:A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SALVATION IN 
CHRISTIANITY AND EVE INDIGENOUS 
RELIGION IN GHANA 
A THESIS SUMITTED TO THE 
DEPARTMENT FOR THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 
r~ PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF 
PHILOSOPHY IN THE STUDY OF RELIGIONS 
BY 
", CONFIDENCE WORLANYO BANSAH [REV'D] 
LEGON, ACCRA 
MAY 2009 
DECLARATION 
I hereby declare that this study was carned out by me at the Department for the study of Religions, 
University of Ghana, under the supervision of the Rev. Professor 1. C. Thomas and the Rev. Dr. 
Brandford Yeboah. I am solely responsible, however, for any possible errors or omissions in this work. 
(JYj~ t 
Signature ...................................... . 
CONFIDENCE W. BANSAH 
(CANDIDATE) 
s. i (.-r1 
Ignature ............, . .........l  .... ~ Date ....) .J.)..p.r.) .. ~.1 0 
REV. PROF. 1. C. THOMAS 
(SUPERVISOR) 
;i_. .... ~~? 
REV.DR.B~AH Date ...... ~.J~.!.CJ... 
(SUPERVISOR) 
DEDICATION 
To my beloved wife, Prisca and children (Tyrone and Tyrese), who share with me the high adventure 
of discovering God's best for our lives. Their enthusiasm for enduring my absence in course of the 
study, along with the encouragement to undertake this research, has actually made the enterprise a 
great joy. 
ii 
ABSTRACT 
1he study essentially demonstrated that the Christian missionaries and the early Eue clergy did not 
take cognizance of the Eue belief in God, (Mawu) the all embracing creator of humankind. This can be 
discerned in the manner and methods these early missionaries proclaimed Christ in Eueland. Their 
interpretation of salvation was far out of tune from that of the Eue. This may be explained by the fact 
that they failed and disregarded to reach out to the roots of Eue indigenous religious thought. They did 
not learn, and failed to appreciate, the fact that traditional Eue religious thought, just as Christianity, 
embodies the essence of humanity, which is the key to understanding and appreciating the Eue in his 
environment, particularly at that time. 
The study has shown that the quest for salvation is in all people, irrespective of one's religion. 
Salvation is therefore perceived as the aim and end of life. We also noted that, Eue Christian 
theologians such as C. G. Baeta, N. K. Dzobo, C. R. Gaba, G. Ansre, Elom Dovlo and Dela Adadevor, 
have all affirmed the notion that salvation is the liberation of the person from the powers that have the 
potential of interfering with the original identity and sense of being. They all affirm that, salvation is 
about gaining one's freedom from life's negating forces, both spiritual and physical. Their works, in 
essence, demonstrate that it is the same God (Mawu) who is acting uniquely in both Christianity and 
Eue indigenous religion to bring about salvation. 
Although the Church was introduced from Germany into Eueland, God, the essence around whom and 
on whom the Church has been built, has been in Eueland in all his unique manifestations before the 
:urival of the Christian missionaries in 1847. The observation of Jacob in Genesis 28:16-17: "Surely 
he Lord is in this place, and I was not aware of it. How awesome is this place! This is none other than 
iii 
the house of God; this is the gate of heaven" clearly illustrates the religious situation of the Eue before 
their contact with the European Christian missionaries. In fact, God had already revealed himself to 
the Eues throughout human history; it is believed that he has never left himself without a witness in 
the Eue indigenous religion. 
In analyzing the nature and meaning of salvation, the study clearly demonstrates that both Christianity 
and followers of Eue indigenous religion acknowledge that, God (Mawu), who is the source of 
salvation, works through intermediaries such as Jesus Christ, the ancestors, deities and powerful 
spirits. These intermediaries serve as God's (Mawu's) agents of mercy and justice. It is pertinent to 
observe and recognize that libation prayers of the Eue appeal to the ancestors to ensure that the people 
and the community they (the ancestors) left behind become increasingly better off than they left them. 
The essence of this is reflected in such admonishments as: 'may your back be more peaceful than your 
front;' meaning may the relatives, people and communities left behind prosper and become better than 
at the time the ancestors were in this life. This clearly illustrates the conceptual link between the dead 
(ancestors) and the living. Although the aspect of pouring a liquid or drinks on the ground in libation 
prayers may be appropriately reviewed, there can be no doubt that there are lessons to learn from it. 
The study also points out that the Eue concept of salvation (Dagbe), profoundly reflects God's 
(Mawu's) provision of abundant life in the present and the future; this includes the restoration of all 
forms of human failures, and the ordering of the community and the universe as a whole. Similarly, 
Christianity perceives salvation as deliverance of all of God's creation from every shortcoming in 
order to make them happy and finally to obtain everlasting life. This study, in a modest way 
~ontributes to, and draws attention to other factors not at present given due consideration in the 
lttempt of the Church to concretize the gospel of Christ to the Eue. 
iv 
'rom the above discussion, other relevant literature and the operation of the diverse fonns of Christian 
:ligious movements on Eueland in particular and Ghana in general, the study has discerned the 
nergence of Africanist Christian life and thought which is perceptibly different from traditional 
rthodox Western Christianity. Although this particular issue is beyond this thesis, it is important to 
)te that the new and emergent Africanist Christian thought is likely to influence, and contribute to the 
lture development of Christian life and thought in Africa in particular. It is therefore of crucial 
nportance for the Church to seriously take cognizance of this and timely and appropriately tune its 
teology as a consequence. 
1 conclusion, it may be emphasized and suggested for particular consideration that the harsh and 
nfrlendly social, cultural and economic environment, particularly in the urban setting, is real in the 
re eireumstanees of the individual and his or her perception of salvation. In this emerging context of 
"vation, Christianity has to fIrst address these contextual issues before relating them to the 
Ichatological reality. The economic and technological hardships such as stark poverty, 
lemployment, low income, housing, health, personal and social relations, etc, are increasingly 
laDging the context in which Christianity is operating in Eueland and Ghana in general. The Church 
lerefore needs a radical approach to its theological expressions which have the potential to influence 
le issue of salvation in Africa, particularly because, salvation ought to relate to the environment of 
Ie believer. If this is done, then the hard realities of salvation and the hard realities of life will be 
oser to match the daily necessities of life. 
v 
CONTENTS 
Page 
Declaration ................................................................................................ .i 
Dedication ................................................................................................. .ii 
Abstract ..................................................... '" ......................... " .. " ............. .iii 
Acknowledgement. ........... '" ................................................. " ......................v i 
Table of contents .......................................................................................... viii 
Chapter One: 
1.0 IntroductionlBackground to the Study 
1.1 Definition of Concepts 7 
1.2 Statement of Problem 16 
1.3 Aims of Study 16 
1.4 Objectives of Study 16 
1.5 Scope of Study 17 
1.6 Research Questions 17 
1. 7 Hypothesis 18 
1.8 Methodology 20 
1.9 Literature Review 22 
1.10 Relevance/Significance of Study 25 
1.11 Limitations 
25 
1.12 Organization/Structure of the Study 26 
viii 
27 
CHAPTER 2 BmLICAL AND CHRISTIAN CONCEPTS OF SALVATION 
2.0 Features of Salvation in Old Testament 27 
2.1 Interpretation of Salvation in New Testament 43 
2.2 Salvation in Pauline Theology S9 
2.3 Salvation and the Catholic Church 6S 
2.4 Salvation and the Reformation 77 
2.5 Salvation in Contemporary Ecc1esiology 91 
2.6 Conclusion 9S 
CHAPTER 3 THE EUE AND SALVATION 96 
3.0 The history of the Eue 96 
3.1 The Eue concept of Salvation 100 
3.2 The Christianization of the Eue 107 
3.3 Conclusion 111 
CHAPTER 4 THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE 
BUE AND CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDINGS OF SALVATION 112 
4.0 God and Creation 113 
4.1 The Good Life 120 
4.2 Worship 122 
4.3 The concepts of Sin and Morality 123 
4.4 The concept of Death 128 
4.5 The concept of Reincarnation contrasted with Resurrection 129 
ix 
4.6 Immortality of the Soul 131 
4.7 The concept of Heaven and Hell 133 
4.8 The Church and the Clan 134 
4.9 Conclusion 135 
CHAPTERS CONCLUSION AND MAIN FINDINGS 139 
5.0 Inculturation 142 
5.1 Contextualization 144 
5.2 Influences 146 
5.3 Recommendations 148 
APPENDIX 151 
SELECT BmLIOGRAPHY 152 
x 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.0 BACKGROUND 
The concept of salvation is central to most religious traditions such as Christianity, Islam, 
and the African Indigenous Religion. Indeed, the aims and ends of religions is 
"salvation." Abraham Akrong suggests that "at the core of all religions is the quest for 
salvation. "I I agree with him that in the world, there cannot be a religion without the idea 
of salvation. Akrong's view of salvation is that it is a real practical concern that has to do 
with the challenges of life and human existence.2 Geoffrey Parrinder also argues that: 
" ... Whatever else a religion mayor may not be, it is essentially a reaching forward to the 
idea of salvation.,,3 
In the light of Parrinder's argument cited above, it can be said that salvation has been 
treated as a key subject in most religions. There is therefore the need for a comparative 
analysis of the various perceptions of salvation. This thesis is a comparative one 
involving two religions (Christianity and Eue indigenous religion) and attempts to show 
the extent to which the Eue indigenous view of wholeness and the ideal life influenced 
the appropriation and interpretation of the Christian understanding of salvation, or vice 
versa. 
I Abraham Akr~g. "Salvation in African Christianity" in Legon Journal oft he Humanities vol. 12. (Accra: 
Mustard ImpresSIons, 1999-2001), 1. 
2 Alcrong, 23. 
3 Geoffrey P~, "The Salvation of other Men" in Man and his Salvation: Studies in memory ofS.G.F. 
Brandon. Eds. Eric J. Sharpe and John R. Hinnells (Manchester: Rowman Littlefield Publishers 1973) 
189. • , 
The BueI.JBisn*d from Not6ie in the Republic of Togo and settled in part of the present 
Volta Region of Ghana. They had their first formal contact with Christianity as early as 
1847 when the Bremen Missionaries settled at Peki. This led to the establishment of a 
church, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (Then known as the Eue Presbyterian 
Church). Since then, the proclamation and the teaching of the gospel have not ceased. 
Nonetheless, irrespective of the similarities between the nature and meaning of salvation 
in Christianity and the Eue indigenous religion, to a great extent, the majority of the 
early Christian missionaries did not, in their work, accord the indigenous worldview the 
necessary dignity it deserves. As a result, the presence and the practice of Christianity 
have side-lined the expression and the appropriation of the indigenous religious beliefs 
and practices of the Eue, both among the indigenous group and the Christian converts. 
Despite the fact that the church (community of those who profess faith in Jesus Christ 
and are bound by rules such as those partially attributed to Augustine of Hippo i.e., living 
life in love, community, obedience, and service) is keen in its approach that there is no 
salvation outside it, the contemporary phenomena of Inculturation and Contextualization 
of the church demonstrate how the existing Eue indigenous religious view of salvation 
may be, and indeed is, relevant to enhance the Christian concept and understandings of 
salvation. 
Arguably, a basic concept in Christianity is salvation. Eventhough, the discussion of 
salvation and justification were at the very centre of Reformation Theology, I submit that 
the questions relating to them have changed after the Reformation. This is supported by 
2 
. . fth S . ture and questions about 
the. fad thm, biblical hermeneutics and mterpretation 0 e cnp 
th 
biblical authorship such as those of the Pentateuch changed since 19 century. The 
Synoptic discrepancies which are an on going debate have also posed serious theological 
challenges for contemporary Soteriology. 
The church perceives "Mission" as making people aware about salvation and damnation 
considering the importance attached to salvation. This is mainly because Christians are 
mostly concerned about the eschatol than any other biblical belief, since much of Jesus' 
teachings were geared toward the end times. 
The indigenous Eues are equally concerned about their salvation like Christians. They 
believe in a hierarchy of deities: 
• The Supreme Being or God (the Great God) - Mawuga or Mawu 
• Ancestral Spirits- Togbewo or Togbe-togbewo 
• Lesser Gods or deities- Trowo, Vudu or Mawuviwo 
• Other Spirits and Powers- Dzo, Adze, Tukpui etc. 
The Eues also believe that the world was created by Mawu who has the power over life 
and death and the power to save. Christian R. Gaba conceives Dagbe as the indigenous 
Eue word that translates the English word salvation. He observes that the interpretation 
4 Paul J. Achtemeier has suggested in the 1996 Revised Edition of the HarperCol/ins Bible Dictionary, of 
which he is the general editor that the tenn "Eschatology," is the beliefs or teaching about last things. The 
word which is from the Greek language is derived from the tenn eoxtos "Eschstos" meaning "Last Things." 
Biblical, intertestamental and rabbinic writings often distinguish between the present age or aeon, the 
period of history in which life is being lived, and the future, coming age, or period oftransfonned existence 
that God win bring at the end of history. The latter age or aeon is sometimes also referred to as the age to 
come or coming age, the kingdom of God, the new world, or the new or messianic age. In this context, the 
tenn "eschatology" is inherently ambiguous, since it may refer to teachings either about events expected to 
take place during the last days of the present age or about occurrences anticipated at the beginning of or 
during the age to come. 
3 
...I IIJPI'OPI'iatiOD of "Dagbe" is in the Hebrew word shalom, meaning total-well-
s 
beiDg, which is achieving the fullness oflife here and now, and in the life after.
In his works on traditional understanding of salvation among the Anlo-Eue, Gaba 
expresses the view that 'abundant life' rather than salvation, is a better translation for the 
Eue concept of Dagbe. Abundant life in his view is total-well-being; that is wellbeing 
in both the spiritual and material aspects of life. To support his reason for using abundant 
life rather than salvation, Gaba explains that in the milieu of those for whom Dagbe has 
existential relevance, abundant life is a more expressive rendering of the concept than the 
word salvation. Gaba shares the view of Bolaji Idowu that the Hebrew concept of shalom 
or total wellbeing is the goal of African indigenous religion in general. 6 
Bolaji Idowu observes that the concept of Shalom, in Hebrew religion, which is total 
wellbeing in body, mind and soul in relation to personal, domestic and societal issues, is 
also the goal of African indigenous religion in general. 7 
The questions that arise are: is shalom attainable in the present life? Can we say that 
because one has become financially independent, economically viable and in fairly good 
health means one has achieved a total-well-being? In the midst of total-well-being, 
are we able to put to rest the problem of evil? 
S Christian Gaba, "Man's Salvation: Its nature and meaning in African Traditional Religions" in 
f~ianjty in Independent Africa. Eds. Edward Fashole-Luke et a1. (London: Rex Collins, (978), 389: 
1 E. Bollji Idowu, African Traditional Religions (London: SCM Press, (973), 46. 
4 
I suggest and hold the view that ·tlUJ. Christian conception of heaven and the Eue 
indigenous view of the ancestral world known as togbeawo yife is essentially that of the 
eschatological realization of the presence and power of God, and the final elimination of 
sin and evil. This is the consummation of the concept of salvation in both religions, in 
which the presence, penalty and power of sin have all been finally eliminated, and the 
total presence of God in individuals and the community of the faithful have been 
achieved. Until then, I suggest a total-well-being is not recognizable in this world, 
irrespective of life's prospects and fulfillments. 
Dagbe also connotes the idea of "deliverance" among Eues. This is because the concept 
of Dagbe has developed and evolved around Eues historical escape from Notsie in the 
Republic of Togo under the tyrannical rule of King Agorkorli to their present place of 
liberty and freedom. Therefore, the Eue concept of Dagbe covers the whole person, i.e., 
progress in life, good health, and good harvest among others. From its everyday usage, 
Dagbe has to do with the fortifying, strengthening, enriching, or enhancing life. 8 
In another work Gaba used the word/a/a (peace) as an Eue concept of salvation. This he 
also perceives as the equivalent of the Hebrew concept of Shalom. The difference 
between/afa and Dagbe is that fafa is used more commonly in everyday conversation.9 
Two other Eue concepts which are possibly translated as salvation by Dela Adadevor 
which Gaba does not discuss in his works are Agbenono (Being in a state of life or 
8 C~ GabEl;> in De~ A~vor, "Approaches to Christianization among the Ewe people of Ghana" 
(Ph. D. DisSertation., UruVerslty of Leeds, 2005), 99. 
j-Ibid. 
5 
existenee);and Blibonyenye. The latter refers to well being as 'wholeness,' which 
represents meaningful life. 
Birgit Meyer conceptualizes salvation as the exorcism of evil spirits. This is confirmed by 
the fact that the terms xoxo (from xo, to receive, to get, to save) and dede (from de, to 
take away) are both used to translate 'salvation"IO by Christian converts among the Eue. 
She argues that "since dede is also used to translate 'deliverance' (from evil spirits); it is 
no great surprise that salvation is conceptualized as the act of being taken away from the 
realm ofSatan."ll 
Abraham Akrong argues that "Christian Soteriology has been enriched prominently by 
culture and local beliefs of salvation. Therefore, the emphasis on a new paradigm and 
fresh interpretation for salvation is a legitimate and pressing concern for indigenous 
religion and African theology.,,12 
It is evident from the discussion above that the word salvation means very different 
things to different people in the church, from the time of the early church to today. Since 
it is the pivotal doctrine on which the church stands and falls, a working definition of it is 
crucial for our understanding of a comparative study of the kind envisaged in this work 
and will occupy us in the next stage. 
10 ~irgit Meyer, Translating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (Edinburgh' 
Bctinburgh University Press Ltd, 1999), 165. . 
IIlbid. 
12 Abraham Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity", 1. 
6 
existence); and Blibonyenye. The latter refers to well being as 'wholeness,' which 
represents meaningful life. 
Birgit Meyer conceptualizes salvation as the exorcism of evil spirits. This is confirmed by 
the fact that the terms xoxo (from xo, to receive, to get, to save) and dede (from de, to 
take away) are both used to translate 'salvation"IO by Christian converts among the Eue. 
She argues that "since dede is also used to translate 'deliverance' (from evil spirits); it is 
no great surprise that salvation is conceptualized as the act of being taken away from the 
realm ofSatan."ll 
Abraham Akrong argues that "Christian Soteriology has been enriched prominently by 
culture and local beliefs of salvation. Therefore, the emphasis on a new paradigm and 
fresh interpretation for salvation is a legitimate and pressing concern for indigenous 
religion and African theology.,,12 
It is evident from the discussion above that the word salvation means very different 
things to different people in the church, from the time of the early church to today. Since 
it is the pivotal doctrine on which the church stands and falls, a working definition of it is 
crucial for our understanding of a comparative study of the kind envisaged in this work 
and will occupy us in the next stage. 
10 B. I' lg1.t  Mey~, T~anslating the Devil: Religion and Modernity among the Ewe in Ghana (Edinburgh' 
Edinburgh Umverslty Press Ltd, 1999), 165. . 
II Ibid. 
12 Abraham Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity", 1. 
6 
1.1 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 
SALVATION: Alister E. McGrath maintained that, salvation is a "complex notion" with 
regard to the many nuances the term carries, with both secular and religious 
connotations.13 Komi A. Hiagbe also indicated that, "the meaning of the term salvation 
differs from one context to another. In the same vein, what constitutes salvific 
phenomena in one religion or context, may not in another,,,14 because, salvation may be 
ascribed to specific or particular situations. "For example a river suddenly swells to 
deliver the persecuted from the persecutor; the river is revered as a saviour, and the 
phenomenon as salvation."lS 
Therefore, to discuss the concept of salvation, one needs a working definition for the 
purpose of analysis, objectivity and clarity. Akrong argues that a careful study of the 
concept of salvation in the various religious traditions shows that there is a need, a lack, 
or a deficiency in human life that needs or calls for divine or transcendental help. 
Therefore, the structure of salvation operates on an assumed need in human existence that 
makes salvation necessary or relevant to human life. 16 
Particularly, the message of salvation is completely different in the respective religious 
traditions and even within movements or denominations of the same faith. Akrong re-
iterated that ''the salvation message of the different religions and indeed different 
movements within the same religion puts forward different ways in which the perceived 
:: Alim:rE. M~Gratb, Christian Theology: An Introduction, (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994),337. 
KOlnI A. HI~, Reconciled to Reconcile: An African view of John Calvin's Doctrine of Salvation 
g"~ am Main: Peter Lang GmbH Intemationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2008), 31. 
16 Akrong, 22. 
7 
causes orb SO'l)lCe of human predicament can be resolved or overcome.,,17 He went on 
to cite the Christian tradition as an example that the different cultural and philosophical 
contexts have produced different interpretations of the meaning and significance of the 
death of Christ for human salvation. IS 
The word salvation equally means very different things to different people both in and 
th 
outside the church. According to the Wildpedia encyclopedia, salvation is a 13 century 
English word c. 1225 and is originally a Christian word from the Latin Salvatio (from 
salvare) meaning ''to save." The Latin translation of the Greek, O'cotTJpta (soteria) is a 
noun of action from salvare (save) meaning deliverance by the soter (saviour). The Greek 
O'CDtTJptIl (soteria), from which the New Testament concept of salvation is primarily 
derived, has secular meanings of victory, deliverance, preservation, security and, bodily 
health. 
Hiagbe argued that the term salvation also carries the nuance of 'a means of safety,' a 
safe return, and a guarantee. He maintained that, this definition is amply substantiated by 
the Thelogisches Worterbuch zum Neuen Testament which obviously illustrated the 
understandings of O'cotTJpta (saviour) within the Graeco-Roman tradition: a) tradition 
recognized the gods and the ruling cults to be protecting the welfare of the people against 
enemies, hence were considered to be saviours, b) they bring about peace, order and 
security as salvation, so the leaders who made these possible were considered saviours, 
17 ~, Akrong, :'An Akan Christian view of Salvation from the perspective of John Calvin's 
Soteriology' (Ph. D. DISS., Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago 1991) 30 
18 Ibid. ' ' ,. 
8 
aru:l c) other specific: and peculiar situations where people are said to have experienced a 
spectacular deliverance by a deity. 19 
Primarily, salvation is the act of "saving" from sin and its consequences such as curse and 
death. In Christianity in particular the reference is to "saving" from sin. Likewise, 
Christianity is a religion through which one is saved from one's sins and its 
consequences. Consequently, sin became a conditioned phenomenon for salvation in 
Christian theology. In fact, in the beginning, God and humans were said to be together in 
perfect relationship. Then sin came and separated humans from God as they turned their 
back to God in disobedience. A gap was hence created between humans and God. In 
traditional Christian theology, Jesus then became the only access to God. 
Salvation, in general, refers to deliverance or rescue from some undesirable state or 
condition. In theology, salvation can mean three related things: being saved from 
something, such as suffering or the punishment of sin-also called deliverance; being 
saved for something, such as afterlife or participating in the reign of God-also called 
redemption or eternal life; and social liberation and healing, as in liberation theology. 
In my view, there are three stages of salvation from Christian stand point: 
The first stage is what is called initial salvation. It refers to the event of a person's 
conversion from sin to state of grace. The second is progressive salvation which covers a 
believer's faith journey between conversion and death. And the final stage is the event of 
God saving his people at the final judgment, the great divide between "sheep and goats". 
19 Hiagbe, 31. 
9 
According to Daniel Migliore, "salvation is more than a return to pristine creation, more 
even than the reconciliation with God and our fellow creatureS that are present in the life 
of faith, hope, and love here and now. Salvation means final fulfillment of life in perfect 
and everlasting communion with God and our fellow creatures.,,20 
S. Mark Heim argues that the debate about salvation in other religions will not shed much 
light unless it is recognized that there are many different understandings of the final end 
of human life. Both those who deny and those who affirm salvation through other 
religions overlook this fact. In Heim's view, it is a mistake to assume that all religions 
aspire to the same end, and that they all share a common understanding of salvation. He 
therefore speaks of "salvation" in plural or even more carefully, of distinct "religious 
ends." 
Migliore, commenting on Heim's view, maintained that, "there are, in other words, 
different understandings of human destiny, different interpretations of the end for which 
the various religions instruct and prepare their adherents.'.2l Heim then concluded that, in 
Christian theology salvation is "a relationship of communion through Christ with God 
and with other creatures.',22 
According to the existentialist, Paul Tillich, the universal significance of Jesus as the 
Christ, which is expressed in the symbols of subjection to existence and of victory over 
zo D:uue1 Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology (Michigan Grand 
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1991),319. ' 
21 Ibid 
21 S: Mark Heim, The Depth of the Riches: A Trinitarian Theology of Religious Ends (Michigan Grand 
Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2001), 53. ' 
10 
existence, can also be expressed in the term "salvation." This is so, because, Jesus is 
called the Saviour,23 the Mediator,24 or the Redeemer.2S The Mediator appears under the 
institutions of prophecy, kingship, and priesthood to demonstrate God's commitment to 
the salvation of hmnan beings.26 For Tillich, salvation refers to being saved from the 
ultimate negativity, which is the exclusion from the universal unity of the Kingdom of 
God, and the exclusion from eternal life. He offers a limited meaning of salvation as the 
question of ''to be or not to be. ,,27 The philosophy of existentialism affirms that, salvation 
depends on the "Free Will." This logically concludes that, in the final analysis, what one 
gets by way of acceptance or rejection by God is what one chooses. It means one's life is 
28 
determined by the decision one makes day by day regarding salvation.
Paul Tillich believed that, salvation is either total or non-existent. Total salvation, in his 
view, is identical with being taken into the state of ultimacy. This is the opposite of 
damnation. He goes on to argue that, if salvation to eternal life is dependent upon the 
encounter with Jesus as the Christ and the acceptance of his saving power, then, only a 
small number of people will ever reach salvation. Tillich's argument suggests that, people 
are condemned through a divine decree or destiny or guilt.29 However, the theology of 
23 From the Greek Soter and Latin Sa/vator. A biblical term for God as deliverer and protector as well as 
for Jesus Christ, emphasizing his work as the one who brings salvation. 
24 Latin medius meaning "middle." One who stands between parties in order to effect reconciliation. The 
term is applied to Jesus Christ as the one mediator between God and humankind (I Tim.2:5) who has 
effected reconciliation by overcoming sin. ' 
25 La~ redimere. meaning "buy bac~." GOd. is th~ rescue~ of Israel. A designation also for Jesus Christ, 
who brmgs salvation and the redemptive relationship God, mtends to have with those who believe. 
26 Abraham Akrong, "An Akan Christian view of Salvation from the perspective of John Calvin's 
Soteriology," 126. 
rI Paul TilJich, Systematic Theology 11 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press 1957) 165 
28 Lk.6:43-45 New Revised Standard Version of the Bible. ' , . 
29 TiHich, 165 NRSV. 
11 
Universalism (the view that all persons will ultimately receive salvation from God) 
always tried to escape this idea. 
The current pluralistic religious environment has led to the reinterpretation of the concept 
of salvation by some scholars such as Akrong and John Hick. The views of these scholars 
have been categorized as pluralism, inclusivism and exclusivism or particularism and 
evidentialist particularism. I start with Pluralism, which is the view that, most, if not all 
religions are in God's plan of salvation. The view which is also known as universalism 
basically taught that, "All people will be saved" irrespective of their belief. John Hick, 
the most contemporary proponent of this concept, maintained that, God is in the center of 
salvation and not Christianity. Therefore, the church cannot influence God's plan of 
salvation.3o 
Hiagbe wrote: "Deploring Karl Rahner's 'inclusivist' theory of anonymous Christianity 
in which the latter posits the view that based on their core beliefs, Buddhists, for instance, 
can be justifiably be considered as anonymous Christians, Hick questions why the 
argument is not the other way round, i.e., Christian as anonymous Buddhist.,,3l Hick 
however, questions why some religions especially Christianity claim superiority over 
others hence as the custodians of the "highest truth.,,32 Nonetheless, as discussed earlier 
on, different religions have varying understanding of the concept of salvation, and all 
religions cannot be said to be leading to the same goal (S).33 
30 Hiagbe, 30. 
31 Hiagbe, 35. 
32 Ibid. 
33 Ibid. 
12 
~CtIIistian iaclusivism suggests Jesus Christ as the nonnative fulfillment of all 
religiODS. It implies that, people can only be saved in and through the salvific act of Jesus, 
even though they remain in religions other than Christianity. This Christian inclusivist's 
perspective of salvation affinns that, God's provision of salvation in Christ embraces 
people of all cultures and religions. Karl Rabner suggests that, Buddhists are really 
anonymous Christians.34 
Third, exclusivism, restrictivism or particularism is the perspective that salvation is 
available only through faith in God's special acts of history, culminating in Jesus Christ 
The view suggests that there is salvation outside the church based on the doctrine of 
prevenient grace. Prevenient grace is the grace which is believed to have preceded any 
human response to God. This grace is seen as irresistible. In Arminianism and 
Wesleyanism the view is that God's grace is extended and persons may choose whether 
to or not to believe in Jesus Christ meaning, you will be saved if only you believed and 
vice versa. The human decisions of the faithful are responsive to and enabled by God's 
grace.3S 
Finally, evidentialist particularism is a combination of inclusivism and particularism 
which places emphasis on God's role in saving humankind on account of the work of 
Jesus Christ on the cross, whether or not they ever place explicit faith in him. This view 
derives from general and specific revelations as sources of religious knowledge. It is 
argued that particularism is the view of salvation best supported by biblical and extra 
34 Ibid. 
35 Donald K. McKim, Westminster Dictionary o/Theological Terms (Louisville: Westminster John Knox 
Press, 1996),120. 
13 
biblical evidence.36 This view considers salvation to be related to an individual's personal 
response to the Christian gospel, as contrasted to universalism, which teaches that God 
will save all persons regardless of their responses. 
DAGBE: The concept of Dagbe is a controversial one. According to C. R. Gaba, the 
word Dagbe is particularized for ritual usage and scarcely appears in a function that does 
not involve rituals. Dagbe in a prayer always expresses a prayerful wish for the 
promotion of the well-being and abundant life of the people. He suggests an 
interpretation of Dagbe through etymological analysis. He indicated that Dagbe comes 
from the root words daa and agbe. For him, daa means 'always' or 'everlasting,' and 
agbe means 'life.' 
Gaba writes: 
According to speculative etymological analysis, Dagbe 
derives from two Anlo words: daa which means always, 
forever, eternally, and gbe which means day. Put together 
Dagbe means literally to have only the day always, forever, 
eternally. And if we remember that the night in Anlo 
thought is symbolic of all life-negating phenomena and the 
day of all life-affirming phenomena then this attempt at 
etymological analysis of Dagbe may be acceptable since 
Dagbe implies the eternal absence of life-negating 
36 Hiagbe, 37. 
14 
phenomena from the human condition and the eternal 
37 
experience of life-affirming ones.
Dela Adadevor, on the other hand, thinks there is another way of analyzing 
etymologically the meaning of Dagbe that is consistent with the Eve religious 
understanding of life. He proposes that the Eve indigenous religious meaning of the word 
da is 'life force.'38 He also maintained that, Da is considered as coming from God, and 
that, God is the source of Dagbe. B. Maupoli affirmed that this is why in certain cases the 
Eue would refer to da-gbe as Mawu-gbe (the God-life), which is the soul (se) of a person 
as well as other living things.39 The difficulty with Maupoli's explanation of Mawu-gbe 
as 'God-life' is that there is no differentiation between the nature of the God-life as 
experienced by humans and animals. The God-life is as such regarded as the soul in 
humans and animals alike. Nonetheless, Mawu-gbe as an alternative for Dagbe is used in 
this study strictly in relation to the human experiencing of the God-life.4o 
It came to light during the field work for this study that, the Eue believes that, it is with 
this 'life force; da, that God created the world. Da is thought to be a spiritual life 
principle, the idea of life and movement among the Eue of present day Benin. Adadevor 
however argues that, if da has anything to do with the word Dagbe, then da-agbe or daft 
agbe translated would mean 'life which comes from the life force of the creature.' This is 
37 Gaba, "Total- Well-Being: Salvation and God in the Experience of an African People" in God: The 
Contemporary Discussion. Eds. Fredderick Sontag & Darrol Bryant (New York: The Rose of Sharon Press 
1982), 139. ' 
38 Adadevor, 106. 
39 Adadevor, 107. 
40 Ibid. 
15 
consistent with the belief oftbe Eve people that the creator Mawu is the source of Dagbe. 
Va can also mean 'snake' or 'weigh' etc. in Ewe language. 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 
Gaba asserts that salvation is possible both in Christianity and Eue indigenous religion 
except that its nature and means as well as the understandings vary. This calls for an in-
depth academic exploration. The work will examine the similarities and differences in the 
concept and show how both religions have influenced one another. 
1.3 AIMS OF THE STUDY 
As mentioned above, the primary aim of the study is to investigate the similarities and 
differences in the concept of salvation in Christianity and Eoo indigenous religion. The 
study also aims at finding out how the Eue indigenous view of human well-being had 
influenced the proclamation of the concept of salvation in Christianity, and also how the 
presence of Christianity has influenced the indigenous beliefs and practices of the Eue. 
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 
A comparative study of the concept of salvation in Christianity and Eue indigenous 
religion will in the first instance contribute to the quest for the Inculturation of the 
Church. 
In the second place, it is hoped that the study will contribute to the re-interpretation of the 
concept of salvation in both Christianity and Eue indigenous religion. 
16 
Thirdly, with the emergence of "prosperity gospel" leading to the relegation of the core 
concept of Christianity (salvation) to the background, the study will seek to re-awaken 
Christians to the essence salvation which is their ultimate goal. 
Finally, the study seeks to identify how the Church can use the existing meaning of 
salvation among the indigenous Eue to enhance its teaching on salvation. 
1.5 SCOPE OF STUDY OF STUDY 
The primary focus of this study will be a comparative study of salvation in Christianity 
and Eue indigenous religion. 
Consideration will also be given to the history of the Ewe from Oyo in Yoruba land in 
Western Nigeria up to their present settlements. Their beliefs and practices which gave 
credence to their affirmation of God and salvation by ways of culture, religion, social and 
psychological identities will be carefully analyzed and evaluated. 
The Bremen Mission and its offspring -Evangelical Presbyterian Church, will be 
discussed as the pioneering stream of Christianity among the Eue people of Ghana. 
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 
The following questions cannot be left out in this study as they will guide the formulation 
of the thoughts in the thesis. In providing answers to these questions, the approach will 
primarily be balanced using the requisite academic and professional tools. The following 
questions will be addressed: 
17 
• Are there similarities and differences in the concept of salvation in 
Christianity and Eue indigenous religion? 
• What are the viewpoints or positions of the various Christian traditions on the 
concept of salvation? 
• What is the Eue indigenous worldview regarding the concept of salvation? 
• Can both Christianity and Eue indigenous religion learn from each other? If 
so, what can be learnt? 
• How does the human drive for meaning come to express itself as a need of 
salvation? 
1.7 HYPOTHESIS 
The hypothesis is based on the belief that, the need for salvation is in all "men." Thus, the 
aspiration or the yearning for the good or the good life has been part of human existence. 
Indeed, human existence has always been characterized by crises, not only for the 
unbeliever, but also the believing Christian alike. However, the paradox concerning life is 
that "good people" sometimes tend to suffer while "evildoers" are said to be the ones 
who prosper and enjoy the "good life." In the hereafter, it is believed that good people 
will be adequately rewarded for their good deeds, and evildoers will be punished for their 
wicked deeds. This is not so with the present existence. It is rather the opposite in most 
cases in the here and now. The hypothesis is that, religion cannot determine whether one 
may be saved or not; and that salvation brings fulfillment to the soul in all fairness. 
18 
In the light of the above, the Eue people perceive the hereafter to belong to those who 
have led the good life and have died in a dignified manner (for example, not through 
accident). Such people will eventually become ancestors. For the Eue, life is beyond the 
grave for those who led exemplary lives. These people will live on in the spirit world 
known as the ancestral world. They will triumph and protect and guard the activities of 
the living. In the same way, evildoers such as murderers and those who practice 
witchcraft among others could not become ancestors. They are believed to have turned 
into evil spirits, thereby causing calamity upon the people. They are therefore referred to 
as "hovering spirits" who do not fmd a resting abode. 
In the same vein, the concept of heaven and hell is essential to Christianity. In Christian 
theology, it is believed that the good will be rewarded in heaven and those who practice 
evil, immorality, sorcery, adultery etc will be condemned to gnashing of teeth in hell as 
their punishment. This understanding of human existence and salvation is the point at 
which both the Eue religion and Christianity can meet the gospel. And this intersection 
makes each of the religions stronger. 
Consequently, this quest for salvation has led to new religious movements. This study 
therefore seeks to investigate the similarities and differences in the understanding of the 
concept of salvation in both Christianity and Eue indigenous religion thereby stating their 
respective positions. The study will also analyze and evaluate whatever that promotes and 
constitutes the good or the good life for Eue peoples and Christians alike. 
19 
1.8 MEmODOLOGY 
The historical and phenomenological methods of gathering infonnation were employed. 
The historical method was used in analyzing the presence of Christianity among the Eue 
people of Ghana. More importantly, chapter two of the study, which traces the 
developments in the various understandings and articulation of the concept (salvation), is 
largely a historical study. This enabled us dissect how the concept has been articulated by 
the various scholars over the centuries. 
This historical analysis helped to systematically outline the concept of salvation from 
both Roman Catholic and Protestant perspectives. The systematic approach to this study 
helps in interpreting and expressing the concept in a coherent and systematic manner. 
The phenomenological method was applied mainly for the purpose of gaining insight into 
the Eue indigenous religion, particularly their concepts of salvation and human 
wholeness. This mainly applies to chapter three of this study, where the Eue indigenous 
view of salvation is vividly examined. The phenomenological method enhances dialogue 
that respects both Christianity and Eue indigenous religion. 
The comparative paradigm method engages mainly chapter four to strike the similarities 
and differences between the Ewe and Christian understandings of salvation. The means 
by which Christianity and Eue indigenous religion have influenced one another since 
their interaction have also been critically reviewed and analyzed using the comparative 
method. 
20 
Theoretieal Framework: 
In this research, an investigation of the religious and social practices of Christianity and 
the Eue indigenous religion was studied to highlight their dynamic elements. It also 
emphasizes the lifestyle of the African as concrete reflections of his/ber concept of 
salvation. So this study is in the area of anthropology of religion. 
Sourees of Study I Data Colleetion: 
Both primary and secondary sources are available for this study. The bulk of the data for 
the study comes from primary sources. Secondary sources especially apply to chapter 
two. A range of general literature concerning the Eue people in particular was consulted. 
Primary Sourees 
Participant observation was used in studying the various phenomena. Visits were made to 
a number of shrines and churches where people search for security and healing. 
Indigenous priests! priestesses; chiefs and queen mothers; diviners; traditional medicine 
people; opinion leaders and ordinary people were interviewed. Also, a keen observation 
and active participation in the cultural and religious ceremonies of the people such as the 
rites of passage taking into account the religious phenomena enhances the data. 
Interviews were conducted for theologians, pastors, catechists, presbyters and other lay 
members of the various Christian denominations. 
21 
1.9 LITERATURE REVIEW 
Theological researchers have investigated the meaning of salvation among people of 
varied faiths. In this study, I consulted, utilized and analyzed what had already been done. 
Relevant literature then helps broaden the scope of study and guides its organization. The 
bibliography contains detailed list of works consulted. 
We must indicate here that published works on the phenomenon under study is woefully 
inadequate. The following specific published sources serve as literature consulted to 
enhance the authenticity of the study: 
1. P. Wiegrabe's Eve Kristo Harne Nutinya (1936), offers an outstanding historical 
background to the Christianization of the Eue people of Ghana. It provides a 
balanced view of Eues before and after their contact with the Bremen missionaries. 
This enhanced the historical method involved in this study. 
2. Abraham Akrong's Ph. D. dissertation, entitled "An Akan Christian view of 
Salvation from the perspective of John Calvin's Soteriology" (1991), offers initial 
insight into the concept. By using the "Correlation method of Contextualization" 
which is based on the incarnation, Akrong shows a significant number of 
similarities regarding salvation in Reformed theology and Akan indigenous 
religion. This has created the basis for cross cultural dialogue on the concept as well 
as a definite cultural understanding of the concept. 
Akrong's work sets the tone for effective comparative study of the concept of salvation 
in an indigenous religion such as that of the Eue and Christianity, particularly by using 
the historical and phenomenological methods. 
22 
3. ~~s Ph. D;'~on, entitled "Approaches to Christianization 
atDOIlI the Hue people of Ghana" (2005), offers a credible insight into the process 
of Christianization among the Eues, and how the existing indigenous religion has 
influenced the interpretation and appropriation of the concept of salvation. 
Adadevor shows the impact on peoples and their culture resulting from the 
interaction between Christianity and other religions, particularly the African 
indigenous religions (AIRs). 
Adadevor used the "Theory of Communicative Action" as method or hermeneutical tool 
which enabled him to understand the authors and respondents in the context of their 
culture and communities. This work provides the solid background for grasping the 
concept of salvation among the Eue people. In actual fact, the "Communicative Action" 
method applies to this historical and phenomenological study. 
4. Christian R. Gaba's article entitled "Total Well-Being: Salvation and God in the 
Experience ofan African People" (1982), offers an in-depth knowledge of the Hue 
people's experience of salvation. He employed the literary and phenomenological 
methods in his approach in articulating the concept of salvation among the Anlo-
Eue. Gaba's work leads in the phenomenological analysis of this study. 
5. Christian Gaba's publication "Man's Salvation: Its nature and meaning in African 
Traditional Religion" (1978), no doubt outlines the nature and meaning of salvation 
among the Eues of Ghana. Gaba's phenomenological investigation provides the 
material for discerning the nature and meaning of salvation among Eue people in 
particular and for Africans in general. 
6. Karl Barth's Church Dogmatics. Vol. IV (1956) has expatiated the doctrine of grace 
and justification by faith alone in a systematic manner from the perspective of a 
23 
refomred 1bec)logian. Barth's systematic articulation helps interpret the concept of 
salvationaaldemicallyand professionally in a clear and systematic manner. 
7. Karl Rhaner's Theological Investigations. Vol. 4 (1966), discusses a Roman 
Catholic view of the concept of salvation. His concept of "Anonymous Christian" 
offers this study a wide range of understandings of the concept of salvation. 
8. Man and his Salvation: Studies in memory of S. G. F. Brandon edited by Eric J. 
Sharpe and John R. Hinnells (1973), offers a sound reflection on the ideas of 
salvation from pre-Christian, Christian and primal backgrounds. The work enables 
this study to avoid theological biases. 
Despite the fact that the literature so far reviewed may not comprehensively address the 
major concern of the study, namely, salvation is possible in religions other than 
Christianity; this definitely shapes the scope and import the thesis. 
24 
1.10 RELEVANCE I SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY 
The study seeks to establish the relationship between the nature and meaning of salvation 
in Christianity and Eue indigenous religion. 
This comparative study also addresses the question of how the indigenous and biblical 
Soteriology and eschatology interact. 
Finally, the study contributes to a new approach at the interpretation and appropriation of 
the c.oncept of salvation that ensures effective interaction and interpretation of Christian 
and indigenous views on salvation. 
1.11 LIMITATIONS 
As a pastor, going to visit traditional shrine thereby participating in the ceremonies may 
raise an alarm to church members who may know or hear of it. It may also have an effect 
on the image of the church as well as my own calling. However, the hierarchy of the 
church was duly informed about the research and was in the position to respond to any 
public concern. 
I also envisaged time constraints, but the necessary professional competence was 
employed to carry out the study within the required duration of period. 
The difficulty in accessing library and internet information cannot be left unmentioned. 
Nonetheless, through hard work any information needed for the project was 
professionally accessed and utilized on schedule. 
25 
1.11 ORGANIZATIONISTRUCTURE OF THE STUDY 
The introduction (chapter one) outlines the background, the definition of concepts, the 
problem, aims and objectives; and the scope of the study. It also gives review of relevant 
literature, hypothesis, methodology and research questions. This chapter finally 
enumerates the relevance and limitations of the study. 
chapter two focuses on the understandings of salvation in Christian theology. It also 
traces some ancient sources of the concept of salvation, and the manner in which the 
Christian traditions drew on them. This chapter finally discusses the concept of salvation 
in Christianity from the biblical stand point through the Reformation era to the 
contemporary ecclesiological setting. 
Chapter three outlines the history of the Eue people and their world view of sin and 
salvation. It also investigates the idea of the ideal life in Eue indigenous religion. 
Chapter four is a comparative study of salvation in Christianity and Eue indigenous 
religion taking into accounts the similarities and differences in the ways the two religions 
have expressed and interpreted the concept of salvation. 
The conclusion (chapter five) recalls how the church has used the existing Eue 
indigenous view of salvation to enhance its teaching of the concept of salvation by using 
the Inculturation and contextualization methods. It also explores how the religious groups 
in this study have influenced one another. Finally, the study outlines and discusses some 
recommendations for peaceful co-existence of religions. 
26 
CBAPTERTWO 
BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN CONCEPTS 
OF SALVATION 
The doctrine of "salvation" has been the subject of debate in Christian theology. In the 
sixteenth century,41 there was a spark of disputes and disagreements between the Roman 
Catholics and continental Reformers over how believers were justified by God. However, 
theological debates on the concept of salvation and related issues such as justification, 
predestination, original sin, good works, and sanctification which emerged from the Old 
and New Testaments were pursued vigorously at the Reformation era. In this chapter, I 
will analyze and evaluate the concept of salvation from the Biblical, Catholic and 
Protestant perspectives. 
2.0 FEATURES OF SALVATION IN OLD TESTAMENT 
The interpretation of salvation in New Testament was grounded in the themes of the Old 
Testament concerning the Christ event. The word and idea of salvation are basic in the 
faith and theology of the Old Testament.42 It is in the light of this assertion that I argue 
against the view propounded by James Barr that, Old Testament scholars have not taken 
salvation as one of their organizing concepts, when he cites scholars such as Von Rad and 
Rowley among others.43 If Barr's standpoint is scholarly to go by, I can then say that 
41 Later Middle Ages. 
42 The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Eds. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer and Roland E. 
Murphy (New Jersey: Geoffrey Chapman, 1990),3108. 
4J James Barr, 'An aspect of ~alvation in the Old Tes~ent' in Man and his salvation: Studies in memory 
o/S. G. F. Brandon. Bds. Enc J. Sharpe and John R. Hmnells (Manchester: Rowan Littlefield Publishers 
1973),39. ' 
27 
perhaps, those scholars are reading the Old Testament from the perspective of the New 
Testament which I consider to be the spiritualized context and connote the idea of heaven 
and hell. However, I agree with him that, the Old Testament concept of salvation is 
complex and exhibits a historical development which is extremely difficult to 
synthesize.44 
The Hebrew word yesu a, which translates "salvation," often occurs in contexts where it 
refers to deliverance by military means. In these contexts the word "salvation" can be 
translated ''victory'' which is parallel to the righteous deeds or the "judgments" of 
Yahweh on behalf of Israel. Salvation also signifies deliverance from any threat to life 
and integrity of person. The king in Israel was always regarded as the king -saviour, to 
whom his people looked for salvation against external enemies through war and from 
injustice within the community through his judgment and the administration of law. In 
this vein, Yahweh is celebrated as king-saviour in Old Testament.45 
Yasha " yeshu 'a and yesha' are by far the most commonly used words to convey the idea 
of salvation in Old Testament and provided the Hebrew root of the name Jesus which the 
angel told Joseph to give to Mary's baby; "Because he will save his people from their 
sins. ,,46 The key argument in this study from the Christian perspective is that, human 
beings are by all means being saved from sin. This is because, without sin there will not 
be the need for salvation. Yet, since Christian theology suggests that everybody is a 
44 James Barr, 39. 
45 The New Jerome Biblical Commentary, 1308. 
46 Matthew 1:21 NRSV. 
28 
simler, and needs redemption (liberation from fonns ot Dondage such as sin, death, law, 
47 
or evil), Jesus Christ becomes oursaviour.
lIDs part of study examines those Old Testament themes, stories and narratives whose 
contents suggest salvation, deliverance, rescue and the like. It also takes a critical look at 
the use oflinguistic terms which more or less mean 'save,' 'deliver,' and 'salvation'. 
Genesis 3 clearly indicates a disturbance in the relation between God and human beings 
and suggests that human beings have done what God had prohibited. As a result, sin 
emerged and distorted the very good order that God had endowed the world with. And 
finally, human life went on contrary to the will of God, who had instructed that 'man' 
would 'die' in the day he ate of the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and 
evil. 
Due to the fall, punishment came on the entire creation and physical death eventually. 
From this, sin and evil have entered human life. The first account of trouble and the effect 
of Adam's sin is the murder of Abel by his brother.48 Genesis 6 gives an account of the 
amount of 'evil' that existed in the world; thereby compelling God to wipe out 
hwnankind from the surface of the earth, exempting Noah and those who did not partake 
in the prevailing evil. The rescue of Noah and others is an offer of salvation to all who 
live according to God's law as it is to this day. I may call that the real manifestation of 
God's promise to Adam before he was kicked out of Eden. Indeed, the clothing of Adam 
47 Rom.3:23 NRSY. 
48 Genesis 4 NRSY. 
29 
'IMJwe is an indication by God that God would supply that which would cover the 
49 
nakedness of sin and provide a righteous covering through the death of Christ.
"The Lord then said to Noah, 'Go into the ark, you and your whole family, because I 
have found you righteous in this generation. Take with you seven of every kind of bird, 
male and female, to keep their various kinds alive throughout the earth. Seven days from 
now I will send rain on earth forty days and forty nights, and I will wipe from the face of 
the earth every living creature I have made'. And Noah did all that the Lord commanded 
bim."SO According to Walvoord, another dramatic event in the early history of the race is 
the preservation of Noah and his family in the ark. This attests to the fact that in the midst 
of almost universal judgment, God singled out the righteous and preserved them. It 
represents in general God's deliverance of the righteous from judgment, a major aspect of 
the work of the Saviour.S1 Just as God saved Noah while bringing in the flood upon the 
world of the ungodlyS2 and as God delivered just LotS3 from Sodom, Peter concludes: "if 
this is so, then the Lord knows how to rescue godly men from trials, and to hold the 
unrighteous for the Day of Judgment, while continuing their punishment. ,,54 This 
deliverance, however, does not exclude the possibility of martyrdom as indicated in, for 
example, Paul's experience in 11 Timothy 4:18. 
Yet, the account of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah in Genesis 19 suggests that 
'evil' and 'sin' emerged again after the flood, and it goes on and on, even after the 
49 Job 29:14, Ps.132:9, Rom.3:22 etc. NRSV. 
~ Genesis 7: 1-5 NRSV. 
s110hn F. Walvoord, Jesus Christ our Lord (Chicago: Moody Press, 1969),81-83. 
52 11 Peter 2:5 NRSV. 
53 11 Peter 2:7 NRSV. 
54 11 Peter 2:9 NRSV. 
30 
Sodom and Gomorrah event; hence the promise of a saviour and the concept of salvation 
came to be re-introduced into the picture. However, I believe the 'seed' of salvation had 
been there all the while, but was offered to individuals, and in the case Sodom and 
Gomorrah, to cities as Abraham stood before God to plead for them. Therefore, Noah 
was a prophet, and so was Abraham. Their duty was to turn the people away from evil 
and consequently from destruction. Turning people away from evil is central to the 
"salvation message." 
The history of Israel suggests that there are two distinctive and notable features about the 
understanding of salvation in the Old Testament. First, salvation is the work of God. God 
is always seen as the author of salvation. 55 The people are rescued by God; ''who alone 
can save the flock"s6; for there is none other who can do it"S7; he alone merits the lofty 
title, "God our Savior"s8; "from the Lord comes deliverance. ,,59 
The second feature to note is that salvation happens in history and embraces families and 
communities. The entire picture of Israel being delivered out of Egypt and brought 
through the wilderness experience into the Promised Land is a major field of typology 
and one which illustrates the work of God in salvation. The major elements of the 
deliverance such as the plagues, the institution of the Passover, and the deliverance at the 
Red Sea speak of salvation. "That day the Lord saved Israel from the hands of the 
"Hosea 1:7NRSV. 
S6 Ezekiel 34:22 NRSV. 
57 Isaiah 43:1 NRSV. 
51 Psalm 68: 19 NRSV. 
59 Psalm 3: 8 (a) NRSV. 
31 
Egyptians.,,60 In this respect, Michael Green comments: "it is no exaggeration to say that 
this rescue from Egypt, the land of bitter bondage under the threat of imminent death at 
the hand of harsh task masters determined the whole future understanding of salvation by 
the people of Israel.,,61 It can therefore be asserted that as far as the people of Israel are 
concerned, the most single important act of salvation by God was a solid historical event 
that liberated the whole community. I can therefore, analyze and evaluate the features of 
salvation in Old Testament in the following dimensions: 
POLITICAL 
The Old Testament usage of salvation appears to embrace conquering heroes, and victory 
in the earthly realm and not spiritual realm. The idea of victory over enemies is explicitly 
political and militant. The Zion poems of Isaiah locate salvation in a restored Jerusalem 
that receives as tribute the wealth of nations.62 Political salvation means not only 
deliverance from enemies, but final victory and the submission of the nations to the rule 
of Israel. Israel will then be restored to its land and its oppressors disappear for the land 
to be purged of gross crimes and vices thereby paving way for all nations to worship and 
be restored to Yahweh through Israel. The concept of the 'Messiah' is an important 
feature of Old Testament understanding of salvation. The Messiah is the promised 
deliverer of Israel who would establish God's rule by acting like heroes to defeat the 
enemies of Israel in war and battle.63 In Old Testament, life is conceived of in terms of 
concrete experience and the good life is represented in political terms. 
60 Exodus 14: 30 NRSV. 
61 E. M. B. Green, The Meaning o/Salvation (London: Holder and Stoughton 1965) 16 
62 Isa.49-52; 60-62 NRSV. ' ,. 
63 Some oflsrael's enemies include the Midianites, Babylonians and Romans, among others. 
32 
lbelie¥e the discussion in the preceding paragraph captures Israel's quest and reason for 
asking for a king as the prophet Samuel writes: ''But the people refused to listen to 
Samuel. 'No!' they said. 'We want a king over us. Then we will be like all the other 
nations, with a king to lead us and to go out before us and fight our battles.,,64 Hence 
salvation from Old Testament perspective is frequently deliverance from war and 
invasion leading to the idea of "king-saviour." The king of Israel is associated with the 
salvation of Yahweh. In effect, he is the object of salvation of Yahweh and the saviour of 
his people, particularly in war. The king is also the saviour of the weak, poor and 
vulnerable in society. 65 
JUSTICE 
A careful analysis of the history of Israel suggests that salvation has also been closely 
associated with justice as in judiciary. Psalm 72: 4 pleads with God to give his divine 
justice to the King of Israel so that "he will defend the afflicted among the people and 
save the children of the needy." The idea of salvation as vindication for the poor and the 
oppressed runs throughout the passages dealing with Israel's legal system as the prophet 
Isaiah indicates that, "listen to me, my people; hear me, my nation: The law will go out 
from me; my justice will become a light to the nations. My righteousness draws near 
speedily, and my arm will bring justice to the nations. The islands will look to me and 
wait in hope for my arm".66 Thus, the Old Testament sees salvation more as the era of 
universal peace, when injustice gave way to justice reSUlting in the establishment of that 
64 I Sam. 8: 19-20 NRSV. 
65 Ps.72:4-13 NRSV. 
66 Psalm 51:4-5 NRSV. 
33 
~~ eoBtes fiom the judicial system and administration based on righteousness 
... s-ljudgment.67 
COMMUNAL 
Salvation is clearly understood in Old Testament as social and corporate event which 
involves every aspect of life. God's salvation is associated with the historical existence of 
the people of Israel. The very center of God's saving activity in the Old Testament was 
the calling forth of a redeemed community, the people of Israel. Thus, salvation is 
expressed to a whole community in the Old Testament. This is reflected in the 
deliverance from Egypt, the victory of Israel in the land of Canaan through the judges 
from the attacks of the enemies, the establishment of the monarchy and the deliverance 
from the Philistines. God's judgment apparently leads to the achievement of salvation by 
the people of Israel through God's offer of salvation. This is the liberation from all evil 
and granting of good harvest and material prosperity collectively.68 
PERSONAL 
Old Testament frequently used the phrase "God of my salvation.,,69 The favorite objects 
of the salvation of Yahweh in the Old Testament are the poor and helpless. In actual fact, 
God's salvation is dispensed most readily to those who are most hopeless. In this attitude 
toward the poor the personal aspect of salvation emerges. There are many lamentations 
67 &.32 NRSV. 
68 Amos 9:8b-15 NRSV. 
fi9 Ps.18:47; 24:5, etc. NRSV. 
34 
and petitions for the salvation of the individual ttom poveny, CIDIOIC:;:;U""", 11. ....." " ~­
70 
evil plans of enemies such as the deliverance of Daniel from the lions' mouth.
I also see the personal dimension of salvation in the covenant relationship between God 
and Abraham. God called Abram from the nations making a covenant with him, a solemn 
oath or commitment even passing between the dismembered halves of animals saying in 
essence, "If I ever leave you, may I myself be torn apart.'.7l God promised to make him 
into a great nation, bless him and bless all the peoples of the earth through him.72 Also 
inclusive in the promise was the land itself.73 It is in this context that scripture says, 
"Abram believed God, and he credited it to him as righteousness.,,74 Abraham was 
justified by faith. God then gave him an outward sign of this covenant relationship in 
circumcision.7s 
The utmost striking point that runs throughout the discussion and the citation above is 
that God did it all. It is salvation by grace alone. Of course, the fact cannot be denied 
that Abraham's response to God's call was a major endeavor that led him to leave his 
people and traveling through the desert to a far-off land. But God made the choice; God 
made all the promises; and salvation was from God. When Abram believed, God saw his 
faith and it was credited to him as righteousness. This tends to explicate the point also 
that, in the Old Testament, salvation was by grace through faith, according to God's 
calling. 
70 Ps.3:8; 7:2 NRSV. 
71 Genesis 15:6-21 NRSV. 
72 Genesis 12:1-3 NRSV. 
: Genesis 15:18-21 NRSV. 
4 Genesis 15:6 NRSV. 
75 Genesis 17 NRSV. 
.-w:NAN'I'- • 
'J."be Old Testament talks about salvation mostly in the context of covenant. Certainly, 
Yahweh is LoJd of all nations, and works in them equally as in Israel in order to 
accomplish Yahweh's will which includes justice for the poor.76 This view of salvation in 
Israel reflects God's covenant relationship with a chosen group of people who 
consciously confessed Yahweh as Lord. However, God's covenant relationship was not 
restricted to communities but also with an individual such as Abraham. Both Jeremiah 
and Ezekiel stated salvation in the fonnula of a covenant union. The Lord declares: "You 
shall be my people and I will be your God.,,77 The statement shows God's promise to 
restore the communion with the people of Israel which resulted from their unfaithfulness. 
From the covenant perspective, salvation is seen as Yahweh dwelling in the midst of 
Yahweh's people.78 Covenant is the revealed "will" of Yahweh which brings regeneration 
to the people in order to enjoy the peace and prosperity promised by God.79 
The vertical dimension of salvation is important and everywhere present. Since God is 
the author of salvation, God took the initiative of salvation in the Exodus event and the 
people of Israel continue to enjoy salvation only as they trust in Yahweh and remain in 
Yahweh's covenant. 
76 Daniel 4:27 NRSV. 
77 Jer.7:23 NRSV. 
TI Jer. 30-31 NRSV. 
'" Jer.18:89; Bzek.36:26 NRSV. 
36 
THE SACRIFICES 
God established about five different sacrifices within the Mosaic administration of God's 
covenant, including one for guilt and another for sin. In those sacrifices, the guilt of the 
sinner would symbolically be transferred to the animal (sometimes by the sinner's laying 
his hands onto the animal), which would then be "punished" (either slaughtered or driven 
out of the land) in place of the sinner. Kohler sees salvation as the existence of Israel 
united to Yahweh through cultic practice [sacrifice.]8o When I examine the relational 
context and the question of righteousness or justification by faith that were already a part 
of the covenant since Abraham's day, it raises the concern as to whether these sacrifices 
were meant to bring forgiveness in the sense of justification, which is righteous standing 
before God. There must be healing to a wounded relationship with God in the same 
manner that Christians are "forgiven" when they confess their sins.81 
It is necessary to mention here that the sacrifices are in themselves typical institutions. 
The sin offering, trespass offering, meal offering, peace offering and bumt offering 
occupy a central place in cultic practice [sacrifice] in Israel. These and other offerings are 
an integral part of the Levitical ritual which was revealed and required by God. In 
agreement to Walvoord, I argue that although the sacrifices in the Old Testament have 
their respective significances in relation to the life of the people such as health and 
hygiene, they mainly point to the person and work of Christ as the New Testament makes 
it clear. The sacrifices in Walvoord' view makes the essential requirement of shed blood 
80 James Barr, 39. 
II I John 1:9 NRSV. 
37 
THE SACRIFICES 
God established about five different sacrifices within the Mosaic administration of God's 
covenant, including one for guilt and another for sin. In those sacrifices, the guilt of the 
sinner would symbolically be transferred to the animal (sometimes by the sinner's laying 
his hands onto the animal), which would then be "punished" (either slaughtered or driven 
out of the land) in place of the sinner. Kobler sees salvation as the existence of Israel 
united to Yahweh through cultic practice [sacrifice.]8o When I examine the relational 
context and the question of righteousness or justification by faith that were already a part 
of the covenant since Abraham's day, it raises the concern as to whether these sacrifices 
were meant to bring forgiveness in the sense of justification, which is righteous standing 
before God. There must be healing to a wounded relationship with God in the same 
8l 
manner that Christians are "forgiven" when they confess their sins.
It is necessary to mention here that the sacrifices are in themselves typical institutions. 
The sin offering, trespass offering, meal offering, peace offering and burnt offering 
occupy a central place in cultic practice [sacrifice] in Israel. These and other offerings are 
an integral part of the Levitical ritual which was revealed and required by God. In 
agreement to Walvoord, I argue that although the sacrifices in the Old Testament have 
their respective significances in relation to the life of the people such as health and 
hygiene, they mainly point to the person and work of Christ as the New Testament makes 
it clear. The sacrifices in Walvoord' view makes the essential requirement of shed blood 
80 James Barr, 39. 
81 I John 1:9 NRSV. 
37 
to stand out boldly in the divine pattern of salvation for lost humankind and erring 
Saints;82 the reason being that there is life in the blood. 
"SHALOM" 
The concept of salvation in Old Testament depicts the fulfillment of the relationship 
between God and the people of Israel who were designated as covenanted and elected 
people of Yahweh. This salvation is expressed in happiness, blessing, well being and 
good influences in the lives of the people. The concept of shalom is the expression of 
God's peace to the people ofIsrael. In this regard, salvation is considered as both 
"shalom" and "righteousness" as emphasized by Von Rad: 
Both terms denote the same outgoing qualities of the divine 
character: God saves because God is righteousness and 
faithful, and unrighteousness of the people will not make 
God abandon them because faithfulness is an aspect of 
God's righteousness. The concept of righteousness in the 
Old Testament means conformity to the norms or fidelity to 
one's station in life; it means satisfying the claims and 
demands that result from a covenant relationship.83 
Abraham Akrong also perceives the prophetic vision of the redemptive acts of God as a 
new creation sealed in the knowledge of God's righteousness in covenant. He claims that, 
: John F. Walvoord, 74. 
Von Gerhard Rad, Old Testament Theology. Trans. D. M. G. Stalker (New York" Harper & Row 1962) 
371. . " 
38 
in prophetic theology, creation itself is viewed d to be an aspect of salvation. Akrong 
writes: "If creation is a salvific act that brings order out of chaos then redemption is a 
renewal of creation (Isaiah, 45:21).,,84 
I agree with Akrong that righteousness and salvation are inseparable attributes of the 
triune God of grace, taking into account prophetic theology. 
Akrong re-iterates, 
Later on, this great vision of the continuity between 
creation and redemption, especially of the Isaianic School, 
fades away and salvation by the righteousness of God is 
obscured by salvation through human effort in rabbinic 
Judaism. However, side by side, with this legalistic 
conception of salvation in Judaism, there developed in 
later apocalyptic and eschatological literature a vision of 
salvation often associated with the Messiah whose coming 
will usher in the Kingdom of God.85 
In the light of Akrong's statement cited above, I believe that, for Jews of the second 
temple period, salvation essentially amounted to an expectation of some future event 
within history where God would openly vindicate the nation of Israel. The oracles of 
Balaam in Numbers 23-24 suggest the blessing of Yahweh, which makes Israel a people 
set apart from other nations, assured of victory over their enemies, of peaceful dwelling 
84 Abraham Akrong, "An Akan View of salvation from the perspective of John Calvin's Soteriology" (Ph. 
D. Diss., Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, 1991),34. 
8S Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity," 3. 
39 
in their own land, and abundant prosperity. The prosperity included in the Old Testament 
salvation" is the recipe for shalom (peace).87 
The material blessings of the Old Testament are not merely symbols of spiritual 
blessings; they are the effect of spiritual blessing. In general, The Old Testament shows 
no awareness of an after life; it emphasizes having peace with God. The only good life 
that Israel knows is conceived of in terms of concrete experienced existence. This 
experience is transformed by perfect community with Yahweh, who dwells among them. 
Indeed, the people of Israel enjoyed good and pleasant life when there was no resistance 
to the saving ''will'' of God. 
RESTORATION OF ISRAEL 
The idea of salvation was deepened and expanded after the exile. This is because, the 
people of Israel felt that, for the power of Yahweh to save them from their present 
predicaments then, it has to be demonstrated in a manner that exceeds the one exhibited 
in the exodus event. This was expected to happen in the restoration of Israel to its own 
land.ss But the future salvation soon becomes messianic in character and was seen as a 
new creation of Israel, an event in which all the themes of victory and deliverance 
implied are brought to their fullness. 
86 Is.60; 65, Amos 9:13-15. 
:: John L. Mackenzie, Dictionary oft he Bible (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1976), 760. 
Ps 14:7; 69:36, Jer.30: 10 NRSV. (These are exilic doxologies). 
40 
The restoration of Israel means a new Zion89 and a new Israel, a new revelation of the 
cbaracter of Yahweh, which implies a new world, devoid of all evil and crop failure, with 
the maximum security. The new Israel will experience forgiveness of sin and an internal 
moral regeneration and repentance from impurities and apostasies in order to be restored 
fully. The fact stands that, the supreme threat to the salvation of the people of Israel in 
both the historical and the prophetic literature is their sins, particularly their disloyalty to 
Yahweh. Hence, the full and eternal salvation of messianic Israel is inconceivable unless 
the threat of disloyalty to Yahweh is removed. 
THE REIGN OF GOD 
The ultimate fulfillment of salvation in Israel is in the idea of the reign of God or the 
kingdom of God. This is the salvation which needed no further definition because it is the 
total acceptance of God's ''will'' by all, through God's revelation of self to Israel. Every 
resistance to the "will" of Yahweh must yield before Yahweh's matchless power of 
redemption. In the world where God reigns, people will be secured from any threat 
whatsoever, and free to lead the fulfilled life. This is the Israelite hope of salvation. 
In conclusion, I affirm that, the story of Joseph's brothers' conspiracy against him was 
God's special plan of salvation for the nation of Israel, which involves personal, social 
and corporate experiences of life. As such, the element of grace, faith and obedience to 
the law cannot be left out. The salvation offered by God in the Old Testament include 
89 Zion (Heb. "fortress") is used in the Old Testament for all or part of Jerusalem. In both Old Testament 
~? N~ Testament itref~ to.Go~'s heavenly city (ls.60:14; Heb.12:22; Rev. 14: 1). In Christian theology, 
it IS an lDlage of heaven. ZlOnlSm IS a contemporary movement that seeks to restore the Jewish people to 
the land ofisrael as their historic homeland since biblical times. 
41 
material proSJieiity. justice for the poor811d needy. and the continued historical existence 
of the people of Israel which affirmed the election of the nation of Israel as God's 
redeemed community. This is what the Old Testament interpreted salvation. 
In the light of the above discussion, I affirm that, salvation in the Old Testament has not 
been discussed fundamentally in terms of going to heaven; it is rather being in the right 
relationship with Yahweh. 
42 
2.1 INTERPRETATION OF SALVATION IN NEW TESTAMENT 
The interpretation of salvation in the New Testament was grounded in themes and 
prophecies of the Old Testament in the Christ event. At this stage, I will analyze and 
evaluate the concept of salvation from the perspectives of the Gospels and Paul. 
THE GOSPELS 
The promise of a "Messiah" eventually became the concept around which the Gospels 
defined salvation. He is the principal factor in the development of the New Testament 
idea of salvation. This is because, as discussed earlier, the appearance of Jesus was seen 
as the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies concerning the Messiah. The term 
"Messiah" is from the Hebrew mashiah which means the "anointed one." In theology, the 
Messiah is an anointed agent of God appointed to a task affecting the lot of the chosen 
people. Though the Hebrew verb mashiah was often used of the anointing of men as 
kings over Israel90 or as priests,91 the title mashiah occurs less often. At first, the term 
"Messiah" was employed for unnamed historic kings of Israel or for named kings such as 
Saul and David, and even for the pagan king Cyrus. In the postexilic period, when the 
monarchy was no more, it was used of the high priest.92 Rarely, it was applied to 
patriarchs or prophets93 and it may refer to Israel itself.94 I will therefore discuss the 
nature and context of salvation in the gospels and how Messianism relates to salvation. 
90 1 Sam.9:16, 2 Sam.2:4; 7,1 Kings 1:39,45, Ps.89:20 etc. NRSV. 
91 Exodus 40:15; 28:41 NRSV. 
92 Lev.4:3, 5, 16; 6:22 NRSV. 
9:J Ps.lOS:1S; I Cbron.16:22 NRSV. 
94 Hab.3:13 NRSV. 
43 
:C$D&sSIANISM 
The concept of Messianism9s is an important feature of Old Testament Judaism which 
developed through the centuries from the expectation of an ideal Davidic king to a future 
Davidic figure who would appear at the end of the world to deliver Israel from her 
adversaries such as the Midianites, Babylonians and Romans, among others, and establish 
God's rule.96 David as God's chosen ruler was the one after whom the dynasty was 
named.97 However, the concept of Messiah in Israel does not evoke the suffering or death 
of the person designated.98 Yet, there is no doubt also that, the life, death and resurrection 
of Jesus Christ were major themes of prophecy in Old Testament. From Genesis to 
Malachi, the Old Testament abounds with anticipations of the coming Messiah of Israel. 
Numerous predictions, fulfilled in the New Testament, relate to his birth, life, death and 
resurrection. Other prophesies speak of his ultimate glory. I can affirm that, no other 
prophetic theme of the Old Testament approaches in magnitude and significance than the 
subject of the coming Messiah. 
The promises made to David regarding the perpetuity of his house are now seen to be 
fulfilled in 'great David's greater son', and from David we go to Jesus Christ whom God 
has brought to Israel as a Savior. "By the time of Jesus, the Jewish messianism had 
assumed many forms: Davidic Messianism associated with the restoration of the kingdom 
ofIsrael; sometimes the Davidic kingdom is regarded as the prelude to God's paradisal 
95 Messianism is the belief in the coming of a Messiah to deliver Israel from the Gentiles. The messianic 
hope fur Israel hence became the center of eschatological expectation. 
96 The term Messiah is derived from the Greek Messias which in turn is a transliteration of the Aramaic 
form of the Hebrew Mashach (Mashiah-Refer Deut.18:15, 18). meaning "to anoint." The equivalent in 
~ew Testament terminology is Christos or Christ, meaning ''the anointed one." 
n Sam.7:8-16 NRSV. 
98 Paul J. Achtemeier et al., Bible Dictionary (New York: HaperColiins Publishers, 1996), 677-679. 
44 
·kiIJadom. Other forms of Messianism are expressed by the idea of Son of Man; 
• ,,99 
amnetimes the Son of Man is depicted as the one who passes judgment on all creation. 
I can identify at this point the principal types of messianic prophecy in Old Testament as 
follows: a) the general messianic prophecy which is expressed in language only a 
Messiah could fulfill and observeloo and b) personal messianic prophecy which is often 
identified by some specific terms. In Isaiah 7: 14 for instance, the Messiah is identified by 
the usual term Immanuel or "God with us." This passage deals specifically only with the 
future Messiah that the New Testament brings to us. 
The New Testament perceives Jesus as the "Christ" and the one in whom God's promises 
are fulfilled. IOI However, the "Messiah" is the realization of Old Testament prophetic 
anticipation of king and deliverer (political and religious) that will bring salvation to the 
world,l02 and will ultimately rule the world and its divine order. lo3 At other times, the 
Messiah is described as the son of Levi who will deliver Israel from its diabolical 
enemies and put an end to all evil forces. 104 By far the most predominant type of 
messianism at Jesus' era was the "war-like nationalistic type, which defmed salvation in 
terms of the restoration of the kingdom of Israel."los However, the new emerging 
teaching of Jesus on salvation was certainly a total "deviation" from the existing ''popular 
nationalistic" understandings of salvation. Indeed, the life, ministry, death and 
99 Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity," 3-4. 
100 1 Sam.2:35 NRSV. 
101 Acts 2:31-36 NRSV. 
102 Acts 18:5, Rom. 1: 1; 7-8; 5:8 NRSV. 
103 Pbil.2:S-11 NRSV. 
~: Leivestard Ragnar, Christ the Conqueror (London: S. P. C. K., 1954), 4. 
Akrong, "Salvation in Atiican Christianity," 3. 
4S 
resurrection of JC$USestablish bisaMWer to our search for salvation,l06 which is the good 
news of the dawning messianic kingdom. 
The messianic prophesy however characterizes certain inherent problems. First, the 
language of messianic prophesy is often obscure. According to John F. Walvoord, the 
divine intent in the obscurity is to render the messianic prophesy understandable only by 
true believers in God who are taught by the Holy Spirit and therefore are able to discern 
passages belonging to genuine messianic prediction. For him, many of these passages 
cannot be interpreted except in the light of the entire content of the Word of God. 107 
Second, figurative language is frequently used in messianic prophesy. Often the figure 
gives a very clear idea even though the passage may require interpretation. For instance, 
when Isaiah 11: 1 writes: "There shall come forth a rod out of Jesse, and a branch shall 
grow out of his roots," it clearly refers to the messiah as one who will descend from 
Jesse. Although figurative language is used, the truth conveyed is quite clear. 
Third, the messianic prediction is often regarded as past or present. Yet the Hebrew 
frequently uses the perfect tense in working predictions such as the one recorded in Isaiah 
53. For Walvoord, the perfect tense used in this way in the Old Testament signifies that 
the event predicted is certain of completion even though it is future and not past. Thus, 
messianic prediction in the perfect tense is an emphatic future event. 108 
:: B. Stauffes, The New Testament The%gy (New York: Macmillan, 1965), 165 . 
.Jobn.F. Walvoord, 81-83. 
101 Ibid. 
46 
Fourth. messianic prophecy like other fODDS of prophecy is often seen horizontally rather 
than vertically. In other words, while the order of prophetic events is generally revealed 
in Scripture, prophecy does not necessarily include all the intermediate steps between the 
great events in view. According to Walvoord, as expressed in most cases, the great 
mountain peaks of prophecy are revealed without consideration of the valleys between 
the peaks. Hence the Old Testament prophecy may leap from the sufferings of Christ to 
109 
his glory without considering the time which elapses between these two events. The 
fact that messianic prophecy does not always take place into consideration the passage of 
time between events is illustrated in the quotation by Christ in Luke 4: 18-19.11° The 
Isaiah passage quoted by Jesus links his first and second comings without any indication 
of an intervening period of time. History has shown that more than nineteen hundred 
years must elapse between these two events. Christ in his quotation of the Old Testament 
includes the aspects relating to his first coming, but does not include the reference to "the 
day of vengeance of God" which refers to the judgment of his second coming. When 
properly understood, this problem in the interpretation of messianic prophecy does not 
present too many difficulties, but does warn the interpreter not to form hasty conclusions. 
"Anyone prophecy is necessarily incomplete and care must be exercised to understand 
precisely what the author intended to convey." \ 11 
L. Goppelt argues that the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist in Mark 1:9-1lis a 
historical event which can serve as a stumbling block for the Christian church that their 
1000lbid. 
110 Isaiah 61:1-2 NRSV. 
llllbid. 
47 
IIZ 
Redeemer himself should have received baptism for the forgiveness of sins. However, 
Jurgen Moltmann sees Jesus' baptism as the beginning of his messianic call and certainly 
his public ministry.1l3 For Moltmann, in his baptism, Jesus must have experienced the 
special character of his calling. He reiterates that, the interpretative accounts talk about 
'the Spirit of God descending upon him.' Moltmann interprets this to mean first of all, 
Jesus' personal inspiration and legitimation as prophet. It also means the beginning of the 
messianic significance of Jesus. The prophetic-messianic gift of the Spirit to Jesus is 
bound up with the divine proclamation: "Thou art my beloved Son, in whom I am well 
pleased.,,1l4 The Matthian account records ''this is my beloved Son."IlS 
The question then arises: When Jesus is declared 'the Son', what does this mean? I agree 
with Moltmann in believing that this fonn of address is evidently picking up the royal 
Israelite ritual in Psalm 2:7 which record "You are my Son, today I have begotten you." It 
is a ritual which displays messianic dimensions. At the moment of enthronement, the 
king is pronounced the 'Son of God.' The proclamation "Thou art my beloved Son" 
indicates that Jesus is the Messiah according to Old Testament traditions. This is because; 
the son who is especially 'dear' is always the only son as in the case of Isaac. Moltmann 
concludes by asserting that, the history of Jesus was not the triumphal history of a 
messianic victor. It was much more like the suffering history of the servant of God 
promised in Isaiah 53.116 The comments of Floyd V. Filson suggests that, because of the 
claim of Jesus and the apostles that he is the expected Messiah of Israel, the Jews have an 
IU L. Goppelt, Theologie des Neuen Testaments 3,d ed. (Gottingen, 1978), 92. 
113 Jurgeu Moltmaml, The Trinity and the Kingdom (Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1993), 66. 
114 Mark 1:11 NRSV. 
liS Matthew 3:17 NRSV. 
116 Moltmann, 66. 
48 
bored place in his church. yet, this view is branded by some Christians as anti-
Semitism because to such Christians we have no right to present the claims of Jesus to the 
Jews. It is true that Jesus is the Messiah of Israel but the gospel is for all other nations 
including the Gentiles to respond to faith. Floyd continues by asserting that, Jesus is the 
Christ of Israel and was the central figure of the Jewish people which dominated their 
thought and life.l17 Thus, the authoritative teaching of Jesus is a necessary aspect of his 
messianic activity. 118 
Wolfhart Pannenberg claims that the transition to the Gentile mission is motivated by the 
eschatological resurrection of Jesus as resurrection of the crucified One. To summarize 
his view point, Israelite prophecy expected the self-demonstration of God, which it 
proclaimed, as an event that would take place before the eyes of all peoples. Not just 
Israel but all nations were to recognize from this future event the exclusive divinity of 
Israel's God. This messianic expectation corresponds to the hope, rooted in Jerusalem 
tradition of the election of David and Zion, that in the end time, all peoples would submit 
themselves to the lordship of God and Jesus Christ. However, contrast to this stood the 
dominant conception which regarded the Gentiles simply as godless and which hoped for 
the time of God's vengeance on Israel's oppressors and their final annihilation at the 
arrival of the Messianic Kingdom. 119 This affirms my belief that, there is therefore the 
paradigm shift, that, Jesus' resurrection signifies the inclusion of the Gentiles into the 
eschatological salvation. 
::~ F~oyd V. Filson, Jesus Christ: The Risen Lord (New York: Abingdon Press, MCML VI), 55. 
Sir Edwyn Hoskyns and Noel Davey, The Riddle o/the New Testament (London: Faber and Faber Ltd, 
1974),96. 
119 Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus~od and Man trans. Lewis L. Wilkings and Duane A Priebe (London: The 
Westminster Press, 1970),70. 
49 
Jesus redefined God's kingdom as God's caring restoration of Israel in the forgiveness of 
sins and new possibilities of salvation for all. Thus salvation is offered to every sinner in 
a peculiar nature which includes forgiveness of sins, the healing of spiritual and physical 
defonnity and liberation for all under bondage.12o Jesus' healing ministry had announced 
in vivid terms that God's redemption is of course present in him.121 Likewise, the driving 
out of demons from those possessed meant that Satan's kingdom was dealt with a fatal 
blow in order to proclaim freedom to people from the devil, so that they can live their 
lives as God's children through Jesus the Christ.122 
Jesus has been portrayed in the "Good News" both as the life of cosmic history and 
salvation history;123 being the creator and redeemer of the world. However, salvation 
does not depend solely on forgiveness; it is also obedience to Jesus Christ. 
THE KINGDOM OF GOD 
Jesus links salvation inseparably with the Kingdom of God. This is vividly captured in 
Jesus' encounter with the rich young man in Mark 10: 17 - 26. When the rich young 
man asked the means to inherit eternal life, Jesus replied and told him to sell all his 
possessions, give it to the poor, and follow him. And when the young man sadly declined 
this costly invitation, Jesus said that it is almost impossible for a rich person to enter the 
Kingdom of God. To that, his disciples wondered: "Who then can be saved?" For Jesus, 
receiving salvation and entering the Kingdom are virtually identical. 
110 E. Stauffes, New Testament Theology (New York: Macmillan, 1965), 165. 
121 Luke. 11:20 NRSV. 
122 Luke. 10: 17-18 NRSV. 
ll3 John 1:4 NRSV. 
50 
The Kingdom ofOod is God's sovereign (mgo and rule) which is also equivalent to the 
&:~ l24 of heaven. God's reign was the major focus of Jesus' teaching. Though its 
fullness is believed to be in the future,12S it has also come in Jesus bimself.126 According 
to the Synoptic Gospels, the following events or phenomena are also closely associated 
with the Kingdom: a) Jesus' own future manifestation b) The resurrection of the dead c) 
The day or time of judgment d) Gathering at table with the patriarchs and the "saints" of 
all generations. 127 Taken together, these are sometimes referred to as "eschatological" or 
"Parousia" events. It is however not clear whether the Kingdom of God is present or yet 
to come. But Paul's references to the Kingdom of God indicate that he looked for its 
coming in the future,128 when Satan and death will forever be destroyed.129 
The liberal Protestants in the nineteenth century who were more concerned with 
improving the conditions of human society or the "social gospel" saw in Jesus' kerygma 
of the Kingdom of God a model for reconstituting social arrangements. They interpreted 
the Kingdom of God to mean the church or individual religious experience.130 Prominent 
among them was Walter Rauschenbusch. He defmes the Kingdom of God as the doctrine 
that lies at the center of the Social Gospel. He maintains that the Kingdom defines the 
progressive struggle of humankind from beginning to end and comes not by peaceful 
development only, but by continuous conflict with the Kingdom of evil. For him, this 
contlict is about messianic woes and battles depicted in the Apocalypse. 
124 Matt6:33, Mk. 1: 15 etc. NRSV. 
:: Luke. 13:29; 22:18 Acts 1:6-8; 3:17-21 NRSV. 
127 Luke. 10:9; 17:21 NRSV. 
Rev.2:7; 17 NRSV. 
1211 Cor.6:9, Oa1.S:21, I Thess.S: 1-2; 23, 2 Thess.l:S NRSV. 
129 The last enemy to be destroyed is death (l Cor. 15: 26 NRSV). 
130 Lk.17:21 NRSV. 
51 
."ding to ltauIallenbusch, the KJuIdOm was both a gift and a task, progressively 
~ yet always still ahead of us. Its source and consummation were transcendent but 
its workings were immanent. He writes: 
The Kingdom of God is always both present and future .... 
It is the energy of God realizing itself in human life. It 
invites and justifies prophecy, but all prophecy is fallible; it 
is valuable in so far as it grows out of action for the 
Kingdom and impels action. No theories about the future of 
the Kingdom of God are likely to be valuable or true which 
paralyze or postpone redemptive action on our part .... It is 
for us to see the Kingdom of God as always coming always 
pressing in on the present, always big with possibility, and 
always inviting immediate action. We walk by faith. Every 
human life is so placed that it can share with God in the 
creation of the Kingdom or it can resist or retard its 
progress. The Kingdom of God is for each of us the 
supreme task and the supreme gift of God. By laboring for 
it we enter into the joy and peace of the Kingdom as our 
divine fatherland and habitation.!3! 
However, Rauschenbusch was criticized of a ready identification of contemporary finite 
achievements with the absolute victory of the Kingdom. But if one reads him carefully, 
one will see that his vision is not one of finalizing any finite achievement, but rather one 
of continuous growth and aspiration, never perfected in history yet, communing with that 
ultimate Kingdom in each momentary and partial victory. He iterates: "We are on the 
march toward the kingdom of God, getting our reward by every fractional realization of it 
131 Walter Rauschenbusch, The Theology for the Social Gospel (New York: Macmillan Co., 1918), 227. 
52 
1fIaich makes us hungry for more.,,132 He understands the Kingdom of God as a social 
order at every stage of humankind's highest development which involves the redemption 
of social life that is free from all forms of slavery and political autocracies and economic 
hardships. He saw a close relationship between redemption and freedom. The Kingdom is 
the progressive unification of humankind without the surrender of individual and group 
identity; and dynamic relationship of God's grace and ''man's'' work transcendence and 
immanence. God was understood as immanent Spirit at work in history and guides it 
toward its final goal of a community in fellowship with triunity. 
According to Rosemary R. Ruether, the point of reference for understanding the kingdom 
of God, and even the church itself, was the community of humankind in history. This is 
the "body" that was being shaped by the Spirit, and criticized by the prophets, and led 
toward ultimate salvation in the Kingdom. The Kingdom is not to be found by turning 
from the world to the religious community; rather, the Kingdom is the goal and 
completion of the worldly community of "man." For her, in American Social Gospel, 
God was understood as an immanent Spirit at work in history and guiding it toward its 
final goal. 133 Therefore, it presupposes that, to be on the side of human progress in any of 
its many forms is to be on the side of Christ, because Christ is the head and crown of 
humanity itself that finds its fmal realization in the messianic Kingdom of the future. 
It may be affirmed that, the social hope for a new cooperative society in the future can be 
readily equated with the Christian hope for the Kingdom of God. This does not mean that 
132 Ibid. 
133 Rosemary Radford Ruether, The Radical Kingdom: The Western Experience of Messianic Hope (New 
Yark: Harper & Row Publishers, 1970) 83. 
53 
., church teaches socialism per ., as salvation, but there exist a harmony between 
socialist goals and Christian ideals. When socialism inveighed against the exploitation of 
the worker, it was in line with the prophetic attack on the exploitation of the poor by the 
rich. l34 The Socialist's hopes for a cooperative economic order are also in keeping with 
the Christian understanding of fellowship and community. The future hopes of the new 
socialist order are in the same direction as the Christian expectation of the Kingdom of 
ultimate reconciliation, justice and peace, except that the Christian hope demanded a 
deeper and more thorough going regeneration of believers. Hence, salvation, from the 
stand point of the Gospels is what happens when people respond in faith to Jesus' 
preachingl3S and this preaching is nothing other than the proclamation of a person, Jesus 
the Messiah, and the announcement of his dawning Kingdom. l36 
In conclusion, I must say that, there is an impressive agreement among students of the 
Gospel that Jesus' teaching concerning the Kingdom of God is basic to an understanding 
to his ministry. According to James L. Price, the Gospels illustrate that the coming of the 
Kingdom of God was proclaimed by Jesus throughout his ministry.137 His teaching, 
bealings, exorcisms as well as death and resurrection, all serve to make good this 
proclamation of the Kingdom of God. For Moltmann, there were statements explicitly by 
Jesus proclaiming and implying the coming Kingdom of God and its heirs especially in 
the parables. Therefore, the kingdom is the hope which has its ground in the promise 
134 Amos 2:7, Lk.l0:7 (For the worker deserves his wages) NRSV. 
135 Luke 8:15 NRSV. 
IJ6Greco. 126 NRSV. 
137 lames L. Price, Interpreting the New Testament (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc. 1961) 
23S-245. ' , , 
54 
';'~ towards the lordship of God. 1380nce the basic axioms of Jesus' proclamations 
are accepted, and the event of his death and resurrection is actually taken as the central 
clue, there comes into operation a logic that links every detail to this core of the mystery 
of the Kingdom.139 
COMMUNAL 
Salvation is communal. A new redeemed community was central to God's salvation in 
the Old Testament. In like manner, the followers of Jesus maintained a new community 
where values taught by him were lived OUt.,,140 Sider maintains that experiencing the 
salvation of the Kingdom that Jesus announced meant a total transformation of values, 
actions and relationships. As in the case of the rich young man, people sometimes 
rejected the Kingdom's salvation call because they were unwilling to abandon wealth and 
give to the poor. Sometimes, as in the case of Zacchaeus, they repented of sin 
(dishonesty, official corruption, and injustice) and righted those unjust relationships by 
returning unjustly obtained money and giving to the poor- "Today," Jesus said, "salvation 
has come to this house.,,141 
The text does not indicate clearly that Jesus pronounced forgiveness of sin to Zacchaeus, 
although the content makes it abundantly clear that Jesus' whole action of visiting the 
home of this public sinner was an act of forgiving acceptance. But the salvation that 
happened was not merely some vertical forgiveness of sin although it certainly included 
138 Jurgen Moltmann, Theology of Hope: On the Ground and the Implications of Christian Eschatology 
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993),216. 
13~ Paul S Minear, The Kingdom and the Power: An exposition oft he New Testament Gospel (Philadelphia: 
The Westminster Press, 1978),216. 
140 Sider, 87. 
141 Luke 19 NRSV. 
ss 
CtJud important component. The new social relationships made possible by grace in the life 
of the repentant and forgiven oppressor should be considered imperative to the salvation 
of Jesus' eminent kingdom which is corporate and social as well as personal and 
individual. 
PHYSICAL HEALING 
As discussed earlier, physical healing is part of salvation in the Gospels. The concept of 
salvation in the Gospels embraces not only the forgiveness of sins but also as seen in the 
Old Testament that the word salvation pointed to the wholeness or shalom in every area 
of life. In almost one out of four times whenever Jesus' healings are recorded in the 
142 
synoptic gospels, the word save (Heb. Sozo) is used to describe physical healings. The 
Samaritan leper was "saved" in Luke 17: 19, as was blind Bartimaeus in Mark 10: 52, as 
were the man whose withered hand was restored in Mark 3:4-5 and the liberated demon-
possessed man in Luke 8:36. The word "save" is also used to describe physical rescues 
from the danger of death. 
Salvation then encompasses the transformation of broken physical bodies when the 
messianic kingdom breaks into history in the person of Jesus. It presupposes that 
salvation from the perspective of the gospels is not only for the soul but for the body as 
well. This gives the impression that God's saving agenda is to correct the full devastation 
of sin, not just in some inner immaterial realm but in the total created order. This physical 
142 Sozo is used sixteen times to refer to healing. Therapeuo (Ok healing) is used thirty-three times, and 
laomai is used fifteen times for healing. Similarly, Acts 4:9; 14:9. In the book of James, 80zo is used to 
indicate both physical healing (5: 15) and escape from divine punishment at the final judgment (5: 19). Often 
the English translation obscures this fact. Mark 6:56 reads: "All who touched him were healed. "But the 
word translated "healed" is 80zo, the verb usually translated "save" (Cf. also Matthew 14:36). 
