
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 7.6 8.0 7.8 7.8
5.0 8.0 8.2 8.2 8.1
15.0 8.2 7.4 8.0 7.9
25.0 7.4 7.3 7.4 7.4
35.0 7.6 7.2 8.1 7.6
45.0 7.6 7.4 7.8 7.6
Mean 7.7 7.6 7.9
J17
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G21: COND (ijS/cm) stream Bed
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 720 680 640 680
5.0 680 640 530 617
15.0 430 480 430 447
25.0 450 450 300 400
35.0 300 300 210 270
45.0 240 220 280 247
Mean 470 462 319
Table G22: COND (qS/cm) Stream Bank
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 460 480 450 463
5.0 240 240 250 243
15.0 160 150 140 150
25.0 2001 160 150 170
35.0 150 220 220 197
45.0 220 150 220 197
Mean 238 233 238
Table G23: PO4-P (g/1) 
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 0.093 0.098 0.088 0.09
5.0 0.172 0.088 0.084 0.11
15.0 0.007 0.033 <0.001 0.01
25.0 0,053 0.060 0.046 0.05
35.0 0.042 0.040 0.045 0.04
45.0 0.055 0.010 0.099 0.05
Mean 0.07 0.05 0.06
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G24: NH3-N (g/1) Stream Bank
LOCATION (m) JANUARY
0.0 2.932
5.0 3.032
15.0 6.214
25.0 6.870
35.0 1.760
45.0 2.070
Mean 3.8
MARCH MAY MEAN
3.010 2.854 2.9
2.900 3.170 3.0
5.920 6.508 6.2
6.810 6.924 6.9
2.110 .. 1.411 1.8
2.090 2.050 2.1
3.8 3.8
Table G25: NH3-N (g/1) Stream Bed
LOCATION (m) JANUARY
0.0 6.120
5.0 5.093
15.0 3.945
25.0 6.909
35.0 6.011
45.0 4:027
Mean 5.4
MARCH MAY MEAN
4.709 5.907 5.9
3.170 3.944 4.1
6.926 6.120 5.7
6.825 6.825 6.9
3.094 4.093 4.4
3.467 4.629 4.0
4.7 5.3
Table G26: N O 3 -N  (g/1) Stream Bank
L O C A T I O N  (m ) J A N U A R Y
0.0 0.001
5.0 0.050
15.0 0.034
25.0 0.143
35.0 0.270
45.0 1.406
Mean 0.32
MARCH MAY MEAN
<0.001 <0.001 0.0
0.040 0.041 0.0
0.090 0.270 0.1
0.270 0.856 0.4
0.154 0.134 0.2
1.504 1.386 1.4
0.34 0.45
H9
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Table G 27: NO3 -N (g/1) Stream Bed
LOCATION (m) JANUARY MARCH MAY MEAN
0.0 0.482 0.372 0.437 0.4
5.0 1.870 2.901 2.856 2.5
15.0 0.932 0.101 0.011 0.4
25.0 0.854 0.834 0.933 0.9
35.0 0.509 0.592 0.422 0.5
45.0 0.530 0.462 0.467 0.5
Mean 0.86 0.88 0.85
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
APPENDIX H: List o f Acronyms
DO Dissolved Oxygen
LSD Least Significant Difference
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand
PH Hydrogen Ion Concentration
Mg/L Milligrams per litre
g/L grams per litre
Cond Conductivity
Watemp water temperature
wapH water pH
wacond water conductivity
wadissox water dissolved oxygen
wabioox water biochemical oxygen demand
waP04P water phosphate
wanhsn water ammonia nitrogen
wano2n water nitrous-nitrogen
sopHbank soil pH steam bank
sopHbed soil pH steam bed
socondbed soil conductivity, steam bed
socondbank soil conductivity, steam bank
sopo4p oil phosphate
sonhsnbk soil ammonia-nitrogen steam bank
soriti3nbd soil ammonia-nitrogen steam bed
sono3nbk soil nitrate-nitrogen steam bank
sono3nbd soil nitrate-nitrogen steam bed
oilgreas oil/grease
waho3n water nitrate-nitrogen
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh