UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES THE IMPLICATIONS OF PARENTAL INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE ON YOUNG ADULTS’ INTIMATE RELATIONSHIPS BY SANDRA BOAKYE-DUAH (10527193) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN SOCIOLOGYF MARCH, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research, conducted in the Department of Sociology, University of Ghana, under the supervision of Dr. Peace Mamle Tetteh and Dr. Albert Kpoor. All sources that I have used or cited in this work have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that to the best my knowledge, this thesis has neither been published nor submitted to any academic institution for any academic award, certificate, or a degree. Finally, I declare that I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings or misinterpretation that may be found in this study. . ……………………. Date: 23rd March 2022 Sandra Boakye-Duah (10527193) Date: 23rd March 2022 …………………… Dr. Peace Mamle Tetteh (Principal Supervisor) Date: 23rd March 2022 ………………………… Dr. Albert Kpoor (Supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION First, I dedicate this thesis to the Lord Almighty for seeing me through this phase of my life and granting me strength and resources needed for a successful thesis. I dedicate this work to my parents, Mr. & Mrs. Boakye–Duah for their unwavering support during this process. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my siblings for always being there for me. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS All credit to God for the wonderful things He has done for me. This dream would not have come true if it had not been for the Lord God’s intervention. Without the constant support, direction, and assistance of some wonderful individuals, my dreams would have not materialized. First on my list is my abled supervisors, Dr. Peace Mamle Tetteh and Dr. Albert Kpoor. Dr. Tetteh, whose guidance from the initial step aided me to develop an understanding of the subject. She is a true definition of an ultimate role model. Thank you both for your patience, guidance, and support which are unmatched. Indeed, I have benefitted greatly from their wealth of knowledge and ingenuity. Their encouraging words and thoughtful detailed feedback have been of an immense help to the success of this work. I am also grateful to the entire faculty of the Department of Sociology, University of Ghana for their comments and contribution during my presentations at seminar. I thank the interviewees who generously took time off their schedules to participate in my research and make this project possible. I would like to also show my gratitude to my family, friends and all loved ones who have been instrumental in encouraging my work, ideas, and dream. Finally, to my parents and siblings for their endless support. They have always stood behind me and I am eternally grateful. Thank you all for the strength you gave me. I love you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION............................................................................................................................ i DEDICATION............................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY .................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of Problem ............................................................................................................ 4 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................ 11 1.5 Significance of study........................................................................................................... 11 1.6 Definition of key concepts. ................................................................................................. 12 1.7. Organization of the study ................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 15 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ..................................... 15 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 15 2.2 Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) ......................................................................................... 15 2.3 Forms of Intimate Partner Violence .................................................................................... 18 2.4 Children’s Exposure to Parental Intimate Partner Violence ............................................... 23 2.5 Factors Contributing to Intimate Partner Violence ............................................................. 27 2.6 Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on women and men .................................................. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v 2.7 Negative effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Children ................................................ 35 2.8 How victims of abuse navigated Abusive Relationships .................................................... 37 2.9 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 41 2.9.1 Social Learning Theory................................................................................................ 41 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 47 METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 47 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 47 3.2 Research Design.................................................................................................................. 47 3.3 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 48 3.4 Study Population ................................................................................................................. 49 3.5 Sampling Procedures .......................................................................................................... 49 3.6 Study Participants ............................................................................................................... 50 3.7 Sample Size ......................................................................................................................... 52 3.8 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................... 53 3.9 Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................................ 53 3.10 Data Handling and Analysis ............................................................................................. 55 3.11 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 57 3.11.1Challenges of the study ............................................................................................... 57 3.11.2 Informed Consent....................................................................................................... 58 3.11.3 Confidentiality ........................................................................................................... 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 3.11.4 Anonymity ................................................................................................................. 59 3.11.5 Prevention of harm ..................................................................................................... 59 3.12 Positionality and Reflexivity............................................................................................. 59 3.13 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 61 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 62 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................ 62 TYPES OF PARENTAL INTIMATE PARTNER VIOLENCE AND THE SURVIVAL OF YOUNG ADULTS ................................................................................................................... 62 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Socio Demographic Characteristics of Participants ............................................................ 62 4.2.1. Types of Parental IPV ................................................................................................. 64 4.2.1.1Physical and Verbal abuse ......................................................................................... 64 4.2.1.2 Economic Violence ................................................................................................... 69 4.2.1.3 Gaslighting ................................................................................................................ 71 4.2.1.4 Sexual Abuse ............................................................................................................ 73 4.2.2 Correlates of Parental IPV ............................................................................................... 74 4.2.3 Socialization ................................................................................................................. 75 4.2.4 Gender roles ................................................................................................................. 76 4.2.4 Power dynamics ........................................................................................................... 77 4.2.5 Lack of friendship ........................................................................................................ 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 4.2.6 Third Parties ................................................................................................................. 80 4.3 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 84 4.4 Ways by which participants navigated through childhood in the face of experiencing their parents’ IPV .............................................................................................................................. 85 4.4.1 Post-traumatic stress disorders ..................................................................................... 86 4.4.2 Academic failure .......................................................................................................... 89 4.4.3 Modeling behaviors (Social learning) .......................................................................... 91 4.4.4 Fear of parents’ divorce ............................................................................................... 93 4.4.5 Falling into bad company............................................................................................. 95 4.5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 96 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 97 THE GOOD, THE BAD AND THE UGLY ............................................................................. 97 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 97 5.2 Young adults’ intimate relationships .................................................................................. 97 5.2.1 Intimate Relationships ................................................................................................. 97 5.2.2 Choosing an intimate partner ..................................................................................... 101 5.2.3 Experiencing intimate partner abuse in the own intimate relationship ...................... 104 5.3 Perpetration of intimate partner violence .......................................................................... 108 5.3.1 Varying conceptions of IPV Perpetration .................................................................. 108 5.3.2. Fear of commitment in a relationship ....................................................................... 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 5.3.3 Distaste for third parties in relationship ..................................................................... 111 5.3.4 Fear of experiencing IPV in their future marriages ................................................... 112 5.3.5 Lack of trust for people or intimate partners ............................................................. 