56 
~'\~ can be called salvation in the content of the presence. and acknowledgment of 
. Jesus the Christ in whose person the presence of the kingdom of God is realized. Luke 
therefore sees the healing of a Gentile soldier's servant,143 the forgiveness of a fallen 
woman;44 the restoration to wholeness of a demented man14S and the provision of new 
life for a dead girl146 as illustration of salvation, a new life, wholeness, forgiveness, and 
healing. 
Paul Tillich argues that, only when salvation is understood as healing and saving power 
through the New Being is the problem surrounding it put on another level. 147 This is 
because; to a large extent all people participate in the healing power of the New Being. 
Otherwise, the self destructive consequences of estrangement would have destroyed 
them. It is believed that, no person has ever been totally healed, not even those who have 
encountered the healing power as it appears in Jesus as the Christ. For the proponents of 
this view, the healing received by those who have encountered Jesus was incomplete. 
Hence, the concept of salvation drives us to the eschatological symbolism and its 
interpretation. This is the symbol of cosmic healing and the question of the relation of the 
eternal to the temporal with respect to the future. Jesus is thus seen as the ultimate 
criterion of every healing and saving process. Nonetheless, I think Tillich is right by 
affirming that, in Jesus the healing quality is complete and ultimate. In his view, the 
Christian remains in the state of relativity with respect to salvation, and that the New 
Being in Christ transcends every form of relativity in its quality and power of healing. "It 
143 Luke 7:3 NRSV. 
144 Luke 7:50 NRSV. 
145 Luke 8:36 NRSV. 
)Wi Luke 8:50 NRSV. 
147 Tillich, 165 NRSV. 
57 
is just this that makes him the Christ. Therefore, wherever there is saving power in 
';1IJaDkind, it must be judged by the saving power in Jesus as the Christ.,,148 
l49 
In conclusion, I must affirm that, with respect to both the original meaning of salvation
and the present situation, the term has been interpreted as "healing," where healing means 
reuniting that which is outcast, cursed and estranged. It is overcoming the split between 
God and human beings and God's world as well as ''man and himself." Out of this 
interpretation of salvation, the concept of the New Being has developed. Salvation thus, 
is reclaiming from the old and transferring into the New Being. According to Tillich, 
since Christianity derives salvation from the appearance of Jesus as the Christ, it cannot 
separate from him. 
RIGHT RELATIONSHIP WITH GOD 
According to the gospels, having the right relationship with God is also at the center of 
salvation. For Sider, we would be grossly distorting the Gospels if we focused 
exclusively or primarily on the horizontal aspects of salvation. Right at the heart of 
salvation is a right relationship with God made possible because Jesus died for our sins 
on the cross. The son of Man, whom Jesus identified as none other than himself, came to 
suffer for our sins. He bore vicariously the wrath of God upon sin in order to atone for the 
sins of humanity. Thus, his cross brings together God's wrath and mercy that reconciled 
us to the Father in a unique abba relationship. I so That is absolutely central to the gospels' 
portrayal of salvation. 
:: Tillich, 166-168. 
ISO LatiIl sawllS, "healed." 
Mark 14:36; cf. Rom. 8:1S-16; Gal. 4:6 NRSV. 
58 
:¥~~clusiOn, I affirm Akrong's view that the interpretation of salvation in the New 
Testament was grounded in the themes of the Old Testament in the Christ event. Hence, 
the unique.vision of the New Testament was the discovery of the prophetic idea that, the 
redemption of the righteous God of the covenant is an aspect of divine creativity. Within 
this structure of the creation-redemption-salvation continuum, the New Testament 
announces the good news that the righteous God of the covenant is forgiving sinners and 
accepting them into a new relationship and fellowship with self as a result of the life, 
death, resurrection and exaltation of Jesus Christ of Nazareth 1 1 5 
1.2 SALVATION IN PAULINE THEOLOGY 
When Paul was travelling to Damascus to persecute the Christians in that city, he was 
stopped short by a revelation. He was then commissioned and appointed by Christ as 
apostle to the Gentiles. That is how the Acts of the Apostles, and Paul himself, described 
the tumingpoint of his life. It is a meeting between the risen Lord and his strongest 
opponent Paul, who is forced from the path that he had followed, and set on the path 
along which his new Master is to lead him. 
However, it is clear that Paul's conversion set the tone for his missionary activities. A 
cri,tical evaluation of Paul's Soteriology indicates that he viewed salvation in terms of the 
past, present, and future redeeming work of God in the person of Christ This includes the 
sacrifice on the cross; the experience of Justification, regeneration, and sanctification; the 
151 Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity," 3. 
59 
JIIIiIIity of Jewish new community; and the ultimate cosmic restoration of all things in 
€hrist. 
As his epistles portray, salvation in Paul is individual and corporate, vertical and 
horizontal. And it is definitely related to conscious confession of Christ. 152 For salvation 
in terms of the past, Paul sees salvation as a redeeming act of Christ on the cross. John 
Stott argues that Paul used three different key words for salvation: 
The first is soteria (salvation). For Paul, we obtain salvation as we hear the gospel, and 
we are justified by faith rather than works/ 53 and are free from the anger of God as a 
result of the cross of ChriSt. IS4 Secondly, Apolutrosis (redemption), which is similar to 
the forgiveness of sins, that has been granted to us because of the expiation of the blood 
of Christ at the cross. ISS Third, Katallege (reconciliation) which is grounded in the cross 
on which Christ was made sin for us so that we could be reconciled to God.156 
Paul perceives salvation in terms of the present and the future: 
Salvation in terms of the present: The Apostle Paul said a lot about salvation as the 
present reality by using the term dikaiosune. 
According to St. Augustine and much of the Catholic tradition, the word dikaiosune is 
that genuine righteousness that the Holy Spirit creates in persons as they are conformed 
IS2 Col. 2:15. NRSV. 
ISlRom.l:16-17NRSV. 
IS4 Rom. 5:9 NRSV. 
1"R.om. 3:24-25; 8:23; Col. 1:1-13 NRSV. 
1$6 John Sttot. The Cross o/Christ (Downers Grove, Ill.: Intervarsity Press, 1986), 175-203. 
60 
il'~ and more into the image of Christ. Martin Luther, on the other hand, viewed 
ti 
',Ji/roiosune primarily as justification, namely God's act of declaring sinners forgiven for 
their sins and thus justified ''by faith alone" as they trust in Christ's merits reckoned to 
them through the cross. 
A careful reading of Paul suggests that Paul uses dikaiosune to refer to what Luther 
called "forensic justification," a legal act or declaration, used in relation to righteousness 
and justification in Protestant Theology. It indicates that God declares (not makes) a 
sinner righteous or justified through Jesus Christ.1S7 At other times, this word points to 
genuine sanctification of persons. ISS 
It is clear that the word dikaiosune (righteousness) is not limited to the forgiveness and 
sanctification (the process of God's continuing work in Christian believers through the 
power of the Holy Spirit and growth in grace and holiness of life marked by good works) 
of the individual. In Romans 14: 17, dikaiosune refers to the transformed social relations 
in the redeemed community of believers. In Romans 14:13ff, Paul argues that no foods 
can be regarded as unclean in themselves, but if a person considers some food as unclean, 
then we must not destroy that weak person by continuing to eat it, "for the kingdom of 
God is not a matter of eating and drinking, but of righteousness [dikaiosune], peace and 
joy in the Holy Spirit." 159 
.'7 Rom. 4:5-8 NRSV 
IS. Rom. 6:1-20 NRSV. 
IS9Rom. 14:13 NRSV. 
61 
~·tbatpeace and righteousness refer also to that wholeness of good relations 
within the Christian community, so that living now as members of Jesus' dawning 
Kingdom; we are enjoying wholeness and genuine social salvation. 
The corporate aspect of salvation which pictures the vertical and horizontal dimensions of 
salvation is revealed through the cross.160 The death of Christ on the cross has brought 
reconciliation between God and humankind 161 In this reconciliatory act Christ becomes 
part of the gospel and thus part of the salvation that Paul announced. For Paul, salvation 
in terms of the present includes forgiveness, sanctification, and the new redeemed 
community. 
Salvation in terms of the future: In Pauline theology, salvation has a powerful future or 
eschatological dimension. According to Paul, God, who started a good work in human 
beings, will certainly continue and complete it in the future. 162 Paul further asserts that 
the salvation that human beings have already experienced is down payment of the 
complete inheritance that will be theirs on the return of Christ,163 so that their bodies will 
experience redemption. l64 Paul's conception of redemption includes the whole of 
creation, and the restoration of the physical world which can be referred to as 'cosmic 
salvation. ' 
160 Epb. 2: 11-37 NRSV. 
161 Epb. 2:11-17 NRSV. 
162 Phil.l:6 NRSV. 
::Eph.l:13-14 NRSV. 
ltom.8:23 NRSV. 
62 
___ ,however, is aware that when belieYers in God are '~vealed" - when Christ returns 
aad human beings experience the .resurrection of the body -then the whole created order 
will also be made new: ''The creation itself will be liberated from its bondage to decay 
and brought into the glorious freedom of the children of God.,,16S This is clearly 
...,hasized by the evangelical Scholar F.F. Bruce: "If words mean anything, these words 
of Paul denoted not the annihilation of the present material universe on the day of 
revelation, to be replaced by a universe completely new but the transformation of the 
present universe so that it will fulfill the purpose for which God created it.,,166 
In the writings of St. Paul, the earliest of the New Testament writings, '" salvation' is used 
to refer to a future event in which God will judge the world, destroy the wicked and 
establish his final kingdom on earth. In his letter to the Christians at Rome, Paul writes 
that "salvation is nearer to us now than when we first believed,,,167 implying, as the 
context shows, that the return of Christ and the last judgment were expected to take place 
before Paul and his readers may die. Elsewhere, he speaks of "the hope of salvation,,,168 
clearly seeing it as a future event. Paul refers to Jesus as Savior only once, but here again 
it is in respect to Jesus' future work: To the Christians at Philippi, he writes, "We await a 
Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious 
body, by the power which enables him to subject all things to himself.,,169 Jesus is called 
savior because of what he will do, not because of what he has already done. The future 
sense is also found in the Synoptic Gospels, where to be saved is identical in meaning 
with entry into the kingdom of God. 
16SRom:21 NRSV. 
166 F. F. Bruce, The Epistle of Paul to the Romans: An Introduction and Commentary (Grand Rapids: 
Eerdmans, 1963), 170. 
16'1' Rom. 13: 11 NRSV. 
IliI CoL 1:27 NRSV. 
1!it1lbil.3:20 NRSV. 
63 
·"Mvation in the New Testament includes past, present and future references. I can 
conclude that, the New Testament understanding of salvation presupposes the following: 
a) something has happened as in the case of Zacchaeus. Jesus has saved us from the 
penalty of sin when we accept him as saviour, b) that something is happening now as 
Jesus is saving us from power of sin, and c) that something further will still happen to 
believers because Jesus will save them from the presence of sin and evil and give them 
"heavenly reward" (Justification). Salvation in tenns of the future does not suggest any of 
the following: deliverance, healing and socio-economic development. It is entirely "going 
to heaven." Yet, even though heaven has been mentioned in the New Testament, union 
with Christ seems to be fundamental in Pauline Theology .170 
In the light of the above discussion regarding biblical understandings of salvation, I can 
suggest that, New Testament studies view justification of a believer as hearing the 
affirmation that one is a full member of the community of promise. It is also very clear 
that, in both the Old and New Testaments, salvation originally had connotations other 
than the Christian experience of God's reconciliation with fallen humanity in Christ. l7l 
This includes the events of peace, order and security among others which scholars such 
as Gaba regarded as total well-being and has to do with both the spiritual and physical 
dimensions of human condition. Thus, according to Hiagbe, the New Testament 
understanding of salvation is not different from that of the Old Testament as SUCh.172 
170 Union with Christ has been mentioned almost 200 times particularly in Paul's letters alone. 
171 Komi A. Hiagbe, 31. 
172 Ibid. 
64 
'JaSALVATlON AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH 
Salvation has been the key doctrine onwbich the Roman Catholic ChW'Ch bad received 
immense criticism and condemnation, dating back prominently to the Great Refonnation 
of the 16th century. Since her establishment, the Catholic Church believes that human 
beings are. JUStified by grace through faith on account of Jesus Christ. Catholics also 
believe that good works can contribute to salvation. By comparison, the refonners argued 
that salvation is purely by grace through faith in Jesus Christ "alone" and that Christ's 
redemptive work is the exclusive cause of the salvation of human beings without any 
human element of cooperation. 
In medieval Catholicism, Jesus Christ earned the merit of the believer when he was 
humbled and obedient unto death; and his Father exalted him and gave him a name that 
we must all honor.173 He earned a reward from his Father in his humanity as the Son of 
God who was raised and placed at the right hand of his Father. 174 Therefore, believers are 
united to Jesus Christ and they can do nothing unless remained united with him. Once a 
believer remained united with Jesus, everything he or she does actually becomes as 
though Jesus did it. Believer's action from thenceforth is Jesus' action. In the light of this, 
Roman Catholic theologies assert that justification comprises of the believers' merit and 
the merit of Jesus together. 175 
It was thus Augustine's exposition of justification by grace "alone," together with his 
emphasis on the importance of faith, which furnished the categories for the sixteenth -
173 Phil. 2: 5-11 NRSV. 
174 A position of authority, honor, power and might among others. 
175 This has been referred to as the doctrine of ''Cooperate Grace." 
6S 
...., debates which divided the church in the West. It was also Luther's redefinition of 
jUJtitication that initiated the major debates at the Reformation which gave rise to 
Protestantism. 176 
The selling of indulgences (a pardon for temporal punishments that remain due for sin 
after repentance and forgiveness of guilt) developed slowly throughout the middle ages. 
Originally, its conception was limited to removing the temporal or earthly punishment 
that the church had the right to inflict as part of the sacrament of penance. 177 It was later 
associated with the remission of temporal punishment due to sins for which pardon has 
already been received, because, the church believes that, salvation is from guilt and its 
consequences in this and the next life.178 Due to the "treasury of merits" received from 
Christ and the Saints, the Catholic church believes it has "the power" to remit the 
temporal punishment that remains a Christian's due after he or she has received divine 
forgiveness, and they do this in acts of varying intensities, thereby effecting partial or 
total remission,179 reaching the living by way of absolution180 and the dead by way of 
intercession. lSI 
176 Andrian Hastings et al., eds., The Oxford Companion to Christian Thought (Oxford: Oxford University 
Press, 2000), 362. 
177 (Lat. Paenitentia, "penitence). The action of showing sorrow and remorse for sin. It is one of the seven 
sacraments of the Romans Catholic Church (also called "sacrament of reconciliation"), and the prescribed 
way for post baptismal sins to be forgiven. Its elements are contrition, confession of sin, and "doing" of 
~enance. 
'18 In purgatory and hell. 
179 Because the prayer is offered in the name of the Redeemer for a contrite believer. 
110 "Absolution" is from Lat. Absolvere, meaning to set free. It is the formal act of pronouncing forgiveness 
of sins. In Roman Catholic theology, it is the formula the priest uses in the sacrament of reconciliation 
(fannedy penance), usually saying "I absolve you." In Eastern churches it is "May God forgive you." Also, 
abiolution of the dead characterizes Medieval service after a Requiem Mass consisting of prayer for the 
ded(Watminster Dictionary of Theological Terms). 
11l"lDteR:ession" is from the Lat. intercessio, meaning "a coming between," or "intervention." It is a prayer 
offered on behalf others as in 1 Tim. 2: I (Westminster Dictionary of Theological Terms). 
66 
1\s a result of indulgences, Catholics are assured of their salvation. III Therefore, the 
Catholic Church taught that both faith and good works are necessary for salvation, 
183 
grounding their argument primarily on Galatians 5: 6 and James. 2: 26. 
The Holy Spirit's transforming work in the sinner becomes the grounds, along with faith, 
for justification and, being good enough, merits the earning of salvation. It does not mean 
that the Catholic Church does not teach grace. It taught that God is "gracious." Yet, the 
means by which God's grace comes to believers has been the bone of contention that the 
reformers grappled with. Even though, both the reformers and the Catholic Church taught 
that grace is a free gift of God that comes to the believer through faith in Jesus Christ 
alone, the Catholic Church went further to teach that grace comes through the means of 
the indulgences and sacramentsl84 as well. As such the sacraments are considered to be 
God's grace to the believer. There was therefore the ''presumptuous habit of trusting to 
the purchase of Masses while dying, to the neglect of a holy life and repentance while in 
health."18S There was also the element of clerical or priestly abuses and exploitation of 
the Mass which formed part of the grounds for attacks on the Mass launched by the 
English Refonners. 186 An example of clerical abuses includes charging of exorbitant fees 
112 Donald Bloesch, Sacrament Worship, Ministry, Mission (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2002), 48. 
III "For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision has any value. The only thing that counts is 
faith expressing itself through love; As the body without the spirit is dead, so faith without deeds is dead 
But Luther refused this by referring to James as "book of straw." 
184 The word "Sacrament" is from the Greek mysterion, which translates ''mystery'' and sacramentum, 
which means "oath." It is an outward sign instituted by God to convey an inward or spiritual grace. 
Sacraments are liturgical practices of some churches. Roman Catholicism recognizes seven sacraments and 
Protestants two. The sacraments recognized in the Roman Catholic tradition and in Eastern Orthodox are: 
baptism, confirmation. Eucharist, reconciliation (penance), anointing of the sick (extreme unction), 
maniage (matrimony), and holy orders (ordination). However, Protestants accepted baptism and Eucharist 
as tho only sacraments instituted by Christ-Westminster Dictionary of Theological terms. 
113 Francis Clark, Eflchllri8tic Sacrifice and the Reformation (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1967), 56. 
I" Ibid. 
67 
r-wn the Mass was celeblated for people with the intention of generating funds for the 
building of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. 
It was however agreed at the Council of Trent in 1562 that the Mass (i.e., the Eucharistic 
Mass) is not an absolute but a relative sacrifice, drawing its efficacy from the sacrifice of 
Calvary. They also believed that the death of Christ alone remits our sins, yet it does not 
mean that the sacraments of the Church have no role in that remission. This is because 
the sacraments are considered as instrumental causes by which the death of Christ is 
applied for the benefit of the believer.187 In Roman Catholic theology, the sacraments of 
baptism and reconciliation (penance) are considered to bring justification and 
salvation. 188 
The doctrine of purgatory 189 suggests that human beings can never come to full 
assurance of salvation on earth, for they are still capable of committing mortal sin. This is 
surely true about "Double Predestination" as well. Calvin taught that no one can be fully 
sure about his or her salvation on earth. It is believed that when Catholics die (in 
exception of "Saints"), they go to the place called purgatory to undergo purification so as 
to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of Heaven. The doctrine of purgatory 
was formulated especially at the Councils of Florence and Trent. The practice was, and as 
is still the case that while going through the process of purgation, intercessory prayers are 
117 clark, 57-97. 
III Donald K McKim, 246. 
189 (Lat. Purgation, "cleansing"). A doctrine prominent in medieval Catholicism and taught in Roman 
Catholic tradition. Purgatory is a place where the souls of the faithful dead endure a period of purification 
and cleansing fi:om sin prior to their entrance into heaven. It completes sanctification. 
68 
r~ and votive and requiem Masses conducted for the dead so that they may be lose 
from their sins. 
However, the reformers were opposed to the offering of prayers for the dead stating that 
its efficacy is questionable. They maintained that even the "saints" themselves prayed 
and made supplications in respect of their sins while they were alive, and that we must 
also do same while we are still living in the world and have the opportunity to do as the 
"Saints" who have gone before us. 
Augustine points out that there is no salvation outside the church. The Athanasian Creed 
taught that "Whoever wishes to be saved, needs above all to hold the Catholic faith; 
unless each one preserves this whole and inviolate, he will without a doubt perish in 
etemity.,,190 This creedal statement affirms the Vatican council I decree that "outside the 
Church no one can be saved .... who is not in this ark will perish in the fiood.,,191 
As Catholic tradition developed, salvation came to be understood by her as a free gift of 
the Spirit and more as a grace generated by the Spirit and infused into believers through 
the rites and sacraments of the Church. The church was actually depicted as supernatural 
mediation, playing the central role of binding and loosing through her exercise of the 
keys of the kingdom. Cyprian articulated vividly that: "If some one has not the Church 
for his mother, he has not God for his father,,192 Thus, again, ''there is no salvation out 
side the church." 
190 Http://www.cathoIicdoors.comlcoursedlsalvatio.htm. 
191 The Roman Church symbolizes Noah's ark on earth according to the Vatican council I decree. 
192 Http://www.catholicdoors.comlcoursedlsalvatio.htm. 
69 
IIiI Adam, the proponent of this traditional view spoke of the church primarily as an 
iDttitution for salvation. Simply. "a community of salvation is a community that receives 
in faith the salvation of Christ and carries it out in herself. It is she who gives this 
salvation and makes the faithful members of Christ.,,193 He held the view that, the church 
stands not only in a passive but also in an active relationship to Christ and the salvation 
be gives. Karl Adam goes on to portray the Church as instrumental cause or agent and the 
visible earthly tool with which the Lord of the Church, who won her by his blood, pours 
the treasures of grace and love proceeding from the Trinity into the body of the Church. 
However, this view of salvation came under critical scrutiny. In fact, later Catholic 
theology affmned the work of the Spirit in relation to salvation. Nonetheless, the canons 
of Trent concerning justification also apposed "cooperate grace" when canon I (one) 
stated: "If anyone said that man may be justified before God by his own works, whether 
done through the teaching of human nature, or that of the law, without the grace of God 
through Jesus Christ; let him be anathema. ,,194 The Council of Trent is the official Roman 
Catholic Church's definitive response to the Protestant challenge, and somehow they 
reaffirmed the views of Augustine on the nature of justification that the relevance of the 
cross is central to salvation.19S Trent's decree seems to suggest that, Luther and his 
followers failed to harmonize justification and sanctification196 together at the 
anthropological level. Nonetheless, Trent affirmed a merited justification meaning, God 
193 Karl Adam, The Roots oft he Reformation, trans. Cecily Hastings (New York: Sheed & Ward, 1951),91. 
194~. Theoped.a.comlCouncil of Trent. 
193 Karl Adam, 77. 
196 Sanctification (Gr. Hagiasmos, Lat. Sanctification) is the process or result of God's continuing work in 
Christian believers through the power of the Holy Spirit. In Protestant theology, this occurs after 
justification and is growth in grace and holiness of life marked by good works; Regeneration (Gr. 
Palingenesia, Lat. Rsgeneratio, ''new birth," "new life") is the action of the Holy Spirit, who transforms the 
lives of those given the gift of faith so that they may experience a "new birth" and salvation through Jesus 
Christ (Titus 3:5). 
70 
'C 
• persons just or righteouS through their participation in the sacraments of the 
Roman Catholic Church and by the gift of the Holy Spirit which is the new life principle 
197 
of grace, expressed through love and the cross and death of Jesus Christ.
