METHODIST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GHANA FACULTY OF SOCIAL STUDIES DAPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SELF-ESTEEM, NEEDS SATISFACTION AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF MALE PRISONERS. A CASE STUDY OF THE JAMES CAMP PRISON, ACCRA. BY LARWEH ELIZABETH 10128128 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MA GUIDANCE & COUNSELLING DEGREE. MAY 2016 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I DECLARATION I, Larweh Elizabeth, hereby declare that apart from the references to other people’s work which I have duly acknowledged, this research entitled “The Relationship Between the Self-Esteem, Needs Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being of Prisoners: A Case Study of the James Camp Prisons, Accra,” was carried out by me under the supervision of Professor Samuel A. Danquah and Rev. Dr. Daniel Bruce, lecturers at the department of psychology, Methodist University College, Ghana. …………………………………. Larweh Elizabeth Student ………………………………… ….……………………………….. Professor Samuel A. Danquah Rev. Dr. Daniel Bruce Supervisor Supervisor University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh II DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the Almighty God, my provider for seeing me through. I also dedicate it to my senior brother, Mr. Emmanuel Dzakwa Larweh for allowing himself for God to use him to support me financially throughout my studies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my profound gratitude to God for the care, love, favour and mercy he showered on me throughout this research and how far he has brought me. I worship and praise him. I also want to thank my parents and siblings especially my brother Emmanuel Dzakwa Larweh. He has been a blessing to me. I thank all who supported me physically, spiritually, and financially in all my undertakings. My brother, Benjamin T. Larweh, thanks for being there for me. Also I say thanks to my supervisors, Professor Samuel A. Danquah and Rev. Dr. Daniel Bruce for their immense support and contribution to the success of this work. Also, my Lecturer Mr. Gladstone Agbakpe for his immense support and to all my lecturers. Lastly, I thank all friends and loved ones who contributed in diverse ways to make this work a success especially Cordelia Yaa Kportie. She has been a real friend. Huzen Hope am very grateful to you. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IV TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………………I DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………………………..II ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………...………………………………............................III TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………………………………IV LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………….........................VI ASBSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………..VII CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………………….1 1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………………………………………………6 1.3 Research Objectives…………………………………………………………………………8 1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………..…...9 1.5 Organization of the Study………………………………………………................................9 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………………..10 2.2 The concept of Self- Esteem and Needs Satisfaction……………………............................13 2.3 The relationship between imprisonment and Self-Esteem……………….............................17 2.4 The Relationship between imprisonment and Needs Satisfaction……….............................18 2.5 The Relationship between Imprisonment and Psychological Well-Being………………...19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh V 2.6 Theories defining crime……………………………………………………………………22 2.7 Review of Related Studies……………………………………………………………..…..26 2.8 Statement of Hypothesis………………………………………………………………..….29 2.9 Operational Definitions………………………………………………………………..…..30 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Design…………………………………………………………………………31 3.2 The Setting/Target population………………………………………………………..…..31 3.3 Sampling Technique……………………………………………………...........................31 3.4 Instrument/Material……………………………………………………............................32 3.5 Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………..……32 3.6 Procedure……………………………………………………………………………..…..33 3.7 Scoring…………………………………………………………………...........................33 3.8 Ethical Consideration……………………………………………………………………..34 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF RESULTS 4.1 Demographic Background of Participants……………………………………………….35 4.2 Testing of Hypothesis……………………………………………………………………36 4.3 Summary of Results……………………………………………………………………..40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh VI CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 5.1 Discussion………………………………………………………………………………..41 5.2 Miscellaneous Findings….……………………………………………………………….44 5.3 Summary and Conclusions ……………………………………………...........................47 5.4 Suggestions and Recommendations……………………………………………………..48 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Demographic Background of Respondents………………………….............................35 Table 2. Correlation between Self-Esteem, Needs Satisfaction and Psychological Well-Being…………………………………………………………………...37 Table 3. Standard Multiple Regression…………………………………………………………..38 Table 4. Manova Table…………………………………………………………………………..39 REFERENCES….……………………………………………………………............................50 APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………...............................57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh VII ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to find out the relationship between the Self-Esteem, Needs Satisfaction and the Psychological Well-Being of prisoners. The study employed the correlation survey design method to solicit information from respondents who are prisoners in the James Camp Prison in Accra. The random sampling technique was used to select 155 male prisoners from an estimated population of 347 as at the time of data collection. Data collected was analysed using descriptive statistics and the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16. The findings in relation to the stated hypotheses revealed that, a significant positive correlation exists between self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being. It was recommended that counselling should be strengthened on substance/drug-abuse treatment, anger management, decision making, sexual abuse and conflict resolution in our prisons to help reduce the psychological effects of imprisonment on inmates. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study Man is a complex being, unique in every way ranging from physical looks to behaviour. Owing to this fact, laws have been made to govern the activities of humans in order to ensure peace and stability in this life. Corporate organizations such as churches, companies, clubs, schools and the like, have codes of ethics which regulate their members’ activities. Different forms of punishments are meted out to people who violate these codes of ethics, rules and regulations. When one violates an organization’s rule or regulation, he or she is suspended or dismissed from that organization. If it has to do with the violation of the laws of a country, one is fined or imprisoned after being convicted of that crime. Crime according to the Encarta Dictionary (2009) is any action prohibited by law or a failure to act as required by law. It can be looked at as an act that is considered morally wrong or an activity that involves breaking of the law. The Business Dictionary (2007) also defined crime any harmful act or omission against the public which the state wishes to prevent and which, upon conviction, is punishable by fine, imprisonment, and/or death. No conduct constitutes a crime unless it is declared criminal in the laws of the country. Charles Montaldo (2014), a Private Detective who has worked in various areas of crime detection says crime occurs when someone breaks the law by an overt act, omission or neglect that can result in punishment. A person who has violated a law, or has breached a rule is said to have committed a criminal offense. It can thus be inferred from the above definitions that crimes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 are mostly shameful, unwise and regrettable acts. Examples of crimes are: rape, murder, theft, assault, and defilement, an attempt to commit suicide, homicide and the like. Each of the above crimes has their corresponding penalties, ranging from fines through short to long jail terms. Correctional institutions which are also known as prisons are there to house these people (convicted criminals) safely and for rehabilitation purposes. Generally speaking, Prisons are often perceived as scenes of brutality, violence and stress. Prisoners are faced with incidence of violence and are always concerned for their safety. Tosh (1982:86), quoted a long-term prisoner named Jack Abbott as stating that in the prison, "everyone is afraid, it is not an emotional or psychological fear but it is a practical matter. If you don’t threaten someone at the very least, someone will threaten you.” Many times, you have to "prey" on someone or you will be "preyed" on yourself." Prisons aim to cure criminals of crime. However, their records and personal observations have not been encouraging. Instead prisons do more harm than good. The pains of jail confinement affect all prisoners in different ways. Tosh (1982) noted that prisoners need to withstand the entry shock by adapting quickly to prison life. Prisoners are exposed to a new culture, which is very different from their own culture. Then they need to maintain outside links. For example, keeping in contact with family and friends becomes frustrating. While being in prison the prisoner must determine his/her ways of passing the time since the hours appear endless. For some prisoners, the major source of stress would include the loss of contact with family and friends outside the prison. There is also the fear of deterioration. There is lack of personal choice within the prison environment which may affect prisoners. After many years of being told what University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 to do they may well lose the ability to think for themselves and make their own decisions and choices freely (Tosh: 1982). Ghana, just as other countries in the world has many prisons currently known as correctional centers where criminals/offenders are kept. Welch (2012) noted that prisons are meant for reform. They believe that the prison walls are not deliberately put up to cage innocent people but are meant to keep wrongdoers to enable them go through a system of reform. This means that imprisonment is to serve the purpose of the implementation of corrective measures, changing unacceptable behaviours, curbing crimes and deterring others who intend to indulge in criminal acts. Adu (2007) posits that crime is still an ever-present occurrence in Ghana in spite of several efforts made by government and other agencies to clamp down on criminals and improve human and social security of Ghanaians. This he said is because the country’s prison facilities where criminality is expected to end have become revolving doors and that too many of their residents, prisoners, return time and again. According to him, more than half of all inmates will be back in prison within six years of their release. He further mentioned that it was sad but very unfortunate that the prison facilities across the country, whatever form they take do not seem to correct, rehabilitate or treat criminal offenders to become useful citizens at the end of their jail terms. He said they rather make them more embittered because of the degrading human conditions such as insufficient food, water, clothing, medicals and detergents inmates face day after day, thereby serving as outdated warehouses for real human beings who have been detained by the state. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 The Ghana Prisons Service (GPS) is responsible for the safe custody of prisoners in Ghana, as well as their welfare, reformation and rehabilitation. The GPS, which is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior, has a mandate to perform three main functions: 1. Ensuring safe custody of prisoners and execution of sentences in a humane manner. 2. Ensuring the welfare of prisoners through protection of their rights and providing them with good health care, clothing, bedding, feeding, recreation, and library facilities, among other amenities. 3. Ensuring the reformation and rehabilitation of prisoners by offering them opportunities to develop their skills through trade, training and moral education. (www.mint.gov.gh. Retrieved) There are 45 prison establishments in Ghana, including twelve major male prisons. These male prisons are located at Akuse, Kumasi, Secondi, Tamale, Nsawam, Ho, Sunyani, Navrongo, Wa, Tarkwa and Winneba. The country also has seven major female prisons, located in Akuse, Ho, Nsawam, Sekondi, Sunyani, Kumasi, and Tamale. In addition, there are local prisons located throughout the country. The James Camp Prison in Accra and Ankaful Prison in Cape Coast are both Open Camp Prisons. Ghana's prisons house between 11,000 and 14,000 inmates, with females forming approximately 2% of the prison population. (www.prisonministryghana.org.) Prisons in Ghana are classified based on their level of security, and on the activities undertaken at the various establishments: In the Central Prisons, trade training facilities are provided to equip prisoners with employable skills for their effective reintegration into society. They take custody of long-sentenced prisoners. Central Prisons are the central points for all categories of prisoners, with the exception of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 condemned prisoners. Local Prisons are mainly responsible for the safe custody and welfare of inmates, due to the lack of space for trade training activities. They usually take custody of short- sentenced prisoners. Open Camp Prisons undertake agricultural activities to provide food and train inmates in modern agricultural practices. Prisoners who are about to be released are mostly transferred to these facilities as transit to prepare them for their final release into society. In Agricultural Settlement Camps, the level of security is quite relaxed; they are usually not fenced. The main objective is to train inmates in agricultural activities, and to produce enough food to supplement the feeding of inmates and generate some income for the Prisons Service. The main challenge that confronts the service is persistent low funding. One effect of this is that the service is unable to ensure that convicts do not reoffend. Other challenges that face the service include prison overcrowding, poor sanitation, and poor prison infrastructure. Some of the GPS' prisons are extremely outdated; for example, the James Fort Prison in Accra is almost 400 years old, and was originally built for 200 slaves, but currently houses over 740 male and female prisoners (www.prisonministryghana.org) Welch (2012) stressed that regrettably, it looks like there are more elements of punishment in putting people in prison than getting them to reform in our part of the world. As a result, prison conditions continued to be substandard, with poor ventilation, sanitation, and food preparation facilities. He also mentioned insufficient budget allocation for reformation programmes. Prisoners are generally unskilled and unmotivated as they enter prison. There are many deficiencies to be corrected and funding is needed for these programmes to be effective. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 He further mentioned poor accommodation structures as another major challenge facing the Ghana Prison service as old and weak structures and poor architectural designs unsuitable for long detention of people are still being used. Overcrowding often leads to poor sanitation and health problems. Also stigmatization of prisoners is one other major challenge as it leads to dejection and reoffending which lead to recidivism and high crime rate which undermines efforts of reformation and rehabilitation of prisons. Low levels of support from the public to reform and reintegrate prisoners after their release has also posed major threats to prisoners in the country leading to major psychological problems such as depression and low self-esteem. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Earlier researchers have tried to examine preparation of inmates for life outside prison, but few studies have examined supporting them while they are there (Nicole 2003). There is a great need for these folks to receive psychological services, and most people do not want to work with them, some inmates need help coping with the length of their incarceration, dealing with being separated from loved ones and friends or accepting that the prison is going to be their home for a period of time and survive in the prison environment. (Shivani 2013) Many other researchers concluded that imprisonment had negative psychological and physical effects on its inmates, leading to psychological deterioration. These effects included emotional withdrawal, (Clement 1979) depression, (Cooper 1974) suicidal thoughts or actions (Flanagan 1980) and increasing levels of hostility (Bolton & Heskin 1976). The opinions of researchers is diverse about the effect of imprisonment on the well being of prisoners, but maximum studies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 which is done on the general psychological impact of incarceration says that inmates experience major trouble at the start of the punishment ( MacKenzie and Goldstein, 1985; Sapsford, 1978). Modern research works also seems to conclude that the most damaging factor to an inmate is the loss of their life in the outside world and relations with family, rather than the actual regime or conditions of imprisonment (Yang et al 2009) (MacKenzie & Mitchell 2005). Formal prison rules and unwritten codes of conduct require prisoners to relinquish autonomy, become hyper vigilant about their personal safety, and develop an impenetrable “prison mask” that hides their feelings. This may affect their satisfaction of the need for relatedness. There is lack of personal choice within the prison environment which may affect prisoners need for autonomy. Also, after many years of being told what to do they may well lose the ability to think for themselves and make their own decisions and choices freely (Tosh 1982). For some, incarceration can be so psychologically painful that it produces post-traumatic stress reactions after they are released. For many, psychological distress and long-term dysfunction hamper their reintegration into society. (Jennifer McNulty 2004) Imprisonment otherwise known as incarceration basically takes away prisoners rights to satisfy the psychological needs of life. These needs are the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Craig: 2001). Prisoners typically are denied their basic privacy rights, and lose control over mundane aspects of their existence that most citizens have long taken for granted. They live in small, sometimes extremely cramped and deteriorating spaces, have little or no control over the identity of the person with whom they must share that space (and the intimate contact it requires), often have no choice over when they must get up or go to bed, when or what they may eat, and on and on. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 The pains of confinement are limited to certain psychological deprivations. This includes the loss of liberty were prisoners experience a limitation of movement. There is also the pain of moral rejection implied in confinement. Confinement applies that the prisoner is not trusted or respected therefore she/he should not be able to move freely amongst other citizens (Johnson, 1996). Prisoners must obey rules and there are restrictions placed on what goods they may have with them and when. Also loss of autonomy suggests that prisoners are under the control of officials. Prisoners must obey rules and are treated like children. A combination of these psychological deprivations leads to a destruction of the human personality (Johnson, 1996). Imprisonment may sometimes cause some prisoners to lose the capacity to initiate behaviour on their own and the judgment to make decisions for themselves. Thus, imprisonment may render some prisoners to be so dependent on external constraints that they gradually lose the capacity to rely on internal organization and self-imposed personal limits to guide their actions and restrain their conduct In view of the above listed challenges faced by prisoners, there is therefore the need to investigate the relationship between prisoners’ self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being and determine the influence of prison sentence and the impact of visitation on prisoners’ psychological well-being. This is what this research hopes to achieve. 1.3 Research Objectives 1. To find out the relationship between self-esteem, need satisfaction and psychological well-being of prisoners. 2. To find out the influence of duration of prison sentence on prisoners psychological well- being. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 3. To find out the impact of visitors on prisoner’ psychological well-being. 1.4 Significance of the Study The outcome of this research will help bring to the limelight the relationship between prisoners self-esteem, need satisfaction and psychological well-being and serve as a guide for policy makers for necessary changes to be made and decisions to be taken to improve living conditions in our prisons. 1.5 Organization of the study The study is divided into five chapters, each of which deals with specific issues. Chapter one is an introduction which provides a brief background to the study, the problem statement, the study’s objectives and the significance of the study. Chapter two presents a conceptual framework to explain the theoretical underpinnings of the study. Literature on related studies is also reviewed in this chapter. Chapter three discusses the appropriate methodology, the population, sampling technique and sample size, and data collection procedure for the study. Chapter four includes data analysis and interpretation of the study by statistical means. Chapter five comprises discussion, summary of the research findings, recommendations and a conclusion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Theoretical Framework The Ryff Psychological Well-Being Theory Ryff (1989) defined the psychological well-being of a person as the wellness and stability of a person’s self. She centers on individuals’ life experiences and their interpretations that influence their well-being. She looked at psychological well-being from six (6) angles defining each aspect according to how that concept should be achieved. They are self acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and personal growth. Self Acceptance According to Ryff, the most recurrent criterion of wellbeing evident in an individual is his/her sense of self-acceptance. This is defined as a central feature of mental health as well as characteristic of self actualization, optimal functioning, and maturity. Life span theories also emphasize acceptance of one's self and one's past life. Thus, holding positive attitudes toward oneself emerges as a central characteristic of positive psychological functioning and positive self esteem. Positive Relations with Others Many of the preceding theories emphasize the importance of warm, trusting interpersonal relations. The ability to love is viewed as a central component of mental health. Self-actualizers are described as having strong feelings of empathy and affection for all human beings and as being capable of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 greater love, deeper friendship, and more complete identification with others. Warm relating to others is posed as a criterion of maturity. Adult developmental stage theories also emphasize the achievement of close unions with others (intimacy) and the guidance and direction of others (generativity). Thus, the importance of positive relations with others is repeatedly stressed in conceptions of psychological well-being. Autonomy There is considerable emphasis on the prior literature on such qualities as self-determination, independence and the regulation of