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Characterization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Present in
Smoked Fish from Ghana
Article · October 2011
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Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 3(5): 332-338, 2011
ISSN: 2042-4876
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2011
Submitted: April 21, 2011 Accepted: June 10, 2011 Published: October 25, 2011
Characterization of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Present in
 Smoked Fish from Ghana
1Linda M.N. Palm, 2Derick Carboo, 3Philip O.Yeboah, 4Winston J. Quasie,
2Mordecai A. Gorleku and 4Albert Darko
1National Nuclear Research Institute, Nuclear Chemistry and Environmental
Research Centre, Ghana
2Chemistry Department, University of Ghana, Legon
3School of Nuclear and Allied Sciences, University of Ghana,
4Tema Oil Refinery, Analytical Laboratory, Ghana
Abstract: The study was conducted to determine the levels of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in
smoked Scomba japonicus sampled from some Ghanaian markets. By way of preparation, smoked fish comes
into contact with smoke or extremely high temperature which are potential sources of PAH generation.  Levels
of 20 individual PAHs including acenaphthene, acenaphtyelene, anthanthrene, anthracene, benz(a)anthracene,
benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(e)pyrene, benzo(ghi)perylene, benzo(j)fluoranthene,
benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene, cyclopenta(cd)pyrene, dibenzo(ah)anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene,
indeno(1, 2, 3-cd)pyrene, naphthalene, phenanthrene and pyrene were determined in 34 smoked fish samples
using gas chromatographic techniques with flame ionization detector.  Benzo(a)pyrene, which is one of the very
few PAHs for which a legal limit exists in different types of food matrices inaddition to other high molecular
weight PAHs suspected to be carcinogens, were detected in most samples.
Key words: Carcinogens, flame ionization detector, gas chromatography, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons,
Scomba japonicus, smoking 
INTRODUCTION on molecular weights are those of High Molecular
Weights (HMW). They contain usually five- to seven-
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or Polynuclear rings and have weights ranging from 228 to 278 g/mol
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous such as benzo(a)pyrene, dibenz(a,h)anthracene and
environmental contaminants that are formed during the indeno(1, 2, 3-c, d)pyrene (ATSDR,  1995).
incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials The ubiquitous nature of PAHs makes them present
(Suchanová et al., 2008). PAHs are characterized by such as trace contaminants in air, water and soil (Pigini et al.,
properties as lipophilicity, semi-volatility as well as 2006). Although air and drinking water may be
persistency. responsible for some human exposure, the highest PAH
Several of them have been found to induce a number intake is typically associated with their occurrence in diet
of adverse effects as immunotoxicity, genotoxicity,
mutagenicity and carcinogenicity (IARC, 1983; Phillips, (food) (Suchanová et al., 2008).  Polynuclear aromatic
1999; EFSA, 2002). hydrocarbons are found in substantial quantities in some
Grouped in three categories based on their molecular foods, depending on the mode of cooking, preservation
weights and these are low, medium and high. The PAHs and storage, and are detected in a wide range of matrices;
belonging to a particular class of molecular weights have meats, fishes, vegetables and fruits.  Those detected in
similar environmental fates.Low Molecular Weight PAHs vegetables have been attributed to the deposition of
(LMW) i.e., those containing two- and three-rings, are airborne-PAHs from such various sources as vehicular
those with molecular weight from 152 to l78 g/mol e.g., exhaust and those present in fish and mussels, from
phenanthrene. The medium (middle) molecular weight contaminated waters (Edwards, 1983; Nielsen et al.,
(MMW) PAHs, have four-rings and are those with 1996). However, during industrial smoking, heating and
molecular weight of 202 g/mol. This group includes drying processes, combustion products come into direct
fluoranthene and pyrene.  The third class of PAHs based contact with food and PAH contaminations can occur.