Paul Whitcomb maintained that, for Catholics, both faith and good works are necessary 
for salvation, because such is the teaching of Jesus. He writes "What our Lord demands is 
faith that worketh by charity.,,198 According to him, when St. Paul speaks about 
justification by faith without works of the Law, he was referring to works peculiar to the 
old Jewish Law and cites circumcision as an example. Thus, faith is only the beginning 
but not the complete fulfillment of salvation. Whitcomb reiterates "nowhere in the Bible 
is it written that faith alone justifies.,,199 He further asserts that, the Catholic Church does 
not teach that purely human good works are meritorious for salvation. He indicates: 
Such works are NOT meritorious for salvation, according 
to her teaching. Only those good works perfonned when a 
person is in the state of grace that is, as a branch drawing 
its spiritual life from the Vine which is Christ (John 15 :4-
6). Only those good deeds work toward our salvation, and 
they do so only by the grace of God and the merit of Jesus 
Christ. These good works, offered to God by a soul in the 
state of grace (i.e., free of mortal sin, with the Blessed 
Trinity dwelling in the soul), are thereby supernaturally 
meritorious because they share in the work and in the 
merits of Christ. Such supernatural good works will not 
197 Andrian Hastings et aI., 363. 
198 Paul~'1lhm:omb, The Catholic Church has the Answers (Rockford, Illinois: Tan Books and Publishers 
INC., 1986), 24. ' 
l!I!I Whiwomb, 25. 
71 
only· be rewarded by ,God, but are necessary for 
salvation.2oo 
According to Whitcomb,St. Paul shows how the neglect of certain good works will send 
~ Christian believer to damnation in the following passage: "If anyone does not provide 
fur his relatives, and especially for his immediate family, he has denied the faith, and is 
worse than an unbeliever.'.201 Jesus also said "For the Son of Man is going to come in his 
Father's glory with his angels, and then he will reward each person according to what he 
has done.',202 In the light of the statements cited above, I believe Catholics are 
emphasizing good works as meritorious. 
The doctrine of universal salvation was popularized in Catholic theology at Vatican II 
Council by Karl Rahner. The second Vatican Council maintained that all will be saved in 
the Apokatastasis or final restoration of all things. Rahner pointed out that "while 
helping the world and receiving many benefits from it, the Church has a single intention: 
that God's kingdom may come, and that the salvation of the whole human race may come 
to pass. For every benefit which the people of God during its earthly pilgrimage can offer 
to the human family stems from the fact that the Church is 'the universal sacrament of 
salvation' simultaneously manifesting and actualizing the mystery of God's love." 203 
Rahner maintained that eternal damnation remains a possibility, but we are not granted 
the knowledge to know which people are effectively involved in it. 
2110 Ibid. 
201 1 Timothy 5:8 NRSV. 
202 Matthew 16:27NRSV. 
2tD ilttp:/lwww.romancatholisity.Org/universal-salvation.htm 
72 
"""~ Jolm Paul n writing for the post VMican Council n era maintained that despite the 
t8et that the church mediates Christ's salvation the source of this salvation is the grace of 
God. He commented: "people are saved through the church, but they are saved by the 
grace of Christ. ,,204 
The new, post-Vatican II Catechism of the Catholic Church also gives us the hope that all 
will be saved. The Church prays that no one should be lost: 'Lord, let me never be parted 
from you.' This suggests that if it is true that no one can save himself, it is also true that 
God desires all people to be saved,20s and that for God 'all things are possible. ,206 
The new Roman Missal and Divine Office exhorted the faithful that in prayer they should 
"'remember our brothers and sisters who have gone to their rest in the hope of rising 
again; bring them and all the departed into the light of your presence. Have mercy on us 
all. Almighty God, we recall how you sent your angel to the centurion Cornelius to show 
him the way of salvation. Open our hearts to work more zealously for the salvation of the 
world, so that your Church may bring us and all men into your presence. ,,207 
Donald G. Bloesch emphasized that John Paul II ''reaffirms the Augustinian-Thomistic 
tradition that holds to the priority of grace over human striving and obedience that "all of 
* John Paul II, Crossing the Threshold 0/ Hope, ed. Vittorio Messori (New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1994) 
140. ' , 
205 I Tim.2:4 NRSV. 
Z06Matt.19:26 NRSV. 
'IIJ'I Buebaristic Prayer II. 
73 
tile dJ.urch's children must remember that their privileged condition is not the result of 
their own merits, but the result of the special grace of Christ. 20S 
In catholic theology, ''people of faith cannot earn grace, but they can cooperate with 
grace and thereby contribute to grace's efficacy.'t209 In the words of Francis Fernandez, 
who claims to be restating Thomas Aquinas' position: "They will be good collaborators 
with God's grace, for the Holy Spirit uses man as an instrument. Then their works take 
on a divine effectiveness, like a tool which of itself is incapable of producing anything, 
but in the hands of a good craftsman can produce a masterpiece.,,210 
In Roman Catholic theology, grace is in the hands and power of the Church. It is the 
Church which, through the practice of its sacramental rites and ceremonies, 
communicates grace to its people. Thomas Torrance strongly maintained his argument 
against this view on the grounds that grace "remains absolutely sovereign and 
transcendent in God's self-communication to us, and so retains us in comprehensibility 
and mystery as grace.,,211 
Karl Rahner, who featured prominently at Vatican Council II, propounded the concept of 
the "Anonymous Christianity." The concept arose from two reasons. First, Rahner saw 
the possibility of supernatural salvation and of a corresponding faith which must be 
granted to people outside Christianity, even if they never become Christians. 
208 Bloesch, 48. 
209 Ibid 
210 Francis Fernandez, In conversation with God (London: Scepter, 1990) 31. See also Thomas Aquinas 
Summa Theologica2 -2177.1. 
211Thomas F. Torrance, Theology in Reconciliation (Grand Rapids, Mich. Eardmans, 1975),101. 
74 
SIiiIIIrIDd, that, salvation cmmot be gained witbout reference to God and Christ, since it 
must in its origin. history and fulfillment be a theistic and Christian salvation. Therefore, 
God who desires all people to be saved cannot possibly consign all non-Christians to hell. 
And, also, Jesus Christ is God's only means of salvation. This suggests that the non-
Christians who end up in heaven must have received the grace of Christ without their 
realizing it. 
Though RaImer acknowledges that there are some weaknesses with the term "anonymous 
Christian", he considered it a vital one. More so, he was greatly encouraged by the 
statements of Vatican II, regarding salvation as further endorsement of his theory of the 
"anonymous Christian." 
It was affirmed during the second Vatican Council that, those who have not yet received 
the gospel without any faith of their own are given the possibility of eternal salvation and 
that God in the unknown ways, of God's grace can give them "faith" without which there 
is no salvation even to those who have not yet heard the preaching of the gospel. Vatican 
II further maintained that those who through no fault of their own, do not know the 
gospel of Christ or his church, yet sincerely seek God and, moved by grace, strive by 
their deeds to do his will as it is known to them through the dictates of their conscience 
will be saved. Rabner is of the view here that this statement allows even atheists and 
polytheists the possibility of salvation. 
The concept of "Anonymous Christian" has been highly criticized. Conservative 
Christians believe the concept explicitly contradicts the Apostolic teaching in Acts 4: 12 
75 
)bat, "lhere is salvation in no one else; for there is no other name under heaven that bas 
":been given among men, by which we must be saved." There are also "Christian 
'udusivists" whose view is that biblical Christianity is true and that other religious 
/systems are false. 
For some others, the concept of "anonymous Christianity" argued by Karl Rahner is a 
very grave doctrinal error because it declares personal justification as being already 
realized for every one without any participation of his or her will or free choice and, so, 
without any need of one's conversion, faith, baptism or works, This view point raises the 
idea that redemption is granted to all, and that sanctifying grace was ontologically present 
in each one so long as he or she is a person. 
Liberal Christians have nonetheless disagreed vehemently on the concept of "Anonymous 
Christian." Hans Kung maintained the impossibility to find a Jew or Muslim or Atheist in 
"heaven" who may not even consider the stand that he or she is an anonymous Christian. 
John Hick also argues the point that how can people receive grace without expressing any 
desire for it? What is implied in this argument is that people can be Christians without 
realizing it. I can also agree that, Rahner is thinking about those who preceded Jesus 
Christ and their salvation and it is therefore unfair to condemn a group of people who 
have not had a realistic opportunity to hear the gospel. 
76 
.~.4 SALVATION AND THE REFORMATION 
The debate about how believers are justified featured prominently in reformation 
theology. Since the time of Anselm and Abelard, Western Soteriology has been 
dominated by the legal and moral models of salvation. The reformers re-interpreted the 
legal notion of salvation inherited from medieval scholasticism on the basis of the 
justification by faith through grace.212 In pietism and revivalism, salvation is the conquest 
of the godless state through conversion and transformation for those who are converted. 
However, in ascetic and liberal Protestantism, salvation is the conquest of "special sins" 
and progress toward moral perfection. Nonetheless, the question of life in the ultimate 
sense has not disappeared in the later groups, except in some forms of theological 
humanism.213 
MARTIN LUTHER 
Martin Luther (1483-1546) challenged the Catholicism of his time by arguing that grace 
is not a fluid or power dispensed by the church but the free bestowal of the Spirit of God 
who nonetheless condescends to meet us wherever the Word is truly proclaimed and the 
sacraments rightly administrated. 
Luther maintained that the sacraments do not work "ex opera operato (the view that the 
efficacy of a sacrament does not depend on the spiritual goodness of the one who 
administers it; rather God's grace makes it a sacrament) but can have a powerful effect 
212 Akrong, Salvation in African Christianity, 5. 
213 Theologically, the term humanism indicates the high value that Christianity places on humans as created 
and redeemed by God Humanism is a philosophical or religious viewpoint that emphasizes human values, 
worth and achievement. It is sometimes used in contrast to the theological viewpoint that gives God the 
place of supreme value. 
77 
when they are united with the preaching of the Word and laid hold of by the Spirit as he 
comnnmicates the meaning and impact of the Word to the hearts ofbelievers.,,214 Luther 
disagreed with the notion that salvation comes through outward means such as the word, 
the sacraments and good works. We therefore understand from Luther that salvation that 
is brought through such means is an attempt of seeking self -salvation that contradicts the 
biblical teaching. 
Luther maintained that faith transports us out of ourselves into the promises of Jesus 
Christ, which are found in Holy Scripture and which never deceive. Central to his 
theological insights is the doctrine of "justification by faith alone." He clearly indicated 
that faith has a personal rather than a purely historical, reference, and concerns trust in 
the promises of God and unites us to Christ. 
According to Alister E. McGrath "the doctrine of justification by faith" thus does not 
mean that the sinner is justified because he or she had faith. This would be to treat faith 
as a human action or work. In actual fact, McGrath maintained that the justification of the 
sinner is based upon the grace of God, and is received through faith. ,,2\5 
I can conclude that in Luther's theological insights the doctrine of justification by faith 
alone is the affirmation of God's sole activity necessary for salvation. And so I can 
declare faith as a gift of God in itself rather than human effort or action. 
214 Bloesch, 49. 
215 Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction (Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2001) 
~~ , 
78 
......' s understarJding of imputed riJhteousness which was developed by Melanchton 
iatD the concept generally referred to as ''forensic justification" emphasized that, the 
sinner is pronounced righteous under God's judgment in the heavenly court, in foro 
divino, hence 'forensic.116 This led to a sharp distinction between justification and 
saaetification (regeneration).ll7 The concept of law also emerged which suggests salvific 
requirements of the individual rather than participation by the power of the Holy Spirit. 
This led to the view that justification by faith alone renders faith into work and 
subsequently resulted in the attack on the reformers' theology. Those who opposed this 
view thought that, making justification conditional upon faith alone grossly overestimate 
faith as the sole human virtue at the expense of all other human virtues.l\8 Thus for 
Luther, justification is the righteousness imparted directly from God.219 
Both Augustine and Luther believed that God graciously gives sinful human beings, a 
righteousness which justifies them. The question then arises: where is the location of that 
righteousness? St. Augustine maintained that it was to be found within believers but 
Luther argued that it remained outside believers. Augustine goes on to argue that the 
righteousness in question is internal, while Luther insists it is external. Commenting on 
the views of Augustine, it is obvious that God bestows justifying righteousness upon the 
sinner, in such a way that it becomes part of his or her person, although it is originating 
from outside the sinner. 
2.16 Hastings et al., 363. 
2,17 Sanctification (Gr. Hagiasmos, Lat. Sanctification) is the process or result of God's continuing work in 
Christian believers through the power of the Holy Spirit. In Protestant theology, this occurs after 
justification and is growth in grace and holiness of life marked by good works; Regeneration (Gr. 
Paiingenesia, Lat. Regeneratio, "new birth," "new life") is the action of the Holy Spirit, who transforms the 
lives of those given the gift of faith so that they may experience a "new birth" and salvation through Jesus 
Christ (Titus 3:5). 
2,18 Hastings et al., 363. 
219 Ibid. 
79 
~:r, 
'Lucker maintains that the righteousness ill ,question remains outside the sinner when he 
wrote that it is an "alien righteousness" (iustitia aliena). God treats, or "reck o ns, "tbis  
righteousness as nit were part of the sinner's person. Luther again stated: "There are two 
kinds of Christian righteousness, just as man's sin is of two kinds. The first is alien 
righteousness, which is the righteousness of another, instilled from without. This is the 
righteousness of Christ by which he justifies through faith, as it is written in I Cor. 1[:30]: 
"Whom God made our wisdom, our righteousness and sanctification and redemption ... 
The second is self righteousness which is justifying one's own actions as being virtuous. 
It is a personal effort at receiving justification from God through one's own effort to be 
morally righteous,,220 
JOBNCALVIN 
Calvin's discussion on justification reflects his disagreement over the concept of 
'forensic justification.' He therefore, sets to restore a proper balance. In the first place, of 
all the Reformers, John Calvin (1509-64) made the sharpest distinction and insisted that 
faith as such cannot contribute anything whatsoever to our justification- nihil afferens 
nostrum ad conciliandum Dei gratiam. He re-iterated however that, Faith is not a habitus 
nor a quality of grace infused into the believer,221 but if we believe, then we come to God 
quite empty and God has to close God's eyes to the feebleness of our faith, as indeed is 
the case. Second, Calvin was concerned that, any attempt to identify the 'righteousness of 
220 Timothy Lull, ed. Martin Luther's Basic Theological writings (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005), 135 
-136. 
221 081.3:16 NRSV. 
80 
God' with'righteousness fio.m God' will fail to perceive that; we are not justified based 
222 
on the extent and adequacy of our faith, but on the human righteousness of Christ.
While Luther interpreted justification as a righteousness imparted directly from God, 
Calvin established an objective focus on the righteousness of God, in tenns of Christ's 
human righteousness when he writes: 
The righteousness of God in Christ was emphatically not a 
divine righteousness infused into Christ but a genuinely 
human righteousness. As the Second Adam, Christ assumes 
our humanity and thereby realizes and fulfils all 
righteousness in our place and on our behalf as the truly 
human righteousness of the one who is flesh of our flesh 
and bone of our bone. Human justification is established in 
the person of our kinsman redeemer who thereby restores 
us to our lost inheritance: righteous communion with 
God.223 
In the light of Calvin's statement cited above, it can be argued that our justification is not 
by merit. For that reason there is no point in inquiring about the completeness of our 
faith. It is clear from Calvin that if faith was to be a virtue, a power and achievement of 
man, and if as such it was to be called a way of salvation, then the way was opened up for 
the antinomian. The libertarians even believe that a dispensation from all "human works" 
was both permitted and commanded. But then, the objective of Roman critics was that in 
the Refonnation sola fide was wildly overestimated at the expense of all others. Barth 
222 Adrian Hastings et ai., 363. 
Z23Ibid. 
81 
'MOte: "even at the present day there is still cause most definitely to repudiate this 
,misinterpretation, for which the Pauline text is not in any sense responsible.'s224 
:Justifying faith therefore makes the believer to link up with the righteousness of Christ 
and be justified on its basis. We are righteous by the imputation of a merciful God. John 
Calvin insisted that salvation is found only in the Church, the community where Christ is 
,acknowledged and proclaimed. The church is necessary to introduce believers to 
salvation and to preserve them in the faith. "Apart from the body of Christ and the 
fellowship of the godly, there can be no hope of reconciliation with God. Hence in the 
creed we profess to believe in 'The Catholic Church and the forgiveness of sins' ... Hence, 
also, a departure from the Church is an open renouncement of external salvation.',225 
Calvin insisted that the preacher is a means of grace, since it is through his or her 
instrwnentality that Christ bestows his blessings in order to save those he leads to faith. 
The preaching itself ought indeed to be the ministry of salvation and the whole of its 
power and efficacy depend on God. Therefore, we may have to praise God whenever 
God's Word is proclaimed to us. 
Calvin affirmed the role of instruments or means of grace and insisted that it is the spirit 
alone who saves and redeems. Though the spirit acts in conjunction with, and sometimes 
in and through outward instrumentality, he could even declare our salvation. Our 
salvation is not only effected by God, but it also begun, continued and is perfected by 
224 lbid. 
22S lohn Calvin, Commentary on the Book of the Prophet Isaiah, 33:24. Trans. William Pingle (Edinburgh: 
Calvin Translation Society, 1852),3:42-43. 
82 
'Sad without any contribution of our own. This is certainly true because the Spirit has 
chosen us (preachers) as his vessels to distribute the graces of the sacrifice and 
resurrection of Christ.2 26 This presupposes that the Spirit of God acts irresistibly within 
us to achieve our salvation and that our faith and obedience are a result of God's eternal 
predestination, which we cannot effectively oppose though we can willingly acclaim and 
celebrate. Calvin writes: " ... justified by faith is he who, excluded from the righteousness 
of works, grasps the righteousness of Christ through faith, and clothed in it, appears in 
God's sight not as a sinner but as a righteous man. We therefore can explain justification 
simply as the acceptance with which God receives us into his favor as righteous people. 
This acceptance consists of remission of sins and the imputations of Christ's 
righteousness. ,,227 
THE ARMINIAN- CALVINISM DEBATE 
The major ideological opponent of Calvinism was Arminianism which is the approach to 
the doctrine of God and God's salvation that had its origin with Jacobus Arminius (1560 
- 1609), a Dutch theological professor at Leiden University, who departed from the 
Reformed faith on a number of "important points." 
The doctrines of Arminianism were articulated in the conviction that the teaching of the 
successors of John Calvin in the Calvinist churches was developing in an unsatisfactory 
and unbiblical way. The doctrines were set forth in the Remonstrance (1610), a document 
which taught that God eternally elected in Christ all who will believe in Christ, that 
226 Bloesch, 51. 
'127 John Calvin, Institutes oft he Christian Religion. Ed. John T. Me Neill (Philadelphia: The Westminster 
Press, MCMLX), 726 -727. 
83 
0Irist died for every person, that each believer must be regenerated by the Holy Spirit, 
that it is possible to resist the grace of God, and therefore that the possibility of falling 
completely from grace must be seriously considered. 
In summary, Anninius taught: 
1. Election based on foreseen faith 
2. The universal merits of Christ 
3. The free will of man due to only partial depravity 
4. The resistibility of grace, and 
5. The possibility of a lapse from grace 
Armnianism held that election is conditional on faith, and Christ died for all people, and 
people cannot save themselves or do good without grace and that grace is resistible. 
Arminianism is also used by two English theological movements. The first associated 
with Archbishop Laud in the 1620s and 1630s, and the second with John Wesley, the 
founder of the Methodist Church. Methodist teaching is often called Arminianism. 
Interestingly, the Armenian - Calvinism conflict became so severe that it led the 
Netherlands to the brink of civil war (1555-1585). 
In 1617 the synod of Dort was called by the orthodox Calvinists to respond to those 
articles of Arminianism and also to resolve the Arminian - Calvinism conflict. The synod 
subsequently developed the canons which absolutely rejected Arminianism and biblically 
84 
~;set forth the Reformed doctrine on these poin1s, now popularly called ''the five points of 
. Calvinism,,:228 
1. Total Depravity is the belief that humanity is dead in trespasses and sins and 
totally unable to save him or herself. Many adherents of this point went further to 
claim that human beings cannot even desire a relationship with God apart from 
God's working in their hearts. It is claimed that God must regenerate a person 
before he or she can even desire to come to Christ.229 
2. Unconditional Election, also known as ''predestination'' or "foreordination," is 
the belief that in eternity past God chose or elected certain people to obtain 
salvation. Unconditional Election consists of two aspects: single and double 
predestination. Single predestination is the view that God predestines or elects 
some to salvation by means of a positive decree while those who are not saved 
condemn themselves because of their sin. The unsaved are "passed over" in that 
they remain in their sin. However, double predestination or reprobation is the 
teaching that God, in eternity past, selected some people to go to heaven and 
others to go to hell, and there is nothing anyone can do to change God's election. 
For instance, if one is elected for heaven, one will go to heaven regardless of what 
one does, and if one is elected for hell, there is no possibility of one ever being 
saved.23o 
3. Limited Atonement: the Calvinists teaching that Jesus did not die for the sins of 
the entire world, but that he instead only died for those that he elected to go to 
228 This was contained in a sermon on the ''The Meaning of Predestination" by John H. Leith, a 
~ pastor at Montreat in 1966. 
:::a.m.3: 11-12; John 6: 44, 65 NRSV. 
Bph.l:4-5, II Thess.2:13, I Peter 2:8 and Rom.9:22-23 NRSV. 
8S 
heaven. The argument is that for Christ's work on the cross to be "efficacious," it 
must work. for all for whom he died, and that he could not have shed his blood for 
those who are lost. Some Calvinists have gone to great lengths to explain this 
point that Jesus died for all, but does not pray for all, or that his death 
theoretically could save everyone, but is effective only for the elect. The end 
result is the same in each case that Jesus only died effectively for some people 
and not the whole world.231 
4. Irresistible Grace: this doctrine teaches that God will draw to God~self those 
whom God elected, regardless of their rebellion against God. This belief says that 
human beings cannot resist the drawing of God to God self. God causes the elect 
to believe the gospel, even though they may not be aware of this fact. 232 
5. Perseverance of the Saints, also known as "eternal security," is the doctrine that 
attracts people to Calvinism, because it is the belief that the elect cannot lose or 
give up his or her salvation. Because salvation is entirely God's work, and not 
human's.233 
These essential doctrines concerning salvation which Presbyterians and some other 
denominations cling to are summed up in the acronym TULIP, which stands for Total 
Depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Irresistible Grace and 
Perseverance of the Saints. Though we cannot claim that these points completely 
embrace the scope of Calvinism, they are best referred as the five errors of Arminianism. 
:i Ma:tt.l:21, John 10:11; 26-27, Acts 20:28 and John 15:13 NRSY. 
233 Rom.9"15, John 6:37; 44; 65, Acts 13:48 and John 15:16 NRSY. 
D Peter 1:10, Heb.3:6; 14, CoL 1:23 and Rom. 11:29 NRSY. 