113 5.3.6 Harboring negative sentiments and emotions ............................................................ 114 5.4 Strategies young adults adopted to face challenges within their own intimate relationships ................................................................................................................................................. 115 5.4.1 Financial Problems..................................................................................................... 116 5.4.2 Mistrust ...................................................................................................................... 118 5.4.3 Sexual demands from partners ................................................................................... 118 5.4.4 Being treated well ...................................................................................................... 119 5.4.5 Fear of being vulnerable ............................................................................................ 120 5.5 Navigating through challenges within their intimate relationships .................................. 121 5.5.1 Disapproval of third parties ....................................................................................... 122 5.5.2 Choosing to love over abuse ...................................................................................... 124 5.6 Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 125 CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................... 126 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS .................................................................................................... 126 6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 126 6.2 Knowledge about the types of IPV witnessed by participants .......................................... 126 6.3 Navigating through childhood in the face of their parents’ IPV ....................................... 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 6.4 Implications of parental IPV for young adults’ intimate relationships ............................. 130 6.5 Strategies adopted in facing their own challenges in intimate relationships .................... 133 6.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 134 6.7 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 134 6.8 Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 137 6.9 Areas for Future Research ................................................................................................ 138 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 138 APPENDIX 1 ............................................................................................................................. 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x ABSTRACT Intimate Partner Violence is a significant global, social, and general medical condition in both developed and developing nations. Violent behavior can be transferred from a present generation to the next when one witnesses or gets exposed to violence between one’s parents, although the impact may differ from males to females. Witnessing Intimate Partner Violence in the initial stages of your life as a child can be very disturbing. Objective: This study sought to explore the implications of parental intimate partner violence on young adults’ intimate relationships by exploring participants’ knowledge on the types of IPV, ways by which participants navigated through their experiences of IPV, implications for their own intimate relationships and finally ways they navigated the good and bad aspects of their intimate relationships. Method: With the use of purpose sampling technique and snowball sampling, a total of fifteen participants were selected for the study. The data was organized and analyzed by employing Thematic Analysis Format. Findings showed that there is a gendered experience of intimate partner violence. Participants highlighted four types of intimate partner violence namely, verbal, physical, psychological, and economic violence. Gaslighting was one unique form of psychological violence that emerged in the study. Most participants developed fear for marriage, divorce, modelling violent behaviour, resisting the support of third parties to choose safer ways of navigating challenges within their own intimate relationships. The study showed that based on these experiences, participants devised strategies that will be a hindrance to the rise of violence in their own intimate relationships. The contribution of this thesis to knowledge is that it has revealed the gendered experiences of Parental Intimate Partner Violence and the negative implication of participants intimate relationships. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF STUDY 1.1 Background The World Health Organization (2010:11) defines Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) as any “behavior within an intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviors.” On the other hand, Cook & Nash (2017, p.45) define intimate partner violence as “an intentional control or victimization of a person with whom the abuser has had or is currently in an intimate, romantic, or spousal relationship.” Intimate Partner Violence can take the form of physical assault, verbal, sexual, emotional, mental, or economic abuse. In the context of this study, IPV will refer to any abusive behavior that occurs among intimate partners either in current or former relationships which includes marital unions, dating or broken relationships. Intimate Partner Violence covers over 15% of all violent crimes in the world today. It is a social menace since it disregards basic liberties in numerous nations including Ghana. Studies on Intimate Partner Violence show that it happens in almost all nations, societies and spans social orders with no regards to classes, races, religion, and identities (WHO, 2002). It is assessed that one out of every three women throughout her life, experiences intimate partner violence although some populations are at more serious danger than others (Population Action International, 2013). However, Heise et al., (2002) avers that violence against men and violence in same-sex relationships also transpires, although majority of partner violence is by men against women. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Intimate Partner Violence is a significant global, social, and general medical condition in both developed and developing nations (Agnihotri, Jeebun, and Purwar, 2006 Many of the research undertaken are focused on, perpetrators of IPV (Furlow 2010, p. 133; Zolotor, Denham, & Weil, 2009). Whilst others have studied IPV and mental health (Gillon et al., 2012), and IPV and young girls in dating relationships (Brinda, 2015), very little has been done on the implications of parental intimate partner violence on young adults’ (both male and female) intimate relationships, even though these occurrences are relatively common. According to UNICEF, about 275 million children around the world are exposed to violence at home (UNICEF, 2016). The consequences of IPV go beyond the adults in the relationship, as children experience a significant measure of such violence. The negative impact of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) begins early in the child’s relationship with a parent or a caregiver. The Domestic Violence Act enacted by the President and the Parliament (Ghana) in the year 2007 sought to provide protection from domestic violence purposely for women and children and connected purposes. The Domestic Violence Act states domestic violence means that engaging in physical abuse, sexual abuse, economic abuse, emotional or verbal or psychological abuse within the context of a previous or existing domestic relationship (Domestic Violence Act, 2007). It further states that the use of violence in the domestic setting is not acceptable on the basis of content. Violence arises from misunderstandings which leads to dissatisfaction and conflicts among others which are inevitable in any relationship be it intimate or non-intimate (Bolze et al, 2013). Failure to address these issues pose a threat on the relationship thereby negatively impacting the family system and uninhibited pervading society at large. Violence can be linked with gender. Abuse of women in marital relationships, whether physical or sexual, is not seen as abnormal because of widespread acceptance of patriarchal attitudes and practices (Ajayi & Soyinka-Airewele, 2018). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Because of this, many women feel they have no choice but to stay in violent relationships. According to the constructionist theory of gendered violence, men are primarily responsible for maintaining violent discourse norms (Blumenthal, Kahn, Andrews, & Head, 1972). To some men, violence is a way to prove their manhood. For example, during a young man's prime years, he may develop an interest in girls and sex, a time when sexual success is highly valued among his male peers. Despite their presumed inferiority, young women may want to resist access to this 'valued' activity of men that results in coercion, and this puts the young male at risk of being dominated. Coercion is how men typically deal with difficult situations. The male myth holds that women have no idea how much they enjoy sexual activity, and that the man who first gives the reluctant female sexual fulfillment will have her loyalty for life. On the contrary, other couples who have esteemed their marriages above conflicts by minimizing their problems and avoiding conflicts contribute to a more effective and harmonious relationships (Driver et al, 2016). The Family Violence Prevention Fund (2009) claims that children who are exposed to or witness domestic violence between their parents are more likely to develop violent tendencies themselves, although the effect may vary depending on the gender of the child (Straus, 2009). In patriarchal societies like those found in Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, gender norms pose obstacles to the idea that a woman could abuse her male partner. Despite social norms that portray men as the stronger and more dominant gender, studies conducted in the United States show that some men experience abuse at the hands of their intimate partners (Shuler, 2010). Those who are exposed to intimate partner violence are more likely to be involved in it themselves, whether as perpetrators or victims (Israel & Stover, 2009). (Elwood, et al., 2011; Kerley, Xu, Sirisunyaluck, & Alley, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 The issue of intimate partner violence poses a threat on the life of its victims be it a woman, man or even a child who may witness such a mishap between his or her parents. Intimate partner violence has the tendency to cause serious health related issues on women and their offspring, and its role is amplified through its connection to the high rates of HIV (Dunkle et al. 2004, 2006; Garcia-Moreno and Watts 2000). Since parents are the primary caregivers of the children, whatever these children are exposed to in their homes has the tendency to affect them physically, mentally, socially and emotionally. Hence the focus of this study is to investigate the implications of parental intimate partner violence for young adults’ own intimate relationships. Considering a theory that best fits the analysis of this study, social learning theory, feminism and patriarchy were employed in driving the discussion of findings and analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1.2 Statement of Problem Intimate partner violence can be categorized among the diverse dimensions of the concept domestic violence (Ghani, 2014). Whereas domestic violence can extend to partners, children and non-kin individuals who may be dwelling in a shared private space, Intimate partner violence rather focuses on the more restricted violence between partners in a sexual, marital or romantic relationship (Ajayi & Soyinke-Airewele). In Ghana, it is assessed that, every one out of three women have experienced physical violence in the hands of either a current or past partner (GSHRDC, 2015). A 2008 Domestic and Health Survey conducted in Ghana revealed that 38.7 percent of women between the ages of 15 and 49 years reported experiences of psychological, physical and sexual violence by a male spouse at some point in their lives (Ajayi & Soyinke-Airewele, 2018). Five percent of women in Ghana have been abused during pregnancy (Pool et al, 2014). Moreso, two out of ten women have encountered their first intimate activity with an intimate partner forcefully against their will, whilst three out of ten women are coerced by their male partners to have sexual intercourse at some point in their life (GSHRDC, 2015). Domestic violence in marriage is a critical problem partly because marriage continues to be viewed as a desirable and necessary societal status in Ghana (Ampofo Adomako, 2008: 404). It is equally worthy of note that over a quarter of men in Ghana also reported experiencing psychological or physical violence from their partner or wife (GSS, 2009 cited in IDS, 2016:22). These reports indicate that IPV is a reality for many women than for men in Ghana as confirmed in the media (Amoakohene, 2004). The nature of violence that takes place between intimate partners may differ. Violence can be initiated by either of the two partners, however, the man may physically dominate or overpower University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 the woman (Ali, Dhingra, & McGarry, 2016). Marriage, in general, gives particular obligations and rights to spouses such that refusal to engage in sexual relations if deemed unreasonable can be a legitimate reason for divorce among ethnic groups such as the Akan (Ajayi & Soyinke- Ariwele, 2018). Subsequently, a woman’s refusal to submit to her husband’s demands can lead to beating and even emotional abuse (Kutosati and Morck, 2012 & Adomako Ampofo and Prah, 2009). While sanctions and penalties, including physical punishments, are allowed within the social system, experts on the Ghanaian customary law system have maintained that there are distinct boundaries between punishment and abuse (Coker- Appiah, 2016; Adomako Ampofo & Prah, 2009). Extreme kinds of violence against women and girls have become commonplace, especially within the framework of close relationships, and as a result, these boundaries are dissolving swiftly Barbara (2008) mentions that male victims of Intimate Partner Violence could also possibly experience wounds through stabs, cuts on the body, broken limbs, use of cursing words, fear and intimidation, and emotional aggression by their female partners. Du Plat-Jones (2006) in the same vein mentioned stabbings; knocked out teeth; injuries to the genitals, verbal, emotional, and psychological abuse as violent acts perpetrated by women against men. Often, there is the likelihood for poorer women to be dependent on their male partners and such dependence becomes an avenue for controlling women, which can lead to economic abuse-(Adjei, 2015; Mann & Takyi, 2009) which is under researched. Individuals who lack lawful sources of power, such as social status, education, and income, may resort to violence for retribution, as Tuncay-Senlet (2012) has suggested in accordance with resource theory. The potential exists for this to open the door to an increase in other forms of violence, including physical, emotional, and sexual violence (Pollet, 2011; Postmus et al., 2011). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 Witnessing violence against a parent during the developmental stages of children may have negative impacts on their wellbeing. This may include, children experiencing issues of mental agony, conduct issues, difficulties in friendly interaction, and disarrayed connection (Evans et al.2008). However, these impacts might be more serious in older children than in younger children (Levendosky, Alytia. A., Bogat, G. A., & Martinez-Torteya, C. (2013). The Children’s Welfare Information Gateway (2016) has indicated that a child will be referred to as a witness to Intimate Partner Violence when an act that is defined as Intimate Partner Violence takes place in the child’s presence or even perceived by the child. They are likely to witness either all the forms of intimate partner violence such as physical abuse, economical abuse, verbal abuse, emotional abuse and even sometimes homicide which may cause fear and panic in the child. Among the most commonly cited instances of children’s exposure to violence are, seeing and hearing violent deeds, seeing wounds as a result of violence, and also being told about the violence (Hamby et al., 2011). Often, the most direct forms of exposure are seeing or direct eye-witnessing, which may also include lower levels of exposure such as hearing (Hamby et al., 2011). There is the tendency for a child to hear about the violence without necessarily seeing it, for instance, if the child happens to be in another room in the house. This then presupposes that the child was close by during such a violent act, and hence could be in danger, but hearing is less likely to be as accurate as seeing. Lapierre (2010) states that both mothers and children often endure violence during and after separation process, which significantly impacts the child (ren)’s well-being and the mother’s ability to parent. For instance, an ideal woman in the Ghanaian context is socialized to be respectful, subservient, empathetic, sympathetic and caring whereas for the Ghanaian man, he is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 socialized to be brave, daring and aggressive and also be capable of controlling and protecting his household (Ajayi &Soyinke-Airewele, 2018). While some children may respond by avoiding abuse in their own relationships as they grow older, others may repeat what they have seen in abusive relationships with their own peers or partners. Also, not being able to rely on either the abusive or the abused parent for protection, support, and emotional stability may damage the child’s confidence in the parents’ availability (Kobak and Madsen, 2008; Zeanah et al.2011). The child may lack the sense of being cared for and this can break the trust he or she might have in the parent’s ‘capacity to provide support and protection (Swanston et al. 2014). Children and young adults exposed to IPV have also been reported to experience negative impacts on relationship with parents (Bair-Merritt, 2010), whereas encountering challenges in the making or keeping relationships with others (Cunningham & Baker, 2004). In view of this, young people may develop a desire to explore intimate relationships during their adolescent stages. Current studies have shown that rates of Intimate Partner Violence often rise during young adulthood with about one-third (32%) of young adults recording victimization and one-quarter (24%) perpetration (Gomez, 2011). Whilst many studies have limited analysis to victimization and perpetration, less attention has been given to the implications of Parental Intimate Partner Violence on the intimate relationships of young adults thus young people who have experienced it between their own parents. Ultimately, this study seeks to explore the implications of Parental Intimate Partner Violence for young adults’ intimate relationships. Since the family is a miniature of the society, the household environment University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 is essential to study if we are to shield children from the severe impacts of IPV, assist families with the aim of moving towards a nonviolent society. 1.3 Research Questions The gaps in research on the implications of IPV on young adults’ intimate relationships leaves many questions unanswered. Among the questions to which answers were needed are: what were young adults’ knowledge of the types of Intimate Partner Violence they witnessed between their parents? This question is necessary because, even though they may have been exposed to their own Parents’ Intimate Partner Violence, however, they may have experienced different types of Intimate Partner Violence. Also, the age at which they experienced their parents’ IPV could be a contributing factor to their awareness of the existence of the types of IPV that occurred at home. Hence, there will be a need to explore young adults’ individual knowledge on the types of IPV that occurred between their parents emphasizing on the nature of the violence they experienced, what triggered the violence, the severity of it, the frequency and consequences thereof based on their recollections of the violence they witnessed. More so, violence affects a significant proportion of people across the globe (WHO, 2012). Victims of IPV have their lives threatened and this often depends on the nature of violence that occurred. Repeated exposure to parents’ IPV and its consequences may inform young adults’ perceptions of Intimate Partner Violence, however, little research has been done on this which is why I would want this study to help me gather an in-depth information for the purposes of adding to literature. In what way did they navigate through their experiences? Has the experience perhaps generated any paranoia for these young adults’ as far as intimate relationships are concerned? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 What are their expectations as they enter into intimate relationships? Do they feel well equipped to engage in such a relationship? Explore the doubts, fears and uncertainties etc. Such information gathered from the data was to help me to be objective and appreciative of the diverse views on the topic of parental IPV. It also gave me the advantage of knowing how they may react and respond to issues of IPV in their own intimate relationships. The consequences of IPV on both men and women are countless as the existing literature has revealed. For instance, the physical and mental health consequences can be life threatening if victims are not given much attention. This study sought to answer the question related to what the implications of parental IPV are for these young adults’ own relationships. It is essential to answer this question because most research focus on the implications IPV has on their victims be it men or women, children and even the state but ignore the implications parental IPV may have on young adults’ present and past relationship Finally, this study seeks to find out how these young adults have navigated the good and bad aspects of their own relationship. This question is relevant because many victims of IPV according to the literature often are helpless and would reject help or support from concerned people or even organizations. There is little attention given to the issue of young adults who have witnessed parental IPV, and how their experiences may influence the way they navigate their own problems in the intimate relationships, hence the need to answer this question. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 1.4 Research Objectives With the aim of exploring the implications of parental IPV on young adults’ intimate relationships, this study sought to: 1. Explore young adult’s knowledge on the types of IPV 2. Examine the ways by which young adults navigated through childhood in the face of their parents’ IPV. 3. Explore the implications of parental IPV for young adults’ currents intimate relationships 4. Identify how young adults navigate the good and bad aspects of their own intimate relationships. 