University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA ASSESSMENT IN BASIC EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY OF GA-EAST MUNICIPALITY THERESA GYABENG (10593897) A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE IN MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION APRIL, 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Inclusive assessment has been a global issue in recent times especially in this era of inclusive education where teachers frame their teaching, learning and assessment practise to meet students with special educational needs. The broad aim of this study was to assess Ghanaian in basic educational system. Descriptive survey which is a case study in nature was adopted for this study. Ga East municipality was specifically selected as the target population because it is the only district in Accra that is currently practicing inclusive education in all of its schools. Schools in the Ga-East have a population of five hundred and sixty-eight (568) teachers. The convenience sampling technique was employed to sample 259 respondents (basic school teachers) from the 31 schools in the Ga East district. Findings of this study indicate that a significant majority of teachers have not been adequately trained to adequately accommodate students with various special educational needs in general education classrooms. The study also found out that, teachers believe inclusive assessment is theoretically valid but practically impossible. According to the findings, 76.1% strongly agreed that, at all levels there should be regular monitoring and periodic assessment aimed at improving the child performance. The study concluded that teachers agreed that inclusive assessments provide different students with the opportunities for mutual communication thus promotes students to understand and accept individual diversity. The study further revealed that teachers in the Ga Municipality face challenges in administering inclusive assessment which includes lack of teaching and learning materials, inadequate time for the inclusive assessment, inadequate training in inclusive assessment, large class size, lack of motivation and lack of logistics and facilities. The study therefore recommends that, there is a need to institute and strengthen the special education component in professional development programs in schools. The study further recommends that for successful inclusive assessment to take place, teachers need to tailor the curriculum to suit the needs of all students. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to the Almighty God for his guidance and protection throughout the course of my program. His grace and mercy have brought me this far and I am indeed grateful. and prayers. I express my gratitude to Dr. Paul Kwame Butakor, my supervisor for his good counsel, encouragement, and support in the course of writing this thesis. I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues for their help and contribution towards the success of my project. This research would not have been feasible without the contribution from the Director of the Municipal Directorate of Education in the Ga East Municipality as well as all Basic School Teachers in the Municipality. I offer my sincere gratitude and thanks. God bless you all. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my dear husband, Kingsley Aboagye-Gyedu as well my lovely children, Akua, Yaw, Kwame, Kwaku and Jennifer. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION i ABSTRACT ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii DEDICATION iv LIST OF TABLES viii LIST OF FIGURES ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 5 1.3 Research Objectives 7 1.3.1 Main Objective 7 1.3.2 Specific Objectives 7 1.4 Research Questions 7 1.5 Significance of the Study 7 1.6 Scope/ Delimitation of the Study 8 1.7 Organization of the Study 9 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 10 2.1 Introduction 10 2.2 Theoretical Framework 10 2.2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action 10 2.2.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour 11 2.2.3 Tolerance Theory 12 2.3 Factors of Inclusive Education 14 2.4 Historical Antecedent of Inclusive Education in Ghana 23 2.4.1 Challenges to the Implementation of Inclusive Education 24 2.5 Teachers' Attitudes towards Inclusive Education 26 2.6 Profile of Teachers in the current Educational System in Ghana 28 2.7 The Concept of Assessment 29 2.7.1 Types of Assessments 31 2.7.1.1 Summative Assessment 31 2.7.1.2 Formative Assessment 32 2.7.1.3 Inclusive Assessment 33 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8 Empirical Review 35 2.8.1 Teachers' Attitude towards Inclusive Assessment 35 2.8.2 Challenges Teachers Face in Administering Inclusive Assessment 40 2.8.3 43 2.9 Conceptual Framework 45 2.9.1.1 Conceptual Framework on Teacher's Attitude on Inclusive Assessment 46 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 48 3.0 Introduction 48 3.1 Research Approach 48 3.2 Research Paradigm 50 3.3 Research Design 51 3.4 Study Population 51 3.5 Sample Size 52 3.6 Sampling Technique(s) 53 3.7 Sources of Data 54 3.8 Instruments for Data Collection 54 3.9 Procedure 56 3.10 Data Analysis 56 3.11 Reliability and Validity 57 3.12 Ethical Considerations 58 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 60 4.0 Introduction 60 4.1 Demographic Data of Respondents 60 4.2 64 4.3 Research Question Two: What is 67 4.4 Research Question Three: What is the Attitude of Teachers towards Inclusive Assessment? 69 4.5 Research Question Four: What are the Challenges Inclusive Assessment? 72 4.6 Analysis of Qualitative Data 75 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 78 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1 Introduction 78 5.2 Summary of Finding 78 5.3 Conclusion 79 5.4 Recommendations 80 5.5 Recommendations for Future Research 81 REFERENCES 83 APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE 92 APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE 96 APPENDIX III: ETHICAL APPROVAL LETTER 98 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents 60 Table 4.2: Age Group of Respondents 61 Table 4.3: Educational qualification of respondents 62 Table 4.4: Rank of respondents 62 Table 4.5: Teaching experience of Respondents 63 Table 4.6: Level of teaching 64 Table 4.7: 65 Table 4.8: 68 71 istering inclusive assessment 73 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Model of inclusive education 14 Figure 2.2: Conceptual framework on Teacher's attitude on inclusive assessment 46 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study In recent times, extending access to education has been a global focus because education remains an essential tool for promoting empowerment and social cohesion (Butcher, Sinclair & Clarke, 2015). According to Hanushek (2013), the focus on human capital as a driver of economic growth for developed and developing countries alike, has led to excessive attention on school attainment. It is widely acknowledged that, the impact of human capital becomes strong when the focus of education turns to the role of school quality (Hanushek, 2013). The role of improved schooling has been a central part of the development strategies of most countries and contemporary studies shows significant improvements in school attainment across the developing world in recent decades (Botts, & Owusu, 2013). The UN (2019) posits that education reduces inequalities, can break the cycle of poverty, foster tolerance, reach gender equality and equity, and empower people to live more healthy lives and attain productive livelihoods. More so, the 21st century has seen several agenda, deliberations and programmes towards improving and harnessing education across several spheres, endeavours and industries. A typical global agenda was leveraged through the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and now through the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UNDP, 2018). The Education for All (EFA) initiative from the United Nations was an essential element of the Millennium Development Goals, in part, because education was seen as being crucial to human development, and also because so many children did not have access to education (UNESCO, 2005). The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 also seeks equitable quality education and promote lifelong le (UN, 2019). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Inclusive education has been a global task to which school system across the world respond. It is perhaps understood as a process towards school systems that welcome all learners despite their background, disability or other personal characteristics (Malinen, Savolainen, & Xu, 2012). This move has been identified as a catalyst for educational transformation towards realising quality education for all, although, there are clear differences in national policies and transformation of schools (Savolainen, Engelbrecht, Nel, & Malinen, 2012). According to Marx, (2019), the growth and spread of education has come with inclusiveness and equity in schools should accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions (Butakor, Ampadum, & Suleiman, 2018). That is, school should include children with special educational needs and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized backgrounds (Marx, 2019). Inclusive education embraces the concept of diverse backgrounds of learners with varied characteristics, such as different learning capacities and cognitive development. Inclusion is based on the philosophy that all students are different in their own way and in order to meet their learning needs, therefore, schools need to adapt and change their practices. Thus, under an inclusive philosophy, schools exist to meet the needs of all students, hence, if a student is experiencing difficulties, the problem is with the schooling practices not with the student (Sharma, Loreman, & Forlin, 2012). The main aim of incorporating such development into mainstream education is to facilitate the building of an inclusive society which has gained international audience. For instance, in 1993 the education of children with special educational needs in mainstream classrooms became an internationally accepted goal both by the United Nations and at the World Conference on Special Needs Education in Salamanca (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). According to Spencer and Duhaney (2009), data from the department of 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education in the United State in 1996 revealed that about 73% to 95% of students with learning needs received their instructional program in education classrooms and resource room settings, and general education schools respectively. Including all children in education has been a major challenge facing educational systems around the world (Ainscow & Sandill, 2010). Despite the push for educational inclusion for all learners across the globe, the case of Africa is less told as it is estimated that, only 10% of children with learning needs in Africa attend school (UNESCO, 2009). In South Africa, up to 70% of children of school-going age with learning needs schools (Donohue & Bornman, 2014). Similarly, Ghana, like many other developing and Sub- Saharan African countries struggle to achieve goals for inclusive education (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). It is estimated that, only about 3% of children with learning needs receive any form of education. This translates to the fact that, either children and youth with learning needs drop out of basic education in a very short time or have never had the opportunity to go to school at all (Idol, 2006). In recent times, Ghana has ratified its commitment to Education for All (EFA) and to reaching marginalised students through inclusive education (Anthony, 2011). This shows a clear evidence that the government of Ghana has committed itself, at both the international and national levels, to the human rights, equalisation of opportunities and provision of educational services for individuals with learning needs (Anthony, 2011). Despite the progress in establishing inclusive educational system across the length and breadth of Ghana, its realization seems far behind. The country is nowhere near achieving the target of an inclusive system of education (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Therefore, there is the need for extra effort in awareness and effective governmental responses to improve the quality of life of persons with special educational needs as an urgent step toward realising the inclusive educational goal ( Botts, & Owusu, 2013). 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Ofori (2018), major challenges militating against Ghana realization of inclusive education includes negative attitudes in society about students with special needs, lack of facilities, logistics and infrastru aining for teachers in handling students with learning needs as well as challenges with proper assessment of students in all-inclusive setting. Prominent amongst the aforementioned bottlenecks is the issue with proper assessment which comprises inclusive assessment of these students with different needs. Inclusive assessment, practically has been part of education and in general been significantly part of pedagogical development (Keating, Zybutz, & Rouse, 2012). As argued by Avramidis, Bayliss and Burden (2000), successful implementation of any form of inclusive policy is largely dependent on educators being positive about inclusive assessment. Inclusive assessment is an aspect of education where teachers frame their teaching, learning and assessment practices that meet the needs of all students. Inclusive assessment moves away from a model of adjustments to design assessment models which allow all students to choose the format of assessment that will enable them to express their ideas in the most equitable way (Keating et al., 2012). According to Butcher, Sinclair and Clarke (2015), inclusive assessment is the most equitable way to achieve and demonstrate all aspects of learning and with a limited hindrance from personal circumstances. However, it is admonished that practicing inclusive assessment would not compromise academic and professional standards but improve the chances of students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills and to meet their learning outcomes. It is against this background that this study assessment in Ghana. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Statement of the Problem Inclusive assessment in recent time has also been a vital activity in shaping inclusive education across the world (Malinen et al., 2012; Keating et al., 2012). As an important aspect of teaching and learning, inclusive assessment motivates pupils to learn a the contrary, inaccurate assessment promotes reverse effect in progress. Assessment serves as a guide to the teacher to identify the intelligent level of the pupils and develop strategies of teaching with the aid of suitable teaching and learning materials (Salvia et al., 2013). This means, inclusive assessment is anticipated to eliminate discrimination against special educational needs and also model best pedagogy practices (Keating et al., 2012). This makes inclusive assessment an important educational tool with positive outcome (Douglas et al., 2016) and achieving equity in education (Salvia et al., 2013). Over the years, there have been trends of effort among educators and industry players moving towards the inclusion of students (Idol, 2006; Sharma et al., 2012). Despite the increasing frequency of inclusive education, positive outcomes for students with learning needs have not been consistently associated with inclusion reforms (Cook, 2001) most especially in Ghana (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Although there are differences in national policies regarding inclusive education, global debate has not fully considered their impact on implementation within different countries (Savolainen et al., 2012; Sharma et al., 2012). There has been various study on inclusive education (see Idol, 2006; Nonis & Tan Sing, 2011; Douglas et al., 2016) yet less have been studied in Ghana (Agbenyega, 2011; Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013; Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Again, whiles attitudes of teachers towards inclusion have been studied widely in other countries (Armstrong, Armstrong, & Spandagou, 2009; Hornby, 2011; Grynova & Kalinichenko, 2018; Niemeyer, 2014; Al-Yagon & Margalit, 2001), little research in this area has been done in Ghana and no study has critically examined inclusive assessment erception or attitude towards inclusive assessment in Ghana. As 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh assessment as a step towards achieving the inclusive educational goal in Ghana. According to Burke and Sutherland (2004), successful implementation of any inclusion program depends on the attitude of teachers who work closely with the students involved. Thus, attitudes are influenced by teachers experience and knowledge about students with learning needs (Burke & Sutherland, 2004). Implementing inclusive assessment is not an easy task hence requires significant change to facilitate improvements in the way teachers work in the classrooms. Again, teacher ability is also associated with improvement in attitudes towards teaching in inclusive classrooms (Sharma et al., 2012). uggest that education outcomes (Butakor, Ampadum, & Suleiman, 2018). Numerous arguments have also been made for inclusive and equity in the assessment of education, and compelling among these are the economic arguments that have linked educational attainment to economic growth across different locations (Yanez, 2012; Arabi & Abdalla, 2012; Isola & Alani, 2012). Meaning, educational attainment of a person with special educational needs can enhance development (Nubler, 2016). The aforementioned problems have not been empirically established in the Ghanaian context. Therefore, this study would assess nclusive assessment in basic education in Ghana. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Research Objectives 1.3.1 Main Objective The broad aim of this study is to assess assessment in basic educational system. 1.3.2 Specific Objectives To achieve the preceeding broad aim, the study was driven by the following specific objectives. These included to; i. education. ii. iii. Find out usive assessment. iv. 1.4 Research Questions The following questions would be asked in order to achieve the research objectives. i. What is teachers level of knowledge about inclusive education? ii. How knowledgeable are teachers about inclusive assessment? iii. What is the attitude of teachers towards inclusive assessment? iv. assessment? 1.5 Significance of the Study This study will contribute immensely to educational policy development by providing insight into effective formulation and implementation of policies on inclusive education because, the insightful discovery of this study would provide vital information to the ministries, departments and agencies that are directly or indirectly responsible for educational policy formulation, implementation, evaluation and resource mobilization. For instance, this study looks at the challenges of inclusive policies and strategies on education. This is useful information to 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh enhance the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals on inclusive and equitable quality education. The outcome from this research would serve important purposes. The study will be useful to future researchers who might want to conduct further studies in this subject area. In other words, the study will be significant to academic literature on inclusive assessment in education in Ghana and the world at large. More importantly, the study will provide empirical literature for a developing economy like Ghana. For the 2006 Convention on the Rights of Persons with Learning needs to be achieved, it becomes important for such organizations such as schools to identify what approaches to drive these goals into fruition. A practical understanding into the assessment can help in achieving such goals. 