behaviour from within. Self-actualizers are described as showing autonomous functioning and resistance to enculturation. The fully functioning person is described as having an internal locus of evaluation, whereby one does not look to others for approval, but evaluates oneself by personal standards. Individuation is seen to involve a deliverance from convention, in which the person no longer clings to the collective fears, beliefs, and laws of the masses. The process of turning inward in the later years is also seen by life-span developmentalists to give the person a sense of freedom from the norms governing everyday life. Environmental Mastery The individual's ability to choose or create environments suitable to his or her psychic conditions is defined as a characteristic of mental health. Maturity is seen to require participation in a significant sphere of activity outside of oneself. Life-span development is described as requiring the ability to manipulate and control complex environments. These theories emphasize one's ability to advance in the world and change it creatively through physical or mental activities. Successful aging also emphasizes the extent to which the individual takes advantage of environmental opportunities. These combined perspectives suggest that active participation in and mastery of the environment University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 are key ingredients in an integrated framework of positive psychological functioning. Purpose in Life Mental health is defined to include beliefs that give one the feeling that there is purpose and meaning to life. The definition of maturity also emphasizes clear comprehension of life's purpose, a sense of directedness and intentionality. The life-span development theories refer to a variety of changing purposes or goals in life, such as being productive and creative or achieving emotional integration in later life. Thus, one who functions positively has goals, intentions, and a sense of direction, all of which contribute to the feeling that life is meaningful. Personal Growth Optimal psychological functioning requires not only that one achieves the prior characteristics, but also that one continues to develop one's potential, to grow and expand as a person. The need to actualize oneself and realize one's potential is central to clinical perspectives on personal growth. Openness to experience, for example, is a key characteristic of the fully functioning person. Such an individual is continually developing, rather than achieving a fixed state wherein all problems are solved. Life-span theories also give explicit emphasis to continued growth and to facing new challenges to tasks at different periods of life. Thus, continued growth and self-realization are prominent themes in the aforementioned theories. Ryff (1989) posited that an individual who exhibit mastery over all the aspect of Psychological- Wellbeing (Self-Acceptance, Purpose in life, Positive relationships, Personal growth, Autonomy, Environmental Mastery) will possess a positive self-esteem. It is against this background that this research will be carried out to find the relationship between the self esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well being of prisoners. Because prisoners who will be able to exhibit mastery in all the aspects of Ryffs theory are likely to have a high self-esteem and satisfy the psychological needs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 of life. 2.2 The Concepts of Self Esteem and Needs Satisfaction. Hewitt (2009) said self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. It is a judgment of oneself as well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent," "I am worthy") and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. Smith and Mackie (2007) defined “self-esteem” as the positive or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it." Olsen and Wiggins (2008) also saw Self-esteem to be a disposition that one has which represents their judgments of their own worthiness. According to Branden, self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence (a feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of personal worth). It exists as a consequence of the implicit judgment that every person has of their ability to face life's challenges, to understand and solve problems, and their right to achieve happiness, and be given respect. (Hewitt John, 2009). Self-esteem is crucial and is a cornerstone of a positive attitude towards living. It is very important because it affects how one thinks, acts and even how he or she relates to other people. It allows an individual to live life to his potential. Low self-esteem means poor confidence and that also causes negative thoughts which mean that the individual is likely to give up easily rather than face challenges. In addition, it has a direct bearing on one’s happiness and wellbeing. As a social psychological construct, self-esteem is attractive because researchers have conceptualized it as an influential predictor of relevant outcomes, such as academic achievement (Marsh 1990). In University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 addition, self-esteem has also been treated as an important outcome due to its close relation with psychological well-being (Marsh 1989). Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension or a global extent (for example, "I believe I am a bad person, and feel bad about myself in general"). Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist. The evidence on this point is actually mixed. For example, people’s specific beliefs about their academic ability are a better predictor of school performance than is global self-esteem (Marsh, 1990), but global self-esteem is a better predictor of psychological well-being than are domain- specific self-evaluations (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995) Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist Abraham Maslow included self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He described two different forms of esteem: the need for respect from others, and the need for self-respect, self- confidence, skill, aptitude or inner self-esteem. Respect from others is the healthiest expression of self-esteem and this; prisoners may lose due to stigmatization and rejection. According to Maslow “the need for respect from others is the one which manifests in respect we deserve from others”, and it entails recognition, acceptance, status, success and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. Maslow, posits that without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization. Maslow (1987). Abraham Maslow established a link between self - esteem and psychological well-being. According to him, psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected by others and by her or himself. Self-esteem allows people to face University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 life with more confidence, benevolence and optimism, and thus easily reach their goals and self- actualize. It allows a person to be more ambitious, but not with respect to possessions or success, but with respect to what they can experience emotionally, creatively and spiritually. To develop self-esteem is to increase the capacity to be happy; self-esteem may make people convinced they deserve happiness. Hewitt sees self-esteem as one important part of interpersonal relationships. He thinks understanding is fundamental, and universally beneficial, since the development of positive self-esteem increases the capacity to treat other people with respect, benevolence and goodwill, thus favouring rich interpersonal relationships and avoiding destructive ones Hewitt (2009). The importance of self-esteem lies in the fact that it concerns ourselves, the way we are and the sense of our personal value. Thus, it affects the way we are and act in the world and the way we are related to everybody else. Nothing in the way we think, feel, decide and act escapes the influence of self-esteem. Bonet (1997). Olsen & Wiggins (2008) also posited that, experiences in a person's life are a major source of self- esteem development. They further explained that the positive or negative life experiences one has, create attitudes toward the self which can be favourable and develop positive feelings of self-worth, or can be unfavourable and develop negative feelings of self-worth. According to Olsen & Wiggins, in the early years of a child's life, parents are the most significant influence on self- esteem and the main source of positive and/or negative experiences a child will have. The emphasis of unconditional love, in parenting represents the importance of a child developing a stable sense of being cared for and respected. These feelings translate into later effects of self-esteem as the child grows older. Social acceptance brings about confidence and produces high self-esteem, whereas rejection from peers and loneliness brings about self-doubts and produces low self-esteem (Leary University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 and Baumeister 2000). They also noted that acceptance from the immediate family, both nuclear and the extended for prisoners, is generally not favourable and this may affect their self-esteem negatively. There are other factors that are seen to be influential on self-esteem. One is said to be reactions from others. If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen attentively and agree with us we tend to develop a positive self-image. If they avoid us, neglect us; tell us things about ourselves that we don’t want to hear we develop a negative self-image. Prisoners are therefore likely to suffer low self-esteem because people may avoid and neglect them. Comparison with others is the second. If the people we compare ourselves with our reference group appear to be more successful, happier, richer, better looking than ourselves we tend to develop a negative self-image but if they are less successful than us our image will be positive. Thirdly, social roles have also been identified. Some social roles carry prestige. For example doctor, airline pilot, television/radio presenter, premiership footballer and this promotes self- esteem. Other roles carry stigma. Examples are prisoners, mental hospital patient, refuse collector and an unemployed person. Prisoners generally do not have a good image in the eyes of the public. This is likely to affect their self-esteem negatively. NEEDS SATISFACTION CONCEPT Deci and Ryan (2000), says human beings have an innate quest for the satisfaction of certain psychological needs in life. This is revealed in the Self Determination Theory (SDT) which was propounded by Deci and Ryan (2000). This theory believes that, there are basic psychological needs that are innate, not learned and seen in humanity across time, gender and culture. To them University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 these needs are necessary and universal and if satisfied allows optimal function and growth. They are; the need for autonomy, (It is the universal urge to be the causal agents of one's own life and actions in harmony with one's integrated self), the need for relatedness, (it is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others) and the need for competence (seek to control outcome and experience mastery). According to Deci and Ryan (2000), there are certain conditions necessary for their satisfaction. These conditions include; freedom to speak, freedom to do what one wishes to do so long as no harm is done to others, freedom to express oneself, and freedom to defend oneself. Without these freedoms satisfaction of these needs is virtually impossible. So then, one will ask are prisoners able to satisfy these needs? 2.3 The Relationship between Imprisonment and Self-Esteem Imprisonment can have adverse effects on prisoners’ self-esteem. One of these effects, according to Craig (2001), is a diminished sense of self-worth and personal value. He says prisoners typically are denied their basic privacy rights, and lose control over mundane aspects of their existence that most citizens have long taken for granted. They live in small, sometimes extremely cramped and deteriorating spaces, have little or no control over the identity of the person with whom they must share that space (and the intimate contact it requires), often have no choice over when they must get up or go to bed, when or what they may eat, and on and on. Some feel infantilized and that the degraded conditions under which they live serve to repeatedly remind them of their compromised social status and stigmatized social role as prisoners. A diminished sense of self-worth and personal value may result. In extreme cases of institutionalization, the symbolic meaning that can be inferred from this externally imposed substandard treatment and circumstances is internalized; that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 is, prisoners may come to think of themselves as "the kind of person" who deserves only the degradation and stigma to which they have been subjected while incarcerated. Secondly, Abraham Maslow described two different forms of esteem: the need for respect from others, and the need for self-respect, self-confidence, skill, aptitude or inner self-esteem. He said respect from others is the healthiest expression of self-esteem and according to Maslow “it is the one which manifests in respect we deserve from others”, and it entails recognition, acceptance, status, success and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self- esteem. This is what prisoners may lose due to stigmatization and rejection from family and friends. 2.4 Relationship between Imprisonment and Needs Satisfaction Generally speaking, imprisonment otherwise known as incarceration basically takes away prisoners rights to satisfy the psychological needs of life. These needs are the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness (Craig: 2001). Prisoners typically are denied their basic privacy rights, and lose control over mundane aspects of their existence that most citizens have long taken for granted. They live in small, sometimes extremely cramped and deteriorating spaces, have little or no control over the identity of the person with whom they must share that space (and the intimate contact it requires), often have no choice over when they must get up or go to bed, when or what they may eat, and on and on. Secondly, for some prisoners, the major source of stress would include the loss of contact with family and friends outside the prison. This may affect their satisfaction of the need for relatedness. There is lack of personal choice within the prison environment which may affect prisoners need for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 autonomy. Also, after many years of being told what to do they may well lose the ability to think for themselves and make their own decisions and choices freely (Tosh: 1982). 2.5 Effects of Imprisonment on Prisoners’ Psychological Well-Being Generally speaking, imprisonment is likely to have numerous effects on prisoners’ psychological well-being. Jenny Krestev et al (2005) presented these effects by tracing them from time past. Historically, imprisonment was based on punishing those who wronged society, by inflicting suffering on the body similar to the pound of flesh depicted within Shakespeare’s “Merchant of Venice.” In contrast to this concept, today’s imprisonment is no longer simply intended as an acute form of corporal punishment, but a method by which to work on a person's mind as well as his body, through three distinct areas which include, punishment, deterrence, and rehabilitation. These three unique areas, when interlinked into a single process, are intended to allow society to remove criminals from a position where they may continue their criminal behaviour, place them into an institution that satisfies the masses who desire some form of retribution, persuade other would be criminals that such activities are not beneficial, and in time sculpt them into productive and law abiding citizens through positive psychological conditioning who may later be re-integrated into society. According to them in theory, such a concept fairs well but unfortunately in reality, a large range of negative psychological experiences encountered within prison do not lead to this otherwise well thought out plan. (Tosh, 1982:86). They outlined three main responsibilities of prisons which fall in line with the functions of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Ghana Prison Service (GPS).The safekeeping of all inmates; the maintaining and improving of welfare of all confined within it; and the performance of these objectives with the maximum of efficiency and economy. Safe keeping generally comprises of keeping inmates locked away, counted, and controlled whilst allowing for isolated moments of welfare activities to satisfy needs through recreation, education and counselling. Unfortunately, the welfare and psychological freedom of the individual inmate does not depend on how much education, recreation, and counselling he receives but rather, on how he manages to live and relate with the other inmates who constitute his crucial and only meaningful world. It is what the prisoners experience in this world; how they attain satisfaction, and how they avoid its detrimental effects through the adjustment process known as prisonization that ultimately decide how, if ever, they will emerge. It has also been recognized, through simulations of prison environments, that lockups and isolation have the habit of dehumanizing prisoners by making them feel anonymous, and breeding ill feelings because of their rejection and condemnation by society as a whole. Likewise, it must be remembered that offenders have been drawn from a society in which possessions are closely linked with concepts of personal worth by numerous cultural definitions. However in prison, inmates find themselves reduced to a level of living near bare subsistence. Whatever physical discomforts this deprivation may entail, it has deeper psychological significance as to the prisoner’s conception of his personal adequacy particularly when surrounded by other University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 inmates. Prisoners are more susceptible for poor well being due to number of reasons. First of all those who have committed severe crimes such as murder, robbery and rape are punished by court and they have to reside in prison for long period of time. At the entrance of jail they get estranged from their family and they know they have to wait for the long period of time to obtain reunion with the family. After family, we get support, happiness, company, help, recommendation and many more from our friends. But in the case of criminals’ imprisonment grab this support system from them. This isolation leaves most damaging effect on prisoners than the jail setting (Yang et al., 2009; Mackenzie & Mitchell, 2005). Living environment is one of components of well being which is found to be unhygienic, restricted, overfull in many prisons. As a result of increase in numbers of crime and criminals, prisons are now overcrowded in many countries. Crowding instigates aggressive and hostile behavior in prisoners, it is found in numerous studies (Cox, Paulus, & Mc Cain, 1984; Paulus & McCain, 1983), and violence in prisons is also increasing day by day (Kimmett, O’Donnell, & Martin, 2002; Mc Corkle, 1992). Overcrowding in prisons has been also found to be connected with the decrease in psychological wellbeing of the inmates (Lawrence & Andrews, 2004; Lepore, Evans, & Schneider, 1991). Lack of proper nutrition make their physical health poor, fights , violence, conflict between groups or gangs of prisoners deteriorate their physical and psychological health as well. Furthermore stigmatization by the society frightened the prisoners about their future. All these conditions gradually and finally contributes to prisoners poor well being in term of growth of frustration, stigma, depression, anxiety, insecurity, feeling inferiority, feeling of worthlessness, guilt, shame and in some cases results in suicide (Levenson & Cotter 2005; Tewksbury 2005; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Levenson 2003; Schnittker & John, 2007; Dye 2010). Overall, the entire prison experience with its symbolic mechanisms of justice that encompass every lock, piece of barbed wire, the thick walls, the never ending supervision and segregation, the harsh solitude, and minimalistic lifestyles, are deliberately designed to not only incapacitate, but psychologically curb any prisoner’s personality traits that have been deemed by society as undesirable or dangerous. 2.6 THEORIES DEFINING CRIME There are some theories behind the definition and reasons why people commit crimes. In psychology, there are three theories that are the most widespread approaches to defining crime and these are discussed below; The Consensus View The consensus view stems from the sociological theories of Shepherd (1981). This school of thought holds that society functions as an integrated structure, the stability of which is dependent on consensus or agreement by its members, so that the rules, values and norms are respected by all. Therefore, the legal system of the society is a reflection of what is considered tolerable and intolerable behaviour within that particular society. That is intolerable behaviour is disapproved of by the majority. Before a crime can be said to have occurred, it has to be committed. So without an action, there can be no crime. The act must be legally forbidden. It is not enough to just be anti- social behaviour. For instance, picking your nose in public is considered anti-social in many cultures, but it is not considered a crime. So the act must be forbidden by law. Usually, the person who commits the act must also have a criminal intent to commit the act. For example, if a person drives a car and hits another car we would have to consider whether there was criminal intent. In University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 other words, was it an accident or did the driver intentionally ram the car? The function of criminal law is to maintain the universal aims of the society, to protect the individual’s person and property. However, laws also exist to protect the State itself. Within this theory is also the concept of ‘criminal law’ where a person receives retribution for transgressing the agreed boundaries of what is acceptable. The idea of punishment for crimes is not an easy one, as many ethical issues will arise. The Conflict View The Conflict View is the direct opposite of the Consensus View. Proponents of this theory argue that society is a collection of diverse groups, not an integrated structure. They believe that within society, there are different groups of people, such as students, professionals, unions, businessmen and so on. These groups are in conflict with each other in a range of ways due to the inequality of the way that wealth is divided. There will be some poorer people, some wealthier people, some with power, some with no power, and so on. This inequality leads to a society based on conflict, which is thought to then promote crime. A distinct branch of this was the Marxist theory which thought that crime was a direct result of the capitalist society. Some people have wealth, some do not. Every group and class has people within it who commit crime, but the type of crime is dictated by the system. For example, poorer people will commit crimes such as theft, burglary, murder, whilst middle class people may commit crimes such as theft from employers, white collar crime, fraud, and so on. The upper classes may commit crimes such as environmental pollution and damage, which may not be considered crimes in the same way as burglary, for example. The justice system is viewed in the same way that criminal law exists to protect the rich. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 The Interactionist View The Interactionist View falls between the Consensus and Conflict View. It began as a field of thought within sociology called symbolic interactionism. The view is based on a number of assumptions: 1. Every individual’s behaviour is due to their own interpretation of reality and the meaning that events hold for them. 2. People will learn meaning by observing how other people react, both positively and negatively. 