1.5 Significance of study Doing research in the area of IPV cannot be overemphasized. The literature by researchers and experts in Ghana and across the world stresses on the detrimental effects of IPV on persons, families, and societies. It is well documented that IPV compromises the health and safety of millions of families each year across the world (World Health Organization et al., 2002, 2010, 2013;). There seems to be more to this phenomenon considering the overwhelming impact it has on the victim, perpetrator, their children, families, and the societies that are affected. This study is significant because it is filling a gap. This study has the potential to make a significant contribution to the body of knowledge regarding intimate partner violence by informing the scientific community about the experiences of young University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 adults who have witnessed Intimate Partner Violence between their parents or primary caretakers. Also, exploring this study may help draw out positive strategies for parents to discourage them from exposing their children to their Intimate Partner Violence owing to the possible damages or effect it can have on their children’s intimate relationships in the future. Children who may have been harmed by their parents’ Intimate Partner Violence can be encouraged to seek help from valid organizations such as schools, churches, communities etc. Additionally, based on the findings of this study, professionals who have interest in the area of IPV could embark on awareness creation programs to sensitize the public about the effects of Intimate Partner Violence on the wellbeing of men, women, and most importantly children. 1.6 Definition of key concepts. The key concepts requiring definition in this thesis are those that form the subject matter and those that come up in the conceptual framework. This is important as a guide for contextualizing the work. 1.6.1 Parent: An individual’s mother, father, or caregiver through adoption, blood (consanguinity), or any one in a guardian or parental relationship (Bell, Kenton, ed. 2014). Drawing from the definition pf parents and IPV, 1.6.2 Parental Intimate Partner Violence: Intimate Partner Violence between one’s parents is such that, one of a participant’s parents or guardians is intentionally abused or victimized by an University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 individual with whom the victim has had or is presently in an intimate, romantic, or spousal relationship (Cook & Nash ,2017, p.45). 1.6.3 Young adults: In Ghana, the National Youth Policy categorizes all persons between the ages of 15-35 years as youth of the country (GSS, 2013). Young adults in this study captured both males and females who fall in the age limits according to GSS (2013). However, the study focused on children who had attained the age of 18 years and above because of ethical considerations. 1.6.4 Intimate Partner Violence: World Health Organization (2010:11) defines Intimate Partner Violence as “behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical, sexual or psychological harm, including acts of physical aggression, sexual coercion, psychological abuse and controlling behaviours” 1.6.5 Intimate Partner: A close private relationship that fosters lovers’ physical interaction, emotional bond, and sexual behaviour, as well as being familiar about each other’s lives (Breiding, Basile, Smith, Black & Mahendra, 2015). 1.7. Organization of the study This study contained five chapters. Each chapter had its sub themes for easy comprehension. Chapter one of the study included, background of the study, problem statement, research questions, objectives of the study, significance of study, definition of key concepts, and the organization of the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Chapter two constituted the literature review and the theoretical framework of the study which acts as the lens through which the study is viewed. The scope of the literature reviewed included, Intimate Partner Violence, Forms of Intimate Partner Violence, Children’s Exposure to Parental Intimate Partner Violence, Factors Contributing to IPV, Effects of IPV on women men, and children and finally how women navigated abusive relationships. The theoretical perspective analyzed for the study was social learning theory. Chapter three of the study focused on the methodology. This chapter put emphasis on the research design, sampling procedures, sample size, target population, sources of data, and methods of data collection, study participants, data handling and analysis, ethical considerations. Chapter four and five provided data presentation of findings that included a rigorous discussion of data with the thematic finding outlined in accordance with the study’s objectives. Chapter six captured summary, conclusions, recommendations and areas for future studies. This final chapter described the understandings and knowledge gained from the study on young adults’ experiences of parental intimate partner violence as well as emphasis on recommendations for future research in the area of parental intimate partner violence. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 2.1 Introduction Academic researchers take into consideration building on and relating their works to existing knowledge (Snyder, 2019). Kiteley and Stogdon (2014), defined literature review as an all- inclusive summary of ideas, issues, methods and research findings on an area or topic of study. This chapter captures (a) Intimate Partner Violence (b) forms of Intimate Partner Violence experienced by children (c) factors that contribute to Intimate Partner Violence (d) effects of Intimate Partner Violence on children and finally how victims of abuse navigate abusive relationships. The Social Learning Theory used in this study allowed me to investigate the phenomenon in detail. 2.2 Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) IPV is regarded as a serious threat to the safety, health and well-being of women, men, children, and families in our society (World Health Organization, 2002). The Current data reports that there has been a surge on intimate partner violence all around the world since the outbreak of COVID- 19 (Boserup, McKenney, Elkbuli, 2020). Since implementing a lockdown on March 17, France has seen a 30% spike in the number of reports of domestic violence, according to UN Women (UN Women, 2020). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 On March 20, 2020, Argentina also experienced a 25 percent increase in domestic violence due to the pandemic and lockdown effects. In the same vein, helpline calls increased by 33% and 30% in Singapore and Cyprus, respectively. This is largely due to strict orders from world leaders instructing people to "stay at home" to prevent the virus from spreading. One might wonder whether the decision of these global leaders was a boon or a bane. Although lockdown appeared to be the best option for reducing the unprecedented rates of COVID–19, these reports demonstrate comprehensively that it was not an effective tool for the pandemic. Instead, it has led to an increase in domestic violence. The extent of the problem of violence against adult women is made most evident in the fact that in South Africa’s general population, 50% of murdered women were murdered by their intimate partners (Mathews, Abrahams, Jewkes, Martin, & Vetten, 2008). A study was conducted in Johannesburg about perceptions of violence by Mathews et al. 2008). The study found that about 25% of males and 19.6% of females interpreted physical abuse as a normative part of an intimate relationship which confirms the heightened problem of Intimate Partner Violence in South Africa even in recent times. This suggests that patriarchal ideologies characterizing a society can influence heterosexual relationships and violence (Boonzaier, 2008). Despite providing evidence of male and female perspectives on intimate partner violence, this study cannot be considered conclusive and also limited in their generalizability because it only examines the situation in Johannesburg. No indication was provided in the study as to whether or not the sample size included any young adults. On the other hand, Kishor and Bradley (2012) found that 19 per cent of wives and 10 per cent of husbands had experienced physical, psychological or sexual spousal violence. This is evidence that, it is not only women who are victimized by their male partners. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 Nevertheless, although several studies confirm that both women and men experience partner violence, the forms of violence each gender experiences vary. High rates of domestic violence against women are prevalent in many countries across sub- Saharan Africa, and Nigeria is often cited as an example (Amnesty International, 2012). The 2008 Ghana DHS study found that the incidence of Intimate Partner Violence was associated with a complex variety of causes within the nuclear and extended family network. The results revealed that 36.6 percent of women aged 15–49 years experienced physical violence, mostly perpetuated within the family by current or previous husbands or partners, as well as by other male and female family members or acquaintances (GSS et al. 2009). Although there was a drop in the cases of domestic violence from 36.6% in 2008 to 27.7 % in 2015 in Ghana, it is important to note that the incidence of domestic violence was generally lower among men than among women (IDS), (GSS) and Associates (2016). In an attempt to examine the correlates of IPV in Ghana, Issahaku (2017) argues that sociodemographic factors are linked to the experience of male perpetrated sexual, psychological and physical violence in Ghana. Again, Issahaku (2017) asserts that women in deprived or rural areas, younger women, healthy or strong women, and women found to challenge the status quo in marriages i.e., challenging men over having several sexual partners are at an increased risk of IPV victimization. Furthermore, the author pointed out that husbands who are either unemployed, have no or only elementary education resort to the use of violence as a means of asserting their place in the relationship. In the same way, while arguing from the perspective of men from the ecological framework standpoint, Takyi and Mann (2006) assert that Ghanaian men’s attitudes towards wife beatings are largely shaped by individual and household level factors rather than by societal-level factors. Thus, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 men justify their abuse based on individual and household factors such as younger age, less wealth, lower education etc. In the same vein, Adu-Gyamfi (2014) also argues that attitudes, beliefs and practices have led to violent actions against women. This is due to notions that women often give up their rights to their husbands at the point of marriage, mostly when the bride prices are paid. In contrast, Cofie (2018) explores risk factors for spousal violence in a multilevel context in Ghana and sub-Saharan Africa. Cofie (2018) posits that community and individual-level factors are important in understanding spousal violence. Thus, a woman’s risk of spousal victimization is higher if she lives in a community that is characterized by high levels of residential instability as well as supports spousal assault. 