1.6 Scope/ Delimitation of the Study Content Scope: The study focuses on assessment in basic schools in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Geographical Scope: This study is limited to teachers in basic schools in the Ga-East district. this is because, basic schools in the Ga-East district have been purposively chosen and sponsored by UNICEF to implement inclusive education. The schools included Ashongman Estate Basic School; Kwabenya M/A School; Kwabenya Atomic; Dome M/A Basic Schools; Dome Anglican Basic; Taifa M/A Basic Schools; St. Dominic B/C Basic; Agbogba Anglican Basic; Papoe Presby School; Haatso Presby School; Ashongman M/A Basic School; Abokobi Presby Basic; Akporkman Model School; Adekrebi School; and Icoehs. Time Scope: The time frame for the collection of information for this study, administration of research instrument (questionnaires and interview guide), write-ups of chapters, data entries, and analysis, meeting with supervisor and final submission was 12 months. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7 Organization of the Study This thesis is organized into five sections or parts. The first section contains the general introduction which entails the background of the study, the statement of the research problem, the study objectives and questions, relevance or significant of the thesis and the organization of the study. Chapter two presents the literature review and it covers both the theoretical and empirical (existing) literature as well as conceptual model on the research area and come out with meaningful results that confirm or support the findings of other scholars in the extant literature. Chapter three presents the methodology which provides in detail the various strategies with the justifications adopted to collect and analyze the data. The study design, population, and sample, the sampling technique, research instruments, and the method of data analysis will be presented in this chapter. Chapter four applies data analysis methods to the data gathered and presents the findings of the study based on the objectives. The summary of results, conclusion, and recommendations for practice and future studies are captured in chapter five. The reference of all persons and institutions will be duly cited and followed right after this chapter. The research interview guide and questionnaire will also be provided in the appendix. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on three main areas of literature, thus, theoretical underpinnings, empirical literature as well as the conceptual framework. The theoretical underppings did a review on the concept of assessment, which focused on the types of assessments with emphasis on the summative assessment, formative assessment and inclusive assessment. The empirical review was thematically done based on the research objectives, thus, teachers' attitude towards inclusive assessment, challenges teachers face in administering of inclusive assessment and factors A conceptual framework was designed to guide this research. 2.2 Theoretical Framework 2.2.1 Theory of Reasoned Action The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) was initially introduced by Fishbein (1967). It was in an attempt to appreciate the relation between attitude and behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The TRA seeks to elucidate the association between attitudes, beliefs, intentions and behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). According to Ajzen & Fishbein (1980), the TRA theory stipulate that the exact determinant of behaviour is behavioural intention. The TRA further states that individuals' direct determinants of behavioural intentions are their attitudes towards performing the behaviour and the subjective norms related to the behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), a person's attitude is determined by his/her beliefs about the results or attributes of carrying out a particular behaviour: that is, behavioural beliefs, inclusive assessment will determine whether they will perform it or not. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To understand an individual's voluntary behaviour by assessing the underlying basic motivation to perform an action is the principal purpose of the TRA (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). It states that the prejudiced norm of an individual is determined by whether vital referents: that is, persons who are important to the individuals, approve or disapprove of the performance of those referents (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Montano, Kasprzyk & Stephen, 2002). TRA states that whether or not people actually perform a behaviour is the main predictor of a person's intention to perform the behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). Furthermore, what also contributes to whether or not an individual will actually perform the behaviour is the normative component (that is, social norms surrounding the act). Intention to perform a specific behaviour precedes the actual behaviour, according to the theory (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). This intention is referred to as behavioural intention and comes as a result of a belief that performing the behaviour will lead to a specific outcome. Behavioural intention is important to TRA. This is because these intentions are determined by attitudes to behaviours and subjective norms (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). 2.2.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1991) provides a useful framework for addressing the relationship between attitude and behavior. This work therefore uses this theory to explain in order to predict a specific behavior, attitudes, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention in relation to that behavior need to be taken into consideration (Ajzen, 1991) ion of how significant others will approve of their behavior. Perceived behavioral control is the perception of how easy or behavioral intention is willingness to carry out the given behavior f plan behavior forecast that behavior is more likely to be put 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh up if each component of the subjective norm, perceived behaviors and behavior intention are favorable. That is to say behavior intention is predicted by attitudes, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control (Ajzen, 1991). Here, attitudes are considered as containing both cognitive (beliefs), and affective (feelings) dimensions. The the friends with special educational needs. Subjective norm to be the strongest predictor of effective teacher behavior with students with learning needs. This suggests the importance of school ethos as a predictor of teacher behavior. It has been argued that perceived behavioral control can be conceptualized as teacher efficacy (Ajzen, 1991) and serve as a means to measure perceived behavioral control. Measuring subjective norm although difficult can be done through assessing school princip principals expectations (Kuyini & Desai, 2007). Su rate their (Ajzen, 1991). According to Batsiou et al. (2008), experience and training influenced eliefs and intentions in relation to teaching pupils with special needs. It is noted that, teachers who had more positive feelings toward children with behavioral difficulties, accompanied by higher levels of perceived behavioral control, were more likely to report the intention to behave inclusively (MacFarlane & Woolfson, 2013). 2.2.3 Tolerance Theory Tolerance theory posits that, teachers can match their instruction to a limited variety of learning characteristics. Since teachers cannot optimally address the needs of all students at any given time, it is essential to align the teaching methods to the learning needs for effective assessment 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of these students. Thus, students for whom instruction is aligned with their learning needs fall pical classroom, some students will invariably fall outside of teacher tolerance (Cook, 2001). Students who fall outside of instructional irtue of their referral and identification for special services, it appears logical to assume that students with learning needs are at the limits or outside of the instructional tolerance of most teachers. Including students with severe and obvious learning needs may, therefore, be accepted because of, rather than despite, their obvious differences. Alternatively, students with mild or hidden learning needs do not exhibit obvious signs of their educational needs and are therefore expected to attain modal performance and behavioral standards. Thus, when students with mild learning needs engage in atypical behavior, they are frequently rejected for violating the modal, or non-adjusted, expectations other group members hold for them. It is paradoxical, then, that students with mild learning needs may be rejected precisely because they are perceived to be just like everyone else. The model of differential expectations is examined in regard to teachers for the first time in the present investigation and, in combination with tenets of tolerance theory, is used to generate predictions regarding ing students with hidden and obvious learning needs. It is posited that inclusive teachers nominate a higher proportion of their students with obvious learning needs in the attachment category in comparison to their included students with hidden learning needs. Teachers are likely to hold attitudes of attachment toward students with obvious learning needs because of the protected group roles they fulfill in virtue of the overt nature of their learning needs (Cook, 2001). Moreover, even though students with obvious learning needs are likely to fall well beyond djusted expectations and therefore will not prohibit attachment. Finally, because teachers, as well as 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh classmates, are theorized to hold differentiated expectations toward included students with obvious learning needs, it is predicted that inclusive teachers reject their included students with hidden learning needs significantly more often than their included students with obvious learning needs. In contrast to included students with hidden learning needs, poor response to modal instruction and anomalous be tolerance) is expected and does not engender rejection for included students with obvious learning needs (Cook, 2001). 2.3 Factors of Inclusive Education At its most basic, inclusive education means educating learners with special educational needs in regular education settings. This process involves the transformation of schools to cater for all children. Mitchell (2015) proffered the notion that inclusive education (IE) is a multifaceted concept, which can be summarised in the formula , where V = Vision; P = Placement; A = Adapted Curriculum; A = Adapted Assessment; A = Adapted Teaching; A = Acceptance; A = Access; S = Support; R = Resources; and L = Leadership. This is shown in Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1: Model of inclusive education 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 Vision Inclusive education depends on educators at all levels of the system being committed to its underlying philosophy and being willing to implement it. This means that education systems and schools should articulate an inclusive culture in around values of respect for difference and a commitment to offering all pupils access to ognising the obligations that most countries entered into when they signed and ratified the Convention on the Rights of Disabled Persons (United Nations, 2006), which includes a significant commitment to inclusive education in Article 24, stating, inter alia: 1. States Parties recognise the right of persons with disabilities to education. With a view to realising this right without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all levels, and life-long learning, directed to: (a) The full development of the human potential and sense of dignity and self-worth, and the strengthening of respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms and human diversity; (b) The development by persons with disabilities of their personality, talents and creativity, as well as their mental and physical abilities, to their fullest potential; (c) Enabling persons with disabilities to participate effectively in a free society. 2.3.2 Placement Most scholars of inclusive education either explicitly or implicitly state that inclusion refers to the placement of all students in regular schools and classrooms, regardless of their level of ability (Luciak & Biewer, 2011). In an early meta-analysis, 11 empirical studies carried out between 1975 and 1984 were analysed. It was shown that mainstreamed special educational needs students (mentally retarded, learning needs, hearing impaired and mixed exceptionalities) consistently outperformed non-mainstreamed students with comparable special education classifications. Two types of mainstreaming were included: part-time with 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occasional pull-out resource class attendance, and full-time inclusion in general classes. Of the 115 effect sizes calculated, two-thirds indicated an overall positive effect of mainstreaming. The overall effect size was 0.33, which translates into a gain of 13 percentiles for students in mainstreamed settings (Wang & Baker, 1986). In a more recent meta-analysis, Hattie (2009) obtained a somewhat more modest effect size of 0.21 in favour of mainstreaming. 2.3.3 Adapted Curriculum Mitchell (2015) argued that making appropriate adaptations or modifications to the curriculum is central to inclusive education. He further pointed out that such a curriculum should be a single curriculum, that is, as far as possible, accessible to all learners, including those with special educational needs. In addition, it should include activities that are age-appropriate, but are pitched at a developmentally appropriate level. Since an inclusive classroom is likely to contain students who are functioning at two or three levels of the curriculum, this means that multi-level teaching will have to be employed; or, at a minimum, adaptations will have to be made to take account of the student diversity. With the advent of inclusive education policies and practices, many countries are addressing the need for students with special educational needs to have access to the general education curriculum. 2.3.4 Adapted Assessment Just as learners with special educational needs are expected to participate and progress in the general curriculum, albeit with appropriate modifications and adaptations, so, too, are they or state assessment regimes. Both trends are part of the wider concern for standards-based reform in education that is dominating much of the educational and political discourse around the world. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The nature of these arrangements is determined according to the assessment needs of the individual student, but must not give him or her an unfair advantage over other students. Some may be awarded extra time to complete the assessment task, or may be permitted to take supervised breaks or rest periods during the examination. For visually impaired students, the visual presentation of the papers may be changed by, for example, the use of large print or a simplified layout of the examination paper, or by the use of braille versions of the papers. Other candidates may have questions read to them, flashcards may be used to assist hearing-impaired candidates in mental arithmetic tests, or typewritten, word-processed or transcribed responses may be accepted from students who are unable to write. Some candidates may also be allowed to take their examinations at a venue other than the examination centre, for example, at home or in hospital. Basically, there are two types of adjustments to nation-or state-wide assessments. Assessments with accommodations. This involves making changes to the assessment process, but not to the essential content. Braden et al. (2001) described accommodations as alterations to the setting, timing, administration and types of responses in assessments. Here, assessors need to distinguish between accommodations necessary for students to access or express the intended learning content and the content itself. Alternate assessments. As defined by the US Department of Education (2003), alternate f students with special educational needs who are unable to participate in the regular State assessment, even with circumstances, including: teacher observations, samples of stude during regular classroom instruction, and standardised performance tasks. Furthermore, alternate assessments should have: a clearly defined structure, 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh guidelines determining which students may participate, clearly defined scoring criteria and procedures, a report format that clearly communicates student performance in terms of the academic achievement standards defined by the State, and high technical quality, including validity, reliability, accessibility and objectivity, which applies to regular State assessments as well. 2.3.5 Adapted Teaching Educators are increasingly expected to be responsible not only for helping students to achieve the best possible outcomes, but also for using the most scientifically valid methods to achieve them. Mitchell (2015), presented some 27 strategies that have a substantial evidence base for improving outcomes for learners with special educational needs. For the sake of brevity, this study summarized 12 such strategies. Behavioural approaches: Behavioural approaches focus on how events that occur either before (antecedents) or after (consequences) learners engage in a verbal or physical act affect their subsequent behaviour. Functional behavioural assessment: Functional behavioural assessment is a subset of the behavioural approaches outlined above. In essence, it refers to the procedures used to determine maintained. Review and practice: These require planning and supervising opportunities for learners to encounter the same skills or concepts on several occasions. It is aimed at helping learners to case with basic skills that are taught hierarchically, so that success at any level requires the application of knowledge and skills mastered earlier. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Direct Instruction: Direct Instruction (DI) is a multi-component instructional strategy centring on teacher-directed, explicit, systematic teaching based on scripted lesson plans and frequent assessment. Research studies have consistently shown that DI has a positive effect across a range of learners and across various subject areas. Formative assessment and feedback: Formative assessment and feedback is a combined strategy in which teachers (a) probe for knowledge within lessons, (b) give frequent feedback to learners (sometimes referred to as corrective feedback), and (c) adjust their teaching strategies, whe Cooperative group teaching: This is based on two main ideas about learning. First, it recognises that when learners cooperate, or collaborate, it has a synergistic effect. In other words, by working together they can often achieve a result that is greater than the sum of their individual efforts or capabilities. Second, it recognises that a great deal of knowledge is socially constructed; that is, children learn from others in their immediate environments: their families, friendship groups and classmates. Peer tutoring: relationship that teachers should capitalise on. There is a substantial literature on peer tutoring, i.e., si es a learning experience for another Social skills training: This is a set of strategies aimed at helping learners establish and maintain positive interactions with others. Most children quite easily acquire the social skills that are appropriate to their culture, but some do not and must be explicitly taught them. Some have poor social perception and consequently lack social skills. Classroom climate: The classroom climate is a multi-component strategy comprising the psychological features of the classroom, as distinct from its physical features. The key principle 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is to create a psychological environment that facilitates learning, thus drawing attention to three main factors: (a) relationships, (b) personal development, and (c) system maintenance. Cognitive Strategy Instruction: Cognitive Strategy Instruction (CSI) refers to ways of assisting learners to acquire cognitive skills, or strategies. It does this by helping them to (a) organise information so that its complexity is reduced, and/or (b) integrate information into their existing knowledge. It includes teaching skills such as visualisation, planning, self-regulation, memorising, analysing, predicting, making associations, using cues, and thinking about thinking (i.e., metacognition). Self-Regulated Learning: Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) aims at helping learners to define goals for themselves, to monitor their own behaviour, and to make decisions and choices of actions that lead to the achievement of their goals. Ultimately, SRL is directed and regulated by motivation. This strategy can be used in a variety of settings, across a range of subjects, and with learners with and without special educational needs. Most definitions of SRL refer not only to the regulation of cognitive processes, but also to the regulation of behaviour and emotions (Rueda, Posner, & Rothbart, 2011). Memory strategies: Here, consideration must be given to ways of enhancing primary memory, short-term memory, long-term memory and the executive system. The principal considerations for developing memory skills include mnemonics, motivation, attention, pacing of lessons, rehearsal, transforming material into mental representations, and chunking. In addition, consideration should be given to the relationship between memory and emotions. 2.3.6 Acceptance The education system and the school recognise the right of learners with special educational needs to be educated in general education classrooms and to receive equitable resourcing. Acceptance is not only a matter of recognising the rights of such learners, but also, ideally, of 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teachers and fellow students accepting human diversity at a philosophical level and accepting individuals with special educational needs socially and emotionally. 2.3.7 Access Access is a very broad concept, ranging from access to education, access to the adapted curriculum and assessment (discussed earlier), and adequate physical access to and within classrooms. The latter is provided through such features as ramps and lifts, adapted toilets, doorways that are sufficiently wide to take wheelchairs, and adequate space for wheelchairs to be manoeuvred in classrooms. Physical access also involves ensuring that all of the elements of the indoor physical environment that may aff involves attending to such matters as the design and arrangement of furniture, acoustics, lighting, temperature, air quality and safety. For example, it is imp workspaces to facilitate flexible grouping and differentiated instruction by allowing for whole- class, small-group and individual instruction. Some learners with autism may need access to personal space (Vogel, 2008); such learners need to avoid confusing large spaces, and instead require calm, ordered, low stimulus spaces, as well as safe indoor and outdoor places for withdrawal and to calm down (Department for Education and Employment, 2009). Furniture and equipment should be arranged in such a way as to manage inappropriate behaviour and to Exceptional Children, 1997). Providing an optimal acoustic environment means attending to three interrelated factors (ASHA Working Group on Classroom Acoustics, 2005). 2.3.8 Support Educating learners with special educational needs requires collaboration between many people, in particular between several professionals and parents. Indeed, there are few areas of education that require such a high level of collaboration and teamwork. This is particularly true in inclusive education, where, ideally, general classroom teachers may work with a range of other 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh professionals: various combinations of specialist teachers, paraprofessionals, special needs advisers, educational psychologists, therapists and other specialists, community agencies (such as welfare services, police and advocacy groups), technology consultants, and, of course, parents (Rainforth & England, 1997). 2.3.9 Resources Clearly, in order for the multifaceted approach to inclusive education outlined in this paper to be implemented, adequate resources must be provided. These include resources to cover the cost of buildings, equipment, transport and personnel. For the past decade or so, funding models for special education have been under review in many countries, driven by rising costs, concerns over efficiency and equity in the use of resources, and concerns about the incentives inherent in funding formulae for contra-indicated practices. Overall, per student education expenditures for those who receive special education services in the US are 1.91 times greater than expenditures for students who received no special education services (Chambers, Shkolnik, & Pérez, 2003). 2.3.10 Leadership Creating a positive school culture, or ethos, involves developing and implementing goals for the school. These goals should reflect the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, traditions and behavioural norms of its members, particularly those who are in leadership positions. Leadership should be exercised throughout an education system: by legislators, policy-makers, school governing bodies, principals and teachers. At the school level, Carrington, Bourke and Dharan (2012) determined that leadership from the sc nd involves and Jordan (1998) found that the strongest predictor of effective teaching behaviour in inclusive 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education settings in Canada was the subjective sc attitudes towards heterogeneous classrooms. Exercising leadership means (a) developing a strong commitment to accepting and celebrating diversity, (b) developing a sensitivity to cultural issues, (c) setting high, but realistic, standards, and (d) achieving positive outcomes for the most disadvantaged. Leadership should be evidence-driven, focused on student outcomes, and based on recognition of the fact that success comes from individuals working together (Shaddock Nielsen, Giorcelli, Kilham, & Hoffman- Rapp, 2009). 2.4 Historical Antecedent of Inclusive Education in Ghana There have been several educational policies and initiatives since independence introduced to improve educational access in Ghana (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). Ghana is said to be one of the first countries within the Sub-Saharan Africa region to start catering for students with special educational needs after the attainment of political independence in 1957. However, full enrollment did not begin until 1961 when the Education Act was passed. According to Agbenyega & Deku (2011), the Education Act of 1961 was the principal legislation concerning the right to educate children. In the late 1960s the Ministry of Education took over the affairs of special education from the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and in 1970, the Special Education Unit (currently known as the Special Education Division (SED) assumed full responsibility for special schools. After condemnations about the isolated nature of special in the 1980s their communities, the government came up with an integrated approach that was to supplement the traditional special education. This means students with and without learning needs were educated together (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Unit schools were attached to regular schools where small groups of students with learning needs receive special education (Ghana Education Service, 2008). Furthermore, special schools for deaf and blind students followed ordinary curricula with some modifications. It could be argued that the current special 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education policies in Ghana are influenced high intergovernmental organizations (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Compulsory Universal Basic Education policy (FCUBE) was launched in 1996. This policy was based on the 1992 Constitution which focused on increasing educational access of all children of school going age. However, these reforms fell short of the distinctive mention of children with learning needs and special needs. Through the 2007 Educational Reform, inclusive education became one of the prime areas of the revised Education Strategic Plan for 2010-2020 (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). In teache programme, there have been several steps taken to promote the capacity of Ghanaian teachers to meet the needs of children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). These include the incorporation of SEN curriculum into teachers training as a means to education policy (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). 2.4.1 Challenges to the Implementation of Inclusive Education Worldwide, efforts of governments to implement inclusive education as a means of enhancing accessibility to good quality education to all citizens has faced several challenges (Mariga, McConkey & Myezwa. 2014). In developing countries, putting appropriate measures in place that could assist children with learning needs to have access to equal education have been quite a challenge as this has been dominated by their isolation and exclusion (Mariga et al., 2014). According to Peters (2003), some of the issues challenging inclusive education include lack of resources and poverty, less conducive and enabling learning environment, and very little commitment in initiating change through research. Consequently, children with learning needs are left with no support or very little opportunity to continue advancing their capabilities in 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh such challenging learning environments (Chimwaza, 2015). For most countries, when developing policies to ensure learners have equal access to education, these empirical evidences have been the points of reference (Chimwaza, 2015). According to Ferguson (2008), the means to make inclusive education accessible to every individual is the main challenge facing countries. While some countries do not have well- articulated policy about inclusion, most countries do not have such policies (Ferguson, 2008; Chimwaza, 2015). The countries that are even said to have well defined and articulated policies face challenges in achieving inclusive learning environments (Ferguson, 2008; Chimwaza, 2015). In countries that have had problems in developing consistent policies that promote inclusive education, the situation is worse (Chimwaza, 2015). As a result of lack of enabling legislations, these countries are bound to have more challenges to achieve the inclusive environments (Ferguson, 2008). According to Hardy and Woodcock (2015), if policies for achieving inclusive environments are fragmented, incoherent and inconsistent, it is more difficult to achieve inclusive education. Inclusive education could possibly be implemented smoothly when at all levels, those involved in implementing educational practices are adequately supported by sound policies that promote diversity (Hardy & Woodcock, 2015). Supportive and consistent inclusive policies are essential for developing legal and environmental conditions for implicit inclusive educational practices (Hardy & Woodcock, 2015). It is also indicated that to achieve successful implementation of inclusive education environments, policies need to focus on adopting pragmatic strategies that are context sensitive (Selvaraj, 2015). According to Selvaraj (2015), it is necessary to assess how polices and principles of inclusion are conceptualized and implemented. Successful implementation of inclusive education goes beyond well-intentioned government policies and requires that the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mainstream schools be provided with appropriate tools and support to enhance their capacity in handling diversity (Selvaraj, 2015). Shevlin, Kenny and Loxley (2008) also pointed out how a lot of parents of children with special educational needs (SEN) must lobby to secure resources for schools and that schools can act defensively to empowered parents. Lack of leadership from schools in identifying and responding to the educational and social needs of students have also been reported (Shevlin et al., 2008). It is further argued that what appears to be extremely variable is the in-depth knowledge in schools about special educational needs (Shevlin et al., 2008). Hence, the serious repercussion on enrolment process and subsequent curricular inclusion is as a result this lack with special educational needs is also observed to be as a result of inadequate knowledge about the educational implications of particular special educational needs (Shevlin et al., 2008). Challenges to the implementation of inclusive education included cultural beliefs, inadequate trained teachers, and lack of political goodwill in investing in inclusive education. 2.5 Teachers' Attitudes towards Inclusive Education In recent times, there have been several studies on teachers' attitudes towards inclusive education of which various outcomes were reported. It is establi about inclusive education has a significant relationship with their attitudes towards students with special needs. A study by Vaughn, Schumm, Jallad, Slusher and Saumell (1996) reported that, majority of teachers in their study who were not participating in inclusive programs had strong, negative feelings about inclusion and felt that decision makers were out of touch with classroom realities. They identified several factors that hinders the success of inclusive education among them were class size and inadequate resources. According to studies by 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Butakor, Ampadu and Suleiman (2018 ), teacher commitment to inclusive education often emerges at the end of the implementation cycle. Thus, after the teachers have mastered their professional expertise needed to implement inclusive programs. Butakor, Ampadu and Suleiman (2018) also noted that, as teachers' experience with children with SEN increased, their confidence to teach these children also increased. According to Avramidis et al. (2000), studies have explored a host of specific teacher variables which might impact on teacher acceptance of inclusive principles. These include gender, age, grade level, years of teaching experience, contact with persons with students with educational needs and personality factors. However, evidence from the above variables is noted as inconsistence is a strong predictor of attitude. However, a factor which has attracted considerable attention is the knowledge about children with SEN gained through formal studies during pre- and in-service training. This was considered an important factor in improving teachers' attitudes towards the implementation of an inclusive policy. Without a coherent plan for teacher-training in the educational needs of children with SEN, attempts to include these children in the mainstream would be difficult. Several other studies tend to reinforce the view that special education qualifications acquired from pre- or in-service courses were associated with less resistance to inclusive practices (Avramidis et al., 2000). According to Van Reusen, Shoho and Barker (2001), teachers who reported higher levels of special education training or experience in teaching students with learning needs were found to hold more positive attitudes toward inclusion. This result suggests that teachers with special education background or training and those who already have positive attitudes towards students with learning needs may be predisposed to seek out additional inclusive education practices and be more willing to be assigned to general education classrooms in which students with special needs are included. The study found that high school teachers who reported positive attitudes toward inclusion also reported increased levels of special education training 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh or experiences in working with students with learning needs. Consequently, the ultimate success of this high school's efforts to implement an inclusion program may depend largely on the degree to which the teachers and other school personnel are provided with training and support in the use of best practices and on-going support for their inclusion efforts. In this way administrators may be able to facilitate a more positive attitude on the part of the entire faculty and school staff which will enable them to better meet the educational needs of all secondary students including those with learning needs (Van Reusen, Shoho and Barker 2001). 2.6 Profile of Teachers in the current Educational System in Ghana In the contemporary educational system, the role of teachers in inclusive education diverges from its traditional role. Teachers in the mainstream must, in accordance with the diversity of learning styles within the classroom, be sensitive to the variety of modern classrooms and must be able to adjust their teaching strategies (Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2013). In order for teachers to support students with learning needs and learning difficulties, as well as making adjustments to classroom management, teachers have to adapt or modify the content of their lessons and their teaching methods. As teachers' roles diversify, they face increased pressure (Department of Education and Skills, 2010). According to Asare and Nti ( 2014), Ghana has over the years put forth efforts to train and develop teachers to form the bedrock of training the man-power needs of the country. The Presidential Committee on Education (2002) worked on education reforms in Ghana and recommended a critical review and approach to making teacher education relevant to the development of the country, reiterating what teacher education must encapsulate. Adegoke a comprehensive teacher education program through pre- and in-service training that would 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh produce competent committed, and dedicated teachers to improve the quality of teaching and learning. How this mission can be achieved is explored in the following section. Asare (2009) has indicated that a very important element in the process of education is the interactions that go on between the teacher and the learners. He added that through such interactive processes, education quality is achieved. The policy in the educational sector in general is to ensure maximum possible inclusion of students with special educational needs in mainstream schools (DES, 2010). A lot of teachers working in inclusive schools have been observed to lack training in special education ( (Florian, 2010). It is reported that while teachers support an inclusive teaching environment, they lack confidence relating to instruction, use of resources and classroom management (Florian, 2010). The experience of the students has also affected, as inclusive education has altered the role of the teachers (Idol, 2006). Idol (2006) reported in a study with eight (8) American schools that the majority of educators indicated that other children in the class remained unaffected by inclusive education practices. According to Idol (2006), some schools noted that the inclusive strategies were benefiting other children in the class who were experiencing school failure. 