3. We evaluate our own behaviour according to the meanings we have learned and that we have acquired from others. This view therefore maintains that there is no moral right or wrong, rather changes in moral standards affect the legal standards. For example, killing another person is a criminal act. However, in some situations, for instance, when a person kills in self defense, it is considered a legitimate killing. Using the models above, we can see that crimes are acts that break the law of the particular society. People commit crimes for different reasons. Some of these reasons are: power, greed, anger, jealousy, passion, boredom, fear, peer pressure, opportunity, vandalism, failure of self-direction. Others do it because of lack of moral judgment and character, because they do not see the benefits of adhering to conventional social values and a pervading emphasis on being successful. Many theories have emerged over the years, and they continue to be explored, individually and in combination, as criminologists seek the best solutions in ultimately reducing types and levels of crime. Here is a broad overview of some key theories by Stephen Briggs. The Rational Choice Theory believes that people generally act in their self-interest and make University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 decisions to commmit crime after weighing the potential risks (including getting caught and punished) against the rewards. Social Disorganization Theory holds that a person’s physical and social environments are primarily responsible for the behavioural choices that he or she makes. In particular, for instance a neighborhood that has fraying social structures is more likely to have high crime rates. Such a neighborhood may have poor schools, vacant and vandalized buildings, high unemployment, and a mix of commercial and residential property. For the Strain Theorists, most people have similar aspirations, but they do not all have the same opportunities or abilities. When people fail to achieve society’s expectations through approved means such as hard work and delayed gratification, they may attempt to achieve success through crime. Social learning theorists believe that people develop motivation to commit crime and the skills to commit crime through the people they associate with. Peer influence which is a person's peer group strongly influences a decision to commit crime. For example, young boys and girls who do not fit into expected standards of academic achievement or participate in sports or social programmes can sometimes become crack cocaine pipe displayed by police. Drugs and alcohol impair judgment and reduce inhibitions, giving a person greater courage to commit a crime. Drugs and alcohol use is seen as one of the reasons why people commit crime. Their usage is seen as social factors that pose an especially strong influence over a person's ability to make choices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Drug and alcohol abuse is one such factor. The urge to commit crime to support a drug habit definitely influences the decision process. Both drugs and alcohol impair judgment and reduce inhibitions (socially defined rules of behaviour), giving a person greater courage to commit a crime. Deterrents such as long prison sentences have little meaning when a person is high or drunk. Criminologists estimate that alcohol or drug use by the attacker is behind 30 to 50 percent of violent crime, such as murder, sexual assault, and robbery. No matter one’s reason for committing a particular crime, when caught and convicted, she / he does not go unpunished. The punishment as established earlier ranged from fines to short or long term imprisonment, otherwise known as incarceration. 2.7 Review of related studies This section compiles related studies on the relationship between self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being of prisoners as well as the factors that influence these variables. A research was undertaken by Igomu, Mayange & Levi (2013) on the topic “Relationship between Self-Esteem and Personal Development of Prison Inmates in Jalingo, Taraba State in Nigeria”. The main objective of the research was to highlight the relationship between self-esteem and personal development of prison inmates in the Jalingo prison in Taraba state. The objectives of the study were achieved by sampling two hundred and fifty inmates from the Jalingo prison for the study. The research instruments developed were a twenty- item questionnaire used for the pre-test and post-test. The instruments were tagged Self-Esteem Questionnaire (SEQ) and Personal Development Inventory (PDI). Inmates were randomly selected. The Pearson’s correlation formula and t-test were used for data analysis. The results of the study showed that Self-Esteem and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Personal Development of Inmates are positively correlated (0.417). The study however, concluded that self esteem of inmates has a direct relationship with inmates’ personal development. Harreveld et al (2007) conducted a research on the topic “Inmate Emotion Coping and Psychological and Physical Well-Being: The Use of Crying over Spilled Milk”. The study examined the relation between emotions, physical and psychological well-being among inmates. The study also investigated the relation between coping strategies of inmates and their psychological and physical well-being. Study participants consisted of 30 male inmates from 2 correctional facilities in the Netherlands. The results showed that psychological and physical health is closely related and that both can be influenced by the intensity of negative emotions. The results also indicated that psychological well-being is related to physical well-being. Another finding by Harreveld et al concerned the effects of specific emotions on psychological and physical well-being. Inmates who are more inclined to share their negative emotions with others are in better health than those who keep them to themselves. Similarly, trying to suppress negative feelings was found to have adverse consequences. Andrew and Michael (2002) examined the extent to which self-esteem levels (SE) and self-esteem stability predicted scores on C.D. Ryffs (1989) multidimensional measure of psychological– wellbeing with a sample of a 103 undergraduate university students and it was realized that the effects of SE levels emerged on all six subscales, indicating that high self–esteem was associated with greater well-being. John D. Wooldredge (1999) carried out a study which examined how inmate psychological well- being is influenced by participation in institutional programs, frequency of visitation with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 outsiders, and experiences with victimization during incarceration. Participants were 581 adult inmates from three Ohio correctional facilities. Support was found for the hypotheses that healthier attitudes correspond with greater program participation, more frequent visitation, and no experience with victimization. Listwan et al (2010) explored the “Victimization, Social Support, and Psychological Well-being of recently released prisoners”. Using a sample of 1,616 recently released male inmates; the study examined the psychological effect of victimization and of perceptions of threat and coercion arising from the prison environment. The study also examined whether social support affects cognitions and psychological symptoms and whether it moderates the effect of victimization and coercion. The findings revealed that coercion and social support are related to post-traumatic cognitions and trauma symptoms; however, social support does not provide a moderating effect. They also examined the impact of prison experiences on mental health outcomes in the same research and explored whether adverse conditions in prison have an impact on psychological well being. The participants were asked to report whether they had been victimized in a variety of ways (e.g., theft of property, verbal/emotional abuse, physical abuse/fighting, and sexual abuse) either indirectly through witnessing others being victimized or directly themselves. They were also asked to report whether they felt the prison was a hostile or coercive environment as measured by attitudes about the safety of the environment and relationship with correctional officers. Conversely, they were also asked to report their perceptions of social supports available to them in the community as the literature suggests that social support could mediate the impact of adverse conditions on psychological well being. The study found that adverse conditions in prison and social support are related to their measures of psychological well being; however, social support University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 did not provide a mediating effect. The authors encourage stakeholders to develop opportunities for psychological screening for inmates’ pre release. Moreover, the study suggests the need to reduce coercion in prison while simultaneously increasing social supports (both from institutional and non-institutional sources). 2.8 Statement of Hypothesis 1. There will be a positive correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-esteem of prisoners. 2. There will be a positive link between needs satisfaction and psychological well-being of prisoners. 3. There will also be a positive correlation between self-esteem and needs satisfaction of prisoners. 4. Type of prison sentence will correlate with psychological well-being. 5. There will be a significant relationship between family visit to prisoner and psychological wellbeing. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 2.9 Operational Definitions Self-esteem: It is an individual’s view of him/her self. Psychological wellbeing: It is the mental state of an individual. Needs: An individual urge to do or have something. Prison: A building where convicted criminals are kept to serve their jail term. Prisoner: A person who has been convicted of a crime and jailed. Autonomy: It is the universal urge to be causal agents of one's own life and actions in harmony with one's integrated self. Relatedness: It is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others. Competence: Seek to control outcome and experience mastery Correlation: It is the connection or a link between two or more things. Law: A set of rules made to govern a country. Rules: A set of instructions made to guide the actions of people. Regulations: Roles made to order people’s behavior. GPA: The Ghana Prison Service O.I.C: Officer In Charge SDT: Self Determination Theory Short Sentence: Jail sentences ranging from one day to two years. Long Sentence: Jail sentences from two years upwards. Crime: Any act that is prohibited by law. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLODY 3.1 Research Design The research design used was correlational survey. It was chosen because it will help to figure out how the variables (self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being) are connected to each other. 3.2 The Setting /Target Population The study surveyed all male prisoners of the James Camp Prison in Accra. The total population of the prisoners in the camp is 347 as at the time the research was being carried out. The prisoners are from varied ethnic groups across the length and breadth of Ghana and with varied educational, economic, religious and social background. 3.3 Sampling Technique The Epi Info version 3.5.1 was used to determine the sample size of the research. Population Size 347 Expected Frequency 10% Worst Acceptable Value 5% Confidence Level 99% Estimated Representative Sample 141 However, to make room for inappropriate completion and non return of the questionnaire, 14 (more than 10%) participants were added to round the figure up to 155.Sample of one hundred and fifty five (155) male prisoners were selected for the study using the random sampling technique. On the day of selection, a basket containing folded papers with ‛YES’ and ‛NO’ University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 written on them was presented to the participants. Each member of the population is made to pick one of the folded papers. All those who picked ‛YES’ automatically became the subjects for the study. 