Corresponding Author: Linda M.N. Palm, National Nuclear Research Institute, Nuclear Chemistry and Environmental Research
Centre, Ghana
332
Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol., 3(5): 332-338, 2011
Cereals and vegetable oils (including seed oils and olive after the smoking is done. The concentration decreases
residue oils) have been found to be contaminated with due to decomposition, triggered by light (photo) and
these toxicants usually as a result of technological interaction with other compounds also present in the
processes like  direct  fire  drying, where the combustion environment  (Dennis  et  al.,  1984; Simko, 1991; Simko
products come into contact with the grain, oil seeds or the et al., 1991).  However, PAHs also usually penetrate into
oil (Speer et al., 1990. SCF, 2008). such smoked products as fish, where they are protected
Food exposure to carcinogenic PAHs can be said to from light and oxygen so after some time, the polycyclic
generally emanate either from their contamination during aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in the fish stabilizes
processing such as from roasting, smoking and charcoal at a certain constant level (Simko and Knezo, 1992).
grilling (Chen and Chen, 2005; Chen and Lin, 1997; Smoked fish may contribute significantly to the
Mottier et al., 2000; Ova and Onara, 1998; Phillips, 1999; intake of PAHs if such foods form a large part of the
Swallow, 1976) or from the external environment due to usual diet. Owing to the fact that, most homes consume
anthropogenic activities  (Larsson,  1984;  De  Vos  et al., smoked fish as a main protein source in their diet, it is
1990; Culotta et al., 2002; Gianguzza and Orecchio, imperative to study the various types and levels of
2006). The highest concentrations of PAHs in food are polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ingested by the
usually found in charcoal grilled/barbecued foods Ghanaian from the consumption of smoked fish. 
(especially meat and meat products grilled under
prolonged and severe conditions), foods smoked by MATERIALS AND METHODS
traditional techniques (fish in particular) and other
seafoods from polluted waters (Guillen et al., 1997; The research was conducted in the chemistry
Phillips, 1999). department of the Ghana Atomic Energy Commission and
Food components, such as fats cause PAHs to be the quality control laboratory of the Tema oil Refinery,
generated through either thermal degradation or Ghana. The whole study spanned for six months
polymerization and such different thermal processes affect beginning January 2009.
production of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
quantitatively (Chen and Line, 1997, Chen and Chen, Fish samples and sampling: Similar sizes (. 250 g) of
2005; Phillips, 1999). Scomba japonicus were purchased from four open
Smoking of food especially fish, is one of the most markets, Ada, Chorkor, Madina and Winneba and labeled
ancient technologies which has been used for years. It can ADM, CKM, MDM and WBM respectively. Samples
be defined as the process of penetration of fish by were taken every month for three months beginning
volatiles resulting from thermal destruction of wood January, 2009. Samples were bought from the fish
(Simko, 2002). mongers immediately the samples got to the market in the
Traditional smoking involves treating of pre-salted, morning few hours after smoking had been complete.
whole, eviscerated or filleted fish with wood smoke. The Samples were prepared immediately samples got to the
smoke is produced by smouldering wood and shavings or laboratory to avoid ageing.
sawdust in an oven and is placed directly below the
hanging fish or fillets that are laid out on mesh trays. The Reagents: Reagents used in the study comprised the
rate of smoke flow and its distribution depend on natural following: n-hexane (95 + % purity, Sigma-Aldrich),
draft as affected by the construction of the kiln and by the dichloromethane and acetone (99.5 + %, BDH, England),
weather conditions. However, in modern smoking, Sodium sulfate (Aldrich- Chemie, Germany).  A semi-
automatic smokehouses are used where the smoke is volatile internal standard mixture, product code: ISM-560,
developed in an external generator under controlled Lot number -CB-2411 containing 2000 :g/mL each of
conditions of temperature and air access. The smoke analytes: Acenaphthene-d10, Chrysene-d12, Naphthlene-
circulation is forced and controlled by mechanical d8, Perylene-d12, and Phenanthrene-d10 in methylene
equipment (Stolyhwoa and Sikorski, 2005). chloride; p-terphenyl, product code: RAH-058, Lot
In Ghana fish mongers employ the traditional number- NTO1690 with a concentration of 100 mg were
smoking method of using various organic materials such all purchased from Ultra Scientific, North Kingstown,
as sugarcane chaff, saw dust, coconut husk, some herbs USA.