2.7 The Concept of Assessment The term assessment in the educational sense refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to measure, evaluate, and document students' learning progress, academic readiness, skill acquisition, or educational needs (Adedoyin, 2016). Assessment generally refers to a judgement and it is a process that pervades most of our lives (Taras, 2010). Assessment takes place at all levels and contexts and many names have been assigned to this process in the educational context (Taras, 2010). Assessment is usually designed to measure specific elements of learning, just as academic lessons have different functions (James, 2006). For instance, assessment is used to measure the 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh knowledge level a student already has about the concept or skill the teacher is planning to teach as well as the ability to understand and analyse different types of readings and texts (Broadfoot, 2007). Additionally, assessments are used to identify weaknesses and strengths of individual students in order for educators to provide specialised educational programming, academic support, or social services. Moreover, assessments are developed by a diverse groups and individuals, including educators/tutors, universities, district administrators, state departments of education, private companies, and groups that include a combination of these individuals and institutions (Broadfoot, 2007; James, 2006). Through assessment, teachers or educators can determine whether their students are developing required competencies and values, or whether the curriculum offers the essential knowledge and skills of the discipline (Adedoyin, 2016). It can also be used to determine whether learners can incorporate learning from individual courses into a complete educational experience that prepares them for careers in the future (Adedoyin, 2016). In higher institutions of learning, assessment of students' learning is an essential phenomenon and it is also a continuous process In any educational institutions component of efficient teaching and learning (Webber & Tschepikow, 2012). According to Van den Akker (2003), assessment is an essential component of the curriculum practice. Van den Akker (2003) posits that assessment is a process for obtaining information about curriculum operation in order to make decisions about student learning, curriculum and programmes and on education policy matters. Knight (2006) describes assessment as the formation of ju 7); Gibbs & Simpson (2004), assessment is a mechanism to inform and enlighten students about 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their learning performance and how they can improve on their learning outcomes. Boud and Falchikov (2006) also indicated that assessment can have powerful effects on what students do and how they do it. It is used to communicate to the students what they can and cannot succeed in doing and builds or undermines their confidence as learners (Boud & Falchikov, 2006). 2.7.1 Types of Assessments Several scholars have mentioned different types of educational assessment, however, this study focused on three main types of assessments thus, the summative, formative and inclusive assessments. These types of assessments have been explained as follows: 2.7.1.1 Summative Assessment Summative is the type of assessment which is most common in educational systems (Surgenor, 2010). Summative assessment is regularly conducted in the last few weeks of term to examine how students have learnt what they were taught and supposed to have learnt them (Surgenor, 2010). The results or outcome from these assessments are aggregated and used to establish whether a student has fulfilled the specified learning outcomes and may perhaps achieve some kind of certification. Since the grades received in summative assessments are final and can affect the future prospects of students, it usually causes a degree of anxiety (Surgenor, 2010). Students are consequently, less keen to experiment with ideas and concepts in summative assessments (Biggs & Tang, 2007). Preferring to be on the safer side, students provide the answers they believe are expected of them, and banking the marks provided (Surgenor, 2010). According to Shepard (2006), summative assessment is used to verify that students have learned. In French literature, summative ass because in this function, the evaluative judgment will place the student on one side or the other of a threshold. This threshold, Shepard (2006) explains corresponds to what is designated as failure or success for each of the objectives of the learning activities. What most typifies 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh summative assessment, far more than the administrative act of certification and recognition by a college or university, is that this certification is accompanied by a grade or score that places the learner on a certain scale, sometimes as letters, sometimes as numbers, out of 20 or out of 100, or using different symbols depending on cultures and conventions (Einig, 2013). Furthermore, Shepard (2006) argues that summative assessment persuades students to study. Students learn more, study more, and are more motivated as a result of summative assessment (Shepard, 2006). Principally influenced by the quality and level of tasks or questions prescribed in their summative assessment, students revise contents and incorporate them in a personal way (Shepard, 2006). What is evaluated is studied, however, even more, the ideal pedagogical system would be one in which formative and summative assessments would be mutually aligned with the learning objectives in a cognitive perspective (Shepard, 2006). Consequently, following learning activities nurtured by formative assessment, summative assessment is used to mark the achievements and to substantiate the attainment of objectives (Einig, 2013). 2.7.1.2 Formative Assessment Formative assessment is the type of assessment used to provide constructive and practical feedback to improve learning and understanding (Surgenor, 2010). The product of formative assessment may never be quantifiably recorded on a grade sheet (Surgenor, 2010). The rationale for formative assessment is that students/learners learn efficiently by making and learning from mistakes which is complicated to do if their academic performance/final grade may be negatively affected. Students can be more experimental, challenging preconceived ideas and developing more desirable higher cognitive skills (Surgenor, 2010). A lot of teachers in several schools use formative assessment in order to have professional conversations about how to improve their teaching, adopt evidence-based teaching strategies, collaborate, and use evidence to moderate assessment (Care & Griffin, 2015). Evidence ought 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to be directly observable: hence, the teacher ought to be able to touch it, see it, or hear it (Care & Griffin, 2015). Formative assessment provides the qualitative and quantitative data to inform both the teacher and the student about progress of work (Care & Griffin, 2015). According to Wiliam (2011), some examples of formative assessment techniques include all- student response, hot-seat questioning, and question shells. These techniques are designed to provide the teacher with evidence of the effect of their instruction on the learning of their students (Wiliam, 2011). To guide the lesson design and pace, differentiate, select different strategies, and give feedback to individual students, a teacher can then adopt these techniques. Through good feedback students are able to move their own learning forward (Wiliam, 2011). A classroom assessment practice is generally strengthened when different multiple forms of formative assessment are used (Wiliam, 2011). It provides the composition and process for teachers and students to build up a shared and deep comprehension of learning intentions, success criteria and the curriculum standards on which assessment is based (Care & Griffin, 2015). 2.7.1.3 Inclusive Assessment According to Hockings (2010), inclusive assessment refers to the design and use of fair and effective assessment methods and practices that enable all students to demonstrate to their full potential about avoid specific tasks which are fundamental to their development in their discipline. It is about enhancing practice to offer students greater opportunity to develop both skills and disciplinary knowledge in a supported and challenging environment. Students must demonstrate that all the learning outcomes, (2006 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nfair advant students with special educational needs. The first step is to map current provision and evaluate it against principles of inclusivity. Inclusive assessment involving representatives of all stakeholders (self, peer and examiner) ensures that students are aware of what is being assessed, how it is being assessed and the actual assessment process. Inclusive assessment ensures that students are fairly treated. Anxiety, stress and unnecessary fatigue are minimized giving way to relaxation, freedom to excel and being innovative, creative and display their individual differences without fear of discrimination. Hockings (2010) raised important challenges in regard to inclusive assessment, asking what and whether it can truly be Since the time of her writing, further literature has corroborated the notion that current assessment methods introduce barriers to a wide range of students. Madriaga et al. (2010) suggest that students with special needs and other students experience similar assessment barriers, for instance, while Butcher, Sedgwick, Lazard, and Hey (2010) illustrate that conventional higher education assessment methods disadvantage academically weak students. Likewise, there is still a great demand for holistic systems to be established for the improvement of assessment practices and the support of students completing assessments. Along these lines, recent scholarship reiterates the value of introducing flexibility in assessment practices (Kumar & Wideman, 2014; Lombardi, Murray, & Gerdes, 2011), perhaps by providing the option of a range of alternative assessments scaffolded by early formative work and timely feedback (Butcher, Sedgwick, Lazard, & Hey, 2010). This emphasis on flexibility and on students working with faculty to shape their distinctive assessment paths also underscores the important role of students as partners in inclusive learning communities. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A sus which stakeholders, particularly faculty, worry that inclusive assessment practices may reduce academic standards and erode educational quality (Ashworth, Bloxham & Pearce, 2010; Marquis et al., 2012; Marquis et al., 2016b). As Ashworth, Bloxham, and Pearce (2010) noted, even faculty who value inclusion struggle to reconcile their desire to teach inclusively with their existing standards and practices. In contrast, Madriaga et al. (2010) frame inclusive teaching and assessment explicitly as a marker of quality, extending the notion articulated by advocates of universal design that inclusive assessment practices are effective for all students. This developing tension between competing discursive formations of inclusion raises the hopeful possibility that longstanding concerns about accessibility and academic standards might be beginning to shift. 2.8 Empirical Review 2.8.1 Teachers' Attitude towards Inclusive Assessment Quite a number of studies have assessed teachers' attitude towards inclusive assessment. Some of these stu assessment/education (Sharma, Forlin & Loreman, 2008). According to Forlin (2006), most teachers find the implementation of inclusive assessment challenging. The nature and type of towards inclusive assessment (Ryan, 2009). Butakor, Ampadu and Suleiman (2018) conducted a study which focused on Analyzing toward inclusive education. They adopted the Multidimensional Attitudes Toward Inclusive Education Scale (MATIES) developed by Mahat (2008). They administered the research instrument to 280 selected teachers in Ghana. The results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis revealed that the three-factor structure of the MATIES theorised by Mahat (2008) was not supported by the Ghanaian sample. Exploratory factor analysis 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh yielded a correlated four-factor solution. These four factors were labelled Behavioural, Affective, Positive Beliefs, and Negative Beliefs. The reliability coefficients for these four subscales were 0.90. 0.86, 0.77, and 0.73, respectively. Analysis of variance revealed that males exhibited more negative beliefs towards inclusive education than females; more experienced teachers exhibited low behavioural attitudes than their counterparts with less teaching experience. In a study done by Mahony (2016), teache -set towards inclusive education was assessed. The study sought to establish the barriers and limitations faced by teachers in carrying out inclusive learning. The study also sought to find out the effect of inclusion on teachers perceived self-efficacy. The study employed two schools from an urban district in Ireland where data were collected from the mainstream using questionnaire. From the results of the study, it was observed that pre service training and professional development was a significant factor in ensuring positive attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education. A study was und towards the inclusion of students with Autism and Emotional Behavioural Disorder (EBD). he two learning needs. It was found that rather than a child with Emotional Behavioural Disorder, teachers were more accepting of having a child with Autism in their class. Consequently, nfluenced by the presence of specific characteristics. This study's findings are similar to what has been reported by other authors stating that a lack of understanding of the disorders and in turn a lack of confidence in teaching children with specific special educational needs (Lindsay, Proulx, Thomson & Scott, 2013). 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to results from a study carried out by Gebhardt, Schwab, Reicher, Ellmeier, Gmeiner, Rossmann and Klicpera (2011) in Austria, teachers consider the inclusion of students with mental retardation more difficult than the inclusion of students with learning difficulties or mobility-impaired students. Similarly, Chhabra, Srivastava and Srivastava (2010) reported that in Botswana, while school teachers could agree with the inclusion of shy and withdrawn students or those with frequent absences, they are more cautious to include students with hearing impairments or students who use Braille or sign language. Unianu (2012) designed a study to explore the attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education. The study aimed at identifying the major hindrances to the implementation of inclusive principles in mainstream schools. It also sought to analyse different aspects of the ere included in the study and completed a questionnaire which contained 8 categories of items regarding knowledge of specific terminology, practice of inclusive education and prejudices towards children with special needs. Significant differences were observed between teachers of different ages with reference to the knowledge of main concepts of inclusion. Confusion was also found among teachers with regards to the difference between integrated education and inclusive education. The connection between the inclusion of children with mild to moderate mental learning needs (2008). The study also examined the amount of practice attempts performed and the levels of success achieved by these students as compared to their peers without learning needs. The study found an association between teacher attitude toward inclusion and teacher effectiveness. It was observed that teachers with encouraging attitude toward inclusion provided students with all of their significantly more practice attempts, at a higher level of success. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bhatnagar and Das (2013) studied secondary regular school teachers in New Delhi to establish their attitudes towards the inclusion of students with learning needs. In total 470 teachers in to gather information on personal and professional characteristics of the teachers. The findings from the study suggested a positive attitude of teachers in Delhi towards the inclusion of students with special needs. Male teachers were found to have more positive attitude towards inclusion. It was also found that younger teachers who are less than 40 years of age had more positive attitude about inclusion assessment as well as those with less than 10 and had postgraduate qualifications had positive attitudes inclusive assessment. Additionally, it was observed that teachers who were more positive towards inclusive education were those who did not have a focus on students with special educational needs during their pre-service teacher education programmes and those who had a contact with a person with a special need. Malinen and Savolainen (2008) administered a questionnaire to 523 Chinese university students with the aim to assess their attitudes towards the inclusion of children with learning needs into regular classrooms. The study carried out factor analysis, analysis of variance, t-test and correlations of the general attitude of the respondents towards inclusion of students with different kinds of learning needs. The study found a slightly negative attitude of respondents towards inclusion. A survey was undertaken in Cameroon secondary schools by Arrah and Swain (2014) with the aim to assess the teachers' perceptions of students with special education needs. Questionnaire was the main instrument used to gather the responses of the teachers on their perceptions on inclusion. Results from the analysis revealed favourable perceptions of teachers towards students with special education needs. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Regular primary school teachers in Tanzania were surveyed by Mbwambo (2015) to explore their attitudes towards inclusive education. The qualitative study employed the purposive sampling technique to select two regular primary schools in Northern Tanzania. Personal interviews and non-participant observation methods were used to gather data from 10 regular primary school teachers (five teachers from each school). After analysis of data obtained, limited knowledge about inclusive education was observed among the regular primary school teachers. The study further found that the regular teachers have negative feelings towards teaching students with barriers to learning and participation. Mitchell (2015) on externally generated feedback data. After analysis of data collected through interview, it was found that teachers did not identify learning needs, interpret the data and draw meaningful information from the data for adapting (or differentiating) assessment/teaching. Teachers motivation and interest. Teachers made an effort to use the item level and subscale data only to compare the relative position of their class with the reference group. Wangari (2009) did a descriptive survey study which sought to find out the head perception on reasons for the challenges encountered by teachers conducting inclusive assessment. Thirty-five schools were randomly sampled and included in the study. The study found most teachers showing the willingness to have learners with special needs in their classrooms. It was indicated that in order to be in the forefront in sensitising the parents, community and teachers, school principals need training on appropriate methods of administration. The study also indicated that parents needed sensitisation in order to change their attitudes towards inclusive assessment. Teachers were found to feel that head teachers are not well equipped with managerial skills and qualifications which is paramount in management 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and in order to support their staff in new innovations in inclusion. The study thus, found teachers were ready to teach learners with special needs. Fakolade et al. (2009) investigated the attitudes of teachers in Oyo State, Nigeria, towards special needs children in their secondary schools in general education. The study was a descriptive survey which sampled 60 teachers as respondents. After analysis of data gathered through questionnaires, it was revealed that female teachers have more favourable attitudes towards children with special needs than male teachers. The findings further indicated that between married and single teachers in their attitude towards special need students, there exists a significant difference in the handling and nurturing of students with special needs. Other teachers found to have more favourable attitude towards inclusion of students with special need were professionally qualified teachers. 