3.4 Instrument / Material The instruments used for the study are as follows; Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale designed by Rosenberg (1965). It includes 10 items that are usually scored using a four-point response ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The items are face valid, and the scale is short and easy and fast to administer. The scale has been shown to be reliable with a Cronbach alpha range from .77 to .88. (Rosenberg 1965) The Basic Psychological Needs Scale was used to measure needs satisfaction. The scale has 21 items concerning the three needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. It has been shown to be reliable, with Cronbach alphas of about 0.75. (Deci and Ryan 1985) The short version of the Ryff (1989) Scales of Psychological Well-Being was used to measure psychological wellbeing. It consists of 18 questions. The scale is a theoretically grounded instrument that specifically focuses on measuring multiple facets of psychological well-being. These facets include the following: self-acceptance, the establishment of quality ties to others, a sense of autonomy in thought and action, the ability to manage complex environment to suit personal needs and values, the pursuit of meaningful goals and a sense of purpose in life and a continued growth and development as a person. A pilot study was conducted on thirty male prisoners in the Akuse prisons located in the Eastern region of Ghana in order to ascertain the reliability of the scale and a cronsbach co-efficient estimated was .76 3.5 Data Analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16 and descriptive statistics was used for the analysis of data collected. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 3.6 Procedure An Introductory letter introducing the researcher and the perceived intention for the study was sent to the Prisons headquarters in addition to a verbal introduction to the Acting Director General of Prisons. This was in an attempt to seek institutional approval. A copy of the approved letter was forwarded to the Officer in Charge (OIC) of the James Camp prisons. Another copy was given to the researcher and the third one to the researchers’ school/ institution, that is, the Methodist University College, Ghana. The questionnaire was administered to the 155 respondents (prisoners in the James Camp Prisons) by the researcher. Those who could read and write were given 30 minutes to complete the questionnaires. Participants who could not read were aided by reading and interpreting the responses to them. Their responses were ticked by the researcher. The reading and interpretation was done in Twi. The completed questionnaire was collected. 3.7 Scoring The Rosenberg self-esteem scale was scored by attaching a score using a four-point response ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. Scores are calculated as follows: For items 1, 2, 4, 6, 7: strongly agree = 3, agree = 2, disagree = 1, strongly disagree = 0. For items 3, 5, 8, 9, 10: strongly agree = 0, agree = 1, disagree = 2, strongly disagree = 3. The basic psychological need satisfaction scale was scored by attaching a score of 1-4 to the likert scales of “not at all” to “untrue” The Ryff psychological Well-being scale was scored by attaching a score of 1-6 to the likert scales of “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 3.8 Ethical Consideration Selected participants were briefed on the purpose and process of the study and asked to decide to participate or decline on their own volition (informed-consent). They were made to clearly understand that they can withdraw from the study as they wish. Their responses were kept confidential and anonymous since their names and other forms of identity were not taken. The responses were handled and kept under key and lock by the researcher who also ensured that the responses were used for research purpose only. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS 4.1 Demographic Background of Participants Findings on the demographic background of participants are presented in Table 1 below. Prisoners (n=155) Variables Frequency Percent Age 18-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 96 42 15 2 61.9 27.1 9.7 1.3 Educational Background Basic Junior High School Senior High School Tertiary None 33 55 44 8 15 85 63 6 1 61.9 35.5 28.4 5.2 9.7 Marital Status Single Married Divorced Widowed Number of Children One Two Three Four Five and above None Prison Duration Short Long Religion Christian Muslim Labour Capacity Skilled Unskilled Employment Status Employed(Government/Private Agencies) Self-Employed Unemployed Visiting Status Yes No 54.8 40.6 3.9 0.6 27 32 22 6 1 67 98 57 112 43 101 54 13 74 68 62 93 17.4 20.6 14.2 3.9 0.6 43.2 63.2 36.8 72.3 27.7 65.2 34.8 8.4 47.7 43.9 40 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 Results in Table 1, revealed that a significant proportion of participants’ ages fell within the range of 18-29 years (61.9%).Those whose ages were 30-39 years represented 27.1% of the total sample. 9.7% were in the age range of 40-49 years, and 1.3% were in the age range of 50-59 years. No respondent was 60 years or above. It was also revealed that most of the respondents have had Junior High Education (35.5%). 28.4% have completed Junior High. 21.3% have had primary education. 9.7% have not had formal education at all.5.2% which forms the minority have had tertiary education. It was further revealed, that a significant proportion of the respondents were single (54.8%). 40.6 % were married, 3.9 % were divorced and 0.6% were widowed. It was further revealed that participants who had a child represented 17%, two children 20.6%, three children 14.2%, four children 3.9% have 4 children, and six children 6%. Majority of the respondents were imprisoned for theft (56.1%). 17.4% because of fraud. Other offenses such as fighting, road traffic offense, causing harm, robbery, assault, threat and sexual assault constitute the minority. Majority of respondents are Christians (72.3%). 27.7% are Muslims. Findings further revealed that majority of the respondents are skilled workers (65.2%). 34.8% are unskilled. 8.4% of respondents are employed either by government or private agencies. 47.7% are self-employed and 43.9% are unemployed. Minority of respondents affirmed that they are visited by family members 40 %. The remaining 60 % said they are not visited at all. 4.2 Testing of Hypothesis Five hypotheses were stated and tested in this section and the results from the analysis are presented below; To test hypotheses 1-3 which were, (1) There will be a significant positive correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-esteem of male prisoners. (2) There will be a significant positive correlation between needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing of male prisoners. (3) There will be a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and needs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 satisfaction of male prisoners. The multiple regression and the correlation matrix was used and results obtained are presented in Tables 2 and 3 respectively. Table 2. Correlation between Psychological Well-being, Self-Esteem and Needs Satisfaction Prisoners (n=155) Variables 1 2 3 Psychological Well- being Self-Esteem - - .433* .717* .591* Needs Satisfaction - - - *significant at .05 1. Psychological Well-being 2. Self-Esteem 3. Needs Satisfaction As revealed in Table 2, a significant positive correlation exists between psychological well-being and self-esteem [r = .433], a significant positive correlation exists between psychological well- being and needs satisfaction [r = .717], and a significant positive correlation exists between self esteem and needs satisfaction [r = .591]. The significant correlation between the three variables implies that a multiple regression analysis needs to be conducted to test the three hypotheses. Further, the two variables (self-esteem and needs satisfaction] control 51.5% variability in the psychological well-being [ODD Ratio = .515]. This is significant as indicated by the Anova/F ratio [F (2,152) = 80.605, p =.000]. Results from Standard Multiple Regression Analysis following the above observations are presented in Table 3. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Table 3. Standard Multiple Regression Analysis on the Relationship between Psychological Well-being, Self-Esteem and Needs Satisfaction of prisoners. Prisoners (n=155) Variables B Beta t Sig Psychological Well-being Self-Esteem 11.331 3.026 - .214 2.411 3.198 .017 .043 Needs Satisfaction 2.731 .709 10.127 .000 Results in Table 3, showed that significant positive correlation exists between psychological well-being and self-esteem [t = 3.198, p = .043]. Results further indicate that self-esteem controls 21.4% changes/variability in psychological well-being [Beta = .214]. Thus, the first hypothesis which states that “There will be a positive correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-esteem was supported by the results of the analysis. Hypothesis two states that “there will be a significant positive link between needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing”. Result from Table 3, further revealed a significant positive correlation between needs satisfaction and psychological well-being [t = 10.127, p = .000]. Needs satisfaction is revealed to control 70.9% changes/variability in psychological well-being [Beta = .709]. Thus, the second hypothesis was supported. Results in Table 3, revealed that the correlation between self esteem and needs satisfaction is positive and significant [r (153) = .591, p = .000]. This implies that the third hypothesis which University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 states that, “there will be a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and needs satisfaction” is also supported by the result of the analysis. The fourth and the fifth hypotheses states that “Prisoners with short sentences will show a healthier psychological well-being as compared to those with long sentences.” and “Prisoners who are visited by family members will exhibit a healthier psychological well-being than those who are not visited by family members”. Relevant information on these hypotheses is presented in Table 4. Table 4. Univariant Table on Effect of Duration of Imprisonment and Visiting Status on Psychological Wellbeing of Prisoners Prisoners (n=155) Groups M SD df F Sig Duration of imprisonment Short Period Long Period 67.88 67.10 10.00 12.65 1,151 3.03 .083 Visiting Status Visited Not Visited 68.50 66.91 9.93 11.98 .1.84 .176 Results in Table 4 shows that, the mean psychological well-being score recorded by prisoners serving short and long term are 67.88 and 67.10 with the SD of 10.00 and 12.65 respectively. These means were subjected to univariance analysis and the result, as shown in Table 4 indicates that, no significant difference exists between prisoners with short and long jail terms. Therefore University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 the hypothesis which stated that Prisoners with short sentences will show a healthier psychological well-being as compared to those with long sentences is not supported. Results in Table 3 also revealed that the mean score recorded by prisoners who are visited by family members and those who are not visited is 68.50 and 66.91 with the SD of 9.93 and 11.98 respectively. The means were subjected to univariance analysis and the results as shown in Table 3 indicates that, no significant difference exists between prisoners who are visited and those who are not visited by family members. Therefore, the hypothesis which states that Prisoners who are visited by family members will exhibit a healthier psychological well-being than those who are not visited by family members was also not supported. However, there is a significant interactional effect between duration of prison term and visitor status (whether visited or not) on psychological well-being of prisoners [F (1,151) =, p =0.0]. The two variables (length of prison sentence and visiting status) together control 3.8% variability in the psychological well-being of prisoners [n=.038]. 