and some types of paper such as cement bags to generate A PAH custom standard of product code CUS-9059
smoke for fish smoking (Kleter, 2004). The direct and Lot number CD3298, containing 100:g/mL each of
exposure of fish to smoke brings about higher analytes; naphthalene, acenaphthene, acenaphthylene,
concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the anthracene, benz(a) anthracene, benzo(a) pyrene,benzo(e)
fish as compared to the indirect methods, where PAHs are pyrene,bnzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(j) fluoranthene,
partially eliminated by condensation in tars (Roda et al., benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene,
1999). The highest concentration of polycyclic aromatic dibenz(a,h)anthracene, fluoranthene, fluorene, indeno (1,
hydrocarbons in smoked products is obtained immediately 2,  3-c,  d)    pyrene,  phenanthrene,  pyrene,  cyclopenta
333
Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol., 3(5): 332-338, 2011
Fig. 1: Map showing sampling sites
(c,d) pyrene and  anthanthrene were purchased from Ultra reached the top of the sodium sulfate into a receiving
Scientific, North Kingstown, USA through their vessel whilst taping gently the top of the column till the
accredited agent Industrial Analytical (PTY) Ltd, South florisil settled well in the column.  The extract was then
Africa. transferred onto the column with a disposable Pasteur
pipette from an evaporating flask.  The crude extract was
Sample preparation for the analysis of smoked fish: eluted on the column with the wide opening of the
Soxhlet extraction: Three smoked fish samples were stopcock. Each evaporating flask was immediately rinsed
pooled and homogenized in whole (skin and muscle) twice with 1 ml portions of n-hexane and added to the
without the bones, minced into smaller fillets and blended column by the use of the Pasteur pipette.  The eluate was
using a warring blender.  Twenty grams (20 g) of the collected into an evaporating flask and rotary evaporated
homogenised fish sample was thoroughly mixed with 60 to dryness.  The dry eluate was then dissolved in 1 mL n-
g of anhydrous sodium sulfate in an agate mortar (Wang hexane for Gas Chromatographic analysis. 
et al., 1999) to absorb moisture. The homogenate was
placed into an extraction cellulose thimble (33 * 94 mm), Instrumental analysis: The polycyclic aromatic
covered with a Whatman filter paper (125 mm diameter) hydrocarbon analysis carried out was by means of an
and inserted into a Soxhlet extraction chamber of the Agilent Technologies 6890 N network gas chromatograph
Soxhlet extraction unit.  Extractions were then carried out system, equipped with a Flame Ionization Detector (GC-
with 200 mL of n-hexane using EPA 354ºC method (US FID) and operating in a selective split mode.  The column
EPA, 1994) for 8 h. The crude extract obtained was used is a SLB5TM - MS fused capillary column (30 m long
carefully evaporated using a Ribby RE 200B rotary ×0.25 mm i.d. ×0.25-:m film thickness), coated with a
vacuum evaporator at 40ºC, just to dryness.  The residue nonpolar stationary phase (HP-5MS, 5% phenyl methyl
was quantitatively transferred with n-hexane onto a 5 mL polysiloxane).
florisil column for clean up. The operation conditions were as follows: The oven
temperature was set initially at 60°C (2 min hold),
Preparation of florisil for clean up: This clean-up step increased to 170°C at 40°C/min. At 170°C, temperature
to remove more polar substances was performed using increased at a rate of 10ºC/min to 220ºC and then to
activated florisil (Magnesium silicate) and anhydrous 290ºC at a rate of 5ºC/min (10 min hold).Hydrogen with a purity of 99.999% and air, were
Na2SO4. The florisil was heated in an oven at 130ºC used as carrier gas at a constant flow of 30 and 300
overnight (ca. 15 h) and  transferred to a 250 mL size mL/min respectively.  The inlet temperature was held at
beaker and placed in a desiccator. A 0.5 g anhydrous 300ºC with a pressure of 231.2 Kpa and a total flow of
Na2SO4 was added to 1.0 g of activated florisil (60-100 208 mL/min.  The detector heater was also held at 300ºC
mm mesh) on an 8 mL column which was plugged with with H2/air flow at 35 and 300 mL/min, respectively.
glass wool. The packed column was filled with 5 mL n- Flow rate was 4 mL/min.
hexane for conditioning. The stopcock on the set up was Injections of 4 :L of sample each were performed in
opened to allow the n-hexane run out until n-hexane just the split mode and the split valve was opened after 2 min.