86 
... DISPUTE BETWEEN JACOB ARMINIUS AND FRANCIS GOMAR 
ODe leading opponent of Arminius was Francis Gomar, (IS63 - 1641), a "Flemish 
Calvinist" theologian, who sharply disagreed with Arminius on doctrinal basis. Arminius 
stated his objection to the Belgic Confession of 1561 (A thirty seven-article of statement 
of faithcom.posed by Calvinistic Dutch Protestants who sort religious liberation from 
Philip IV. After it was revised at the Synod of Dort in 1619, it became the primary 
conf-ession of Reformed Churches) and called for the revision of the Heidelberg 
confession of 1563 written by Reformed theologians Zacharias Ursinus and Caspar 
Olevianus claiming in a letter to Gomar that "it was at variance with the wisdom, justice, 
and goodness of God, made God the author of sin, hindered sorrow for sin, lessened the 
desire for good works, and took away the fear and trembling of working out our 
salvation. ,,234 Gomar however considered this as 'error.' 
In the debate, Arminius started with the question of predestination, but Gomar started 
with justification by faith. The discussion also dealt with whether faith is itself the 
righteousness by which we are justified or whether the righteousness is imputed; whether 
faith is the cause or the effect of election; whether grace is resistible; and whether the true 
believer will persevere. Arminius was undecided about the last but opposed Gomar in all 
the rest I can deduce from this dispute that, predestination leads to faith and salvation. 
234 http://encyclopedia.farlex.ComlGomar, + Francis 
87 
KARL BARTH AND THE 19TH CENTURy REFORMERS 
Karl Barth believed that for us to be justified by faith alone we have to recognize and 
c:onfess the reality of God. He maintained that God is gracious to mankind because God 
bas the ''power to do and exercise it"m - sovereign power. Therefore, faith is absolutely 
necessary for the one justified by God, yet our justification is by faith alone. Barth taught 
236 
that justifying ourselves with "good works" in order to be saved amounts to false faith.
Barth does not consider faith to be the supreme form of self justification. But to playoff 
faith in an attempt to be justified in the form of fidelity to the law and good works is also 
"merely nonsensical. ,,237 
Barth considers justification by faith only on account of the righteousness of God. As 
discussed earlier, Martin Luther called this righteousness "alien righteousness" of Jesus 
Christ. Barth went on to argue that faith is wholly and utterly humility but not a self 
chosen humilityllB. "It is not the humility of pessimism, skepticism, defeatism, 
misanthropy, weariness with the world and oneself and life. These are possibilities which 
a man can choose for himself, and in fact often does choose. They cannot be substituted 
for humility of faith. ,,239 
Barth considers faith as obedient humility, which has to be excluded from any co-
operation of human action. But Karl Barth maintained that obedience and humility are the 
negative form of faith because it is human and external and that the redemption in Christ 
235 Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics Vol. IV (Edinburgh: T&T Clarke, 1961),611. 
236 Mk.9: 24 NRSV. 
217 Barth, 611. 
m CoL2:23 NRSV. 
219 Barth, 611. 
88 
,iidudes the reconstitution and renewal of the covenant relationship between human 
beings and God. The following questions then arose: what is the relationship between 
Christ's objective fulfillment of righteousness and the subjective righteousness of the 
faithful? How does the righteousness of the life of Christ relate to the life of the church as 
a whole and to the lives of individual believersf"O 
Barth held the two questions in balance while placing the emphasis firmly on the 
objective Christological pole as denoting a completely, unconditional, and once and for 
all event. He maintained that, any emphasis on subjective justification must derive from 
the objective and Christological content of the doctrine of justification. He further argued 
that, the human appropriation of righteousness, whether by good works or some 
subjective act of faith, it must not be seen as a condition of the significance or extent of 
Christ's establishment of righteousness on behalf of humanity. This position is believed 
to be accepted in both Catholic and Protestant theology.241 
Barth's concept of salvation which relates redemption to creation illustrates a shift in 
contemporary soteriological theory, which views salvation more in terms of restitution. 
This emerging perspective of salvation conceives of the atonement as an aspect of the 
process of salvation which is much larger and more inclusive than the idea of salvation 
understood exclusively in moral and legal 242 termS. Akrong commenting on F. R. Barry 
240 Andrian Hastings et al., 362. 
241 Ibid. 
• Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity," 5. 
89 
:\lIlCribeS this view as an ontological view of salvation that sees redemption as new 
movement or as an aspect of divine creativity.243 
Paul Tillich conceives that salvation is divine creativity which can be said of Karl 
Rhaner's anthropological or ontological view of salvation. Jobness Metz also perceived 
salvation in the same dimension, which could be described as "social dimension of grace 
because, according to him, "salvation is mediated through the whole of creation, and 
human history and not just the personal or existential orientation of faith.,,244 It is 
believed therefore that redemption in Christ brought about a new reality which is the 
unity of the realms of nature, grace and glory. 
In conclusion, I can say that, in the theology of Karl Bath, all good works, merit and the 
like which are excluded from justification denies the competence, the relevance, the 
power and the value of all mundane action. But the two propositions (faith and works) 
mutually condition and determine each other. We therefore need to interpret them in the 
light of each other. 
243 Ibid 
244 Ibid. 
90 
a.s SALVATION IN coNTEMPORARY ECCLESIOLOGY 
Ever siDce the irruption of Pentecostal spirituality within Protestant and Roman Catholic 
daIominations, there has been a gradual emergence of what might be called 'charismatic 
theology.' To be sure a lot of this theology is, and has been written at a popular level, but 
within the last twenty years, there has evolved a distinct theology with discernable 
approaches and common themes such as salvation. 
In actual fact, the debate about the doctrines and dogmas of the church such as 
Christology, the Trinity and the like has become a thing for the seminaries. And 
salvation understood as eternal life after death and the questions about justification, good 
works, merits etc. is no longer relevant or believable in most churches today. Popular 
Christianity is much more concerned with the power and work of the Spirit in the life of 
the believer which brings about salvation in their day -to-day living. 
Nonetheless, the word salvation means different things to different people in the 
contemporary church. For some individualistic Christians, salvation means forgiveness of 
sins and a one-way ticket to heaven. Such people do not see much connection between 
salvation and their broken marriages, racial prejudice, or economic injustice. For some 
Christians, salvation is only what happens when society becomes more peaceful and just. 
In most charismatic circles, prosperity is seen as salvation and that prosperity and 
salvation are in union. They also see salvation prominently as liberty, deliverance, 
healing, safety, protection, welfare, victory and accessibility to almost everything one 
wants because it teaches that the believer (especially the born again one) has prosperity 
by right and only the devil stands between the believer and his or her destined prosperity. 
91 
~I'eatecostalists coaeept of salvation is often primarily defined around the needs of 
ildividuals. It embraces the belief that the power of the Holy Spirit is available to deal 
with all the problems of Christians including protection from witchcraft; deliverance 
from ancestral curses and demonic presence in the life of people which prevented women 
from having husbands and children and vis-Ii-vis; traders from doing well in business; 
workers from getting promotion; students from passing their examinations; couples from 
stable marriages; and there is access to wealth creation. 
In contemporary Christian theology, salvation is the fulfillment of life in relationship 
with God and others. It includes renewal of life and reconciliation with God; with 
neighbors and enemies; with oneself, and the natural world. E. Kinsley Larbi perceives 
salvation in Contemporary Pentecostal Christianity primarily in terms of "atonement, 
forgiveness of sin and reconciliation with God.,,245 
Commenting on Paul Gifford, Larbi maintained that salvation is reacting out to things 
that clearly go beyond the "born again" experience to an experience that permeates the 
here and now life, and also promises a better tomorrow in the here after. The here and 
now includes liberation from problems relating to financial and economic, marriage, 
children, employment, family needs, lawsuits, drunkenness, education, accommodation, 
demons, witchcraft etc. Salvation for Pentecostalists covers all spheres of life because 
they have an integrated view of the world, which focuses on overcoming dangers and evil 
powers that range against us. 
24SE.ltingsley Larbi, Pentecostalism: The Eddies o/Ghanaian Christianity (Accra: Center for Pentecostal 
. ..C liarismatic Studies, 2001), 407. 
92 
Contemporary African Christian theologies as discussed earlier, view salvation in a way 
that covers the whole person. As outlined in the preceding paragraph, examples include 
daliverance from the power of evil, being at peace with oneself, neighbors, environment 
and God. It also encompasses progress in life, good health, having children and getting 
the material things one needs. Sometimes, the word salvation itself is used to mean 
conversion and given the connotation of something that should precede these blessings or 
bre8kthrough. This African Christian understanding has been influenced by the African 
world view. 
Generally, there must not be disruption of life that the power of the Holy Spirit cannot 
handle. This has therefore provided hope and ways of dealing with issues that are 
fundamental to the African?46 The contemporary African church ought to deal with the 
salvation questions posed by African Christians. This point of departure of the new 
movements in African Christianity is the secret of the phenomenal growth of Christianity 
in Africa.247 
The emergence of the Pentecostal churches at the end of the 20th century suggests there 
are unresolved questions facing the mission churches in Africa, such as the role of 
'success' and 'prosperity' and 'faithfulness' in God's economy. This is enjoying the gifts 
of God which are healing and material provision that embrace holistic dimension of 
'salvation' meaningful in African context. As discussed earlier, Pentecostalism in Africa 
seeks to address practical needs like sickness, poverty, unemployment, loneliness, evil 
spirits and sorcery. In order to fill the gap created by the older churches regarding 
246 Akrong, "Salvation in African Christianity," 22. 
247 lbid. 
93 
-.mous cultural practices, Pentecostals try to offer answers to some of the 
fUndamental questions asked in their own context. They put a lot of emphasis on personal 
devotion and personal appropriation of power which seems to satisfy the religious 
aspirations of Africans. For us Africans, it is therefore, necessary to relativize the 
messianic question, "Who do you say that I am?" in our lives as Christians. 
Kwabena Asamoah- Gyadu argues that, a systematic approach to local culture and the 
retention of certain cultural practices are undoubtedly major reasons for their 
attraction.248 The concept of Kpodzi (mission) among the people of Eue, which is the 
segregation of Christian converts from the "unbelievers," thereby preventing them from 
taking part in any cultural practices of the people which were considered as evil is 
sidelining the African culture. 
Pentecostals also confront old views by declaring what they are convinced is a more 
powerful protection against sorcery, and a more effective healing for sickness than either 
the existing churches or the indigenous rituals had offered. Healing, guidance, protection 
from evil, acquisition of visa, successful marriage and success and prosperity are some of 
the practical benefits offered to faithful members of Pentecostal churches.249 The strong 
emphasis on personal holiness through fasting and prayer among others makes them feel 
the presence of the Holy Spirit more closely. This gives them the needed spiritual 
strength to overcome life's challenges to emerge victorious. In the final analysis, I can 
248 Kwabena J. Asamoah-Gyadu, "Traditional Missionary Christianity and New Religious Movements in 
Ghana" (M Phil Thesis, Accra: University of Ghana, 1996),55. 
249 K. J. Asamoah-Gyadu, 'The Church in the African State: The Pentecostal/Charismatic Experience in 
Ghana,' Journal of African Thought, 1:2 (1998), 56. 
94 
affirm ti'om the foregoing that, the· .c ontextualization of Pentecostal Christianity 
ultimately accounted for the steady growth of Pentecostal churches in Africa. 
1.6 CONCLUSION 
In conclusion, I can affirm from the foregoing that traditionally faith is the condition, and 
the death of Christ is the ground for salvation. Faith as a condition of salvation is 
obviously the belief in the promises of God revealed in Jesus Christ through the power of 
the Holy Spirit. Thus, Salvation is essentially Trinitarian. For Adam and Eve, it was faith 
in the promise that the seed of the woman would bruise the head of the serpent to bring 
salvation to the fallen race and also to defeat the tempter. In the light of the above, the 
Old Testament perceives faith as trust in God while the New Testament sees faith as the 
belief in the person and works of Jesus the Christ. The outstanding belief is that faith 
manifests in sacrifices and works.2S0 In contradiction to this view, J. C. Thomas argues 
that although faith can be falsified by evidence, it cannot be produced or induced by any 
evidence or proof, no matter how strong because, faith is an epistemological incarnation 
through God's grace that makes us to believe in God the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.2S1 
2SO James 2:17, Heb.7:27; 8:6NRSV. 
251 J.C. Thomas, "Cbristology, Creation and Falsification" in The Ghana Bulletin of Theology Vol. 4 No.9. 
Ed. J.N. Kudadjie (Accra: Presbyterian Press, 1975),20. 
95 
CHAPTER THREE 
THE E1>E AND SALVATION 
The Eue people are an African ethnic group of 2-5 million, inhabiting the southeastern 
part of Ghana, known as the Volta Region and the southern parts of neighboring Togo 
and Benin. Geographically, Eueland lies between the Mono River to the East and the 
Volta River to the West. This chapter therefore investigates and analyzes the history of 
the Eue, their concept of salvation and life situation just before the arrival of the Christian 
missionaries. First, a brief general history of the Eues and the traditions of their 
migrations and settlements are discussed. Then attention is focused on their worldview of 
salvation. This introductory description provides some insight into the environment into 
which missionaries of the North German Mission came to work. 
3.0 THE mSTORY OF THE EVE 
Eoos are migrant people, and it was undisputed that they all came from Notsie. From 
Notsie, they went in waves; some to the North; others to the East, South and the West. 
The Eues are both an ethnic and linguistic group. Historical research has shown that there 
was a small Eue enclave of Eues in the Western part of Nigeria, and through occupational 
migration, the Eues are found allover Ghana and Africa. 
Politically, the Eue are of the major ethnic group in Ghana, who were colonized by the 
Germans up to the First World War and later came under the British and the French at 
ditl'erent times in history. The Eue have not been able to form a single political unit 
96 
aDough they have been able to live as a cultural unit held together by one common 
laDguage, Bue; and one indigenous religion, Mawuism (belief in the supreme God, 
Mawuga). Tbey also have a shared common pattern of behavior and a system ofthougbt. 
OVO SETTLEMENT 
Eue traditions recall their migration from Oyo in Western Nigeria. Yoruba oral traditions 
also traced the origin of the Yoruba people to Be Ife which is considered to be the heart of 
Oyo land where the Yoruba, also known as the Adja group, lived in the past. The Eues 
were part of the Adja group who lived in Western Oyo. With the expansion of the 
Yoruba, the Adja group was forced to migrate further west in the present day Benin, what 
was formerly known as Dahome, and settled at Ketu to be precise.2S2 
KETU SETTLEMENT 
At Ketu,2S3 the Eue lived in a walled city in an attempt to protect themselves from the 
frequent attacks by the Fulas who lived to the north of Ketu. Again, as a result of the 
persistent harassment of the Fulas, the Eues further moved westwards in search of more 
fertile lands for farming and also to be free from the disturbances of the Fulas. On 
departing from Ketu, they came and settled at Notsie in the Republic of Togo 
152 AmedzoJe is 'the origin of man'. Mawufe is the home of God. AmedzoJe is equivalent to lie Ife which 
means 'the original home of man' . 
2S3 Attempts are made by some scholars of the Ewe history to push their origin further back to "Belebele" 
which is in tum identified with the "mythical Babel" of the Bible. However, such claims can be easily 
dismissed as attempts by .people to establish a biblical ancestry for the Ewe. In any case, the early versions 
of the tradition that were recorded make no such claims. 
97 
"flOTSIE SE'ITLEMENT 
It is believed that, like Ketu, the Eoo lived in another fortified walled city.2s4 The early 
kings of Notsie ruled well and the kingdom expanded. Trouble however began when 
JCing Agokoli ascended the tbrone2SS. He was tyrannical and wicked. Various accounts 
of his alleged wickedness have been preserved. He was alleged to have requested his 
subjects to knead clay into cacti and thorns and demanded that his subjects make ropes of 
clay etc. However, this characterization of Agokoli has been challenged recently by 
historians such as T.N. Gayibor who alleged that the tyranny of Agokoli was nothing 
more than the determination of the king to assume the essentials of power rather than be a 
mere tool in the hands of the elders of Notsie. 256 
As the rule of King Agokoli became unbearable, some sections of the Eue, therefore, 
decided to escape in order to search for a new settlement. They sought for advice from an 
old man in the community, called, Tegli, who was believed to be highly knowledgeable. 
He advised the women to keep on wetting a certain part of the wall by pouring dish-
washing water on it in order to make it soft to break through. Further to that, they were 
to escape amidst a hilarious drumming and dancing at night. Subsequently, on the night 
of their departure, the men were to bore a large escape route in the affected part of the 
wall, while the women and the children were given the preferred opportunity to escape 
first They were followed by the old man, Tegli, who offered a prayer by asking for the 
254 Notsie was also called Glime, i.e., within the walls or kpome which is an allusion to the excessive heat of 
the location. They were also believed to have settled at Hahome which was near the river Haho and 
Hogbeje, meaning a place of migration. 
ZS5 The various accounts of the tradition differ as to whether Agokoli was the second, third or even the 
seventh king of Notsie. It is also believed that he was the last king to rule the kingdom. The Ewe who were 
known as Dogboawo have established Adja kingdoms such as those of Allada, Abomey and Fon among 
others during their earlier settlements in Dahaomey 
ZS6 T. N. Gayibor, Migrat;ons-Civilization, Lea Ewe du Sud-Togo (P hD Diss., Paris, 1975), 152. 
98 
~on of ~ in tbdr eseape .... Those who -were doing the c:lrumIDlD8 anu ws;; 
tBlcing including the rest of the men left at last. This is how the Eve escaped from 
Notsie to their present settlements. The Eve calls this historical experience as "dodo Ie 
glime .'.257 It is believed that, the people walked backwards during their escape from 
Nolsie to avoid any trace of the direction of their foot prints in order to confuse the army 
of Agokoli in case they were to be pursued. The understanding was that, it will look like 
people invading the city rather than escaping from it. By this, it became difficult for 
Agokoli to know their where about. 
Though traditions are silent on the dates of the migrations and the settlements, it is 
believed that most of the settlements had already been founded by the beginning of the 
14th century. It is also believed that, the people of Eue were already established in their 
new home by 1677. However, since all the people did not migrate the same time, one 
cannot pinpoint anyone date for the events. On the whole, it is likely that the Eue began 
to settle in the present Volta Region of Ghana at least by the middle of the 17th century. 
Dates which are very much earlier than this have been suggested by Adu Boahen and 
Gayibor. Basing himself on what purports to be linguistic evidence, Adu Boahen has 
asserted that the Eve, and also the Ga-Adangbe entered their present home much earlier 
than the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Gayibor also sets the exodus from Notsie at a 
time between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries. He considers the period of early 
eighteenth century suggested by Comevin and that of 1200 suggested by Adzomada as 
1S7 Rev. Prot: Noah Komia Dzobo told this story during my maiden interview session with him at his 
residence in Ho on Tuesday 811l July 2008. Prof. Dzobo is an Anthropologist, Philosopher of Religion and 
Educational Psychologist. He is a funner Moderator of Evangelical Presbyterian Church, Ghana. 
99 
both too late and too ~I. However, contemporary research bas suggested 1720 as the 
period of the escape from Notlie. This escape and the subsequent resettlement are 
commemorated in an annual festival, known as the "Hogbetsotso Za." 
Unlike the political and social organization of the Akan, where matrilineal rule prevails, 
the Boos are essentially a patrilineal people. The founder of a community becomes the 
chief and is usually succeeded by his paternal relatives. The largest independent political 
unit is the chieftaincy, the head of which is essentially a ceremonial figure called Togbe 
or fia who is assisted by a council of elders (Ametsitsiawo). Chiefs rule over a population 
of few hundred people in one or two villages or several numbers of suburbs. Unlike the 
Asante among the Akan, no Bue chief gained hegemonic power over its neighbour. 
3.1 THE EVE CONCEPT OF SALVATION 
It can be considered necessary at this point, to discuss in some detail, the salient beliefs 
and practices of the Bue, which affirm their understanding of salvation. The Bue 
indigenous religion can be described as a "world-affirming" religion that aims at 
achieving the fullness of life here and now and in the life after. It was established during 
the field work that, to achieve the supposed good life, it is important for the individual to 
be in the right relationship with the spiritual world. The views collected at the field of 
research show that, salvation for the Bue is primarily the ability of the supernatural to 
rescue people from painful occurrences such as sickness, curse, poverty and death, 
among others, in order to lead them to good health, prosperity and fulfillment. The saved 
251 D. E. K. Amenumey, The Ewe in Pre-Colonial Times (Accra: Sedco Publishing Ltd, 1986), 5-7. 
100 
life among the Eue is referred to as Dagbe as discussed in chapter one of this work. 
Dagbe is the experience of relative tranquility by the people, be it physical or spiritual. It 
is a life devoid of evil and is blissfully eternal. This is shown in the day to day gl'eetings 
of the people. When visitors greet, the first question to be asked by the host is dagbea? It 
litera1ly means, is the mission of the visit a peaceful one? As discussed already, other 
concepts that connote the same idea include lala (peace) and blibonyenye (wholeness). 
The Eues therefore believe that, it is the responsibility of the ancestors and the spirits to 
intervene to prevent anything that works against their welfare. And as discussed in the 
foregoing, beyond the physical is the spiritual which involves the hereafter or the after 
life. 
It was revealed during the field work for this study that, essential to the Eue concept of 
salvation is the concern to find the means by which one can experience the good life. 
This assumed good life seems to be under the threat of evil spirits that manifest in the 
activities of bayifowo. adzewo (witches) and trowo (fetishes) among, others. They act as 
agents of destruction and make life precarious, difficult and a frightening journey. It was 
also established during the field work that, as a result of the foregoing assertion, the main 
concern of the Eue is to obtain powers that can protect himlher from evil spirits and to 
secure hislher welfare. These powers also help the Eue to maintain good relationships 
that bring unity and safety. This is reflected even in the celebration of festivals such as 
Tedudu (Yam festival) to signify abundance of food leading to the sustaining of the 
conditions of good existence contrary to the wish of evil spirits. All of this discussion 
about the concept of salvation among the Eue can be applied in personal, cosmic and 
social terms. 
101 
SALVATION AS IT PERTAINS TO THE INDMDUAL PERSON 
The historical escape of the Ene peoples from Notsie under the tyrannical rule of King 
Agokoli is a dramatic salvific event and also, an act of deliverance. This leads to the 
assertion that the Ene understands salvation not in tenns of going to heaven as in 
Christianity. In actual fact, the Eue concept of salvation does not originate with their 
worldview. Thus, for the Eue, the good life is the life devoid of unemployment, poverty, 
sickness, among others. This is explained in the emphasis on material things and benefits 
by the Africanist churches (pentecostals etc.). 
Birgit Meyer emphasizes the point that, salvation is conceptualized as the exorcism of 
evil spirits in Eue indigenous religion. Even though, this is not necessarily the case, 
because, dede is also used to translate 'deliverance' from all life negating forces, her 
understanding is confirmed by the fact that the terms xoxo (from xo, to receive, to get, to 
save) and dede (from de, to take away from) are both used to translate "salvation.,,2s9 
This belief best expresses Dagbe as the preservation of life, deliverance of life from 
destruction, and protection from evil. The goal of Dagbe, which is nuti/a/a (peace), 
embraces peace of mind, well being, harmony, prosperity and fulfillment in all aspects of 
life. This involves protection, restoration, and preservation of life from both physical and 
spiritual threats such witches, sorcerers, poverty and vengeful spirits. 