2.8.2 Challenges Teachers Face in Administering Inclusive Assessment Several teachers have been observed to face some challenges in administering inclusive assessment/education. Two of the biggest obstacles reported in Singapore were lack of mainstream teachers who are trained in special needs and a general lack of exposure and awareness about inclusive education (Yeo, Chong, Neihart & Huan, 2014). According to a study by Mahony (2016) some of the challenges teachers reported included class size, behaviour and severity of need. It was also found that experience with special educational needs resulted in higher perceived self-efficacy (Mahony, 2016). Barriers to learning for students with learning needs could occur as a result of negative attitudes of teachers (Wikan, 2008). It is also indicated that some parents prefer to hide their wards at home to sending them to school (Wikan, 2008). According to Wikan (2008), teachers' attitude to children with special educational needs and children from poor households might add to the decision of parents not to send or children to drop out of schools. It is further indicated that 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sometimes because some parents think their wards will be segregated, they do not like their children to attend normal schools as a means of inclusion. Accordingly, the implementation of inclusion becomes challenging for teachers (Wikan, 2008). Shortage of teaching and learning materials, lack of training, large number of pupils in classes, large number of periods per teacher, shortage of time per period are some of the challenges reported by Amr, Al-Natour, Al-Abdallat & Alkhamra (2016) to be facing teachers in administering inclusive assessment. Polat (2011) also indicated that poor governmental and parental support, poor working environment and difficulties in supporting pupils with different learning needs especially in primary schools as the challenge teachers face. Poor cooperation with other teachers, special staff and generally with the various public and private entities are about inclusion of students with SEN in mainstream schools (Rakap & Kaczmarek 2010; Anastasiadou, 2016). A qualitative study conducted in Swaziland by Thwala (2015) to identify the challenges teachers come across in managing inclusive classrooms. Thirty-five teachers were purposively sampled from primary schools in the Manzini region and were taken through focus group discussions to gather data. The study results showed that most of the teachers were not trained on how to teach in an inclusive class. It was however, found that inclusion can be a practical and effective learning environment with proper training and resources. The study further indicated that generally teachers in the mainstream lacked confidence as they attempted to include students with learning needs into classes. Arrah and Swain (2014) reported in a study that in Cameroon, insufficient resources for special education, additional stress and anxiety when teaching students with special education needs, lack of training to work with students with special education needs, and preventing the learning 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of other students are some of the challenges teachers face in the administering inclusive assessment. It was also found that the difficulty for teachers to have access to some of the needed equipment may prevent them in doing their best to solve the challenges that affect people and could bring their morale down in the future. A study was conducted by Mbwambo (2015) to establish the challenges facing teachers in the carrying out inclusive assessment. It was reported that among other challenges, in Tanzanian schools most teachers have low ability to create inclusive cultures and evolve inclusive practices in the regular settings. It was indicated the teachers are not generally trained to carry out inclusion. On some of the challenges teachers face in conducting inclusive assessment, Wangari (2009) reported lack of sufficient materials as a significant challenge. The study revealed also that the environment was not appropriate for inclusive education. Lack of proper training of teachers and head teachers was observed to be a challenge. The study also found lack of resources specific for children with special needs another challenge. It was further observed that contents hinder inclusion. Thus, the study confirmed that the head teachers face various challenges when it comes to inclusive education. Udoba (2014) studied teachers to find out the challenges they face when teaching learners with developmental disability in Tanzania. The concerns of teachers were modern teaching materials, the need for reduced class sizes, motivations to teachers, and additional support services from the government. Several of the teachers who handle these students with developmental disability did not receive any special needs education training from the university, and felt they are not qualified to handle the children. The study also indicated that in Tanzania, generally, the classrooms for learners with developmental disability have poor 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh learning environment to support them. It was observed that collaboration between parents of children with developmental disability and teachers is necessary for the wellbeing of their children. Crouch, Keys and McMahon (2014) reported in a study that due to the experiences of positive interaction with others, children with special educational needs or learning needs feel accepted. According to the results, where children with learning needs perceive themselves to be respected and treated in similar ways to their peers, they are more probable to feel that they are accepted as part of a group and belong within the same environment as others who flourish in this situation. 2.8.3 Factors that use of Inclusive Assessment tices to effective inclusion. Modelling, scaffolding, contingency management and other effective instructional methods such as feedback have been noted to be elements of practices identified as supporting effective inclusion of students with special educational needs (Flem, Moen & Gudmundsdottir, 2004). According to results from a research carried out by Lindsay (2007), collaboration and teamwork are also essential aspects of inclusive practice. Critical to the success of teamwork is time for planning and reflecting together (Hunt, Soto, Maire & Doering, 2003). educational needs (SEN) is considerably affected positively when they receive direct training. Some other important factors that affect the self-efficacy and confidence of teachers and form positive attitudes from the part of the teachers toward inclusive education include better training on special education, a properly formulated curriculum, cooperation by all stakeholders, new oriented teaching methods, and carefully structured field experiences. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most teachers have generally been found to expresses positive attitudes toward inclusion of students with SEN. This suggests that, there is need for appropriate teacher training on the individual needs of students with learning needs (Bhatnagar & Das 2014). It is observed that teachers acquire better confidence and competence when they receive comprehensive training in the field of inclusive education (Subban & Sharma 2006). Instructional techniques, sufficient knowledge, training, and curricular adaptations contribute to improved confidence. This therefore leads to positive influences and attitudes in the field of inclusive education (Batsiou, Evangelos, Panteli & Panos, 2008). Furth positively affected with previous teaching experience with students with special educational needs, which will help them feel more comfortable during the whole learning process (Batsiou et al., 2008; Malinen, Hannu, & Jiacheng, 2012). Ng (2015) studied shadow teachers (educational assistant who works directly with a single child with special needs during his/her early school years) to establish their perspectives of the factors that influence the success of inclusive practices in Singaporean schools. The study employed a qualitative research approach which focused on examining the factors influencing the implementation of inclusive practices in schools in Singapore. After analysis of data dawn from six shadow teachers who participated in the study, it was observed that insufficient collaboration with the mainstream teachers and the school depressingly impacted the success of inclusive practices. Results showed that lack of awareness and knowledge have a great impact on the implementation of inclusive practices. The factors were found to be interdependent and work hand-in-hand to contribute to the success or failure of inclusive policies as the findings indicated. Tension among authority figures, teacher responsibility, and large class sizes were other challenges that were found to pose a barrier to inclusion implementation. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Engelbrecht and Green (2007) indicated in a study that teachers in the mainstream and special education need to know how to consult, instruct, collaborate as well as how to operate independently, if they want to implement inclusion within their classroom. Engelbrecht and Green (2007) further indicated that in South African schools, an utmost important aspect is providing guidelines to bring about a more successful inclusive education. Accordingly, globally, there is an attempt by education scholars and policy-makers to design programmes that will meet the needs of learners and develop competent and confident citizens (Engelbrecht & Green, 2007). of inclusive assessment in classroom, it was indicated that there should be flexible curriculum in inclusive education in schools to suite every child. The study indicated that adaption of curriculum may principally depend on the student and the environment which he/she is located. It was further noted that in adapting curriculum in schools there is the need for creativity of the teacher under whom the learner is entrusted for tuition. Agbenyega and Deku (2011) assessed twenty-one (21) teachers who taught for a total of 42 hours and found that pedagogical practices are prescriptive, mechanistic, and do not value student diversity and different learning styles in the current educational system. According to the study, teachers would do what they consider has been prescribed by the general curriculum meant for normal children/students, hence, they would not be ready to implement the curriculum benefit the children. 2.9 Conceptual Framework In order to examine the above research questions, the proposed conceptual framework of this research is as shown in Figure 2.2 below; 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.2: Conceptual framework on Teacher's attitude on inclusive assessment Source: Researcher (2019) 2.9.1.1 Conceptual Framework on Teacher's Attitude on Inclusive Assessment The key actor in ensuring the implementation of inclusive assessment in mainstream schools is seen to be the class teacher. The main principle emerging from previous research in relation The attitudes a mainstream class teacher holds in relation to inclusion, assessment and therefore inclusive assessment are crucial. Positive attitudes can be fostered by the provision of appropriate training in inclusive assessment, support for inclusive education, resources and practical experiences of successful inclusion. Teachers require access to such experiences to help them develop the necessary positive attitudes; Practical experiences, support and training should all work to develop positive teacher attitudes in relation to: dealing with differences in the mainstream classroom; understanding the relationship between learning and assessme equal access in assessment; developing holistic approaches to assessment that inform classroom practice and are not focused upon the identification of pupil's weaknesses; including 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh pupils and parents in the learning and assessment process; as well achieving the learning goals for students with special educational needs. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter provides the methodology of the study. It includes the research approach, paradigm and design, study population, sampling technique and sample size, sources of data, data collection instrument, reliability and validity of the instrument, ethical consideration and data analysis procedure used. 3.1 Research Approach According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), three research approaches exist when it comes to research. These includes a) qualitative, (b) quantitative, and (c) mixed methods. Unquestionably, the three approaches are not as discrete as they first appear. Qualitative and quantitative approaches should not be viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or dichotomies. Instead, they represent different ends on a continuum (Creswell, 2015; Newman & Benz, 1998). A study tends to be more qualitative than quantitative or vice versa. Mixed research methods is an approach to inquiry involving collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. According to Creswell et al. (2003), mixed method design is a procedure for collecting, analyzing and reporting of quantitative experiment and surveys and qualitative approaches of ethnography, grounded theory and case studies. Rankin, Isberg, & Leong (1992) noted that in mixed method investigator collects and analyses data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using either qualitative or quantitative approaches or both methods in a single study or a program of inquiry qualitative and quantitative approaches utilise two types of research questions, sampling 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh procedures, data collection procedures, data, data analysis and conclusions. Small (2011), simply put mixed method as a quantitative survey supplemented by qualitative interviews. According Small (2011), mixed method design allows the researcher to gain in depth understanding and corroboration, while offsetting the weaknesses inherent to using each (qualitative or quantitative) approach by itself. One of the most advantageous characteristics of conducting mixed methods research is the possibility of triangulation, i.e., the use of several means (methods, data sources and researchers) to examine the same phenomenon. According to Creswell (2015), major disadvantages and limitations of the mixed research method is it takes much more time and resources to plan and implement this type of research and it may be unclear how to resolve discrepancies that arise in the interpretation of the findings. This stu towards inclusive assessment with the associated depth of meaning. Figure 3.1: Type of Mixed Method Design Quantitative Data collection Respondents Analysis of Re search instrument: included data via Findings Questionnaires teachers SPSS INTERPRETATION OF FINDINGS Interviewees Qualitative Data collection included Special Analysis of Research instrument: education data via Findings Interview coordinators, transcription Headteacher and Teachers As shown in the Figure 3.1 above, the study adopted the sequential research approach. Thus, where the interpretation of quantitative data was presented bore the interpretation of qualitative data. According to (Creswell, Plano Clark, et al., 2003), the mixed methods sequential design consists of two distinct phases, thus, quantitative followed by qualitative. In this design, a 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researcher first collects and analyzes the quantitative (numeric) data. The qualitative (text) data are collected and analyzed second in the sequence and help explain, or elaborate on, the quantitative results obtained in the first phase. The second, qualitative, phase builds on the first, quantitative, phase, and the two phases are connected in the intermediate stage in the study. 3.2 Research Paradigm According to Lincoln (2010), the research paradigm is an all-encompassing system of interrelated practice and thinking that define the nature of enquiry. The study adopted the realism paradigm. According to Phillips (1987), philosophic realism in general is defined as ntly of our theories ientific realism is the view that theories refer to structures, and so on) that causes the phe allowed participants to express their own feelings, attitudes and perceptions about how they felt about inclusive education and assessment as against theories. Realism research philosophy relies on the idea of independence of reality from the human mind. Thus, philosophy is based on the assumption of a scientific approach to the development of knowledge. One of the major implications of realism for qualitative research, and for the social sciences generally, is that it relegitimates ontological questions about the phenomena we study (Lawson, 2003; Tilly, 2008), thus, assessing in basic educational system. The realism paradigm is underpinned by observation and interpretation, thus to observe is to generate information about events while to interpret is to make meaning of the information by drawing inferences. A major setback of realism paradigm is that it relies 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on poor perception of human which culminates from a supposed stagnant conflicting human nature (Peterson, 2018). 3.3 Research Design In order to explore the extent of , the study adopted an explanatory sequential design. According to Clark (2011), sequential explanatory design consists of first collecting quantitative data and then collecting qualitative data to help explain or elaborate on the quantitative results. The strength of sequential explanatory design is that it is easy to implement because the steps fall into clear, separate stages. More so, another strength of sequential explanatory design is that the design is easy to describe and the results easy to report (Creswell, 2015). The rational for this approach is that the quantitative data and results provide a general picture of the research problem; more analysis, specifically through qualitative data collection is needed to refine, extend or explain the general picture (Creswell, 2015). Sequential explanatory design is also replete with weaknesses such as, the method requires a substantial length of time to complete all data collection given the two separate phases. It may be difficult to build from the qualitative analysis to the subsequent data collection (Creswell, 2015). The study adopted research design because qualitative data would enhance and enrich the findings and, help generate new knowledge (Stange, 2006). 