334
Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol., 3(5): 332-338, 2011
The split ratio was 50:1. Identification of PAHs in the
samples was based on comparison of the retention times Total mean conc.in smoked fish/µg/kg1000 406.37
with those in a standard solution, and quantification on 175.08
the corresponding areas of the respective chromatograms. 75.48
28.5
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 100
Total concentrations: Figure 2, shows the total of 20
PAHs mean values (concentration) found in smoked fish 10
samples from the various locations as shown if Fig. 1;
Ada, chorkor, Winneba and Madina labeled ADM, CKM, 1
WBM and MDM, respectively. ADM ADM CKM WBM
Organic materials such as sugarcane chaff, saw dust, Sampling location 
coconut husk are usually used by some fish mongers for
smoking while others use herbs and others use some types Fig. 2: Total concentrations of mean PAHs in smoked fish
of papers such as cement paper bags (Kleter, 2004). samples from four locations
Location Ada showed the least total PAH concentration.
Fish samples from this area are landed and smoked there. Table 1 shows the total mean concentration of the 20
Samples are not transported to any long distant place of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons analysed in smoked
smoking where there could be possible introduction of fish samples. The PAHs have been grouped according to
external PAHs. People in this area typically use Neem molecular weights.  The high molecular weights PAHs
tree for firewood and some type of herb locally known as (228-278 g/mol), include benz(a)anthracene,
“hwadzi” for their smoking.  It is one herb that is believed benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(j)
to give the smoked fish its brown colour.  Location fluoranthene, benzo(e)pyrene, benzo(a)pyrene
Chorkor has a total mean of 20 PAH concentration to be benzo(ghi)perylene, dibenzo(ah) anthracene, Chrysene,
75.48 :g/kg.  This is an area where the local dwellers use cyclopenta(cd)pyrene, indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene, and
sugar cane chaff for smoking fish. Like the people in Ada, anthranthrene. The medium molecular weights (202
the men who land fish  at  Chorkor are local fisher folks g/mol) are fluoranthene and pyrene and the low molecular
and the fish smoking too is done in the same place. Fish weights (152-178 g/mol) include naphthalene,
samples from Madina gave a total mean PAH acenaphthylene, acenaphthene, fluorene, anthracene and
concentration of 175.08 :g/kg.  Madina can be described phenanthrene.
as a landlocked area as such; the inhabitants in this As can be observed from table 1, the total
locality get their fresh fish from the main fishing harbour. concentration of the high molecular weights (HMW)
Unlike Ada and Chorkor, fish mongers in this area use polycyclic  aromatic  hydrocarbons were higher than the
very different types of wood for firewood including Neem other molecular weights in all smoked fish samples from
tree and sawdust for smoke generation in the fish smoking the same location.  The presence of HMW polycyclic
business. aromatic   hydrocarbons   are  indicative  of  residues  of
Table 1: Total mean concentration of PAHs in smoked fish, grouped by molecular weights (:g/kg)
PAH  type ADM a ADM b MDM a MDM b MDM c CKM a CKM b CKM c WBM a WBM b WBM c
 HMW PAHs 13.81 1.31 16.31 83.37 65.96 27.02 27.10 7.41 131.4 150.2 20.56
MMW PAHs 0.91 2 1.18 3.35 1.85 0.11 2.04 0.54 5.57 50.00 3.52
LMW PAHs 3.32 0.13 2.08 0.58 0.41 1.52 4.87 4.88 17.24 18.15 9.78
Table 2: Some PAH isomer ratios of sampled smoked fish from all locations.
An/ Flu/ BaA/ Ind/
Site/Isomer ratio Phen/A n (An+Phe) (Flu+Py) Nap/Phe (BaA+CH) (Ind+BghiP)
ADM2 3.4 0.23 - - - -
MDM1 0.01 0.99 0.19 6.13 0.96 -
MDM2 - - 0.03 - - -
MDM3 - - 0.05 - - -
CHM1 0.52 0.66 - - - 0.74
CHM2 17.16 0.06 0.05 0.03 0.95 -
CHM3 9.71 0.09 0.88 0.06 - -
WBM1 15.74 0.06 0.97 0.12 0.92 0.78
WBM2 20.01 0.05 - 0.01 1 0.92
WBM3 3.56 0.22 0.3 2.27 0.99 -
335
Total mean conc./µg/kg
Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol., 3(5): 332-338, 2011
(a) 180.00 Correlation - ADM/MDM samples (b) 70.00 Correlation - ADM/CKM samples
160.00 60.00
140.00
50.00
120.00
100.00 40.00
80.00 30.00
60.00
20.00 Y = 4.192x - 2.061
40.00 Y = 12.05x - 1989 R² = 0.998
20.00 R² = 0.965 10.00
0.00 0.00
-20.000.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00
PHA conc in ADM fish PAH conc in ADM fish
(a) (b)
(c) 350.00 Corrilation - ADM/WBM samples
(d) 350.00
Correlation -CKM/WBM samples .
300.00 300.00
250.00 250.00
200.00
200.00
150.00
150.00
100.00 Y = 18.62x+14.51 Y = 4.469x+22.99
R² = 0.954 R²100.00 = 0.96650.00
0.00 50.00
0.00 10.00 20.00 0.00 50.00 100.00
PAH conc in ADM fish PAH conc in CKH fish 
(c) (d)
(e) 180.00 Correlation - MDM/WBM samples (f) 70.00 Correlation -MDM/CKM samples
160.00
60.00
140.00
120.00 50.00
100.00 40.00
80.00 30.00
60.00 20.00 Y = 0.338x+5.431
40.00
10.00 R²  = 0.976
20.00 R²
0.00 0.0000.00 100.00 200.00
0.00 200.00 400.00 PAH conc in MDM fish 
PAH conc in WBM fish 
(e) (f)
Fig, 3: Correlation graphs showing high, medium and low molecular PAH ratios from various locations
previous pyrolytic processes that occurred in the smoking Figure 3 shows various graph of correlation of high,
chamber.  Pyrolysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon medium and low molecular weight polycyclic aromatic
residues leads to the formation of additional higher hydrocarbons identified in sampled smoked fishes from
molecular weight polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and, any two different locations. The locations were Ada,
consequently increases the polycyclic aromatic chorkor, Madina, Winneba and labeled as ADM, CKM,
hydrocarbon concentration in the samples (Guillen and MDM and WBM, respectively.
Sopelana, 2004). Most of the carcinogenic polycyclic Values obtained were 0.954, 0.966, 0.968, 0.976,
aromatic hydrocarbons fall within the group of the high 0.998 and 0.999 for the correlation between any two
molecular weights (EFSA, 2002). groups of LMW/LMW, MMW/MMW and HMW/HMW
PAHs from any two locations. Values are indicative of
Correlation in smoked fish samples: Based on the positive correlation with R2 values of approximately 1
molecular weight classification of polycyclic aromatic which is a perfect correlation.  These values imply the
hydrocarbons, correlation graphs between smoked fish general distribution of all measured polycyclic aromatic
samples from the various markets were done. hydrocarbons as being similar regardless of the sampling
336
PAH conc in WBM fish PAH in conc MDM fish
PAH conc in MDM fish 
PAH conc in CKM fish PAH conc in WBM fish PAH conc in CKM fish
Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol., 3(5): 332-338, 2011
location. There are higher concentrations of higher the Tema Oil Refinery and the Nuclear Chemistry and
molecular weights PAHs than there are medium and Environmental Research Centre, National Nuclear
which are also higher than the low molecular weights Research Institute of the Ghana Atomic Energy
PAHs. Commission.
Table 2 shows the diagnostic isomer ratios of all
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