4.3 Summary of Results The main findings of the study are that; there is indeed a positive correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-esteem of prisoners. There is a significant positive link between needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing of prisoners. There is a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and needs satisfaction of prisoners. It was also revealed that length of prison sentence has no effect on prisoners psychological well-being. There was no significant effect of visiting status on prisoners’ psychological well-being. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 CHAPTER FIVE 5.1 DISCUSSION The study investigated the relationship between the self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being of prisoners. Five hypotheses were stated and tested and the first three were all supported but the last two were not supported by the result of the analysis. The first hypothesis “There will be a significant positive correlation between psychological well- being and self-esteem” was supported and results further indicate that self-esteem controls 21.4% changes/variability in psychological well-being. This finding supports the claims of Marsh (1989) that self-esteem is an important outcome of psychological well-being and also of (Rosenberg, Schooler, Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995) that global self-esteem is a better predictor of psychological well-being. The findings also supports Ryff (1989)’s assertion that an individual who exhibits mastery over all the aspect of Psychological-Wellbeing (Self-Acceptance, Purpose in life, Positive relationships, Personal growth, Autonomy, Environmental Mastery) will possess a positive self- esteem. Certainly Self-esteem is crucial and is seen as a cornerstone of a positive attitude towards living. Psychological well-being on the other hand is seen as a positive view of the self. In addition, self-esteem has a direct bearing on one’s happiness and wellbeing as indicated by Bonet (1997), that nothing in the way we think, feel, decide and act escapes the influence of self- esteem. The finding is also in line with Andrew and Michael (2002)’s finding that that high self– esteem was associated with greater well-being. Abraham Maslow (1987) also established a link between self-esteem and psychological well-being. According to him, psychological health is not possible unless the essential core of the person is fundamentally accepted, loved and respected University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 by others and by her or his self. Those who have high self-esteem are presumed to be psychologically happy and healthy (Branden, 1994; Taylor & Brown, 1988) whereas those with low self-esteem are believed to be psychologically distressed and perhaps even depressed (Tennen & Affleck, 1993). Having high self-esteem apparently provides benefits to those who possess it, they feel good about themselves, they are able to cope effectively with challenges and negative feedback, and they live in a social world in which they believe that people value and respect. Therefore an individual who possesses a high self-esteem is likely to exhibit a healthy psychological well-being hence the positive correlation between the two variables. Hypothesis two stated that, “There will be a significant positive correlation between needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing” was also supported and the analysis further revealed that need satisfaction control 70.9% changes/variability in psychological well-being. This finding is in line with Deci &Ryan Deci & Ryan (2000)’s finding, that the three psychological needs (competence, autonomy, and psychological relatedness) motivate the self to initiate behaviour and specify nutriments that are essential for psychological health and well-being of an individual. Therefore when the satisfaction of these needs is thwarted the individual may not function well. Craig (2001) posited that imprisonment basically takes away prisoners rights to satisfy the psychological needs of life, which are the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. Prisoners typically are denied their basic privacy rights, and lose control over mundane aspects of their existence. For some prisoners, the major source of stress would include the loss of contact with family and friends outside the prison and this may affect their satisfaction of the need for relatedness. There is lack of personal choice within the prison environment which may affect prisoners need for autonomy. Also, after many years of being told what to do they may University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 well lose the ability to think for themselves and make their own decisions and choices freely (Tosh: 1982). All these factors according to Ryff have a bearing on ones psychological well- being hence the positive correlation between needs satisfaction and psychological well-being. The third hypothesis, which states that, “there will also be a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and needs satisfaction” was also supported by the result of the analysis. Bonet (1997) posited that nothing in the way we think, feel, decide and act escapes the influence of self-esteem. Needs satisfaction involves the fulfillment of the needs of autonomy (that is the universal urge to be the causal agents of one’s life and actions in harmony with ones integrated self), competence (which has to do with the universal want to interact, be connected to and experience caring for others) and relatedness (this has to do with seeking to control outcome and experience mastery). Therefore, an individual who is able to fulfill all these needs will have a positive self–esteem. The importance of self-esteem lies in the fact that it concerns ourselves, the way we are and the sense of our personal value. Thus, it affects the way we are and act in the world and the way we are related to everybody else hence the positive correlation between the two variables. The fourth hypothesis states that “Prisoners with short sentence will show a healthier psychological well-being as compared to those with long sentences” This was not supported by the result of the analysis. (Yang et al., 2009; Mackenzie and Mitchell, 2005) concluded that the most damaging factor to an inmate is the loss of their life in the outside world and relations with family, rather than the actual regime or conditions of imprisonment. Schnittker and John (2007) further argued that any harm caused by imprisonment can only be seen upon release, mainly due to the stigma created by a period of imprisonment. It can then be inferred from the above that the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 length of a prison sentence has no impact on inmate’s psychological well-being hence the lack of support for the forth hypothesis. The fifth hypothesis which states that “Prisoners who are visited by family members will exhibit a healthier psychological well-being than those who are not visited by family members” was not supported by the results of the analysis. This finding contradicts the findings of John D. Wooldredge (1999) who examined how inmate psychological well-being is influenced by participation in institutional programs, frequency of visitation with outsiders, and experiences with victimization during incarceration and found out that healthier attitudes correspond with greater program participation, more frequent visitation, and no experience with victimization. 5.2 MISCELLANEOUS FINDINGS Other findings of the current study were that, majority of the respondents were within the age range of 18-29 years followed by those who were within the age range of 30-39 years. This is a worrying phenomenon because they form the greater portion of the country’s active human resource/working force and if they are all in prison then one may ask where we are heading towards as a country. The data also revealed that just a small percentage of the respondents, which is 5.2% out of the 155 have had tertiary education with majority being Primary, JHS and SHS graduates. This finding also supports the findings of Merton's earlier sociological theories, that many of the inmates in state prisons in the late 1990s showed very low education levels. Many could not read or write above elementary school levels, if at all. The most common crimes committed by these inmates were robbery, burglary, automobile theft, drug trafficking, and shoplifting. Because of their poor educational backgrounds, their employment histories consisted of mostly low wage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 jobs with frequent periods of unemployment. This indeed proves that level of education to some extent influences criminal behaviour. This is to assert that the higher one climbs the academic ladder, the less the possibility of him or her engaging in crime. The research used marital status to find out the percentage of respondents who are in a committed marital relationship and who is caring for the families they left behind. Even though the majority of the respondents were single, most of them have children living with their mothers, grandmothers or siblings. With men being the bread winners of the family, the question then is who is taking care of their wives and children. This brings to bear some of the negative impacts of imprisonment on society. In many instances, when the children of these prisoners are not well catered for, they end up becoming wayward children sometimes social deviants. An issue that could be coming out of this is whether there could be a legislation to find a way of catering for children of convicted criminals who are mostly innocent but only become victims of convicted criminals. Breen (2008) cited the (2006/7) annual reports of the Irish Prison Chaplains observed that for every individual who was incarcerated, there is a circle of people who are directly affected by their imprisonment. That is their wives and children. These children are left in the care of single parents. They are stigmatized and segregated in their social environment (home, school, church). This may affect their self-esteem and psychological well-being negatively as they grow. Since fathers are the bread winners of the home, the number of children was added in order to know how many children are out there with their fathers in prison and who their caretakers are. It came to light that 27, that is 17% out of the 155 respondents had a child each, 32 of them (20.6%) had two children each, 22 of them (14.2%) had three children each, 6 of them (3.9%) have 4 children University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 each and 1 of them (6%) had 6 children specifically. Approximately there are 187 children out there who have their fathers in prison. One essential role of religion is to inculcate moral consciousness in an individual, hence the reason behind the inclusion of religious background in this study. Even though the study was not intended to portray any religion as crime prone, respondents were asked to indicate their religious affiliation for the sake of stastistics. Majority of respondents, 72.3% (n=112) are Christians while the remaining 27.7% (n=43) are Muslims. This result does not necessarily mean that Christians commit more crimes than muslims. It may be just a reflection of the Christian and Islamic population in Ghana. The 2010 national population and housing census puts christians slightly above muslims and that could be the reason why the christian population in James Camp Prison is higher than the muslim population. It is possible to deduce from the finding that irrespective of one’s religious affiliation, and irrespective of the good moral values that are preached by various religious sects the world over, people still go outside the teachings and commit crime. The question is, does incarceration become the only alternative means of correcting deviant behaviours in society? Results from the demographic background of respondents further indicate that, 101 respondents, representing 65.2% are skilled workers while 54, representing 34.8% are unskilled. These skilled workers who are needed in society to work towards national development languish in jail and are fed from the nation’s scarce resources. As indicated already, some of the crimes that sent these skilled workers to prison do not really correspond with the jail term given them and that they could have been given other punishments that could aid the country’s development instead of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 current practice that is rather adding more to the county’s security bills. Also it can be said based on the above that commission of crime has nothing to do with having a skill or not. Furthermore, results from the analysis shows that 8.4% (n=13) of respondents are employed either by government or private agencies. 