2.3 Forms of Intimate Partner Violence Research has indicated that, Intimate Partner Violence can take on a variety of forms, and most often women, men, girls, boys experience multiple types of violence in intimate relationships (IRC, 2012). A research report by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Ghana Statistical Services (GSS) and Associates (2016) classified domestic violence into five broad categories under which all partner acts of violence fall. They include social, physical, sexual, psychological and economic violence. Notwithstanding the frequency of violence acts, men may engage in physical harm on their victims whenever they engage in violence (Catalano, 2013). This then shows implies that although men may have experience physical violence but might be less seriously injured due to lower physical power of women. Psychological violence is another form of violence associated with intimate partner violence. It can come in the form of being belittled, insulted, humiliated. The (GFLHS) 2015 findings on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 psychological violence showed that, the incidence of domestic psychological violence was highest among women and men who were never married (9.0 and 5.6 per cent, respectively). Research was conducted on the lived experiences of Latino women as a result of Intimate Partner Violence. The study revealed that, 33.9% of the participants experienced physical assault while 17.8% experiencing severe assault such as being punched, kicked and beaten (Hazen and Soriano, 2007). Furthermore, 21% reported suffering sexual violence from their male partners with which 7% reported their intimate partners using physical force or weapon to force sexual intercourse. In sum, the study showed that 82.5% of the participants had experienced psychological aggression in their intimate relationships. Colucci, O’Connor, Field, Baroni, Pryor, and Minas (2013) explored the nature of family violence experienced by men in the U.S.A. It was revealed from their findings that, men experienced psychological abuse either through humiliation, verbal abuse, or threats. In addition, participants indicated that they were controlled by their female partners in terms of the money they earned and other possessions. The study also revealed that men in Australia were vulnerable to different kinds of Intimate Partner Violence like verbal abuse (Colucci et al., 2013). The Institute on Domestic Violence in the African American Community (IDVAAC) involved women from sixteen different countries in an Intimate Partner Violence roundtable dialogue. The study aimed at exploring issues of domestic violence from their cultural perspectives (Mose&Gillum, 2016). Findings showed that, participants testified of sexual abuse as the vilest form of abuse they had ever experienced in their various intimate relationships. Moreso, participants added that their partners sexually abused them because of cultural practices. Most men of African origin were socialized to believe that sex was mandatory once they had fulfilled one of the important aspects of marriage which is the payment of the bride price. Hence wives had no University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 choice other than to comply with their sexual demands ((Mose & Gillum, 2016). The study further revealed that many African men had not considered anything called ‘marital rape’ hence their experience of more sexual violence than any form of violence. Jordan & Bhandari (2016) conducted a study in Southern Asian on the lived experiences of women who had experienced intimate partner violence. Participants had been physically abused in the form of pulling of their hair, being slapped, punching and pushing. Moreso, participants mentioned that they had also experienced psychological violence such as coercion, threats, intimidation, and isolation from their male partners. These male partners engaged in sexual coercive behaviours and withholding sex with the aim of inflicting pain on the women (Jordan & Bhandari, 2016). These findings were associated with the socialization of both males and females in Southern Asia. Socialization in the area marriages emphasized sexual satisfaction for men and the suppression of women’s sexual needs and rights. Hence, about 60% of women from Southern Asia were sexually coerced by their husbands against their will. Thus, as Moses and Gillum (2016) and Jordan and Bhandari (2016) pointed out from their studies, it is obvious that sexual abuse in these societies was predisposed by the cultural views of perpetrators with the notion that they had authority over women in intimate relationships. In the same way, Abraham (1999) research on women from Bangladesh, India and Pakistan who had been abused within their marriages revealed that women suffered more sexual violence. This is because conventionally, men were socialized with the notion that sex, was their masculine right as husbands which is why marital rape was very widespread in these three countries. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Gender roles recognized by men and women accord them with expectations that when not met can produce stress. Recent studies propose how gender role related stress may impact whether a man chooses to engage in violence (Moore et al., 2008; Tager). For instance, men may feel intense demands to defend gender role norms like providing food, clothing and shelter for his family. Sometimes, their inability to meet these expectations results in violent behaviours as a way of reaffirming their masculinity (Moore et al., 2008). Reports by the Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Ghana Statistical Services (GSS) and Associates (2016) assert that the most common form of violence experienced by women in Ghana was economic violence with the least been sexual violence. On the other hand, the study also pointed out that psychological violence was perceived by men as the most common form of violence meted out to them by their partners. Leung and Cheung (2008) conducted a study on the prevalence of intimate relationship violence using a survey research design with 1577 participants. 13.5 percent of respondents stated that their intimate partners had frightened them by throwing objects such as chairs, stones at them, 7% stated that they had been pushed by their partners, 5% stated that they had been slapped, 4% stated that they had been struck with an object, 2% stated that they had been threatened with either knife or gun, and 2% indicated that, they had been beaten by their intimate partners. Soni, Hari, and Yoko (2009) conducted a study in the United States of America on Nepali women's experiences with Intimate Partner Violence. The researchers conducted the study using a mixed- methods approach. The study enrolled a total of 45 participants, and 51% of the women reported experiencing psychological abuse. Additionally, 75.6 percent experienced verbal abuse, 60% reported their spouses humiliating them in public, and 11.1 percent reported feeling intimidated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 by their relationships. Comparing these two studies, it is observed that between South Asian women and Nepali women, the latter tolerated more emotional and psychological violence than physical and sexual abuse (Abraham, 1999; Soni, et al. 2009). Again, Kim and Sung (2016) conducted a quantitative investigation with 189 Chinese women. The study revealed that 90.5 percent of women had been verbally abused, whiles 76.2 percent had received threats, and 68.8 percent had been emotionally abused by their male partners. Moreso, psychological abuse was by far the most common type of violence suffered by Chinese women. Hicks (2006) employed a random sample to assess the prevalence and type of intimate partner violence in a study. Among 181 cases of intimate partner violence, the study discovered 23 instances of physical abuse. In their quest to comprehend the extent to which physical abuse occurs in South Asia. Hurwitz, Gupta, Liu, Silverman, and Raj (2006) discovered that approximately 55% of the 208 individuals surveyed had been physically abused by a former or current spouse. Physical abuse was found to be the most prevalent kind of Intimate Partner Violence among South Asian women living in the United States of America, the study revealed. Despite the fact that both Hurwitz et al. (2006) and Hicks (2006) conducted their investigations in the United States of America, Hurwitz et al. (2006) discovered incidences of physical abuse compared to Hicks (2006). This could be because the research designs employed were different. In their quest to comprehend the extent to which physical abuse occurs in South Asia, Hurwitz et al. (2006) found that, approximately 55% of the 208 individuals surveyed had been physically abused by a former or current spouse. Physical abuse was found to be the most prevalent kind of Intimate Partner Violence among South Asian women. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Rees and Pease (2007) conducted a qualitative study in Australia, identifying 78 female participants through purposive sampling. The study investigated these women's encounters with domestic violence, abuse and the types of violence they encountered. Financial abuse was a prominent kind of partner violence, in which men dominated women's financial resources, the research suggested. Intimate Partner Violence was explored by Kim and Sung (2000) in Korean households. A total of 256 people were questioned over the phone for the study. According to the findings of the survey, 18% of participants had been subjected to at least one act of physical abuse, such as shoving, slapping, hurling objects, and grabbing. Approximately 6% of interviewees said they had been kicked, bit, threatened with a gun, or struck with an object. 2.4 Children’s Exposure to Parental Intimate Partner Violence The research on children’s exposure to IPV began more than 40 years ago with the publication of the first case study demonstrating the adverse effect of IPV exposure on youngsters (Levine, 1975). Hundreds of empirical researches have been conducted since then to evaluate the relationship between IPV exposure and a variety of child outcomes ranging from infancy through puberty. Childhood experiences of family abuse have been linked to an individual's risk of domestic violence in some African societies; however, family violence varies by ethnicity (Tenkorang et al., 2013). Having said this, we anticipate that women and men who have experienced higher levels of family violence in their childhood will be more likely to experience marital violence. Although it might be quite difficult to separate the effects of age and exposure to conflict, it is possible that being exposed to violence may have an enduring impact on the developing person (Mann & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Gilliom, 2004). IPV exposure has been linked to adverse effects in six broad categories, including behavioral, mental health, cognitive, social, physical, and physiological outcomes. When compared to children who have not been exposed to IPV, the probabilities of not meeting language, personal-social, and fine motor–adaptive milestones by age three are intensely increased (Gilbert, Bauer, Carroll, & Downs, 2013). Numerous research on the consequences of witnessing IPV and childhood maltreatment have demonstrated adverse impacts on children, ranging from behavioral difficulties in childhood and adolescence to increased abnormal psychology as they enter adulthood (Jaffe, Wolfe, &Wilson, 1990; Wolfe, Jaffe, Wilson, & Zak, 1985). IPV exposure has been associated to behavior issues in toddlers (DeJonghe, von Eye, Bogat, & Levendosky, 2011), as well as trauma symptoms such as increased levels of distress, regardless of the disposition of the child (Dejonghe, Bogat, Levendosky, Von Eye, & Davidson, 