3.4 Study Population The targeted population is the entire group of individuals or items under study from which a sample may be drawn (Lavrakas, 2008). In other words, the target population defines units for which the conclusions of the research are meant to generalize (Lessler & Kalsbeek, 1992). Hence, the target populations are all individuals with some common characteristics. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The population for this study included all basic school teachers in Ghana. Out of this, the Ga East was purposively selected as the target population because Ga-East basic is the only district in Accra that is practicing inclusive education in all of its schools. Schools in the Ga- East have a population of five hundred and sixty-eight (568) teachers. The respondents were teachers in basic schools within the Municipality. The schools included Ashongman Estate Basic School; Kwabenya M/A School; Kwabenya Atomic; Dome M/A Basic Schools; Dome Anglican Basic; Taifa M/A Basic Schools; St. Dominic B/C Basic; Agbogba Anglican Basic; Papoe Presby School; Haatso Presby School; Ashongman M/A Basic School; Abokobi Presby Basic; Akporkman Model School; Adenkrebi School; and ICOEHS. The other targeted population for the study included special education coordinators from the Ghana Education Service in charge of inclusive education as well as the educational director from the district within the research area. These officials were selected because they are considered policies and programme actors. As a result of that, they bring to bear Ghanaian itude toward inclusive assessment. 3.5 Sample Size Sample size is the number of people or items picked from a target population (Nwana, 1982). Generally, it is better to have a large sample size to obtain conclusions that can be generalized. The larger the sample, the more representative of the population it becomes and so the more reliable and valid the results. However, the selection of a sample size depends on the period, resources and population of the study. In line with this, the target population for the study was five hundred and sixty-eight (568). Based on this population size, the minimum sample size was calculated using the formula below: Where is the sample size, (568) is the population size, and (0.045) is the level of precision. When this formula is applied to the above sample; 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Accordingly, using a population size of 568 respondents, the suitable sample size for this study should not be less than approximately 264 as indicated by the sample size calculated above. 3.6 Sampling Technique(s) Sampling is t al., 2011). The purposive sampling method was employed for the study. First and foremost, basic schools in the Ga-East district were purposively chosen because it is one of the districts sponsored by UNICEF to implement inclusive education. According to Creswell (2008) purposive judgment about some appropriate characteristics. This was appropriate to use because it allowed the study to select respondents with specific purpose in mind and fit the focus of the research. Out of the 7 UNICEF focus regions currently implementing inclusive education in Ghana (Gadagbui, 2008), the Ga East district has all of it 31 schools currently implementing the programme (inclusive education). Furthermore, convenience sampling technique was employed to sample 259 respondents (basic school teachers) from the 31 schools in the Ga East district. Convenience sampling is a non- 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh probability sampling technique where subjects are selected because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher. Also, a teacher from fifteen (15) basic schools, two (2) special education coordinators and the one (1) headteacher in charge of inclusive education in the district were interviewed. The 15 basic school teachers were randomly selected whiles the two (2) special education coordinators and the one (1) headteacher were sampled for the study using the purposive sampling technique. This particular technique really helped selecting respondents who have enough and distinctive information on inclusive education and teacher attitude towards inclusive assessment. Schools/ type of Number of Sampling Data collection respondents respondents technique technique Teachers from basic 259 Convenience Questionnaire primary school sampling Special education 2 Purposive Interview coordinators sampling Teachers from basic 15 Random selection Interview primary school Headteacher 1 Purposive Interview sampling Total 277 Source: field data (2019) 3.7 Sources of Data Both primary and secondary data were used for this research. The primary source of data was collected through a questionnaire and an in-depth interview. The secondary source of data included articles, reports, papers, documents, and other information from the internet. 3.8 Instruments for Data Collection The study used a questionnaire and a structured interview guide. A set of questions were administered to teachers to give their varying experiences and information geared towards answering the research questions. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study employed a structured survey questionnaire to gather the data for the investigation by looking at the technical review and thinking about the different parts that included in research questions. From there, questions formed that were believed to be relevant for the study objectives. A five-point Likert-scale were used in most problems, except the open-ended ones. Efforts were made to avoid being ambiguous, using slang, asking leading questions and so on to create a high-quality questionnaire helped in providing as accurate information as possible. The inquiry began with a small introduction and explanation of how to answer the questions. The open-ended questions were included to pick up on information which might have been overlooked or might otherwise be important for the organisation. The questionnaire was ordered in five parts. Part 1 captured the socio-demographic data of respondents which included the gender, age, educational qualification, rank, experience as well as the teaching level of respondents. Part 2 adopted the Draft Inclusive Education Policy of Ghana (Ministry of Education, 2013) by carving 8 questions/ statements with the corresponding Likert five scale response. Part 3 adopted the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2012) document. 5 questions/ statements were given with the corresponding Likert five scale response. Part 4 was developed through the pilot study conducted. (12 questions/ statements were given with the corresponding Likert five scale response). Part 5 had two part made up close ended questions (6 questions/ statements were given with the corresponding Likert five scale response) and open-ended questions, which all focused on challenges teachers encounter in the implementing inclusive assessment. With respect to the qualitative data, in-depth interviews were considered suitable qualitative research data collection instruments Lincoln (2010) and deemed appropriate for this study as it sought to investigate the experiences of teachers and other officials in inclusive education in the selected districts. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The use of interviews also permitted the research to attain reality by being absorbed with the teachers and other respondent to comprehend the environment and its participants. According to Yin (2009), key informant interview supplements the research information since the questionnaire sample are often of small size and to enable participation. The semi-structured interviews were adapted for this study in order to allow questions that suit the diversity of the respondents to be asked. During the interviews, a digital voice recorder was used to record after seeking consent of respondents. 3.9 Procedure The questionnaires were handed to respondents and left until after a week. This was to allow the study respondents to have adequate time to read through the questions and provide the intended responses. According to Kothari (2004), the reliability of the answers provided by respondents largely depends on the ability of the respondents to understand the questions. The prelude to the questionnaire was an information introducing the researcher, the study topic, the aim of the study, instructions for completing the questionnaire, confidentiality of participants as well as the contacts of the researcher. The pilot study adopted an unstructured questionnaire to conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Therefore, this method of data generation was adopted as an appropriate method for this study. 3.10 Data Analysis Analysis of data in this study was done thematically, in a six-phased process as outlined by Braun and Clarke (2006). These included data familiarization, code generation, theme search and discovery, theme reviews, definition and naming themes, and finally the report writing stage. The analysis was followed by an interpretation and synthesis of the research findings, 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which involved relating the findings with existing literature and theory to see where it all fits. The analysis process and activities to be done at each stage is summarized in table 1 below. Table 1: Data Analysis Process Stage Activities Undertaken During the Stages Familiarization with Transcribing data; synchronizing transcripts; reading and re-reading data the data and noting down initial ideas. Generating initial Coding interesting features of data systematically across the entire data codes set. Collating data relevant to each code. Theme search stage Collating codes into potential themes, gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. Reviewing themes Checking if the themes work in relation to the coded extracts and the Defining and Analysis to refine the specifics of each theme, and the overall story the naming themes analysis tells, generating clear definitions and names for each theme. Producing the report Selection of vivid, compelling extract examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating back of the analysis to the research question and literature; producing a report of the analysis. Source: Adapted from Braun and Clarke (2006) The quantitative data (questionnaire) were analyzed with the help of SPSS version 20. Nevertheless, the qualitative data (in-depth interviews) were transcribed from the audio version, coded, categorized and analyzed according to the themes in relation to the research questions and objectives of the study. The presentation of the findings highlighted the quantitative data analysis first followed by qualitative. 3.11 Reliability and Validity Cronbach alpha was used to test the research instrument for the reliability of the primary data. The validity of the research questionnaires was also vetted by the research supervisor to ensure that their contents were relevant and adequate towards answering the research questions. The reliability of this study is considered an utmost priority because primary data were collected mainly from the research questionnaire. Prior to the actual fieldwork, a pilot study was 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conducted using a sample of 50 teachers from Adentan Municipality in the Greater Accra Region. The data from the pilot study was analyzed and some items were modified and others deleted as a result of the analysis. For example, the study adopted the Draft Inclusive Education Policy of Ghana and the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education documents in modifying the questionnaire. 3.12 Ethical Considerations Research ethics is important in our daily life research endeavours and requires that researchers should protect the dignity of their subjects and publish well the information that is researched (Fouka & Mantzorou, 2011). The current study was done with consideration of ethics across the processes especially in data collection and how the data is used. For the purpose of this study, ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Ghana Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH) (attached as Appendix III) of the intention to use Mallam MA 2 Basic School in this research. To access study population, a letter of ethical approval was sought from the Education Directorate of Ga East District Municipal Assembly. The study addressed the rights of respondents including confidentiality, privacy and the decision to forfeit a questionnaire at any point during the process. Prior to the commencement of the administration of the research instruments, permission was sought from the school headteachers to conduct the study with the teachers. Although the respondents were implored to respond to all the questions in the respondents, their preference not to answer particular question(s) was also considered their right. The study ensured that names of respondents were withheld as part of the initial rapport processes for confidentiality purposes. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moreover, no money or anything of the sort was given to any respondent before, during or after the survey were completed. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction This chapter provides the data analysis and discussions of findings of the study. 4.1 Demographic Data of Respondents This section of the analysis focuses on the demographic data of respondents which includes gender, age, educational qualification, rank, experience as well as the teaching level of respondents. Gender of Respondents As shown in the Table 4.1 below, majority of the respondents representing 58% were females whiles their male counterparts were represented by 42%. This implies that, female teachers dominate the basic schools in the Ga East Municipality. This outcome implies that the implementation of inclusive assessment programme in the municipality would attain much success due to female teacher dominance. Evidence from previous research noted that female teachers had a greater tolerance level for integration and for special needs persons than male teachers (Aksamit, Morris and Leunberger, 1987; Eichinger, Rizzo and Sirotnik, 1991). Harvey (1985), for example, found that there was a marginal tendency for female teachers to express more positive attitudes towards the idea of integrating children with behaviour problems than male teachers. Table 4.1: Gender of Respondents Gender Frequency Percent Male 109 42 Female 150 58 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Age Group of Respondents Table 4.2 below shows the age profile of respondents. Respondents between ages 20yrs - 29yrs were made up of 126 representing 48.6% of the total sample. Also, respondents between 30yrs- 39yrs were made up of 87 representing 33.6%; whiles respondents between the age group 40yrs-49yrs were 43 representing 16.6%. This shows that, most of the teachers within the Ga East Municipality are very young and therefore can easily adjust to educational reforms and methods such as inclusive education and assessment. Previous researchers (Berryman, 1989; Center and Ward, 1987; Clough and Lindsay, 1991) cited that younger teachers have been found to be more supportive to integration of inclusive assessment. It was also found that younger teachers who are less than 40 years of age had more positive attitude about inclusion assessment. Table 4.2: Age Group of Respondents Age group (years) Frequency Percent 20-29 126 48.6 30-39 87 33.6 40-49 43 16.6 50 and Above 3 1.2 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) Educational Qualification of Respondents The respondents also represented various levels of academic attainment as shown in Table 4.3 below. As indicated, 65.6% of the respondents indicated had attained Bachelor's Degree as the highest level of education; 25.9% had a Master's degree whiles 8.5% indicated they have attained Diploma in Basic Education. These findings imply that teachers within the Ga East Municipality have attained higher levels in their professional education which was useful to understanding and practicing education in an inclusive setting. Bhatnagar and Das (2013) found out that teachers who had postgraduate qualifications had positive attitudes inclusive 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh assessment. Table 4.3: Educational qualification of respondents Educational qualification Frequency Percent Diploma in Basic Education 22 8.5 Degree 170 65.6 Master Degree 67 25.9 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) Rank of Respondents As shown in the Table 4.4 below, majority of the respondents representing 92.3% have attained higher ranks in their professional endeavors, thus, from Principal Superintendent (39.8%), Assistant Director II (35.5%), Assistant Director I (15.8%) to Deputy Director (1.2%). This implies that, teachers within the Ga East Municipality have higher ranks in their professional practices, considering their educational qualifications as stipulated in Table 4.3 above. Table 4.4: Rank of Respondents Rank Frequency Percent Teacher 1 .4 Superintendent I 3 1.2 Superintendent II 5 1.9 Senior Superintendent II 5 1.9 Senior Superintendent I 6 2.3 Principal Superintendent 103 39.8 Assistant Director II 92 35.5 Assistant Director I 41 15.8 Deputy Director 3 1.2 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) Teaching Experience of Respondents According to Table 4.5 below, majority of the respondents representing 70.3% indicated they practiced the teaching profession for a period between 3 to 10 years; 25.5% of the respondents 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also indicated they have practiced for more than 20 years whiles 4.2% of the respondents indicated they have practiced for a period between 11 to 20 years. This implies that, teachers in the Ga East Municipality have acquired quite substantial experience in their professional practices. Such experience was useful to the study in terms of assessment systems they have been practicing. Teaching experience is another teacher-related variable cited by several studies as having an infl example, showed that acceptance of a child with a physical need was highest among educators with less than six years of teaching and declined with experience for those with six to ten years of teaching. The most experienced educators (greater than 11 years of teaching) were the least accepting. Forlin also obtained a similar result for the integration of a child with intellectual disability. His study seemed to indicate that as educators gained experience in teaching, they became less accepting of integration. Table 4.5: Teaching Experience of Respondents Years of Teaching Frequency Percent 3- 10 years 182 70.3 11- 20 years 11 4.2 More than 20 years 66 25.5 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) Level of Teaching The study sought to ascertained the basic school level where teachers ply their trade in order to establish whether or not inclusive education is practiced. As shown in the Table 4.6 below, majority of the respondents representing 58.7% were teaching at the JHS level whiles 41.3% were teaching at the primary level. This implies that, teachers at all the levels of basic education in the Ga East Municipality contributed to the study. Also, the variable grade level taught and its s towards integration has been the focus of several studies. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh significantly more positive attitudes towards integration than did junior high school and elementary school teachers, and junior high school teachers were significantly more positive than elementary school teachers (again, no mention was made based on individual country). Table 4.6: Level of Teaching Level Frequency Percent Primary 107 41.3 JHS 152 58.7 Total 259 100.0 Source: Field data (2019) 4.2 Research Question One: What is about Inclusive Education? This section of the analysis focuses on ascertaining the edge about inclusive education. As shown in the Table 4.7 below, 220 of the respondents representing 84.9% of the total respondents strongly agreed that every child has the right to quality education. Similarly, 216 of the respondents representing 83.4% of the total respondents strongly agreed that no child should be discriminated against or within education on the grounds of disability or any other status. This implies that, the respondents approve education for every child regardless of the physical or psychological needs of the child. As shown in the Table 4.7 below, 186 of the respondents representing 71.8% of the total respondents strongly agreed that changes need to be made through out the education system to ensure that education system adopt to the learner. Also, 64.5% of the respondents strongly agreed that all aspect of education should provide opportunity for promotion of inclusion of all learners. According to the Table 4.7 below 117 representing 45.2% of the respondents strongly agreed that, individual difference amongst learners are a source of richness and diversity and not a problem. Similarly, 29.0% of the respondents agreed to this assertion. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, 153 of the respondents representing 59.1% of the total respondents agreed to the assertion that the diversity of need and pattern of development of children should be addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses. More so, 161 of the respondents representing 62.1% of the total respondents strongly agreed that all children can learn and benefit from education. Similarly, 137 of the respondents representing 52.9% of the total respondents agreed that regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective means of combating discrimination in society. Table 4.7: Knowledge about Inclusive Education Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree F % F % F % F % F % Every child has the right to quality 6 2.3 3 1.2 5 1.9 25 9.7 220 84.9 education No child should be discriminated 7 2.7 2 0.8 1 0.4 33 12.7 216 83.4 against or within education on the grounds of disability or any other status Changes need to be made through out 8 3.1 12 4.6 8 3.1 45 17.4 186 71.8 the education system to ensure that education system adopt to the learner. All aspect of education should provide 10 3.9 2 .8 15 5.8 64 24.7 167 64.5 opportunity for promotion of inclusion of all learners Individual difference amongst learners 32 12. 19 7.3 16 6.2 75 29.0 117 45.2 are a source of richness and diversity 4 and not a problem The diversity of need and pattern of 11 4.2 1 .4 12 4.6 153 59.1 80 30.9 development of children should be addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses All children can learn and benefit from 8 3.1 8 3.1 4 1.5 78 30.1 161 62.1 education Regular schools with an inclusive 10 3.9 13 5.0 11 4.2 137 52.9 88 34.0 orientation are the most effective means of combating discrimination in society Source: Field data (2019) Discussion of Findings The general outcome of the analysis revealed that respondents strongly agreed to majority of 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the basic level of education in the Ga East Municipality have knowledge about inclusive education as stated in the IE policy. These findings confirm the assertions by Kofi & Anastasiou (2015), Nketsia & Saloviita, (2013), Agbenyega and Deku (2011) educational programme, there have been several steps taken to promote the capacity of Ghanaian teachers to meet the needs of children with Special Educational Needs (SEN). These include the incorporation of SEN curriculum into teachers training as a means to increase ion policy (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). Nketsia & Saloviita (2013) further indicated that there have been several educational policies and initiatives since independence introduced to improve educational access in Ghana. Ghana is said to be one of the first countries within the Sub-Saharan Africa region to start catering for students with disability after the attainment of political independence in 1957. However, full enrollment did not begin until 1961 when the Education Act was passed. According to Agbenyega & Deku (2011), the Education Act of 1961 was the principal legislation concerning the right to educate children. In the late 1960s the Ministry of Education took over the affairs of special education from the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare and in 1970, the Special Education Unit (currently known as the Special Education Division (SED) assumed full responsibility for special schools. After condemnations about the isolated nature of special me up with an integrated approach that was to supplement the traditional special education. This means students with and without learning needs were educated together (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). Unit schools were attached to regular schools where small groups of students with learning needs receive special education (Ghana Education Service 2008). Furthermore, special schools for deaf and blind students followed ordinary curricula with some modifications. It could be argued that the current special 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education policies in Ghana are influenced high intergovernmental organizations (Kofi & Anastasiou, 2015). However, the findings of this study are in contrast to Mbwambo (2015) findings from his study explored the attitudes of regular primary school teachers in Tanzania towards inclusive education. He found out that, limited knowledge about inclusive education was observed among the regular primary school teachers. In Compulsory Universal Basic Education policy (FCUBE) was launched in Ghana in 1996. This policy was based on the 1992 Constitution which focused on increasing educational access of all children of school going age. However, these reforms fell short of the distinctive mention of children with learning needs and special needs. Through the 2007 Educational Reform, inclusive education became one of the prime areas of the revised Education Strategic Plan for 2010-2020 (Nketsia & Saloviita, 2013). 4.3 Research Question Two: What is Te about Inclusive Assessment? assessment. As shown in the Table 4.8 below, 162 of the respondents representing 62.6% of the total respondents strongly agreed that Multi-discipline assessment procedures should be established at all levels of education to meet the need of all learners. Similarly, 197 of the respondents representing 76.1% strongly agreed that, at all levels there should be regular monitoring and periodic assessment aimed at improving the child performance. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In accordance to the table, 180 of the respondents representing 69.5% strongly agreed that the Examination procedures should be adapted to meet the needs of students including the provision of extra time, and appropriate special assistance (sign language, scribes, readers, etc) as required. Also, 142 of the respondents representing 54.8% agreed that, Assessment practice should reflect the belief that all students can learn and must be included in classroom task. Similarly, 151 of the respondents representing 58.3% strongly agreed that Assessment methods should be based on learners needs, and modifications are made accordingly to make it interesting. Table 4.8: Knowledge about Inclusive Assessment Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree F % F % F % F % F % Multi-discipline assessment 14 5.4 5 1.9 7 2.7 71 27.4 162 62.6 procedures should be established at all levels of education to meet the need of all learners. At all levels there should be regular 10 3.9 2 .8 2 .8 47 18.1 197 76.1 monitoring and periodic assessment aimed at improving the child performance Examination procedures should be 9 3.5 1 .4 11 4.2 58 22.4 180 69.5 adapted to meet the needs of students including the provision of extra time, and appropriate special assistance (sign language, scribes, readers, etc) as required. Assessment practice should reflect 12 4.6 8 3.1 12 4.6 142 54.8 85 32.8 the belief that all students can learn and must be included in classroom task. Assessment methods should be based 11 4.2 4 1.5 18 6.9 73 28.2 151 58.3 on learners needs, and modifications are made accordingly to make it interesting. Source: Field data (2019) 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Discussion of Findings The analysis in Table 4.8 above concludes that respondents strongly agreed to a significant assessment. This implies that teachers at the basic level of education in the Ga East Municipality have knowledge about inclusive assessment. These findings confirm the assertions by Hockings (2010), Hockings (2010), Madriaga et al. (2010), Butcher et al (2010), Kumar & Wideman (2014), Lombardi, Murray, & Gerdes (2011), Bloxham, Madriaga et al. (2010) and Pearce (2010). Hockings (2010) asserted that inclusive assessment is a fair and effective assessment methods and practices that enable all students to demonstrate to their full potential what they know, understand and can do. Hockings (2010) further opined that, inclusive assessment is about enhancing practice to offer students greater opportunity to develop both skills and disciplinary knowledge in a supported and challenging environment. Inclusive assessment ensures that students are fairly treated. Anxiety, stress and unnecessary fatigue are minimized giving way to relaxation, freedom to excel and be innovative, creative and display their individual differences without fear of discrimination. 4.4 Research Question Three: What is the Attitude of Teachers towards Inclusive Assessment? assessment. With respect to the table below, 143 of the respondents representing 55.2% agreed that all students should be assessed in regular class. Similarly, 128 of the respondents representing 49.4% strongly agreed that they vary their assessment procedures to cater for all learners in my class. Also, 131 of the respondents representing 50.6% agreed that they get overwhelmed when they 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Similarly, 124 of the respondents representing 47.9% agreed that all children can be assessed in regular class, although children differ intellectually, physically and psychologically. Also, 110 of the respondents representing 42.5% strongly agreed that academic progress is possible in children with special needs as a result of inclusive assessment. Similarly, 119 of the respondents representing 45.9% strongly agreed to willingly to adapt an assessment mode that will enhance individual students learning needs. Also, 154 of the respondents representing 59.5% agreed to allow students with learning needs participate fully in classroom instruction in similar ways as students without learning needs. Similarly, 127 of the respondents representing 49.0% agreed to have doubts about the effectiveness of inclusive assessment with regards to students with special learning needs. Similarly, 119 of the respondents representing 45.9% agreed that Inclusive assessment is likely to have a positive effect on the social and emotional development of students with learning need. Also, 140 of the respondents representing 54.1% agreed that inclusive assessments provide different students with the opportunities for mutual communication thus promotes students to understand and accept individual diversity. Also, 104 of the respondents representing 40.2% agreed that they are not sure how to assess and grade students with learning needs in my classroom. Similarly, 143 of the respondents representing 55.2% agreed that students with learning needs are capable and should be assessed the same way as mainstream students. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9 Attitude towards Inclusive Assessment Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree F % F % F % F % F % All students should be assessed in regular 18 6.9 35 13.5 17 6.6 143 55.2 45 17.4 class I vary my assessment procedures to cater 10 3.9 17 6.6 14 5.4 90 34.8 128 49.4 for all learners in my class I get overwhelmed when I have to 10 3.9 37 14.3 33 12.7 131 50.6 48 18.6 differentiate assessment to cater for all the I believe that all children can be assessed in 16 6.2 48 18.5 14 5.4 124 47.9 57 22.0 regular class, although children differ intellectually, physically and psychologically I believe that academic progress is possible 14 5.4 15 5.8 20 7.7 100 38.6 110 42.5 in children with special needs as a result of inclusive assessment willing to adapt an assessment mode 10 3.9 13 5.0 13 5.0 104 40.2 119 45.9 that will enhance individual students learning needs. I allow students with learning needs 8 3.1 28 10.8 20 7.7 154 59.5 49 18.9 participate fully in classroom instruction in similar ways as students without learning needs I have doubts about the effectiveness of 21 8.5 39 15.1 34 13.1 127 49.0 37 14.3 inclusive assessment with regards to students with special learning needs. Inclusive assessment is likely to have a 16 6.2 46 17.8 12 4.6 119 45.9 66 25.5 positive effect on the social and emotional development of students with learning need I believe inclusive assessment provide 18 6.9 16 6.2 12 4.6 140 54.1 73 28.2 different students with the opportunities for mutual communication thus promotes students to understand and accept individual diversity I am not sure how to assess and grade 12 4.6 8 3.1 32 12.4 104 40.2 103 39.8 students with learning needs in my classroom I believe students with learning needs are 8 3.1 48 18.5 28 10.8 143 55.2 32 12.4 capable and should be assessed the same way as mainstream students Source: Field data (2019) Discussion of Findings According to the Table 4.9, the analysis skewed towards respondents who strongly agreed to a attitude towards inclusive assessment. This finding confirms similar findings from previous studies conducted by Sharma, Forlin & 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Loreman (2008), Ryan (2009), Mahony (2016), Cassady (2011), Unianu (2012), Bhatnagar and Das (2013). Previous studies have successful inclusive assessment/education (Sharma, Forlin & Loreman, 2008). The nature and type of special educational need has been indicated to h attitudes towards inclusive assessment (Ryan, 2009). This study findings also Mahony (2016) findings from assessing -set towards inclusive education. From the results of the study, it was observed that pre-service training and professional development was a significant factor in ensuring positive attitudes of teachers towards inclusive education. towards the inclusion of students with Autism and Emotional Behavioural Disorder (EBD), found out of specific characteristics such as age, experience, educational level and belief of teachers. 4.5 Research Question Four: What are the Challeng face in Administering of Inclusive Assessment? According to the table 4.10 below 140 of the respondents representing 54.1% disagreed that they are not knowledgeable about how to properly assess student with special learning needs in my class. Similarly, 91 of the respondents representing 35.1% strongly agreed that there are not adequate resources to support them to address the unique educational needs of all learners. Also, 90 of the respondents representing 34.7% agreed that Inclusive assessment sounds good in theory but does not work well in practice. Again, 99 of the respondents representing 38.2% agreed that There is no conducive and enabling learning environment for inclusive education and assessment. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Again, 100 of the respondents representing 38.6% agreed that There is very little commitment in initiating change through research on inclusive assessment. Similarly, 138 of the respondents representing 53.3% agreed that there is Lack of leadership from schools in identifying and responding to the educational and social needs of students. Table 4.10: Challenges in Administering Inclusive Assessment Statement Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Disagree Agree F % F % F % F % F % I am not knowledgeable about how to 140 54.1 37 14.3 27 10.4 11 4.2 44 17.0 properly assess student with special learning needs in my class I feel there are not adequate resources 34 13.1 37 14.3 21 8.1 72 27.8 91 35.1 to support me to address the unique educational needs of all learners. Inclusive assessment sounds good in 15 5.8 27 10.4 41 15.8 90 34.7 86 33.2 theory but does not work well in practice. There is no conducive and enabling 19 7.3 25 9.7 50 19.3 99 38.2 66 25.5 learning environment for inclusive education and assessment There is very little commitment in 9 3.5 17 6.6 37 14.3 100 38.6 96 37.1 initiating change through research on inclusive assessment. Lack of leadership from schools in 13 5.0 16 6.2 17 6.6 138 53.3 75 29.0 identifying and responding to the educational and social needs of students Source: Field data (2019) Discussion of Findings The analysis in Table 4.10 above concludes that respondents strongly agreed to a significant majority of the assertions on . According to Forlin (2006), most teachers find the implementation of inclusive assessment challenging. According to Hockings (2010), important challenges in regard to inclusive Since the time of her writing, further literature has corroborated the notion that current assessment methods introduce barriers to a wide range of students. Madriaga et al. (2010) suggest that students with special needs and other students experience similar assessment 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh barriers, for instance, while Butcher, Sedgwick, Lazard, and Hey (2010) illustrate that conventional higher education assessment methods disadvantage academically weak students. Likewise, there is still a great demand for holistic systems to be established for the improvement of assessment practices and the support of students completing assessments. Along these lines, recent scholarship reiterates the value of introducing flexibility in assessment practices (Kumar & Wideman, 2014; Lombardi, Murray, & Gerdes, 2011), perhaps by providing the option of a range of alternative assessments scaffolded by early formative work and timely feedback (Butcher, Sedgwick, Lazard, & Hey, 2010). This emphasis on flexibility and on students working with faculty to shape their distinctive assessment paths also underscores the important role of students as partners in inclusive learning communities. A sustained the which stakeholders, particularly faculty, worry that inclusive assessment practices may reduce academic standards and erode educational quality (Ashworth, Bloxham & Pearce, 2010; Marquis et al., 2012; Marquis et al., 2016b). As Ashworth, Bloxham, and Pearce (2010) noted, even faculty who value inclusion struggle to reconcile their desire to teach inclusively with their existing standards and practices. In contrast, Madriaga et al. (2010) frame inclusive teaching and assessment explicitly as a marker of quality, extending the notion articulated by advocates of universal design that inclusive assessment practices are effective for all students. This developing tension between competing discursive formations of inclusion raises the hopeful possibility that longstanding concerns about accessibility and academic standards might be beginning to shift. Majority of the respondents enumerated some challenges impeding the implementing inclusive assessment including, lack of TLM, inadequate time, inadequate training, problem, 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh identification, large class size, unconducive, lack of motivation and lack of logistics and facilities. 4.6 Analysis of Qualitative Data This section analyzed the transcribed data from the interviewees. The analysis was thematically captured based on the study objectives. The participants for the qualitative data of the study were 18 comprising Special education coordinators (2), Teachers from basic primary school (15), and one headteacher from one of the schools in the municipality. Knowledge about Inclusive Education and Inclusive Assessment. The study respondents expressed a fair knowledge about the concept of inclusive education and inclusive assessment. Teachers hamper good practices of the programme. The summary of the analysis indicated that the views of inclusive education as images of "expanding school environment to include a child or pupil with special need in a mainstream group." The respondents have a favorable knowledge towards inclusive assessment of Special Educational Needs children in regular classrooms in terms of their beliefs or the core perspectives. Attitude towards Inclusive Assessment. education. In terms of the attitude towards inclusive assessment, the data revealed that teachers in the municipality expressed a positive attitude towards inclusive assessment. The success of inclusion or organised placement of children with special needs in mainstream these students and their knowledge on how to properly educate them. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh One of the Special education coordinators also indicated that; activities be obtained and formulated for further In quite a number of studies, the attitude of teachers towards educating students with SEN has been put forward as a decisive factor in making schools more inclusive. If mainstream teachers do not accept the education of these students as an integral part of their job, they will try to ensure that someone else (often the special educational needs teacher) takes responsibility for these students and will result in covert segregation in the school. One of the teachers opined that; responsibility of mainstream schools regarding inclusive One of the Special education coordinators also indicated that; It is possible for teachers to consider the provision of teaching for pupils as inclusive education The Headteacher also indicated that; As classrooms become more inclusive, major adjustments necessary to prepare teachers for more diverse student populations have to be made. Challenges in Administering Inclusive Assessment. The teachers showed resistance to educational reform specifically in the idea of inclusion and inclusive assessment because of their lack of knowledge background and expertise in the field ocating for inclusive education in this country sit in their offices and force the policy on us; they are deliberately 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is impossible without addressing their needs for specialist resources. Overall belief is that without sufficient resources and support, inclusive education is not possible and doomed. The a farming tool and different farming activities require different tools and appropriate expertise. It is better our schools do not start inclusion because these officers will push you and leave you 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction The purpose of this final chapter therefore, was to review the research process in relation to the research objectives and questions, in order to present a summary of the research findings, and draw conclusions, followed by recommendations which will be based on the findings of the study. 5.2 Summary of Finding The major findings of the study were based on the study objective. Objective One: Find out about Inclusive Education. The study revealed that basic school teachers in the Ga Municipality have knowledge about inclusive education. According to the findings, 84.9% of the respondents strongly agreed that every child has the right to quality education; 83.4% of the respondents strongly agreed that no child should be discriminated against or within education on the grounds of educational needs or any other status; 71.8% of the respondents strongly agreed that changes need to be made through out the education system to ensure that education system adopt to the learner; 64.5% of the respondents strongly agreed that all aspect of education should provide opportunity for promotion of inclusion of all learners whiles 62.1% of the respondents strongly agreed that all children can learn and benefit from education. Objective Two: Find out about Inclusive Assessment. The study found out that, teachers at the basic level of education in the Ga East Municipality have knowledge about inclusive assessment. According to the findings, 62.6% of the respondents strongly agreed that Multi-discipline assessment procedures should be established at all levels of education to meet the need of all learners; 76.1% strongly agreed that, at all levels there should be regular monitoring and periodic assessment aimed at improving the child 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh performance; 69.5% strongly agreed that the Examination procedures should be adapted to meet the needs of students including the provision of extra time, and appropriate special assistance (sign language, scribes, readers, etc) as required. Objective three: Find out lusive Assessment. The study concluded that teachers in the Ga Municipality exhibit positive attitude towards inclusive assessment. According to the findings, 55.2% agreed that all students should be assessed in regular class; 50.6% agreed that they get overwhelmed when they have to ; 59.5% agreed to allow students with learning needs participate fully in classroom instruction in similar ways as students without learning needs; 54.1% agreed that inclusive assessments provide different students with the opportunities for mutual communication thus promotes students to understand and accept individual diversity; 55.2% agreed that students with learning needs are capable and should be assessed the same way as mainstream students. Objective Four: Investigate the in Administering Inclusive Assessment. The study revealed that teachers in the Ga Municipality face challenges in administering inclusive assessment which includes lack of teaching and learning materials, inadequate time, inadequate training, problem, identification, large class size, unconducive, lack of motivation and lack of logistics and facilities. 5.3 Conclusion The aim of this study is to assess Ghanai in basic educational system. The findings of this study underscore the importance of positive attitude towards the implementation of inclusive assessment. The study revealed that inadequacies in teach training on special education and inclusive classroom management 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as a major bottleneck hampering the implementation of inclusive assessment. The findings of this study point to the reality that the acceptance and growth in the practice of inclusive education in Ghana remain challenging. The time it eventually takes to reach the ultimate goal, which is the total acceptance and effective implementation of existing inclusive education policies, will depend to a significant extent on the contribution of national educational stakeholders, including government, religious organization, private individuals, educational leaders, and teachers. 5.4 Recommendations Based on the findings, the study proffers the following recommendations; i) Findings of this study indicate that a significant majority of teachers have not been adequately trained to ensure that they adequately accommodate students with various special educational needs in general education classrooms. There is a strong need to institute and strengthen the special education component in professional development programs in schools. Even when teachers do not receive formal training in schools on how to manage inclusive classrooms, they can still become productive if given the chance to improve their knowledge and skills through short in-service training programs such as seminars and training workshops. Also, National, Regional, and district educational directorates could also institute required courses in special education as part of a requirements. These measures will provide teachers the basics as well as upgrade the skills of experienced teachers on contemporary issues regarding inclusive education. ii) Findings of this study indicate that teachers believe inclusive assessment is theoretically valid but practically impossible. The study therefore recommends that for successful inclusive assessment to take place, teachers need to tailor the assessment method to suit the needs of all students. To achieve effective inclusion, it begins with good diagnosis and categorization of students with special education needs. Without clear categorization, the 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development and dissemination of curricula adapted to the needs of the students with special educational needs become an uphill task. iii) In order to improve the attitude of teachers towards inclusion in terms of their beliefs (core perspectives), feelings (expected outcomes of inclusion) and actions (classroom practices), the school administrators may consider promoting learning support policies and programs by changing gradually the previous education system toward a system that now integrates children with exceptionality. They could provide teachers with scientific research and a model for change to help indicate the kind of educational change and/or program needed in order to work with students with special educational needs. iv) The study also recommends that government and other stakeholders in the educational sector should ensure the introduction of inclusive education courses in teacher-training colleges as well as in the universities of Ghana. The successful implementation of any inclusive education initiative requires the efforts of trained special education teachers. The trained special education specialists can lead the effort of inclusion by providing coaching and counsel to their general education colleagues managing inclusive classrooms. 5.5 Recommendations for Future Research The findings of the study show the need for further research in several inclusive assessment related areas. Future studies can investigate the attitudes of secondary school teachers on inclusive assessment program. A similar study could be done to compare primary school assessment with those of the secondary school teachers. Such a study will not only determine if the ages of students with special educational needs influence how teachers perceive their ability to learn in an inclusive environment, but also if perceptions since primary school teachers in the country are less educated most of them are not college graduates. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Since abilities to teach students with special needs are largely affected by the availability of resources. beliefs about the availability of resources and the usefulness of such remedies. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adedoyin, O. (2016). The Significance of Inclusion Concept in the Educational System as Perceived by Junior Secondary School Teachers: Implications for Teacher Training Programmes in Botswana. Global Journal of Social Sciences Studies, 3(1), 13-28. Adegoke, K. (2003). 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Policy Guidelines on Inclusive Education. France: UNESCO . Social and Behavioral Sciences 33:900-904, 1-2. Van Den Akker, J. (2003). Curriculum perspectives: An introduction to Curriculum Landscapes and Trends. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Research and Practice, 11, 96 106., 1-3. Vogel, C. (2008). Classroom design for living and learning with autism. Digest, May/June, 1-4. Wang, M. C., & Baker, E. T. (1986). Mainstreaming Programs: Design Features and Effects. The Journal of Special Education 19, 503 521. in public primary schools in Nairobi West District, Kenya. Thesis. Webber, K.L & Tschepikow, K. (2012). The role of learner-centred assessment in postsecondary organisational change. Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice 20(2), 1-18. Wikan, G. (2008). Challenges in the Primary Education in Namibia: (rapport nr.7). Høgskolen: Hedmark. Elverum. Wiliam, D. (2011). Working Inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom. United States of America: Phi Delta Kappan, Bloomington. Yanez, A. A. (2012). Master Thesis: The Effect Of Education On Economic Growth. Yeo, L.S, Chong, W.H, Neihart, M. & Huan, V. (2014). Teachers' experience with inclusive education in Singapore. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 1-3. Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Method, 3rd ed. . London: Sage. Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF EDUCATION assessment in basic education in the Ga East District. This research is carried out for an award of MPhil degree in Education in the University of Ghana. My objects of investigation are basic school teachers teaching primary or JHS and there is at least one student with special educational needs learning in your regular class. The information s toward inclusive assessment and practical difficulties implementing inclusive assessment. Please help by completing and returning the questionnaire. Just tick out the responses or write down your answers according to your situation. These individual questionnaires will be kept confidential and anonymous and is strictly for academic purposes. Thank you for your cooperation! Please tick out or write down your information. Part 1: Socio-demographic data 1. 2. 3. - - - 4. n 5. 6. Teaching experience - - 20 years 7. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Education Please tick out where applicable Note: SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree N= Neutral A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree 8. Every child has the right to quality education SD D N A SA 9. No child should be discriminated against or within education on the SD D N A SA grounds of disability or any other status 10. Changes need to be made through out the education system to ensure SD D N A SA that education system adopt to the learner. 11. All aspect of education should provide opportunity for promotion of SD D N A SA inclusion of all learners 12. Individual difference amongst learners are a source of richness and SD D N A SA diversity and not a problem 13. The diversity of need and pattern of development of children should be SD D N A SA addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses 14. All children can learn and benefit from education SD D N A SA 15. Regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the most effective SD D N A SA means of combating discrimination in society Part 3: Please tick out where applicable Note: SD=Strongly Disagree D=Disagree N= Neutral A=Agree SA=Strongly Agree 16. Multi-discipline assessment procedures shall be established at all SD D N A SA levels of education to meet the need of all learners. 17. At all levels there should be regular monitoring and periodic SD D N A SA assessment aimed at improving the child performance. 18. Examination procedures should be adapted to meet the needs of SD D N A SA students including the provision of extra time, and appropriate special assistance (sign language, scribes, readers, etc) as required. 19. Assessment practice should reflect the belief that all students can learn SD D N A SA and must be included in classroom task. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20. Assessment methods should be based on learners needs, and SD D N A SA modifications are made accordingly to make it interesting. Please tick out where applicable 21. All students should be assessed in regular class. SD D N A SA 22. I vary my assessment procedures to cater for all learners in my class SD D N A SA 23. I get overwhelmed when I have to differentiate assessment to cater SD D N A SA 24. I believe that all children can be assessed in regular class, although SD D N A SA children differ intellectually, physically and psychologically. 25. I believe that academic progress is possible in children with special SD D N A SA needs as a result of inclusive assessment. 26. SD D N A SA students learning needs. 27. I allow students with learning needs participate fully in classroom SD D N A SA instruction in similar ways as students without learning needs 28. I have doubts about the effectiveness of inclusive assessment with SD D N A SA regards to students with special learning needs. 29. Inclusive assessment is likely to have a positive effect on the social SD D N A SA and emotional development of students with learning need. 30. I believe inclusive assessment provide different students with the SD D N A SA opportunities for mutual communication thus promotes students to understand and accept individual diversity 31. I am not sure how to assess and grade students with learning needs in SD D N A SA my classroom. 32. I believe students with learning needs are capable and should be SD D N A SA assessed the same way as mainstream students. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Part 5: Challenges impeding the implementing inclusive assessment Please tick out where applicable 33. I am not knowledgeable about how to properly assess student with SD D N A SA special learning needs in my class. 34. I feel there are not adequate resources to support me to address the SD D N A SA unique educational needs of all learners. 35. Inclusive assessment sounds good in theory but does not work well SD D N A SA in practice. 36. There is no conducive and enabling learning environment for SD D N A SA inclusive education and assessment 37. There is very little commitment in initiating change through research SD D N A SA on inclusive assessment 38. Lack of leadership from schools in identifying and responding to the SD D N A SA educational and social needs of students Please list other challenges you are facing during implementing inclusive assessment in your regular class: Thank you for your cooperation! 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX II: INTERVIEW GUIDE I am conducting a survey to investigate Ghanaian teachers assessment in basic education in the Ga East District. This research is carried out for an award of MPhil degree in Education in the University of Ghana. My objects of investigation are basic school teachers teaching primary or JHS and there is at least one student with special educational needs learning in your regular class. The information titudes toward inclusive assessment and practical difficulties implementing inclusive education in practice, and beneficial for providing more effective support system of inclusive education for all children in future. Information and responses is strictly confidential and anonymous for academic purposes only. Thank you for your cooperation! Part 1: Background 1. Age 2. Gender 3. What is your Rank or Position? 4. What is your Educational level or Qualification? 5. How long have you work as a professional teacher? 6. Have you taught students with disabilities in regular class? 7. How do you assess your pupils? 8. What is your perception towards inclusive assessment? 9. How do you ensure inclusive assessment in your teaching pedagogy? 10. How does Part 3: The Challenges Teachers Face in the Administering Inclusive Assessment 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. What are the challenges teachers faces in the administering inclusive assessment? 12. How difficult is the administration of inclusive assessment? 13. What are the setbacks you encounter when assessing pupils inclusively? 14. What prevent you from adopting inclusive assessment? Part 4: Condition tha y to day Practice in Classroom. 15. What are the critical success factors for smooth administration of Inclusive assessment in class? 16. How will you ensure effective inclusive assessment? 17. What motivate you to adopt inclusive assessment? 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX III: ETHICAL APPROVAL LETTER 98