47.7% (n=74) are self-employed and 43.9% (n=68) are unemployed. This finding is also a reflection of the unemployment rate in Ghana which could also have an impact on the nation’s crime rate. It has already been revealed that majority of respondents, inmates of the James Camp Prison; go there as a result of theft and fraud. Even though the cumulative 56% employed respondents could have committed the crime due to various reasons, it is also logical to assert that many unemployed people who commit theft and fraud-related crimes do so for survival. 5.3 Summary and Conclusion The study investigated the relationship between self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being of prisoners. The James Camp Prisons in Accra was used for the study. The main objective was to find out the relationship between the three variables. Five hypotheses were stated and tested. The hypotheses are (1) There will be a significant positive correlation between psychological wellbeing and self-esteem. (2) There will be a significant positive link between needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing. (3) There will be a significant positive correlation between self-esteem and needs satisfaction. (4) To determine the influence of duration of sentence on prisoners psychological well-being (5) To determine the impact of having visitors on prisoners psychological well-being. Data was gathered from one hundred and fifty five male prisoners at the James Camp Prison with a questionnaire. The questionnaire comprised standardized scales that elicited information on self-esteem, needs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 satisfaction and psychological well-being. Findings in relation to the hypotheses revealed that the first three were all supported by the result of the analysis. The last two hypotheses were not supported. Thus a positive correlation exist between self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being. 5.4 Recommendation On the basis of the research findings, the researcher makes the following recommendations: 1.Counselling should be strengthened in our prisons to help reduce the psychological effects of imprisonment on inmates. In doing this, programs which will best match offenders to their needs must be established which may include substance/drug-abuse treatment, anger management, decision making, sexual abuse, and conflict resolution. This can help improve their self-esteem, psychological well-being and their easy integration into society. 2.Caring for prisoners should not be left for the government alone, companies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), social clubs and especially churches must all come on board to ease the burden on government. 3. Training of inmates must be improved and made mandatory not on voluntary basis to help equip inmates with employable skills before their release. This can also help to improve prisoners’ self-esteem and psychological well-being prior to their release because they are sure of a means of survival after prison, easy integration into society and reduction of recidivism. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 4. People should be encouraged to accept; support and love prisoners despite their shortcomings and that will aid in improving their self-esteem, needs satisfaction and psychological well-being to some extent while serving their jail term and reduce recidivism. 5. There is the need for the National Commission on Civic Education (NCCE) to step up its work and educate the general public on the laws of the country and the offenses that can take people to prison. This will aid people live a more cautious life. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 REFERENCES Adu, K. 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Retrieved from: http://www.healthaustralia.com/psychology/criminal-psychology-bps308.php Shivani, T. (2013). The Psychological effects of Incarceration on inmates: Can we Promote Positive Emotion in inmates. Delhi Psychiatry Journal,16 Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D.M., (2007). Social Psychology. New York: Psychology Press. Stephen, B. (2007). Important Theories in Criminology: why people commit crime. Retrieved from: http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/important-theories-in-criminology-why- people-commit.html Taylor, S. E., Brown, J. D. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210. Tennen, H., & Affleck, G. (1993). The puzzles of self-esteem: A clinical perspective. In R. F. Baumeister, (Ed.), Plenum series in social/clinical psychology (pp. 241–262.) New York: Plenum Press. The Ghana Prison Service. Retrieved from www.mint.gov.gh. Tosh, J., (1982). The Pains of Imprisonment. California: Sage Publications. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 Van Harreveld, F., Van der Pligt, J., Claassen, L., & Van Dijk, W. W. (2007). Inmate emotion coping and psychological and physical well-being: The use of crying over spilled milk. Criminal Justice and Behavior. Welch, J. (2012) State of Ghana Prisons. Retrieved from: http://www. Ghanabusinessnews. com/2012/04/25amnesty-international-releases- report-on-state-of-ghanas-prisons Wooldredge, J. D. (1999). Inmate experiences and psychological well-being. Criminal justice and behavior, 26(2), 235-250. Yang, S., Kadouri, A., Révah-Lévy, A., Mulvey, E. P., & Falissard, B. (2009). Doing time: a qualitative study of long-term incarceration and the impact of mental illness. International journal of law and psychiatry, 32(5), 294-303. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 APPENDIX QUESTIONNAIRE ADMINISTERED TO PRISONERS Preamble: I am a graduate student of the Methodist University College, Ghana undertaking a research into “The relationship between the self-esteem needs satisfaction and psychological wellbeing of Prisoners. A case study of the James Camp Prisons.” This research is in partial fulfillment for the award of the M/A degree in Guidance and Counselling. You have been specially selected / chosen as a person who can provide specialist information to assist this study. I therefore, need your co-operation in responding to this questionnaire. Be assured that, this questionnaire will be used solely for the purpose of this research and information gathered will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Thank you. A. Socio-demographic background Information of respondents. 1. Age in years: 18-29 ( ) 30-39 ( ) 40-49 ( ) 50-59 ( ) 60 and above ( ) 2. Gender: ( ) Male ( ) Female 3. Educational background: Basic ( ) JHS ( ) SHS( ) Tertiary ( ) Post graduate ( ) None ( ) 4. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( ) Divorced ( ) Widowed ( ) 5. Number of children: 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 ( ) 5 and above ( ) None ( ) 6. No. of years to spend in prison: Under 1yr ( ) 1-5 ( ) 6-10 ( ) 11-15 ( ) 7. Which of the offenses below brought you to prison? Sexual Offence ( ) Murder ( ) Armed Robbery ( ) Theft ( ) Road Traffic Offence ( ) Fighting ( ) Causing Harm ( ) Threat ( ) Defrauding ( ) Others: Specify……………… 8. Religious Background: Christian ( ) Muslim ( ) Traditionalist ( ) others: ..……… 9. Occupation: Employed ( ) Unemployed / Unskilled ( ) Self Employed / Skilled ( ) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 INSTRUCTIONS B. Self-Esteem Scale Below is a list of statements dealing with your general feelings about yourself. Please indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with each statement by circling your option. Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree 10. On the whole, I am satisfied with my life 1 2 3 4 11. At times I think I am no good at all. 1 2 3 4 12. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. 1 2 3 4 13. I am able to do things as well as most other people. 1 2 3 4 14. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. 1 2 3 4 15. I certainly feel useless at times. 1 2 3 4 16. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. 1 2 3 4 17. I wish I could have more respect for myself. 1 2 3 4 18. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. 1 2 3 4 19. I have a positive attitude toward myself. 1 2 3 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 C. Needs Satisfaction Scale Please read each of the following items carefully, thinking about how it relates to your life, and then indicate how true it is for you. Use the following scale to respond by circling the numbers that corresponds to your response. (Needs Satisfaction) Not at All True Somewhat True Untrue 20. I feel like I am free to decide for myself how to live my life. 1 2 3 4 21. I really like the people I interact with 1 2 3 4 22. Often , I do not feel very competent 1 2 3 4 23. I feel pressured in my life 1 2 3 4 24. People I know tell me I am good at what I do. 1 2 3 4 25. I get along with people I come into contact with. 1 2 3 4 26. I pretty much keep to myself and don’t have a lot of social contacts. 1 2 3 4 27. I generally feel free to express my ideas and opinions. 1 2 3 4 28. I consider the people I regularly interact with to be my friends. 1 2 3 4 29. I have been able to learn interesting new skills recently. 1 2 3 4 30. In my daily life, I frequently have to do what I am told. 1 2 3 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 31. People in my life care about me. 1 2 3 4 32. Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from what I do. 1 2 3 4 33. People I interact with on a daily basis tend to take my feelings into consideration. 1 2 3 4 34. In my life I do not get much chance to show how capable I am. 1 2 3 4 35. There are not many people that I am close to. 1 2 3 4 36. I feel like I can pretty much be myself in my daily situations 1 2 3 4 37. The people I interact with regularly do not seem to like me much. 1 2 3 4 38. I often do not feel very capable. 1 2 3 4 39. There is not much opportunity for me to decide for myself how to do things in my daily life. 1 2 3 4 40. People are generally pretty friendly towards me. 1 2 3 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 D. Psychological Well-Being Scale Please read each of the following items carefully, thinking about how it relates to your life, and then indicate how true it is for you. Use the following scale to respond: (Psychological Well-being) Strongly Disagree Moderately Disagree Slightly Disagree Slightly Agree Moderately Agree Strongly Agree 41. I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 42. In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live. 1 2 3 4 5 6 43..I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think about yourself and the world. 1 2 3 4 5 6 44. Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me. 1 2 3 4 5 6 45. I live life one day at a time and don’t really think about the future. 1 2 3 4 5 6 46. When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out. 1 2 3 4 5 6 47. I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general consensus. 1 2 3 4 5 6 48. The demands of everyday life often get me down. 1 2 3 4 5 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 49. For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing and growth. 1 2 3 4 5 6 50. People would describe me a giving person, willing to share my time with others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 51. Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them. 1 2 3 4 5 6 52. I like most aspects of my life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 53. I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is important. 1 2 3 4 5 6 54. I am quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 55. I gave up trying to make a big improvement or changes in my life a long time ago. 1 2 3 4 5 6 56.I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others. 1 2 3 4 5 6 57. I sometimes feel as if I’ve done all there is to do in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 58. In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life. 1 2 3 4 5 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh