University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY CYBER CRIME AND THE YOUTH IN GHANA: A STUDY OF THE SAKAWA CONUNDRUM IN ACCRA AND AGONA SWEDRU COMMUNITIES BY BELINDA SMITH (ID. NO.1 0155154) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE A WARD OF A MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN SOCIOLOGY SEPTEMBER, 2011 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DE CLARA l'ION I, Belinda Smith, hereby declare that, except for references to other people's works which have been duly acknowledged, this research work is a result of my independent research carried out at the Department of Sociology, University of Ghana, Legan, under the joint supervision of Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorgbo and Professor Chris Abotchie . I also declare that as far as I know, this thesis has neither in part or in whole been published nor presented to any other Institution for an academic award . .. ~ ........... . .~.~.~.t .. ~(( Belinda Smith (Student) Date Supervisory Team: . I) I!:~f 7J C'ry \. -f?; '1/ 11..' r · .. · .. · .......... · .. 5 .......... ·· Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorgbo (principal Supervisor) Date Itr~ [Mfl ........... -::-:: I~·'···· Professor Chris Abotchie (Second Supervisor) Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To my wonderful family. You never stopped believing that I could do this. Thank you so much. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS To Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorgbo and Professor Chris Abotchie, whose perceptive supervision led to the completion of this thesis, I thank you immensely. As my supervisors you guided my research with constructive criticisms, useful suggestions and C01llIIlents. I appreciate the calls and reminders you continually gave me. I really consider myself fortunate to have been under your supervision. I am also indebted to the officers of the Ghana Police Service, despite your very busy schedules, always gave me time and access to very useful information. I learned so much from the stories you shared with me. To Mr. Charles Nelson, I thank you for all your important information and respect your fight against cyber crime. To my family, thank you for your support. To everyone else who contributed to bring this research to fruition, I humbly thank you. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT In the past few years, cyber crimes and youth involvement in cyber crimes have engaged the attention of law enforcement agencies, the media and tbe general public due to the high prevalence of the crimes. Previous research in Africa has focused mainly on the Nigerian '419' scams and why youths generally indulge in criminal activities. The focus of this research was to examine, from a sociological angle, and from the perspective of selected theories, the motivations and reasons which encourage and influence the high predisposition for youth in cyber crimes or "Sakawa" as it is known in Ghana. The specific 0 bjectives were to explore the socio economic demographic backgrounds of youths involved in Sakawa, identify the different cyber fraud types that youths in Ghana engage in, examine the reasons and motivations of those engaged in cyber fraud, explore the practices and gains associated with cyber crimes and finally examine the responses and challenges of law enforcement agencies to curb cyber fraud. The methodology employed was qualitative, using snowball sampling method to select 10 cyber crime perpetrators, aged between 18 and 24 years, for an in-depth interview. Two key informants from the Ghana Police Service and Serious Fraud Office were also interviewed. The study areas were Accra, the capital of Ghana, and Agona Swedru, the district capital of Agona in Ghana. The data collected from the field was analysed and the research findings showed that respondents were from economically deprived backgrounds, youth perpetrators engaged in different types of cyber crimes, most respondents gave motivations ranging from a poor legal framework, profitability of the crime, family support and encouragement, low deterrence factor to few job opportunities. The research fmdings were consistent with the Differential Association and Strain theories and indicated that youth felt a disconnect between their economic goals and legitimate means of achieving them; and further that criminal behaviour is learned, and learned from association with close peers, also perpetrators used some neutralization techniques to assuage guilt. The ability to switch identities and the anonymity presented by the internet encouraged cyber delinquent activities. On the basis of these findings, the following major recommendations were made: there must be enactment of specific legal framework against cyber-crimes, to raise public awareness about the common modus operandi of perpetrators, formulation of proactive economic policies that could engender employment opportunities for the youth and the harmonization of laws against cyber crime at the domestic and regional levels. The research also makes recommendations for future areas of research. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ABSTRACT . .. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Statement of Problem 1.3 Objectives of Study 1.4 Significance of study 1.5 Definition of Key Concepts 1.6 Organization of the Study TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY CHAPTER TWO RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Paradigmatic Orientation of the Study 2.3 The Study Areas 2.3.1 Accra 2.3.2 Agona Swedru ii iii i~ v 5 7 7 8 10 11 11 13 14 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Sampling Techniques 16 2.5 Data Collection Instruments .. ...... . .. .. " ... ..... ... . '" _" ... ... '" '" 19 2.6 Problems Encountered in the field .... ..... ..... _ '" '" .. ..... _'" _ .. . '" 12 CHAPTER THREE THOERETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 Introduction 22 3.2 Theoretical Framework 3.2.1 Classical Theories a/Crime ... ...... ........ . .. , ... .. . '" ... .... _. 24 3.2.2 Strain Theory .. . ......... '" ..... . ..... , ........ ....... .. , .. . ' " .. .. 24 3.2. 3 Differential Association Theory ... ... '" '" .. .. " .. , ...... '" .... " 30 3.2.4 Neutralization Theory .. . ... . " ..... . ... '" ... ... . . , .. ..... .. ..... , 33 3.2.5 Space Transition Theory ... .. . .. ... ..... .. ..... , .. . .. .... .. .. " .. , ... 35 3.2.6 Theoretical Synthesis ... ......... ..... ......... , . .. ..... . .. , ..... , 36 3.3 A Brief History of the Internet ..... . .. , . .. ...... '" .. .. .... , ...... '" .. .. " 37 3.4 Defining Cyber Crime ........... . . .. ......... ... ....... .. ........ . ...... 38 3.5 Facets ofCyber Crime ...... . .. ... .. . .. ......... , '" '" ...... ... .. ' .. . ... 41 3.6 Predisposing Factors .. . '" ... ... .. . ........ . '" '" .... " ..... , '" ". ... 47 3.6.1 Social Factors . .. ........ , .. . '" .. ....... .. , .. ... . '" . .. .. ... , '" 47 3. 6. 1 (a) Youth and Propensity To Crime Commission ... ..... . ' " '" . .. 47 3. 6. 1 (b) Economic and Political Failures ... ... '" '" .. ...... , ... '" ... 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. 6. 1 (c) 'The TripleEngineA ' ... ... .. . ". '"''' ... ..... . ''' .. . . .... . ... 53 3.7ResponseofLawEnforcementAgencies .... ........ ..... . .. "........ .. . ... 54 3.8 The Modemity of Witchcraft ..................... .. ......... . . .. .... ... " 55 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND REPRESENTATION OF FINDINCS 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 The Socio - Demographic Economic Background of Perpetrators ... '" 60 4.2.1 Age and Sex of Respondents.. .... ... '" ... . " ... .. .... '" ' " . .. ... 60 4.2.2 Educational Levels of Respondents" . ' " .. ... . . " ... ... '" '" ... ... 61 4.2.3 Occupation of Respondents... '" ..... . .. , ... ". '" '" ... .. . ... ... '" 62 4.2.4 Family Background of Participants ... .. ... .. .. ......... " ..... "... 64 4.3 Modi Operandi of Sakawa (Methods of Working) '" ........... , .. , ... '" ... 68 4.3.1 Establishing Initial Contact with Client ... .. , ......... ... .. , ... '" '" 68 4.3.2 Engagement and Process of Defrauding Clients . .. . , ... , .. , '" . . . . .. 72 4.3.3 GoldScam ... ... ... ...... ... '" ............ '" ..... . ,.... . ... 73 4.3.4 Online Dating .. . ... ............ .... .... . ......... . ........ .. .. " 75 4.3.5 Internet Shopping ... ..... .. .... . .... " ............ '" .... " ... .. . 76 4.3.6 Ticketing Scam ... ... .... .... , ... " . ........... , ... . .. '" .. . . " ... 77 4.4 Reasons and Motivations ... . .. .............. , ... '" '" ... ............ '" 77 4.5 Becoming A Sakawa Operator... .............. . ..................... ... 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5.1 Resort to Occultism .. . '" ....... " ... '" ....... " . _ . ...... '" .. .. .. 4.6 Response of Law Enforcement Agencies ....... .. '" ... _ ...... _ . .. _ '" " . CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 5.1 Introduction . ...... . ... .... . .. ... . .... , .. , ... '" '" .. .. " ..... . 5.2 Summary ...... . .......... , ........... . . ..... .. , .. . .. . '" ... 5.2.1 Socio - Economic Background ojRespondents ..... . . .. 5.2.2 Types ofCyber Crime Activities Engaged1n . 83 85 91 91 92 92 5.2. 3 Reasons and Motivations ... .. . ....... .. .. ... ... .. " .. . .. ... . '" 92 5.2.4 Response of Law Enforcements ... ... '" ... '" ..... , .. . .. . '" ... 93 5.3 Research Recommendations .. ...... . ........... , ... ... ....... .. .. ... . '" 93 5.3.1 Vulnerability of Africa... .. . ... . ....... . ..... ... , .. . _ ....... , .. . 94 5.3.2 Internet Facilities are Cheap and Safe ... .. . . " ... ... '" ........ ' 95 5.3.3 Tackling Youth Unemployment ... ... ......... . .... ... ...... . '" 96 5.3.4 Online Security Awareness ... .. .......... ... ..... , ...... '" '" .. , 97 5.3.5 Cultural Renaissance ...... .. .......... ........ . ........... . ' " ... 98 5.3.6 Policy and Legislation ... .. .... ... ..... ... , ...... '" ." ... ... ... 99 5.3. 7 Difficulty of Law Enforcement Agencies ... ... '" ..... ... , ... '" 1 00 5.4 Recommendation for Future Research .............. .... .. .. .... , ...... '" \01 5.5 Conclusion ..... ...... . .................. '" .. . ..... . ........ , .... .... , .. , 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh F' "} .t. REFERENCES .. . ..... . ... ... .. . . ............. . ... '" . ... .. . - ... ... . '" ... 104 1 • APPENDIX I ... ...... ...... ... ... .. ....... ........ ... _ .... " ........... _.. . 112 i ., APPENDIX II .. ....... ... ' " ... ... ... .. . ... '" ... . " .. , ... ". '" .. . .. . .. ' 1 13 INTERVIEW GUIDE (Youth Respondents) .... ........... _ ......... .. '" 114 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (Serious Fraud Office) .. , ... '" ...... ... ... " . '" 117 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE (Police) ... .. . '" ...... ... .. . .. . '" '" ..... . ... ... '" 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE OVERVIEW OF mE STUDY 1.1 Introduction The emergence of the computer and subsequently the internet is vieVied as a significant symbol of modernity, and, indeed, as an engine for economic growth. Beginning from the industrial revolution of the 19th century to the last three or so decades, technology has increasingly become part and parcel of modem day living. Most human industries from Aviation to the Zoo have become progressively more dependent on one fonn or another of technology to function from day to day either at the frontline of activities or behind the scenes of business affairs. The computer as an information and communication technology (ICT) has so many versatile uses. It is used for work processing, calculation, statistic researches etc. Its impact has been incredible for individuals, organisations, schools amongst others who employed the computer for social to business ventures. There is hardly any organisation without computers to facilitate their day to day activities. These days, computers are globally networked and therefore have improved and transformed how people interact and communicate with each other. They are quick and instantaneous and hence, have undermined traditional modes of communication like the postal mail, telegraphs, etc. The world has come to embrace such social network sites as Facebook, people blog on line on issues bordering on the mundane to critical political issues, Wikipedia offers information on general topics and even the recent release of previously sensitive and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confidential diplomatic documents on-line by the website Wikileaks is threatening relat ionships between governments. However as much as computers and the internet have facilitated communication, it has also brought new ways of criminal activities. Crimes usually evolve with the time and therefore like all other human inventions, the computer has not only been a tool for progress but also has seen its application in deviance and crime. McCaghy (1980: 257) asserts that criminals have always adjusted their strategies to suit the technologies and opportunities of the time. The emergence of the computer and other high technology equipments like mobile phones, I-pads, etc have paved avenues for the genesis of novel types of crime. The 21 51 century has seen physical movement being replaced by electronic travel due to global networks and people can commit crimes without physically moving from their locations. This makes computer crimes characteristically different from traditional crimes. It should be noted that technology is truly a double edged sword that has transformed the classical and traditional forms of criminal behaviour. The brand of crime committed with a computer or the internet is often referred to as computer crime, cyber crime or internet based crime. The widespread reach of the internet might have facilitated the transmission of information at a relatively cheaper cost but it also enabled the internet to inadvertly expose the entire world to a " highly 'criminogenic' environment" ( Chua et al ., 2007:706). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Attempting to tackle this new breed of crime is challenging traditional Law enforcement methods and it is against this backdrop that the United States of America set up the Internet Crime Complaint Centre (IC3) as a partnership between the National White collar crime centre and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) to combat cyber crime. This security organisation is to serve as a means of gathering information on internet related crime activities. The IC3 is also charged with collating global statistics on these crimes, publishing Annual Reports based on crime trends, alerting and educating consumers on new crime developments and tips on how to avoid falling victims (lC3 Report, 2007). The activities of cyber criminals cut across geographical borders even though it occurs in cyber space. As such, victims are also found across international borders. Consequently, no individual, organisation or state is immune to the likelihood or impact of cyber crime. In tenns of geographical and institutional impact, Cyber criminals and victims cross international borders and jurisdictions, and by itself, it is irrefutable that no individual, organization, state or continent is resistant to the possibility of cyber crime. As computerization and globalization continue to draw the world closer, Africa is also experiencing constant growth in internet user base coupled with poor security awareness (Olowu, 2009:6). African countries in engaging in the Digital Revolution have also been drawn into cyber criminal activities. Nigeria is infamously known for cyber fraud which is commonly referred to as '419' or Nigerian letter scams. Nigeria for instance, has featured prominently on the Internet Crime Complaint Centre (IC3) report since 2001 at second position on the list of perpetrator Countries 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh after the United States which has remained at first position. 1'Iigeria has ho""ever stayed at third position since 2007 to 2009 (Ie3 Annual Reports 2007-2(09). Other AfricaIl countries that have featured in the Ie3 perpetrator country list are South Africa, Cameroon and Ghana as seen in table (see appendix 1). Ghana is gradually gaining notoriety as a hub for cyber crime activities locally referred to as 'Sakawa' . As a result of this, Ghana joined the Ie3 perpetrator country li st in 2007 at tenth position but leaped two places to seventh position in the 2008 Ie3 annual report. In 2009, Ghana moved further up to sixth place. This shows a steady yearly increase which partially provides justification for research into the phenomenon. This is a relatively new crime trend that is growing progressively within the borders of Ghana. The drive to embark on this study stemmed from an emerging aspect to the conventional form of cyber crime. In the recent past, Ghanaians, most notably the youth are believed to be blending their reprehensible cyber scams with fetish or ritual performances. This is evident in some recent press stories with such captions as- "Students Urged to desist from Occultism" (Ghanaian Times 6th May, 2009) and "Two Students fined for Cyber Fraud" (The Mirror 18th July, 2009:27). The general perception is that the spiritual fortification is required to ensure success and that ritual performances tend to conceal the perpetrator from the eyes of law enforcement agencies. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Statement of Problem 1. Many governments, policy makers and criminologists are warning that Africa is becoming a major source of cyber-crimes. Nigeria for instance is ranked a s the leading nation in the region as the source of malicious internet activities and this is spreading across the West African sub­ region. As a result of this, Nigeria has gained worldwide notoriety for the Advanced Fee Fraud or ' 41 9' scams. This has negatively impacted on its image on the global platform causing foreign investors to be wary of conducting businesses in that country. Similarly in Ghana, Cyber crime or sakawa as it is locally referred to has in recent times, received significant and growing attention from the general populace and State anti-crime agencies. This is evident in frequency of its mention in the media, parliament, and pronouncements by government officials and non-governmental agencies. As a social problem, it damages the image of the country and the perception the international community have of Ghanaian citizens. Cyber crime also impacts negatively on investment opportunities. The Business Eye news journal (2009) reports that according to a press release from the United States Embassy in Accra, "Ghana ranks second after Nigeria on the list of African countries that US e ­ retailers rejected trade orders from last year". This poses a threat to local business people, business growth and also adversely affects Ghana' s ability to participate in exports and e­ commerce. It has been reported that Ghana is already suffering the consequences of cyber crime activities as it is presently blacklisted from carrying out electronic commerce transactions (ghanabusinessnews.com, 2009). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh · In addition, a number of media publications indicate that the demographic group which is perceived to be most heavily involved - the youth- creates e-ven more cause for worry and concern as the youth not only symbolize the future of any nation but also its most vibrant and important human capital. Some of the media headl ines read as follows: "Sakawa scare- Educationist fear doom for Thousands of School Children, (Daily Graphic 13 th May, 2009:1) - ''Politicians to B1ame- For growing scourge of 'Sakawa', (Daily Graphic 26 th May, 2009:16), - "Sakawa, The veiled monster", (Daily Graphic 30th May,2009 :9) - "sakawa menace: who is to blame?", (Christian Messenger vol 23 , nos 2.May 29th_lune 1O~, 2009: I) This demographic group embodies future leaders, policymakers, parents, and indeed the human and social capital of the nation and their alleged invol-vement in Sakawa and other 'get rich quick' schemes does not indicate a happy, stable futwe society for the nation. The youth have also been reported in the papers to have dropped out of school or skipped school attendance due to cyber delinquent activities and thus negatively affecting the future intellectual capacity of the nation. Furthermore, they are reported to endanger their own lives and the lives of innocent citizens with related ritual and occult activities which are shrouded in secrecy. Given these, the research seeks to study the emerging cyber crime or sakawa in Ghana to determine the nature and extent of this growing social problem in the society. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Objectives of Study 1be main objective of the study is to explore from a sociological perspective, cyber fraud or Sakawa as it is locally referred to in Ghana mainly from the perspecti"'le of tlJose directly involved in it. More specifically, the study I. Explores the socio-economic and demographic backgrounds of youths involved in Sakawa; 2. Identifies the different cyber frauds that the youths in Ghana engage in; 3. Examines the reasons and motivations of those engaged in the cyber fraud 4. Explores the practices and gains associated with the cyber crimes; and 5. Examines the responses and challenges of law enforcement agencies to curb cyber fraud. 1.4 Significance of study This study is significant for a wide range of individuals, institutions, Governments and Non­ governmental organizations (NGO) as well as law enforcement agencies. The study seeks not only to explore reasons motivating youth participation in crime but also to unearth the forms and dimensions of the Sakawa conundrum. It is believed this will subsequently aid in averting the menace. This is because it is easier dealing with the phenomenon when the basic motivations behind involvement are understood. Again, the internet offers its users anonymity and invisibility behind which perpetrators are able to commit crime without fear of quick apprehension. Sakawa, 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ~. even as a new social phenomenon is shrouded in myths and secrecy. It is therefore vital to go behind the 'veil ' so to speak and uncover those and what goes on behind it. The study will also serve as a critical investigation as this particular dimension of cyber crime affects a particularly vulnerable demographic group, the youth. Additionally, as there is yet to be a comprehensive youth policy in the country, the information gathered in this research should contribute towards ensuring the appropriate mechanisms for addressing youth related social problems. It is hoped that this research would further help stakeholders in formulating policies and the various anti-crime agencies in understanding as well as curbing the problem. Moreover, the findings of the research, it is hoped, would in a small way contribute to knowledge on cyber crime and deviance in Ghana. J.S Definition of Key Concepts C'yber crime- Walsh and Ellis (2007) define cyber crime simply as the use of computer technology to criminally victimize unwary individuals or groups. Gordon & Ford (2006) defmes cyber crime as any crime that is facilitated or committed using a computer, network or hardware device. This therefore implies that the computer has made it possible for even the weak and fearful who would never dream of using a gun to rob, steal, assault and harass others, to do so 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh noW from the comfort of their home and with relatively little or no risk of detection. As a result, the internet gives a global reach to users, allowing time and space to be crossed without one necessarily physically moving. This means that unlike traditional criIlles, proximity between victim and perpetrator is not necessary for cyber crimes to be committed. For the purposes of this study, the researcher conceptualises cyber crime as aU crimes committed using the computer, internet network, related software and includes fraud, cyber pornography, hacking, identity theft, theft and use 0 f credi t card. Sakawa - All Cyber crimes in Ghana are locally referred to as sakawa. The word itself according to a key informant from the SFO, is believed to be of Hausa origin which literally translates to "burrowing into the center". The term has gained currency in the Ghanaian parlance and is frequently used by the press, Government officials and the population in general. As Nigeria has ' 419', Ghana can be said to have 'sakawa'. The term is generally used to describe fraudulent activities, but specifically those cyber crime fraud activities primarily perpetuated by the youth with some purported 'pseudo occult' undertones. For the purposes of this research, it is conceptualised to encompass all fraud activities committed with the internet or cyber space as a conduit. Youth: The proposed Ghana Youth Policy 2010 defines a youth as all young persons aged between fifteen and thirty five years of age. This research also adopts this definition because the research is based on Ghana, hence the relevance of this categorization. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. 6 Organization of the Study The study is organized along the following lines: Chapter 1 presents a general overview of study in terms of the statement of the problem, objectives and significance of the study . Chapter 2 covers the research design employed in carrying out the study and those problems encountered. Chapter 3 addresses the theoretical underpinnings of the study. This chapter also looks at relevant literature about cyber crime globally and in Africa as well as legal responses to it. Also literature on youth and crime are examined within and beyond the Ghanaian context. Chapter 4 contains the research data analysis and fmdings of the interviews conducted. Chapter 5 provides a summary and conclusion of the research. It also suggests appropriate recommendations to stakeholders regarding cyber crime and directions for future research. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAP'JER TWO RESEARCH DESIGN AND ME1'HODOLOG"Y 2.1 Introduction There are three commonly identified purposes for conducting social researches. One 0 f them is to otfer description. An example is a census which describes population deIllographics. The second purpose is to explain things, and researches conducted in this mode usually look at causal relationships and explain for example why crime rates are highe r in one city than another. The third reason is exploratory (Babbie, 2008; Neuman, 2007). Exploratory researches are carried out to dispel some misconceptions on a phenomenon and help focus future research. This research is exploratory in that it seeks to examine the terrain of cyber crime by looking at the actors involved in it in Ghana, who, at the moment, are a hidden population. It is therefore important to choose a suitable research method to shed light on this social probleIll which is largely characterized by public speculation and media sensationalism. Against this background, this chapter introduces the research design and methodology employed in the study. It also discusses the paradigmatic orientation of the research, the study areas, the sampling techniques employed, data collection tools and the problems encountered during the course of conducting the research. 2.2 Paradigmatic Orientation of the Study There are two broad methodological paradigms which dominate sociological research and these are the quantitative and qualitative paradigms. The quantitative research tradition can be traced back to the works of the French sociologist, Emile Durkheim such as 'Rules of SOciological 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Method (1895) and 'Suicide ' (1897) . For Durlcheim and Cornte, the founder of sociology, Sociology should adopt the research model established by natural scientists. This means that, human behaviour could be scientifically measured and studied in much the same way as natural science phenomenon (cf. Mcintyre, 2005). Against this backdrop, quantitative methods tend to be concerned about measurement issues and statistics. Employing a deductive approach, quantitative methodologists start out with concepts and hypotheses then generate empirical measures that precisely and accurately capture them in a marmer that they can be expressed in numbers ( Neuman, 2007: 109). On the other hand, the qualitative paradigms approach measures differently. Rather than using numeric measurements, qualitative data are usually presented in words and are largely descriptive. Ibis sociological tradition can be traced to the works of German sociologist Max Weber. Like Durkheim, Weber also regarded sociology as a science. He however, maintained that unlike phenomena studied in the natural sciences, human beings have important qualities like thinking and feeling and as such, these need to be captured by accounting for the social meanings and reasons attached to behaviours (Mcintyre, 2005:127). This approach to attempting to comprehend social meanings of behaviour and actions is known as Verstehen which is the German word for understanding. For Weber, the concept of verstehen is that interpretative understanding of a social action and it involves the researcher looking not only at the individual actor and but also understanding the "larger culture in which actors exist and which constrains their thoughts and actions" (cf. Ritzer, 1996: 115). From this perspective, Hakim (1987 : 26) argues that even though qualitative research is " about people as the central unit of account, it is 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh .f~ , not about particular individuals per se; reports focus rather on various patterns, or clusters, of attitudes and related behaviour that emerge from the interviews". The qual itati ve approach best suits the aim of understanding the motives and subjective meanings of an elusive sample population like cyber fraudsters. Additionally, the qualitative approach is suitable fOJ exploratory studies such as this one where the area of research may be so new, vague or centered around crimes (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). The perpetrators of cyber fraud or "sakawa" are a hidden population and not evenly distributed within the general population, therefore it would have been difficult to generate numeric statistical data to draw inferences from. As remarked by Glickman (2005 : 464), "interviewing scammers resembles infiltrating the Mafia, not part of the training of social scientists". Any attempt to elicit the views of people whose activities are seen not only as immoral but criminal is an arduous task. 2.2 The Study Areas As respondents were not confined to any particular area, the selected sample areas were Accra in Greater Accra Region and Agona Swedru in the Central Region. These areas were selected because they were frequently mentioned in media reports as having a high prevalence rate of cyber crime commission. Also, based on preliminary information gathered from the Police Services, these areas were likely to be where most perpetrators would be found. These two study areas further allowed researcher to explore the different social experiences of youths located within a highly urbanized area like Accra and semi urban area like Agona Swedru. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 Accra One area for the study was the Accra Metropole in the Greater Accra Region. The Metropolis hosts the capital city of Ghana, covers an area of200 square kilometers and is made up ·""t t~, pulation (Ghanadistricts.com). The unemployment rate vis a vis the percentage of youth .j.f. g~1"'pulation has serious social and economic implications for the nation. t,it h' ) ". ,.,.' 2.2.2. AgORa Swedru The second study area is Agona Swedru which is the capital ofthe Agona District and located in the Central Region of Ghana. The Agona District can be found in the eastern portion of the Central Region. It has a total land area of 540-sq. Ian. and a population of 160,000. The municipality is divided into eleven zones. It lies within latitudes 530' and 5 SON and longitudes 03.5' and 0 SSW. It is the most densely populated town within the Agona District and accounts for about 28.75% of the total population. The total population for Agona District stands at 158,678 (source: 2000 population census: Republic of Ghana). People are attracted to Agona Swedru mainly because of the existence of public and private sector business activities. The Agona District has a large pool of unemployed youth and has been experiencing a decline in the main economic backbone of the district which is cocoa cultivation. This has contributed to a high incidence of poverty (ghanadistricts.com.201O). Agona Swedru was chosen as a study Area because it was frequently mentioned in the press as a centre for cyber crime activities and it gained a reputation among many Ghanaians and Internet chat room participants as a refuge for 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ~, .. imlllorality and promiscuity. This reputation dates back to 1998 when, out of the 77 women showcased in Ghanaian newspapers as portraying nude pictures of themselves, 54 came from the town (Tetley, 2006:17). 2.4 Sampling Techniques As the population under investigation was a hidden one, there was no means of obtaining a sampling frame. The researcher therefore had to employ two non probability sampling techniques due to the peculiar nature of this research. These were purposive and snowball sampling for selection of respondents. Snowball sampling technique meant that the researcher relied largely on the social network approaching as described by Kumekpor (2002) in terms of identifying "an individual member of a particular social network and using the snowball effect to trace the other members ' friends, families, media personnel and colleagues in order to identify possible respondents. The use of purposive sampling technique was also employed. Taking into cognizance the nature of the research, it was important to seek out the required knowledge necessary for the data collection process. Additionally, the unwillingness of many potential youth respondents to participate and the limited time within which to find suitable replacements found purposive sampling to be very appropriate. According to Kumekpor (2002) the main objective of samplings technique is to select a portion of a universe that the results may, or could be, extended to the whole population. However it is not always the case in research that certain characteristics or 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh phenomena are distributed randomly or uniformly in a universe. In such cases, a representative sample may not at all include a unit typical of the characteristics in question, or it may include so few units that the analysis may not be statistically significant. In such cases as noted b y Kumekpor (2002: 137-138), it is more appropriate to identify units of the universe, which satisfy the characteristics of the phenomenon under investigation . Given this, the researcher purposively selected respondents that had the knowledge specifically suited to meeting research objectives. The total population size for study was twelve. The initial targeted perpetrator popUlation was twenty youths but this number was reduced to ten that had become reliable and consistent over the period of data collection. Five of the respondents were selected from Accra and five from Agona Swedru. As the study was dealing with two issues- a hidden population and a crime, the small sample size chosen reflected this. It must, however, be emphasized that the small sample size did not presume to be truly representative. But then as Becker (1998) stressed that samples are not always drawn only to estimate the distribution of certain traits in the population but also to gain an in- depth understanding of a social phenomenon or development which was also the concem of this study. Given the fact that the youth perpetrators operated undercover and therefore were not easily known and the fact that the study is exploratory, the ten youth respondents consisted of a good sample size to work with. Additionally, two informants were sought to gain the perspectives of law enforcement agencies to sakawa. One key informant was purposively selected from the Documentation and Visa unit of the em, which is the unit primarily engaged in dealing with cyber related offences. Another 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh key informant was selected from the Serious Fraud Office (SFO), The selected two key 'informants were selected primarily based on their background '-\larking knowledge of the phenomenon. The ten youth respondents were identified based on the fo !lowing sampling criteria: (I) Respondents were aged between 17 and 3S years (2) They resided within selected sampling areas that is Accra and Agona Swedru (3) They were known or identified by a third party as engaging in one form or another of cyber crime, (4) They willingly confirmed that they did engage in sakawa The rationale for these criteria was to include those who had the best knowledge on cyber criminal activities, exclude those who resided outside of sampling areas and obtain a sample of youth who "best fit" research objectives. The sampling criteria for selecting the two key security agent informants was solely that they worked in units or departments that handled cyber crime issues and arrests. The relevant departments therefore were the Documentation and Visa Fraud Unit of the Police Service. The key informant was an officer of that unit. While at the Serious Fraud Office, the key informant Was the Head of Special Services. The purpose of seeking the views of these key informants was to elicit information on the legal responses of these organizations on cyber-fraud. The study allowed for perspectives from both cyber crime perpetrators and those assigned with tackling the problem. The intent of this approach was to avoid presenting a one-sided argument 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Data Collection Instruments .. pata for the study was collected using a variety of ethnographic methods. These were ;' unobtrusive observation, in-depth interviews, and infonnal discussions. As a data collection tool, the observation method allowed the researcher access into the daily lives of subjects. The researcher also employed the in-depth interview method with the use of semi-structured and open-ended questions. The choice of this data collection tool was in order to guide interview towards fulfilling research objectives without restricting respondents to yes/no responses_ This was motivated by the need to engage with youth involved in cyber crime and understand their life experiences, meanings, stimulus and driving factors . Also in-depth interview as a data collection tool enabled the researcher to gain detailed descriptions of lived experiences of persons involved and better situate the research outcomes within the context of relevant theories. As Cooper & Schindler (2003) assert, in-depth interviews encourage respondents to share as much information as possible in an unconstrained environment. The researcher used a maximum number of prompts and guiding questions. The questions for youth respondents were themed around background of respondents, types of cyber crime and descriptions, crime motivation, inter alia. The questions for the security agency informants were themed around the legal responses to crime, their awareness of cyber crime etc. This allowed respondents to open up and fully discuss the topic. This further enabled a first person perspective from respondents' worldview. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Z. 6 Problems Encountered in the Field A major limitation of the study was the fact that the success of the research depended a lot on the willingness of located respondents to cooperate with the researcher and provide detailed responses. Certain difficulties were faced during the course of carrying out field work. These ranged from most of the respondents refusing to be audio taped, in fact, one respondent felt strongly that he could be identified by his voice whilst another felt that he could be easily implicated to confessing to crime commission. This meant that the researcher had to take lots of research notes and this hampered the smooth flow of the interview process. Another difficulty was that some identified respondents refused to cooperate to be interviewed once they realized that the researcher was female. This, they felt would affect their ' luck'. This was particularly obvious in Agona Swedru that is a semi urban area and strangers are initially viewed with suspicion before trust is gained. One other difficulty was that for every arrest of a friend or colleague of cyber crime, the smaller the respondent sizes got, so from starting out with a size of twenty to losing ten of those respondents after extensive research work had begun and researcher had to seek out new respondents. Inarguably, a lack of cooperation would have significantly and adversely affected the study and compromised the results of the research. Finding willing respondents was challenging as well as difficult and the researcher was well aware of this problem and devised ways to best overcome them without compromising research objectives and findings . For starters, pseudonyms were given to respondents to hide their real identities. Also, interviews Were usually done away from the location where respondents resided so to avoid suspicion from 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thers. In addition, the privacy of respondents was constantly emphasized and the purely ademic basis of research was guaranteed as a means of encouraging partiCipation in the other problem was the lack of a reliable cybercrime statistics from the security agencies which : . ould have provided an appropriate support to media reports of a gro'Wing trend. In their ~i . ;:defence, however, the security agencies explained that they were not yet separating cyber crime activities from other traditional fraudulent activities. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERA 'JURE REVIEW Introduction :the chapter reviews relevant theories and literature that have bea ring on the research topic. The review evaluates some classical theories that offer sociological explanations for crime commission as well as contemporary crime theories like the Space Transition Theory primarily tailored to explain deviant behaviour in cyber space. There is also an appraisal of some criticisms levelled against the classical theorists. Also, the literature review covers briefly the early beginnings of the internet. The internet or cyber space has often been referred to collectively as a social technology (Lamb & Johnson, 2006) due to how it allows people of all creeds, race, age to communicate with each other. As a social technology, it represents those computer mediated communication (CMC) devices that enable people to connect for either personal or professional reasons. Cyber crime is a phenomenon, which requires a computer in order to occur. It is a global occurrence particularly in these days of the "Global Village" concept. It is therefore important that the study recognizes what constitutes cyber crime and the variant forms of cyber crime as other studies have recognized. As this research focuses on youth participation in cyber crime, the review also considers the predisposing factors that engender youth involvement in cyber crime. The peculiar nature of sakawa believed to combine occults with Information, Communication and Technology 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (leT) as perpetrated in Ghana would also be briefly examined. F inally the literature review examines the response of law enforcement agencies in tackling phenomenon aCrOSs jurisdictions. The review is important because it provides the frarnework and background for this research investigation into what constitutes cyber crime or as is locally known in Ghana' sakawa', the reasons why those involved choose to do so, how they go about acquiring cyber delinquent behaviour, and finally the challenges faced by law enforcement agencies in tackling the problem. 3.2 Theoretical Framework Sociologists have long recognized that there exists no society without crimes. Durkheim is always remembered for the view that a crime is normal of society just like birth and death (cf. Adler et aI.2001:77). As a discipline, sociology has interest in unearthing causal relationships between actors and phenomenon. This has seen various social scientists auempting to explain what causes some people to commit crimes while others do not. It is difficult for a single explanation to account for all crimes. Various researchers have propounded theories based on biological, psychological, physiological and sociological explanations for crime commission. However for the purposes of this study- cyber crime and youth involvement, there will be a synthesis of four theories to help explain the causes of cyber crime. These are: Strain Theory, Differential Association Theory, Neutralization Theory and the Space Transition Theory. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Classical Theories of Crime theories of crime emphasize the social and environmental forces t hat influence people criminal acts. Social process theories seek to descri be the process of criminal and socialisation, that is, how anti-social attitudes and behaviours are learned (Walsh and Strain Theory One of the most famous explanations for deviant behaviour is Strain theory. The notion of Strain theory was propounded by Robert Merton and rooted in Emile Durkheims' concept of anomie. In his two famous studies, The Division of Labour (1893) and Suicide (1897), Durkheim used anomie to represent the absence of rules, norms, values and identities within a society which led to individuals feeling confused, uncertain and isolated. These feelings of disruption could occur when the traditional social framework of family life and work broke down along with the general absence of newer, stable norms and structures of social regulation which were conditions present during periods of rapid modernization as was witnessed by Durkheim during the industrial revolution. Durkheim further posited that anomie could also be the result of social instability when those regulations that restrained individuals ' desires and expectations within achievable limits broke down, and led to individuals' pursuit of unattainable goals which in tum led to feelings of disillusionment with themselves and society and further let to a high incidence of suicides (cf. Merton, 1949). 