2005). As a result of the exposure, some children struggle to build long term relationships with their mothers. (Finger, Hans, Bernstein, & Cox, 2009). Women who have been exposed to IPV during pregnancy have been found to have increased posttraumatic stress symptoms, which may contribute to increased levels of subsequent infant trauma symptoms (Lannert et al., 2014). According to studies, preschool-aged children exposed to IPV have an increased risk of developing behavioral difficulties in their social context (e.g., Fantuzzo et al., 1991; Holmes, Voith, & Gromoske, 2015). For instance, IPV exposure has an effect on how youngsters perceive and interpret conflict. According to one study, preschool-aged children exposed to IPV were less likely to understand violence in an orderly fashion (i.e., narrative coherence; understanding how violence occurs), University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 resulting in increased behavioral difficulties when compared to their unexposed peers (Minze, McDonald, Rosentraub, & Jouriles, 2010). Additionally, children exposed to IPV are more likely to exhibit scared reactions and greater involvement in conflict, which are associated with increased anxiety and depression symptoms (Cummings, Pellegrini, Notarius, & Cummings, 1989; Davies, Cicchetti, & Martin, 2012). Several studies have established a link between IPV exposure and impaired executive functioning and short- and long-term memory skills during the preschool years (Gustafsson et al., 2013; Gustafsson, Coffman, & Cox, 2015) Prosocial skill development is a critical developmental challenge for preschool children (i.e., being helpful and responsible, possessing self-assertion and self-control, and showing sympathy). While some research indicates that exposure to IPV during preschool is associated with decreased social competence when compared to children who are not exposed to IPV (Fantuzzo et al., 1991; Wolfe, Jaffe, Wilson, & Zak, 1985), other studies have discovered no such association between IPV exposure and prosocial skills or social competence (Farver, Xu, Eppe, Fernandez, & Schwartz, 2005) Research on the impact of IPV exposure on child outcomes has been undertaken on school-aged or adolescent children. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have indicated that, children in these age groups who are exposed to IPV are more likely to experience posttraumatic stress symptoms, as well as impaired cognitive functioning, academic difficulties, and social skills, when compared to their peers who have not been or are not exposed to IPV (Evans, Davies, & DiLillo, 2008). School-aged children exposed to IPV have an increased risk of bullying, which perpetuates violent behavior toward their peers (Baldry, 2003; Fredland, Campbell, & Han, 2008; Holt, Kaufman University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 Kantor, & Finkelhor, 2009; Knous-Westfall, Ehrensaft, MacDonnell, & Cohen, 2012), as well as a high risk of becoming a victim of bullying (Knous-Westfall, Ehrensaft, MacDonell, & Cohen, 2012). Despite these harmful consequences of children being exposed to violence, some parents continue to view physical aggression against children as a type of parental education aimed at steering children in the proper direction (IDS, GSS and Associates, 2016). IPV exposure has also been associated with both perpetration and victimization of teen dating violence (Chikte, 2012). Adolescents exposed to IPV are more prone to commit physical and relationship abuse against their partners than adolescents who have not been exposed to IPV (Ferguson, Miguel, Garza, & Jerabeck, 2012; Garrido & Taussig, 2013; Narayan, Englund, Carlson, & Egeland, 2014; IDS, GSS and Associates, 2016). In terms of victimization, adolescents who had been exposed to IPV were more likely to be victims of teen dating violence than adolescents who had not been exposed (Choi & Temple, 2016; Karlsson, Temple, Weston, & Le, 2016). However, gender differences emerged from this research by Choi & Temple (2016). Findings of the study disclosed that, female adolescents who had been exposed to IPV during childhood had the highest probability of experiencing physical and psychological teen dating violence compared with males who were exposed to IPV during childhood and males and females who were not exposed. Tenkorang & Owusu (2018) further claim that, given the precision of domestic violence and childhood experiences, victims' early childhood experiences are crucial to intimate partner abuse. They assert that women who had experienced childhood abuse were more likely to be perpetrators and victims of IPV than their counterparts who had not. Nonetheless, the level of violence is more pronounced if it occurs prior to the age of fifteen and continues into adulthood (Tenkorang & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Owusu, 2018). Again, violence experienced after the age of fifteen was more severe than violence experienced before the age of fifteen, and women who perpetrated the violence were also harmed to a higher extent. Similarly, proponents of life course theory argue that domestic violence is a process that is often traceable to the victims' childhood experiences and is deeply rooted in a web of familial relationships (Gewirtz & Edleson, 2007; Holt, Buckley, & Whelan, 2008). Nonetheless, the IDS, GSS and Associates (2016) report may be reinforced by the fact that (i) young people are at a higher risk of experiencing domestic violence, (ii) experiencing violence at an early stage in life will greatly increase the chances of experiencing violence in the future and (iii) experiencing violence at a younger age will increase the probability of the individual perpetrating violence in the nearby future. Half of all incidents of intimate partner violence (IPV) among high school students, according to researches, take place in public (Black et al., 2008; Molidor & Tollman, 1998). Moreover, the high school students in Black et al (2008) 's study were more likely to confide in a friend if they had witnessed the violence. To be more specific, victims were more likely to confide in someone of the same sex as the witness (i.e., victims are more likely to talk to a woman if a woman witnessed the incident more than if a man witnessed the incident). 2.5 Factors Contributing to Intimate Partner Violence Jewkes (2002) contends that the presence of two elements is necessary for IPV to occur. The factors that lead to or induce IPV are numerous. Thus, women's uneven status in society and a particular relationship, as well as the normative use of violence in dispute. In South Australia, Zannettino (2012) explored the factors that contributed to intimate partner violence. Similarly, the author believed that cultural variables, particularly those relating to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 changing nature of traditional gender roles, were a constant source of friction in women's relationships and a significant contributor to women's experience of IPV. Additionally, the study's findings suggested that participants believed that getting help for intimate partner violence would lead them to leave their spouses, resulting in a broken home. The survey revealed that participants believed that demanding for assistance would not be safe for their husbands and the notion that it might bring shame to the family and community. These variables also contributed to intimate partner abuse among because their views enabled them to remain silent in violent situations. Women's perceptions of marriage success, the stigma attached to women who leave abusive relationships, a strong emphasis on maintaining family privacy by not exposing partner, abuse being viewed as a private family matter, and concerns for children are all cultural factors that contribute to intimate partner violence (Tonsing, 2014). This implies that it is critical to recognize traditional beliefs and values, as well as social institutions, as contributing factors to intimate partner violence. Accordingly, feminist theorists have also argued that patriarchy plays a significant role in both the enactment and perpetuation of violence against women within the home. Domestic violence, according to feminist scholars (Anderson 2013; Kimmel 2011), is a sex-based form of oppression that is used to reinforce societal norms that emphasize men's superiority over women. Moracco, Hilton, Hodges, and Frasier (2005) assessed participants' knowledge and attitudes concerning intimate partner violence in another study done in rural North Carolina. The study discovered that Intimate Partner Violence was associated to alcohol and drug addictions, which contributed to the occurrences of abuse. Women’s provocative attitudes such as jealousy, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 miscommunication among others all contributed to intimate partner violence. The study concluded that substance abuse and alcoholism were the primary contributors to intimate relationship violence. Colucci et al. (2013) researched the risk factors for partner abuse among Indian women. The study discovered that the Indian culture supported inequity and violence against women on a cultural level, as women were expected to remain silent in abusive relationships. Once married, Indian women were expected to accept violence and received no social support from friends or family. Indian women who were victims of domestic violence were shamed, viewed as irresponsible, and held accountable by community members. This then generated fear among Indian women, hence their tolerance of Intimate Partner Violence even though they were aware of the negative effects it can have on them. Thus, as Jewkes (2002) points out, there will be a greater danger of violence towards partners in communities where the use of violence is a widely accepted norm in numerous settings. According to the study, excessive reliance on partners by Indian women, were not well informed about laws and rights, and their lack of understanding about services all factored in their experiencing intimate partner violence or victimization. According to some prior research, both men and women underreport their IPV perpetration in comparison to their partners' claims of victimization, but males underreport more than women (Schafer, Caetano, & Clark, 2002). This will result in the prevalence of intimate partner violence against men. However, Flake (2005) also found out that women's educational attainment dramatically reduces their likelihood of intimate partner violence. In addition, Karaoglu et al., University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 (2005) also revealed in a study that, raising both husband and wife's educational attainment reduces the likelihood of violence during pregnancy in Malatya, Turkey. Intimate partner violence is caused by a variety of factors, according to the International Centre for Migration, Health, and Development (2013). One aspect was a lack of social support, as women in their home countries had abandoned their entire social support structures. As a result, they became emotionally, socially, and financially reliant on their partners. Perpetrators frequently exploited women's dependency and increased their anxiety by socially isolating them. This increased the likelihood of victims remaining in abusive relationships. Cultural differences (where women held divergent opinions on problems, believing it was acceptable for their partners to abuse them), language barriers, a lack of awareness about available services, economic hardships, and fear of expatriation all played a role. Pearson et al. (2017) used data from Bangladesh to demonstrate that women with a history of intimate partner violence faced more constraints to reproductive autonomy than women without such a history. Eswaran and Mahotra (2011) found that men in South Asia used domestic violence to undermine their wives’ autonomy in allocating household resources. Reina, et al., (2013) conducted a study examining the factors that contribute to domestic abuse among Latina women. The researchers contended that location-specific factors and social relationships play a significant effect in partner violence. Three elements were identified as the primary contributors to violence against Latina women in this study. The study’s findings emphasized on the vulnerability of women living in new settlement regions and secluded lives to violent circumstances. Finally, women who have restricted social networks are more likely to experience partner violence. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Zarza et al. (2009) conducted a quantitative investigation in New Jersey. The study's objective was to ascertain the determinants of relationship violence. The study used demographic frequency analysis, univariate and bivariate descriptive analysis, and multiple regression analysis to analyze data collected. According to the study's findings, the vast majority of participants (93 percent) had witnessed or experienced family violence throughout their youth. It was revealed that the participants' partners had observed abuse of various types, including insults and beatings, perpetrated by their fathers (87.5 percent) against their mothers and by their mothers against their fathers (75 percent). Participants further described seeing abuse during their upbringing from their fathers toward their mothers (64.3 percent) and from their mothers against their fathers (64.3 percent) (21.2 percent). The study failed to explore its effect on young adults’ own intimate partner violence. The roles of certain extended family members have been identified as a factor leading to intimate partner violence victims (women). Jordan and Bhandari (2016) found out that, family participation is a risk factor for intimate partner violence among women in the United States of America. Among the 20 women who participated in the study, it was revealed that participants had suffered verbal abuse, physical violence, and ill-treatment at the hands of their in-laws. Some participants described being subjected to emotional abuse by their partner's mother, who publicly shamed them for their inability to be suitable wives and mothers. Clark, Shahrouri, Everson-Rose, and Groce (2010) used a mixed-methods approach, holding 17 focus groups with a total of 105 participants and a survey with 418 people. According to the findings of the study, women who shared a home with their husband's family and/or shared buildings with their husband's family members were more likely to experience intimate partner abuse. It was discovered that in-laws interjected themselves into the matters of women who had University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 undergone intimate partner violence, so contributing to their husband's abuse. Furthermore 45% of all surveyed participants claimed that their husband's extended family interfered with their relationships, which contributed to their partners' abuse Between June 1998 and February 1999 in Cape Town, Abrahams, Jewkes, Hoffman, and Laubsher (2004) conducted a population-based cross-sectional study. The study's purpose was to determine the prevalence and risk variables for men committing sexual assault against female sexual partners The study involved 1,368 males working in Cape Town municipality. The study discovered that all individuals had previously had many partners, with 215 claiming having between one and four current partners. Multiple partners were identified as a significant factor in relationship abuse. Tenkorang (2018) claims that in Ghana, the prevalence of IPV is rooted in historical gender inequality. Thus, inequities that stem from decades of financial advantages, specifically patriarchal and cultural benefits enjoyed by men. Thus, Tenkorang (2018) contends that redressing power inequalities in the family by increasing women's autonomy will address the incidence of IPV in Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa in general. In a similar vein, a study was conducted by Cho (2012) with the aim of comparing male and female perpetrators of IPV using nationally representative data. When compared to non-perpetrators, IPV offenders reported that their partners were more controlling (2.18 for male partners and 2.10 for female partners) (1.73 for male partners and 1.70 for female partners; data not shown). The number of victims who reported their abuser's controlling behavior was higher among women than among men, but the gap was not wide. According to these findings, men may be more inclined than women to engage in controlling behavior. The study concluded on the bases that ccontrolling behaviors are often associated with men, but women can engage in them as well. However, this University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 study encountered methodological difficulties in convincingly showing them as real gender differences, more research is clearly needed. Tenkorang (2018) examined the relationship between three dimensions of women's autonomy at the individual level: economic decision making, family planning decision making, and sexual autonomy, and four dimensions of intimate partner violence at the group level: physical, sexual, emotional, and economic violence, using data collected from 2,289 women living in 40 communities throughout Ghana. The data indicated that a substantial number of Ghanaian women have some measure of autonomy in each dimension. The findings indicated that autonomy is associated with a decreased risk of experiencing intimate partner violence, but this association is limited to a specific sort of autonomy related to family planning decision making. 2.6 Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on women and men In a similar study, Fuchsel (2013) examine the association between childhood sexual violence and adult abuse in the southern United States of America. The study employed an exploratory qualitative research approach and gathered data from nine randomly selected participants through in-depth interviews. The study's findings suggested that seven out of nine participants who had suffered Intimate Partner Violence in their relationships had been sexually abused as children. Many of the participants' early sexual abuse experiences involved date rape, exhibitionism, incest, which some endured for about five solid years. The study indicated that women who had been sexually abused as children were more likely to experience domestic abuse in their relationships later in adulthood. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Erez, Adelman, and Gregory (2009) evaluated the experiences of 139 women from 35 nations in the United States of America with partner violence and its effects on their children in a mixed- methods study. The study was guided by feminist intersectionality theory. According to the study's findings, abuse resulted in serious mental health consequences such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and numbness. Palmberg and Wasén (2003) conducted a study on men who had been subjected to IPV by female partners. The study discovered a distinct pattern: men can experience psychological abuse (insults, threats, or controlling behaviors, for example) to be worse than physical violence. The majority of dads in this study did not have sole custody of their children. Not being permitted to see or speak with the children over the phone, having a dread of the previous, and having their character disparaged by the children are all conditions that the males in this study had encountered. The findings also revealed fathers frequently felt profound hurt and powerlessness as parents as a result of their inability to see their children. Domestic Violence and Marital violence have been linked to negative outcomes for women's physical, mental, and reproductive health (Campbell, 2002; Coker et al., 2002). In addition to the fact that its perpetration endangers women's societal freedom, dignity, and fundamental human rights (McCloskey et al., 2005; Price, 2005), it also poses a threat to women's physical safety. As a cultural norm, wife-beating is accepted as a husband's attempt to correct his wife's excesses or wrongdoing (Iliyasu, Abubakar, Galadanci, Hayatu, and Aliyu, 2013; Mann and Takyi, 2009). Unfortunately, these studies are silent on the opinions of men concerning the cultural norms that endorses wife-beating or male dominance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Male entitlement, power, and superiority, as opposed to female submission, are conveyed during marriage rituals among the Igbos, and the place of female marital abuse can be noted when there is a transgression of the female subordinate role. It is not surprising, then, that Obi and Ozumba (2007) reported that Igbos in southern Nigeria are by far the most vulnerable group to domestic violence. 2.7 Negative effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Children While abuse can result in death, actual wounds, passion, and mental health difficulties characterizes some negative effects of IPV (DeJonghe, Bogat, Levendosky and von Eve, 2008). This then suggests that Intimate Partner Violence victims may endure both short- and long-term consequences A study was conducted in the United States of America to ascertain women's interactions with abusive behavior at home and the impact on children (Crandall, Senturia, Sullivan and Shiu-Thornton, 2005). The study's findings suggested that women reported their children experiencing suicidal and homicidal thoughts, as well as feelings of tension and anxiety, due to Intimate Partner Violence in their households. The participants further mentioned how children felt embarrassed and weakened as a result of the abuse. According to one mother, "Children cannot discuss their parents with their classmates." According to the report, mothers should avoid having disputes with their partners in front of their children. They should demonstrate respect for their children by modeling appropriate behavior. Again, women who lack access to resources necessary to ensure their own and their children's wellness are at a greater risk of enduring partner violence (Reina et al., 2013). Thurston et al. (2013) conducted a study in three Canadian cities between February 2005 and January 2006 among children who had witnessed parental Intimate Partner Violence. The study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 interviewed 37 youngsters in Calgary, Winnipeg, and Halifax using a qualitative research design. According to the study's findings, a substantial number of children interviewed became homeless owing to their parents' Intimate Partner Violence. Additionally, according to the survey, when the violence escalated and their personal safety became a concern, the women left their family homes with their children. When the women left their family homes owing to their husbands' abuse, characteristics such as low income, low education, unemployment, limited English literacy, and social isolation were discovered to predispose them to homelessness. Thus, women who have greater social, economic, and educational empowerment may be better safeguarded against partner abuse or domestic violence. Carrell and Hoekstra (2010) have revealed that children who suffered from social and emotional problems related to exposure to intimate partner violence also experienced lower academic achievement. PicoAlfonso, Garcia-Linares, et al. (2006) explored the influence of Intimate Partner Violence on children's mental health in Spain between 2000 and 2002.Findings showed that, intimate partner violence has a negative impact on children's mental well-being, increasing the pervasiveness of depression, PTSD, anxiety, and suicidal thoughts and attempts. Mayock, Sheridan, and Parker (2012) explored Intimate Partner Violence as a leading factor causing homelessness among Irish women. The study employed a qualitative research design and purposefully selected 60 women partake in the study. 13 out of the 17 homeless children interviewed had experienced abuse in an intimate partner relationship. In sum, Intimate Partner Violence was a primary cause of women's homelessness, coupled with economic, social, and personal effects. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Mahenge, Likindikoki, Stockl, and Mbwambo (2013) also conducted a study on some negative effects of IPV on its victims. Out of the 1180 women interviewed, 13% of them on behalf of their children under the age of 18 years suffered symptoms of PTSD, 63 percent complained of an elevated level of anxiety, and 73 percent went through depression. According to Pico-Alfonso et al., intimate partner violence is a substantial factor of poor mental health among pregnant women and their children (2006). In the same vein, Amoakohene (2004) and the IDS, GSS, and Associates (2016) research, there is a clear link or association between domestic violence exposure and mental health in Ghana. The impacts, however, were greater for women than for men. Keeports & Pittman (2017) discovered a positive correlation between current perceived conflict severity, threat, and self-blame assessments and depressive symptoms, implying that unfavorable effects may occur even among young adults who are not always present in the home or physically exposed to the conflict. 2.8 How victims of abuse navigated Abusive Relationships Hoan (2003) conducted a qualitative study in Vietnam to examine abused women ways of navigating abusive relationships. Before approaching the criminal court system, many of the individuals sought emotional support and assistance from their personal networks, according to the study. Twenty-one participants discussed their experiences with intimate partner violence with families, friends, and religious leaders. However, shame and fear of the abuser kept some victims from telling others about their abusive experiences. Half of participants sought for help from various agencies who provided shelters, health care, among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Laura (2010) explored 15 survivors (women) of intimate relationship violence in the United States and the ways the navigated through their experience of IPV. The findings of the study showed that these survivors of abusive relationships used a variety of tactics. Participants often hoped for the best with the belief that the relationship would get better. Study participants explained that they prayed for God's guidance and consolation from family members. The findings revealed that, some women tolerated the abusive partners because of the male-dominated patriarchal culture, which existed. Also having in mind that, they could not fight back their partners because they had power to control them. Bhuyan, Mell, Sullivan, and Shui-Thornton (2005) also conducted a study on societal differences and beliefs that influence how victims of Intimate Partner Violence view their situations and what techniques they prefer to use in responding or navigating through their experiences of Intimate Partner Violence. Domestic violence was shown to be a normal concern inside a family, according to the research. Furthermore, cases of domestic violence were also thought to be best kept within the family, according to participants. The findings revealed that, women were advised to be patient and to put up with their husbands' abusive behaviour. There was much emphasis on keeping the family stable, and divorce was regarded as harmful to the children. Many of these women stayed in violent relationships to resolve their issues by themselves because they did not want people to know about their family difficulties for the security of their children and their traditions. Mahapatra and DiNitto (2013) examined socio-cultural characteristics related with the seeking for support among 57 female domestic abuse victims in South Asia employing survey methods and logistic regression analysis. From the study’s findings, 34 sought helps (from relatives and friends), while 15 sought helps (from police, court, counsellors and doctors). According to the findings of the study, participants found aid (family and friends) to be more suitable and beneficial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 in their abusive relationships. Participants in the study identified socio-cultural practices such as isolation, patriarchy, and acculturation as reasons for seeking or refusing help. According to findings from a study conducted showed that, younger victims of IPV are more likely to speak out about their experiences than their older counterparts (e.g., Barrett & St. Pierre, 2011). However, using information from the National Violence Against Women Survey (NVAWS), Flicker et al. (2011) discovered that in contrast to younger women, older women were equally likely to disclose their experiences of violence to friends. Additionally, Farah, Natasha, Mary, and Donna (2009) explored the perspectives of women in the United States of America who have experienced intimate partner violence on the meaning of seeking help and the explanations for and against getting treatment for their heath challenges as a result of IPV. The study collected data from 22 women through focus group talks. The researchers analyzed the data using thematic analysis. The study revealed that stigma, women's gender roles (for instance subordination), children's welfare, a lack of social support, and knowledge about women’s rights all contributed to the delay in seeking help or support. The study's findings further indicated that, participants employed personal ways of navigating abuse and withheld information about the intensity of the abuse from people be it a relative, friend or s. Others attempted to persevere, made self-sacrifices, and prayed to God for assistance. After years of silently suffering from interpersonal abuse, the study found that individuals sought medical care. Guruge (2014) examined how people perceive and respond to intimate relationship abuse. The study's findings revealed a number of characteristics that informed the views and response of Sinhalese women to intimate partner abuse on multiple levels. The study's participants viewed intimate partner violence to be kept in private and also a humiliating subject to be disclosed hence concealed their painful encounters of abuse. The study revealed that women's responses to abusive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 relationships are greatly inclined by the security of their children, their financial dependence on their husbands, and family well-being. The study branded social apathy toward violence as a contributing factor to the acceptance of Intimate Partner Violence is a private issue hence should be kept from outsiders. Participants highlighted macro-level problems such as limitations in health, social, and settlement services. These characteristics contributed to participants' decision to endure the abuse and to their continued involvement in abusive relationships without seeking professional therapy or support. Haj-Yahia (2000) researched wife abuse and assault within the Arab community's sociocultural setting. The study, which focused on women's coping mechanisms for abuse and violence, a rigorous random sample technique was used to study 2,102 married Arab women. The majority of women responded that it was always critical to keep Arab community values when attempting to cope with abuse in relationships. The women stated that techniques for coping with abusive relationships should be implemented inside the nuclear and extended family structure in order to preserve family privacy. According to participants, women in Arab societies are required to uphold their family's reputation, respect their husbands, and look out for their children's welfare. Some women may receive support from organizations through home visits. Jahanfar et al. (2014) identified three studies on IPV in pregnant women who received home visit support, but the results were not statistically significant. As a result, there is conflicting evidence in the literature about the efficacy of home visits as an interdisciplinary intervention to assist women facing IPV. Akinsulure-Smith et al. (2013) revealed a number of ways used by West African women to navigate abusive relationships. According to the study, women who were victims of intimate partner violence sought support from relatives and partners were advised to stay in their abusive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 relationships. When families were unable to give solutions, participants turned to community elders or religious leaders for assistance. External support from law enforcement or support groups were often their last option. It is critical to emphasize that the majority of female victims in Ghana and other Sub-Saharan African nations do not seek assistance, and when they do, they rely on informal rather than institutional support networks (Tenkorang, Owusu and Kundhi, 2018). This is due to victims' distrust of, and negative experiences with, public agencies and state authorities when they seek assistance (IDS, GSS and Associates, 2016). The preceding literature demonstrates that, despite the volume of research conducted on intimate partner violence, the focus has always been on prevalence, victimization, and perpetration. Certain academics who study the effects of IPV on victims and, to a lesser extent, children are concerned about the serious health repercussions. However, relatively little research has been conducted on the long-term consequences for these youngsters as they grow into adults and how these consequences affect their own romantic relationships. This is the gap that this study sought to fill. 2.9 Conceptual Framework 2.9.1 Social Learning Theory Several theories have been advanced over the years to explicate why people behave the way they do (Bandura, 1971). When diverse social influences produce correspondingly diverse behaviours, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 the inner cause implicated in the relationships cannot be less complex than its effect. Human behavior was extensively analyzed in terms of the stimulus events that evoke it and the reinforcing consequences that alter it. Developments in learning theory shifted the focus of causal analysis from hypothesized inner determinants to detailed examination of external influences on responsiveness. According to Bandura (1971) new forms of behavior can be learnt or acquired through direct experience or observing the behavior others. In the course of learning, as people perform responses, they take into consideration the consequences that accompanies actions portrayed. Most of the behaviours portrayed by people are learned either deliberately or inadvertently though the influence of example (Bandura, 1971). The relevance of modelling and communication (verbal and nonverbal) for children and their developmental growth can be seen through the social learning theory. It was discovered through extensive research and experimentation that children frequently mimic the behaviors of those around them. Albert Bandura conducted notable research at the Stanfor