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Robert Merton used Durkheim 's anomie theory as a foundation to build his Strain theory in 1938. This theory demonstrates how the relationship between culture , social institutions and Anomie affects individual behaviours, causing strain and can eventually lead to deviant conduct. Merton describes culture as that "organized set of normative values governing behaviour which is common to members of a designated society or group". He thus defined social structure as that organized set of social relationships in which members of the society or group are variously integrated. In describing Anomie, Merton defined it as occurring "when there is an acute disjunction between the cultural norms and goals and the socially structured capacities of members of the group to act in accord with them" (Merton, 1949). Merton was writing with emphasis on the American culture which places a great deal of emphasis on material success and that these materialistic values are shared by members of the society. But access to these material goals is not readily available to all the members of society. Merton suggested that socially structured class differences limited the accessibility of legitimate opportunities to achieving these goals. Individuals in lower class positions were deemed more likely to experience strain which manifests as frustration and further motivates individuals to seek alternative means to achieve these goals including illegitimate means (Merton, 1949). For those who had aspirations but not the means to achieve them, they experienced feelings of psychological strain. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh f ! ,able 2: Representation of Merton's Strain Theory 'Table , 'f"_ F des of Adaptation Culture Goals Institutionalised Means l eonfonnity + + ;t if Innovation + - '. ".~, Jif. Ritualism - + F "m - - ebellion + + Ib /;. f - - ~ " t~", . . "'.-: urce: Merton, R. K. Social theory and Social Structure ( 1949: 133) 'l~ey: . "('+) Signifies "Acceptance" I :.. _~~) Signifies "Rejection" Signifies " rejection of prevailing values and substitution of new values" table above is explained further. Robert Merton identified five potential adaptations to Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism, Retreatism and Rebellion. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conformist "is the most common and widely diffused" of all the adaptive mechanism s IlallMc:rton, 1949: 134). Individuals within society that had the legitimate :means to meet their approved goals were said to be Conformist. These individuals confonned to society's their aspirations . Some examples of conformists are :medical doctors, professors. Innovator may accept the socially approved means to success but has limited :means of it. He may therefore choose to innovate his own way of attaining society's cultural whilst using illegitimate means. Merton meant those that engaged in criminal activity, or other disapproved means of achieving success (Merton 1949: 134) . So:me examples drug dealers, armed robbers, prostitutes as well as those engaged in cyber crime. This classification of people is significant to the objectives of study. Cyber criminal could result from young people feeling that attaining society' s goals while using R ""IS".ilua<<, means may be blocked for them. This results in them innovating by using illegitimate to acquire what they consider society 's symbols of success, for example wealth, cars, ; The Ritualist is typified as those who in failing to achieve goals, internally give up or abandon any efforts to try and achieve them. They think that if they do not aim high, they will not be ! disappointed (Merton, 1949: 142). Externally though, the individual conforms in a strict manner ! 1 to the use of legitimate means that are socially proscribed as necessary for goal attainment. Thus, ~ the Ritualist responds to failure and frustrations by either reducing or ignoring the importance of ~ V e J' . . ., ~i .l>; ,., ~ . . >~ ~ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,~ '~aid goals, Examples are the overzealous bureaucrat or the frustrated employee "VIho is aware that :they are not going anywhere, This category of people are not likely to engage in Sakawa and are thus excluded in this study. i ;The Retreatists are those individuals who find when they meet obstacles in goal attainment, drop ,. t · out of the struggle for success. They choose to rej eet conventional goals and means by escaping . or wlthdrawmg from mamstream society through drinking excessively or engaging habitually in :: bard narcotics. Merton indicated that the retreatist were "in the society. but not of it". Some ) examples are the alcoholics or drug addicts. Merton (1938) believed this adaptation mechanism as the least common. This group is not significant to study. The Rebels are those individuals who not only reject and withdraw from legitimate goals and societal means but also attempt to replace the conventional ones with theirs. Various radicals and revolutionaries are typical examples of this fonn of deviant adaptation. This class of people is not important to study. For Merton. the cause of deviant behaviour lay not in the individual but in the disj unctions between the emphasis placed on cultural goals and the lack of opportunities available to all people to use the legitimate means to reach their goals. He further contended that people may shift from one adaptive mechanism to another as they engage in various spheres of social 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,' ''~IIV'''--' Additionally, these categories of adaptati on were in reference to role behaviour in types of situation and not to personality (Merton 1949: 1 33). today's Ghana, there is no limit set on what people can acquire in terms of material goods. In Abotchie's contribution to Sociology of Urban Communities, he argues that to the while the urban culture emphasizes material success, the reality is that the social within society places limitations on the approved means (2008: 139). He further stresses that due to the intense competition that exist within urban communities, Merton 's innovation becomes the most common form of adaptation. Most of the crimes associated with Innovators in Ghana are economic in nature such as stealing and robbery etc. This notion is corroborated by Ken Attafuah's (2008) work on combating armed robbers in Ghana. The robbers he studied admitted that they resorted to armed robbery because of what they felt were blocked means to acquiring society' s goals. In spite of the fact that Merton' s Strain Theory has been hailed as one of the most credible attempts at explaining crime rates in societies, there are those who have levelled some criticisms against the Strain Theory. His theory has been accused of failing to explain why it is not everyone that experiences the effects of anomie that become deviants and criminals (Haralambos and Holbom, 2004:334). Merton' s work is also criticized for assuming that there is a value consensus among everyone in the American society which implies that everyone seeks the American Dream and by extension individuals tend to only deviate due to structural Strain. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh " erton's theory cannot possibly account for all crimes, there are other sociologists who have so put forth theories to account for crime and de linquency within society, .2.3 Differential Association Theory other famous theory for explaining criminal behaviour is Edwin Sutherland' s Differential sociation which was developed in 1939, A renowned criminologist, Sutherland sought to 've at a theory that would not only explain individual criminality but also identify those <-conditions that must be present for crimes to occur. Sutherland outlined nine propositions that t engender individuals to acquiring necessary attitudes and techniques that are favorable to , delinquent behaviour (Sutherland and Cressey, 1978:80- 83). These nine propositions are as follows: I. Criminal behaviour is learned. This means that criminal behaviour is not biologically inherited or in born in individuals but rather learned from others, 2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication, Here, a person does not become a criminal just by living within a criminal environment but learns crime by participating with others in verbal and non verbal communication. 3. The principal part of learning criminal behaviour occurs within intimate personal groups, This means that individuals are highly influenced most by families and friends in learning deviant behaviour. 4. When criminal behaviour is learned, the learning includes 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The techniques of committing crime The specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations and attitudes. well as learning criminal activity, young delinquents learn how to rationalize and defend their particularly as they sharpen their ski lls and gain experiences. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the lega l code as WOILlraIDlt:: or unfavourable. It is not everyone in society that agrees that laws are to be obeyed; are those who see them as unimportant. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favourable to violations of over definitions that are unfavourable to violations of law. This is the key principle of ,rt.Differe:ntiaJ Association. Learning criminal behaviour is not simply a matter of keeping bad company but rather it involves a process of identifying and copying other individuals that we .~ respect and value their opinions. When a person becomes a criminal, they do so because of "contact with criminal patterns and also because they are isolated from anti criminal patterns. 7. Differential Association may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity. This means that the extent to which associations and definitions will result in criminality is related to the ft'equency of contacts, deviations and their meaning to the individual. 8. The process of learning criminal behaviour by association with criminal and anti criminal 'patterns involves all the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. To learn criminal behaviour patterns is similar to learning conventional behaviour patterns and is not simply a .matter of observation and imitation. 31 .1. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh .~. While criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and "Values, it is not explained by } ,~m since non criminal behaviour is an expression of same needs and values. Those that engage ~ ~. ~. > \' I criminal behaviour like theft, do so to get what they desire whj le others engage in non criminal haviour like work to get money to also buy what they desire. utherIand and Cressey ( 1978) add that high crime rate is due to differential social organization. areas where delinquency rates are high, interactions with others may likely lead a good boy to earn and acquire anti social skills from delinquents within the neighbourhood botchie (2008: 143) supports this by adding that daily interactions between urban residents i llarticularly those who reside within slum neighbourhoods in irking out their daily needs, "gives f, " ; lise to crimes". He continues that as a result of the problems of over urbanization implies that most people are unemployed and are therefore prone to criminal activities to be able to survive. Differential Association has been criticized by some scholars who say it is defective as it fails to 'consider the issue of persons committing crimes purely out of their free will. Edwin Sutherland was also criticized for failing to account for people who commit crimes due to such personality traits like aggressiveness. Despite these criticisms, Differential Association Theory has been vital in explaining how delinquents acquire their criminal behaviours. It is still a highly valued sociological theory still relevant now. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Neutralization Theory light of the topic of cyber crime, another relevant theory to be used is the Techniques of ~elltraJiultlOn theory. In 1957, Gresham Sykes and David Matza propounded their theory on the of certain cognitive techniques to counter those feelings of guilt associated with delinquent m:&III!. .l.o""~lIr . Prior to the development of this theory, it was a commonly held conviction that 'Ies adhered to a code of values and beliefs that differed from those shared by the general ""n11l~,1I(J" Sykes and Matza disagreed with this view, stressing that juveniles usually adhered to same beliefs and norms as the larger population. However, it was only when a juvenile engaged in certain delinquent acts that the individual from a state of lawfulness to a state of lawlessness (Sykes & Matza, 1957:666). In ,., ,. reaching the above mentioned end, Sykes and Matza identified five techniques used to justify delinquent behaviour. They are as follows: 1. The denial of responsibility: Individuals who applied this technique of neutralization refused to accept responsibility for their actions. This denial was believed to go beyond an initial belief that the individual's behaviour was as a result of accident, and went as far as the belief that factors beyond their control were responsible for their behaviour. These factors could range from blaming behaviour on family structure or slum neighbourhood in which one resides or bad companions. The delinquent effectively sees himself as "helplessly propelled" into deviant situations ( Sykes & Matza, 1957:667). It could be the way people usually blame the devil for their own actions. 2. The denial of injury: this second technique of neutralization stems from the individual believing that there was no injury or harm caused to the person who was affected by the 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh . '::'''P.llll''lUent behaviour. Moreover, if there was any harm, then the harm was I1linimized b y the fact the victim could afford the damage and was therefore not that harmful in the true sense. The Denial of the Victim: the third technique of neutralization builds upon the second ue aforementioned. Individuals who applied this technique , accepted that the re was a IIt~ic1:im to a crime, but concede that the harm to the v ictim was j ustified. As far as the criminals concerned, the harm is really not a harm but retaliation or revenge. Sykes & Matza contend " by a subtle alchemy, the delinquent moves himself into the position of an avenger and the is transformed into a wrong doer" (1957: 668). The condemnation of the condemners technique involves the delinquent justifying their ;'behaviour on the basis that those who condemn their criminal acts are " hypocrites, deviants in disguise or compelled by personal spite" ( Sykes & Matza, 1951: 668). The delinquents also feel that if given the chance, their condemners would have engaged in the same act.. Usually, the condemners are usually those regarded as assigned the role of enforcing the norms of society like the police, teachers and parents. They may refer to the police as corrupt, stupid and brutal. By attacking higher authorities, the delinquent inadvertently represses the wrongfulness of his own behaviour. 5. The Appeal to higher loyalties technique was applied when the delinquent recognized that perhaps an act was inappropriate but justified the behaviour on the grounds that their immediate social group needed their behaviour at the time. This technique increases the offender' s moral integrity by claiming altruistic motives for criminal act. For example, the offender feels he committed crime to help out friend or family . 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh & Matza (1957: 669) argued that these teclmiques of neutralization were not only i...~",n:SlD.le in reducing the effectiveness of social control mechanisms but a lso lay behind a large of delinquent behaviour. It was pertinent to apply this theory to this research to evaluate sakawa practitioners experienced any feelings of guilt and h ow they countered such IftfeelJ:ngs as espoused by Sykes & Matza. Space Transition Theory r.n".i,l",,..i nn the relative novelty of the internet and cybercrime, it was practical to include a that is specific to deviant behaviour in cyber space. In 2007, Karuppannan Jaishankar Journal of Cyber Criminology, 2007:7) propounded the Space Transition Theory offer an explanation as to the changes that occur to the conforming and non conforming of individuals when they move from the physical space to cyber space and vice versa. theory argues that individuals behave differently when they move between these spaces. He 1. Those persons with repressed criminal behaviour (in the physical space) have a propensity to commit crime in cyberspace, which otherwise they would not commit in the physical space, due to their status and position. 2. Identity flexibility, dissociative anonymity and lack of deterrence factor in cyber space provide the offenders the choice to commit cyber crime. 3. Criminal behaviour of offenders in cyberspace is likely to be imported to physical space and vice versa 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Intennittent ventures of offenders into cyberspace and the dynamic spatio- temporal nature of ..,berSlpac:e provide the chance to escape and get away wi th crimes. (a) Strangers are likely to unite together in cyberspace to comrnit crime in the physical space . (b) Associates of physical space are likely to unite to commit crimes in cyberspace. Persons from closed society are more likely to commit crimes in cyberspace t han persons from . The conflict between norms and values of physical space and norms and values of cyber space lead to cybercrimes. ~IllSmlIllKt;I cautions that there is a need for testing of theory to see if it explains various cyber 2. 6 Theoretical Synthesis concept of theoretical Synthesis is a model adapted from Adediran's (2008) work on the causes of '419' activities in Nigeria. He used a hybrid of the Multi linear Theory and the -application ofR6bert Merton's latent and manifest function of the internet. This theoretical synthesis requires the integration of the four different criminology theories earlier explained. Cyber crime is a relatively new phenomenon that requires some explanation. This necessitates the use of different theories to complement each other's shortcomings. Hence, the study adopts a fusion of the theories above. The Strain theory gives an exposition as to how 1:ertain individuals react to frustrations they feel in trying to reach their socially approved goals. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • ' .&I ..... p,ntl II I Association theory on the other hand offe rs a n accou nt as to how individua ls irnbibe delinquent skills and while the Neutra lization theory sheds light on how cyber crime counter any feelings of guilt associated with c rime commission . Considering the Transition theory also provides an IYnlamlUU'1l of cyber delinquent behaviour in cyber space . theories would be applied to the study of cyber crime in Ghana but before we do this, a history of the internet is relevant. A Brief History of the Internet . The Internet revolutionized the communications world like nothing before. The inv ention of the telegraph, telephone, radio, and computer set the stage for this unprecedented integration of capabilities. The Internet is now seen as a mechanism for information dissemination, a medium ,l or collaboration and interaction between individuals and their computers without regard for geographic location. The first recorded notes premiering the idea of the global information system now recognized as the Internet was written in 1962 by lC.R. Licklider of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Leiner et aI., 2003). His idea, termed the "InterGalactic Computer Network", entailed an internationally cormected set of computers that encouraged ease of access to information. While Working at the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), Licklider'S co-worker Lawrence Roberts (1967) published his idea for "ARPANET" which stands for Advanced 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh w ch Projects Agency Net. ARPANET quickly evolved into what is now knoW! as tbe ternet. With this amplified popularity for technology, the Internet experienced the perfect soon began to do so .This in turn heightened interest among private aI , 2003, Anderson, 200S). With this amplified popularity for chnology, the Internet experienced the perfect climate to thrive, and soon began to do so. illiam Gibson (1984) predicted in his novel "Neuromancer" tbat society's increasing cination and dependence on computer technology would create a completely electronic world e tenned "cyberspace." Cyberspace would be composed of millions of different outlets of onnation that were easily accessible at the click of a button. Gibson also accurately predicted ~ t his new concept would contain dangerous channels leading to sources of vulgarity, criminal t CtiVity, and a dangerous hidden world of exploitation. In reality, Gibson's predictions have i' .: come true as the range of crimes committed online, otherwise known as cyber crimes, is quite ; . Substantial and covers amongst others from fraud, theft to sexual solicitations. , ! 3.4 Defining Cyber Crime It might not be easy to find the word 'cyber-crime' in contemporary lexicon, but it is a very popular tenn describing the criminal activities related to cyberspace or the cyber-world. While scholarly consensus on a single defmition of the terminology is yet to be achieved, it would appear that writers and law drafters are more comfortable with describing various elements constituting cyber-crime than in defIDing it. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CCOrding to the Council of Europe (COE) Cyber Crime Treaty (2001), cyber crime involves action directed against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer systems, etworks and computer data as well as the misuse of such sy stems, networks and data' , here, the efinition of cyber crime refers to offences ranging from criminal activity against data to content d copyright infringement. thorough reading of the definitions put forward validates the argument that most authors only art to simply describing the role of computers and the internet in the commission of crime oilier, 2004: 322-328; Bazelon et al, 2006: 261-264). This explains why Olowu, 2009:3 dentifies Casey (2004: 8) as proffering a dubious defmition of cyber-crime by referring to it as y crime that involves computers and networks, including crimes that do not rely heavily on omputers' . Olowu (2009) however, fail s to provide a definition of his own. The other spectrum . the coin sees others who seek to classify cyber-crime into computer-related and content-based cies (Walden, 2003, p.29S; Lewis, 2004, pp.1355-1356) or between 'true cyber-crime'- . honest or malicious acts that would not exist outside online environment and 'e-enabled already known to the world but now promoted through the internet ardon & Ford, 2006, Burden et al. 2003 : 222). Yet, there have been debates about whether awful activities involving computers and the internet should be classified as crimes or civil ongs (Barton and Nissanka, 2003 , p.401). ordon & Ford (2006: 13) opine that although the term "cyber crime" is in common usage, there exists a problem of the term having a precise definition. They emphasize that defining cyber 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and differentiating types of cyber crime is very imp()rtant because definitions not only researchers with a universal language which is vital for meaningful discussions to occur additionally aid to determine the scope of the problem under review and also allow for clear l.bnl:n1Illunication,(:20()6: 17). This especially true for Lawenforcement agencies since cyber crimes occur across several jurisdictions and across national borders that it is very important that universal understanding of a definition of cyber crime should aid in combating the problem. and Ford( 2006) proffer the following definition of cyber crime: "any crime that is IlICIJJL<1'''U or committed using a computer, network, or hardware device". t'bility. For these fraudsters, if the 'climb on the social ladder' is not attainable through , )imate means then they are only emulating their corrupt leaders who have risen to the top by use of dubious means. "1[. ft" ~ , /, ~eniran (2008) acknowledges that every society has norms that define acceptable behaviour, $ 'v 1 ~,'" agents of socialization socially transmit such norms, But what happens when there is a ongruity ,between what is taught and what is observed? Can the youth really be expected to " r clear of fraud when they can see that fraudulent individuals have great affluence and , '~ety does not despise them for their questionable wealth? Ninalowo (2004) opines that in eties such as Nigeria with gross structural inequalities, weak sanctioning system and wide between the "haves" and the "have-nots", there is a tendency for the deprived to reject rules '~ll1brace illegal means of achieving culturally prescribed goals. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I I '[herefore, the involvement of youth in cybercrime caru10t be separated from the value that many societies place on Wealth accumulation. 3.6.1 ( c) 'The Triple Engine A' In the view of Cooper (1997), there are three major features of the Internet which combine to accelerate and intensify online fraud. These are Access, Afford ability and Anonymity. They are jointly referred to as the "Triple A Engine" (Adeniran, 2008:6). , Access to internet use is encouraged as most of the cyber cafes are profit driven the higher the i nwnber of users the higher the rate of profit hence little effort is shown to drive criminals away ( from cafes ( Olusi, 2009). The Internet is reputed as the world's largest computer network with :. an estimate of 1.1 billion users (Global Reach 2003). Today, virtually anyone can access the r ( Internet with a phone line, a computer, and a modem. As such, Internet technology has created a I "'" fonn of crimimility i.,. "y"',crim,' . It i, now po,"ih1, to gaio ace,,, to , computenithoul : leaving home and to engage and related electronic frauds without leaving a trace. Adogame supports this notion by adding that the internet gives sufficient opportunities for nameless and faceless fraudsters to flourish. The internet affords perpetrators the ideal medium to communicate with large numbers of people under a cloak of anonymity which means that discovery is made more difficult and leads to an increase in the number of people being defrauded. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other studies support this notion by adding that from a criminological perspecti ve, the internet is ' ~iewed as a powerful tool for the unscrupulous to perpetrate offences while maintaining '81lonymity through disguise and a formidable challenge to those seeking to track down offenders, ar 2005:6; Snyder 2001: 252; Joseph 2003: 116- 18). Response of Law Enforcement Agencies Cyber space is still by and large "terra incognita" (Chawki, 2009: 16) . This implies that there lies plenty of room for criminal activity, In trying to combat cyber crime, Glickman (2005), notes that fraudsters remain difficult to apprehend, Scam operations are quickly shut down and tracing the origin of emails as a result of a combination of advanced technology and global internet links are proving very difficult Glickman adds that by the time a server has been found, "the scammers have scrammed", Additionally the under reporting of the crime as a result of victims humiliation and fear of being arrested also presents a problem to the detection and apprehension of criminals, Tettey (2008:244) contends that due to the "ubiquity, fluidity and speed" through which these SCams are perpetrated, a holistic global collaborative solutions is required to address the problem. The transnational nature of the internet predicates that there would be "jurisdictional complexities" which security agencies have to deal with. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ,taCkling the 419 syndrome in Nigeria, the RBC (accessed 25th oct., 2009) reported that the rlM'nulu,',,- and Financial Crimes Commission otherwise known as the EFCC ha d shut down 800 emailers and made arrests of 18 high profil e "cyber crime syndicates". In conjunctioI1 computer giant Microsoft, the EFCC is co llaborating in order to use "smart technolo