In conclusion, it can be argued that, salvation in the context of Eue thought is the 
liberation of the individual from life threatening forces, be it spiritual or material, such as 
possession by evil spirits, sickness, hunger, childlessness, broken relationships, poverty; 
2$9 M.eyer, 165. 
102 
.. living in some form of captivity or bondage. These experiences contradict the good 
life as known to the Eue. For the Eue, the good life is the experience of good health, 
paeral wellbeing, prosperity and victory over one's enemies. This liberating act can only 
be affected by Mawuga, and in some special cases, the ancestors and other deities. 
Salvation is also becoming an ancestor which is the ultimate goal of existence. This can 
only be experienced by the Soul or the Spirit, unlike the Christian concept of the 
resurrection of the body. It has been found out through research that, one of the reasons 
why most Eues would want to do what is expected of them and avoid what is forbidden is 
to, at least, have a place among togbuiwo (ancestors). For one to qualify as an ancestor, 
one need to, a) lead good and exemplary life on earth; b) experience a natural death; c) 
and be given the prescribed traditional burial. These requirements are basic to 
ancestorhood among the Eue. Indeed, the burial rites of the Eue point to their concept of 
the hereafter.260 Yet, those who practiced evil such as witchcraft and sorcery; or have 
died an unnatural death, such as through accident; or were not given the required 
traditional burial, are believed to turn into evil spirits. These spirits hover around to cause 
calamities on the lives of the people. It is however, not clear, how long they continue to 
wander in the world. It can finally be said that salvation is expressed concretely in Eue 
indigenous religion. 
260 People are buried with cooking utensils, food stuffs, ingredients and beddings for use in the next world. 
Sometimes, these items are placed on the grave. Prominent people like chiefs used to be buried with their 
beloved wives and maidservants in the olden days in order to continue their services in the ancestral world. 
These people were executed and their heads buried with their "master." As intermediaries, libation prayers 
were offered very often through them to Mawuga. In actual fact, ancestor reverence is prominent among 
the Hue. Messages an: even given to the dead to be delivered to family members who have long gone. This 
is why they are referred to as togbuiwo by the Eues. 
103 
:iIocIAL 
,Socially, the Eue sees salvation as the protection of social structures and institutions and 
values against the forces that work against the stability of the community. Salvation 
therefore, embraces the element of receiving something good and life saving acts. This 
includes prosperity, good health, and feeling free (freedom), moral and spiritual integrity 
of the entire community. This affinnation may also be attributed to Mbiti's philosophy of 
communality of the African when he attributes the existence of an individual to the pre-
existence of the larger community.261 
Dagbe for the Eue is the experiencing of well- being in every area of life, and the 
negation of experiences like trouble, poverty, sickness and death. It is also seeking 
deliverance from all forces that negate the experiencing of material, spiritual and 
emotional well- being.262 This is because, generally. Eues believe that, evil forces are 
real and capable of destroying human life. 
From the literal expressions of the Eue, especially that of libation prayers, it is suggested 
that Mawu (God) is the source of 'man's salvation and the dispensing of salvation in the 
world. However, this act of salvation is carried out by worshipful spirits which are the 
source of healthy existence. Thus, there is no doubt that morality and spirituality are the 
conditions for experiencing salvation in the Eue context. There are spirits that help the 
individual to strive for the good. One is therefore held responsible for qualifying or not 
qualifying for experiencing salvation. And whoever fails at one time or period to 
261 "I am because, we are." 
262 Adadevor, 102-113. 
104 
'Ocperience salvation bas a way of RMldmiSSlon to the state of .experiencing it This is 
&me through the means of sacrifice called mae (to pay a price). The aim of mae ritual of 
absolution is to free the individual from the broken state so that one can once again 
experience Dagbe. The head of the nuxe animal is usually offered in sacrifice to the deity. 
The belief is that, the head of the animal has to replace the head of the offender in order 
to deliver one from any impending calamities associated with the offense. 
However, people do not attribute all human failure to moral shortcomings on the part of 
the individual. They insist that, there are individuals who experience prolonged suffering 
caused by evil sprits even though they have met all the moral conditions for experiencing 
the good life (Dagbe), Therefore, the conclusion is that, not all moral suffering is 
indicative of moral failure. In the same vein, in Christianity, one can be saved and not 
having material well-being. 
Adadevor agrees with Elom Dovlo who conceives of Mawu as the ultimate source of 
salvation, and the ancestors as custodians of morals and good and prosperous living. 
Adadevor further posits that the ancestors offer salvation to the people in both the present 
and future sense of the word. He conceives of salvation as the liberation from all forms of 
material bondage, and finally, joining the company of the ancestors. This view suggests 
that, people live their lives in the present with the hope of achieving the state of 
ancestorhood after death in tsiefe. The word tSiefe is derived from the two words, tsi and 
fe or afe. The word lsi means 'to remain', andfe or afe means 'place or home', Tsiefe 
105 

froSMIC 
For the Eue, salvation also means the protection and preservation of the universe 
(Cosmos). One of the key respondents during the field work in the person of Togbe Kofi 
Eleblu of Mati Adidome was of the opinion that, cosmic evils occur only when people 
break a taboo or when there were ritual errors caused by the ritual functionaries. These 
ritual errors are always prevented through the regular performance of the rituals by 
traditional priests, elders or chiefs as the case may be. The cosmic evil can be visited on 
the entire community as a result of the breaking of a taboo. These dimensions and 
avenues of evil as opposed to Dagbe invading human life makes evil very concrete and 
close that it must be prevented or controlled through ritual means. Salvation is therefore, 
an existential experience of the individual, society and the entire universe. 
3.1 THE CHRISTIANIZAT ION OF THE El>E 
To begin with, although the initial attempt to evangelise Ghana (then Gold Coast) by the 
Roman Catholic Mission in the fifteen century had been a failure, Christianity had firmly 
been established in the year 1828 by the Basel Evangelical Mission Society. However, 
the people of the Eueland had their earliest contact with Christianity in the middle of the 
19th Century with the arrival of the Bremen Missionaries who came to introduce the 
Christian Gospel to them. The plan of the Norddeutsche Missionsgesellshaft (The North 
German Mission Societyi6s was to establish the Christian faith among the people of the 
Eueland in accordance with Jesus' command to his disciples to "Go therefore and make 
disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of 
the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded you. And 
W Later, it came to be called 'The Bremen Mission.' 
107 
ftmleInber, I am with you always, to the end of the age.nl66 In compliance with this divine 
directive, the North German Mission Society established a special group in Hamburg 
dedicated to proclaiming Christ's gospel to parts of the world where it bad not reached. 
It is however clear that, the missionary group itself was fonned in the early part of the 
19th century, specifically, 11th April 1838 with the aim of sending Missionaries to 
evangelize the heathens. "These societies were inspired directly by the Pietist Movement 
and the Christian Awakening which occurred in the17th and 18th centuries and spread 
wide in Europe and U.S.A. These movements were themselves the result of the 
Reformation which bad taken place in the early 16th Century, but which had many long-
lasting effects,,267 
The first group of missionaries who came to work among the people of the Eueland was 
part of the students trained at the Society's Mission School in Hamburg under the 
inspection of Johann Harting Brauer. The school was established on 30th October, 1837 
and the course lasted four years. Most of the students were North Gennans who had 
previously learned a trade or had been farmers.268 John Agbeti indicates that, the initial 
plan of the missionary society was to embark on mission work in New Zealand and India 
where their pioneer missionaries were sent in 1842 and 1843 respectively. Later, they 
added a third mission field of Gabon in West Africa. The first group of missionaries who 
were sent to Gabon includes Lorenz Wolf of Bingen on the Rhine, 26 years old; Luuer 
266 Matthew 28:19-20 NRSV. 
'1KI Gilbert Ansre (Ed), Evangelical Presbyterian Church: 150 Years of Evangelization and Development 
1847-1997 (Ho, Ghana: E. P. Church Press, 1997), 18. 
261 Ibid. 
108 
Bultman of Vabr near Hmnen, 28 years old; James Graff of Jutland in Denmark, 32 
years old; and Karl Flato of Hom near Bremen, 2S years old. By profession, they were 
tradesmen such as carpenters and leather and shoe makers.269 They were the first group of 
missionaries sent by the North German Missionary Society (Bremen Mission) to Africa 
to locate a suitable mission area, :free from slave traders and where the climate was 
friendly.270 The conditions and guidelines for missionary work were those contained in 
the Zahn's constitution. Zahn was the Bremen Mission Inspector from 1864 to 1900. 
th 
The above mentioned group started their missionary journey by sea on 17 March, 1847 
when they left Germany for Gabon in West Africa. Agbeti reiterates that, when the 
journey started, Lorenz Wolf recorded: "We set sail. As far as the eyes could see, it 
beheld ships, 0 in full sail, setting course for the sea. It seems to me as it was war time, 
as though all were frigates in a hurry to make some conquest, and indeed they are all out 
for war conquest, the conquest of trade and we are going with them. When we saw the 
open sea for the first time we sat in the prow of our ship and greeted it with Luther's 
hymn: 'A safe strong-hold our God Still. ,271 
They landed at Cape Coast, in the Gold Coast (presently Ghana), on 5th May, 1847 where 
they were received by the Wesley Missionary Rev. Thomas Burch Freeman. After two 
weeks' abortive attempt at Gabon by Bultman and Wolf where Bultman eventually 
passed away, Wolf returned to Cape Coast. At his arrival, he was informed about the 
demise of Flato too. Thus, only Wolf and Graff were left. They were really dismayed but 
269 1. Kofi Agbeti, West African history- Christian missions and Church Foundations: 1482-1919 (Leiden: 
E. 1. Bril~ 1986), 81. 
270 Ibid. 
171 Agbeti, 81. 
109 
DOt discouraged. Their plan was to locate a mission field suitable to them in the Gold 
Coast. Accordingly, when Wolf and Graff learnt that since 1828 their counterparts, the 
Basel Missionaries had settled at Christianburg which was about hundred miles east from 
Cape Coast, they left Cape Coast to settle at the Christianburg. At their arrival, they 
sought advice from the Basel Missionaries in respect of virgin mission fields to engage 
their attention.272 They were subsequently advised and encouraged to turn to the Eueland. 
At the time of the missionaries' stay at Christianburg, there were trade links between the 
people of Peki and the people of Accra near Christiansburg where the people of Peki used 
to buy European commodities such as guns and ammunition. Before then, the Basel 
MiSlionaries had established a school at Osu in Accra where Prince Nyangamagu, a son 
ofKwadzo Dei Tutu Yao II, King ofKrepi was attending. When the Prince got wind of 
the fact that Wolf and Graff were looking for a place to begin missionary activity, he 
gave the assurance that his father who was then a powerful King ruling over hundred 
territories would be glad to receive them for mission work in his kingdom. The Prince 
eventually extended an invitation to the missionaries (Wolf and Graft) to go with him, to 
Peki. After Wolf and Graff agreed to travel to Peki, the Prince sent word to his father and 
the king accepted to host them. The king then sent bearers (carriers) to Christianburg to 
bring the missionaries to Peki. Wolf and the bearers and the Prince started their journey 
on 10th November, 1847, leaving Graff at Christianburg. They arrived at Peki on 14th 
November, 1847. That day marked the birth of the Church (Evangelical Presbyterian 
Church) in Eueland. Wolfs first sermon was based on Psalm 22:22.273 Research has 
shown that, further to the preaching of the Gospel, there were promotion of trade, 
Z71lbid. 
27J "I will declare your name to my brothers; in the congregation I will praise you." 
110 
· politics, education and health by the missionaries who worked among the Eue. This led to 
early civilization and development of the people and communities in Eueland. 
According to Wiegrabe, two new pastors from Germany, Groth and Quinius came to 
assist Wolf in 1849. In 1850, Mrs. Wolf also joined her husband at Peki and this brought 
a steady growth to the church. However, Wolf became weak and old that he decided to 
return home in January1851 to receive medical attention. Groth and Quinius also decided 
to go with the Wolfs since they were handicapped in the absence of Wolf. Thus, they all 
left Peki with pain.274 Wolfs condition became deteriorated on their way back to 
Germany and sadly, he died at the dock of the ship at Hamburg.275 He was subsequently 
buried in his home country. This is a brief account of missionary beginnings in Eueland. 
3.3 CONCLUSION 
In conclusion, I can affirm from the foregoing that geographically, the Eue tribe is the 
only ethnic group that is scattered all over West Africa and the Eue language spoken 
across its boarders. Politically, it is one group that was colonized by the Germans, the 
French and the British. The rise ofEue nationalism in both Ghana and Togo was of more 
of a reaction to the May 1956 plebiscite imposed by the British colonialists. That divided 
the Eueland between the Gold Coast and Togo. Traditionally, the cultural and religious 
and anthropological practices of the Eue reflect their concept of salvation. 
274 P. Wiegrabe, Ewe Kristo Hame Nutinya: 1847-1936 (St. Louis: The Board of International Missions, 
1936),1-6. 
275 Ibid. 
111 
CHAPTER FOUR 
THE SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE 
EWE AND CHRISTIAN UNDERSTANDINGS OF SALVATION 
This chapter engages a comparative analysis of Christians' and Eues' worldview of 
salvation. This is a difficult task due to the fact that the documents being compared are 
different in nature, one literary (Christianity) and the other oral (Eue). The difficulties 
depend on how feasible it is to pursue a comparative analysis with different modes of 
data. This is because the data on the Eue was mainly accessed through oral means while 
that of Christianity was primarily from documented sources such as published and 
unpublished works and periodicals. 
As a result of the above discussion, it may be argued that it is not appropriate to use the 
Comparative Analysis approach in studying concepts in a well documented religion such 
as Christianity and pre-literary type of religion like Eue indigenous religion. However, 
Brandford Yeboah asserts that, scholars such as Kwesi Dickson believed the Comparative 
Analysis is very appropriate and possible to be applied in such a study.276 He clearly 
reiterates Kwesi Dickson's position that, the Comparative Analysis is acceptable in 
research, when the phenomenon has been initially studied in its own historic-religious 
context before applying the Comparative paradigm. Yeboah concludes that the 
Comparative paradigm is actually Africa's contribution to biblical studies.277 
m Brandford Yeboah, "Worship in Ancient Israel and Traditional Africa: A Comparative Study" (M. Phil. 
Thesis, Univenity of Ghana, 1994), 140-141. 
m Brandford Yeboah, "The 'African Predilection for the Old Testament'-Questioning the Comparative 
Pandigm" in Analecta Bnaellensia (Brussels: Revue annuelle de la Faculte Universitaire de Theologie 
I'Iutestante de Bruxelles, Vol. 8, 2003),147. 
112 
We ltave established, in the course of this work that a vital element in the two religions 
t.UHfer study (Eue Iru:ligenous Religion and Christianity) is salvation. In each of these 
religions in question, the concept of salvation serves as an indispensable response to the 
yeaming for the good life. The followers of the respective religions are also conscious 
about what will happen to their souls; this denotes existence after death. Hence, both 
religions affirm the need for salvation, and are equally concerned about it. Therefore, at 
this stage, the similarities and differences in the Eue's and Christians' understanding of 
God and salvation will be probed. This comparative analysis will offer a new perspective 
on religious pluralism that recognizes different religious ends in both religions. 
It is clear that there are some basic striking similarities and differences in the way 
Christians and Eue traditional people perceive salvation. Their beliefs and practices that 
are similar, in respect of salvation, will be critically examined and analyzed through the 
application of the comparative paradigm. The following reflect some of the salient 
similarities and differences in the nature and meaning of salvation in both religions: 
4.0 GOD AND CREATION 
To begin with, it has been established in this study that, both Christianity and Eue 
indigenous religion affirm God's power to create, redeem and save. The Eues believe that 
the world was created by Mawu (God) who has the power over life and death and the 
power to save. Similarly, Christian theology teaches that the world and everything that is 
in it was created and ordered by God and that, God is the source salvation. Salvation for 
both the Eue and the Christians alike is the intervention of the supernatural to rescue the 
people from life threatening situations such as sickness, curse, poverty, drought, 
113 
pestilence and death, among others, in order to lead them to good health. well being, 
prosperity and self-fulfillment. One may argue that, the gift of salvation is the plan of the 
same God in both religions. 
Christians and Eoos alike believe in Monotheism. Monotheism is the belief in one God 
who reveals himself in different ways. For Eues, this God manifests himself in deities and 
intermediaries such as trowo (fetishes) and gbogbowo (spirits). Even though they believe 
in plurality of gods (deities), these gods are not regarded as equal to Mawu in power. As 
intermediary, a deity serves as a link between God and the people, and acts as God's 
agent of mercy and justice. It is believed that when a deity is offended, the community or 
the individual involved is visited upon with calamities such as plague, drought and 
sickness. These intermediaries are also mediums of communication between humans and 
God. They receive information from God for the people and the other way round, through 
libation prayers, possession and divination among others. In conclusion, deities serve as 
God's instrument of salvation for Eues through protection of the environment and 
promotion of social order. 
In contrast to the above discussion, Christians believe that God revealed himself as the 
Father, Son and Holy Spirit. The Fatherhood (Godhead) of the Trinity has been closely 
linked with creation. Jesus, who is the second person of the trinity, is the only source of 
salvation for Christians. Thus, Christology is accessing salvation, and more of second 
chance experience. This is because the importance of Christ is linked to the event in the 
Garden of Eden and its restoration. More importantly, at the center of Christology is the 
114 
issue of sacrifice and necessity of an ''intennediary'' like Jesus Christ, whose life begets 
life. 
The theology of the blood is crucial to salvation. The role of blood in reconciliation in 
Christianity and Eue Indigenous Religion cannot be glossed over. Among the Eue, 
ancestral stools that chiefs occupy were established (Zikpuidodo) and sustained 
(7:ikpuidudu) with human blood. The efficacy of the stool is depended upon human and 
animal sacrifices. Therefore, when a serious taboo such as incest, murder, arson, or 
adultery is committed (hlododo), it calls for blood sacrifice to appease the ancestors and 
the other deities to forgive the affected individual or community. In the past, human 
beings were used for the nuxe sacrifice. Nonetheless, in recent times, a sheep is used, 
especially, the agbotsu (male sheep). Sheep is considered gentle among animals and it is 
a symbol of peace among the Eue people. For Eues, in case of conflicts and strife, 
reconciliation is considered necessary through ritual slaughter of animals and offers made 
to the ancestors and the gods to restore peace and harmony. Everyone is expected to be 
peacemaker. People are discouraged from showing anger, pride and injustice. Once, the 
necessary reconciliation ritual is performed, peace prevails among parties who are 
considered to be enemies. 
Likewise, in Christianity, reconciliation is an act of God which was initiated by him 
through the death of Jesus. The blood of Jesus serves as expiation and atonement for the 
sins of the world. It is therefore considered very important to the salvation of people. 
Through the blood and the cross of Jesus Christ, Christians received forgiveness of sins 
and are reconciled to God. The blood of Jesus protects the believer against evil spirits. 
115 
III. the light of the above discussicm. it can be suggested that both Christians and Eues 
~ that the blood contains life and must therefore, be regarded sacred. This is why 
murder and cruelty against animals are regarded as first degree evil. The significance of 
the blood ought to be appreciated and respected in every category of life. For Christians, 
the blood of Jesus was poured out once and for all and there is no need for blood 
sacrifices again. The sacrifice of Jesus is believed to be efficacious for all people. The 
Hue on the other hand, believes that sacrifices ought to be repetitive according to one's 
iIIvolvement in sinful acts. 
In fact, the meaning and significance of the death of Christ for human salvation is a 
strong Christian affirmation. Christian theology affirms that the only way to salvation is 
Jesus Christ. The New Testament clearly teaches that Jesus is the final revelation of God 
and the only way to salvation. Jesus declares. "I am the way and the truth and the life,,,278 
Peter and the Apostles also insisted that salvation was available only through the 
crucified and risen Jesus Christ when they declare: "There is salvation in no one else, for 
there is no other name under heaven given among mortals by whom we must be 
saved.,,279 In Christian theology, Jesus Christ is the Supreme revealer of God.28o He 
therefore is the only mediator of salvation; through him people are reconciled with God, 
thereby, making peace through his blood, shed on the Cross.281 Indeed, the historic 
Christian claim is that, Jesus of Nazareth, the Word became flesh, is the only way to 
salvation. Roman Catholic and Evangelical leaders alike confess their common belief in 
the absolute uniqueness of Jesus Christ as the only savior of humankind. It therefore, 
m lohn 14: 6; 3:36 NRSV. 
279 Acts 4:12 NRSV. 
ZIOMatt. 11:27, I Tim. 2:5-6, I Cor. 8:5-6 and John 1:18 NRSV. 
211 Col. 1: 19-20 NRSV. 
116 
c:alIs for obedience to his commands. particularly. the show of love to God and one's 
neighbour. 
For Christians. to live by faith is to live in hope. And the ground of their hope is Jesus 
Christ. As first-born from the dead, Jesus Christ is the realization and the manifestation of 
the new humanity. In his life and work. death and resurrection, God manifests the future 
he intends for the world through the Spirit. In him, life eternal enters the life of the 
believer, lifting him or her out of bondage to death (damnation) and bringing him or her 
into full communion with God. It is believed that, the Spirit poured out by the Risen 
Christ is the seal of the believer's hope. 
Christians further believe that, Jesus Christ rose from the dead to overcome all evil 
powers and fear (particularly, the fear of death). He is therefore with them, in Word, in 
baptism, in the Eucharist and in the sacramental and liturgical life of the Church. This is 
the source of their hope in this world of death and hatred. It is believed that, hope must be 
related to the present, and it must serve as a means of transforming an oppressed 
community into a liberated and liberating one. From Christian view point, people are lost 
without Christ. Therefore, the belief in the person and works of Jesus Christ which comes 
through baptism and faith in his redemptive acts is necessary for salvation. 
In the Gospel, Jesus indicates: "The Spirit of the Lord is on me, because he has anointed 
me to preach good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim freedom for the 
prisoners and recovery of sight for the blind, to release the oppressed, to proclaim the 
117 
year of the Lord's favour.'.212 He reiterates his plan to offer salvation to people when he 
said: "The thief comes only to steal and kill and destroy; I have come that they may have 
life, and have it to the full.,,283 The passages cited above show clearly that Christ's 
mission is to make people to have life to the full. It also suggests his ministry of 
PJ1'8Ching and healing to meet every human need. However, this study has not lost sight 
of the sayings of Jesus that, "If any want to become my followers, let them deny 
themselves and take up their cross daily and follow me. For those who want to save their 
life wiUlose it, and those who lose their life for my sake will save it.,,284 Basically, Jesus' 
principle is that, in some instances, in order to meet one's needs, one has to face life the 
hard way. It is often said that, there is no crown without a cross. 
The Eue indigenous people do not perceive salvation through Jesus Christ. Essentially, 
salvation for the Eue is the intervention of Mawu to offer Dagbe. Therefore, the Jesus 
factor makes a clear difference in the understanding of salvation in Christianity and Eue 
indigenous religion in which there is the belief that, one can communicate to Mawu 
through Mawuviwo (deities) who act as intermediaries or agents of Mawu in the 
discharge of Dagbe to the people and not Jesus Christ. However, some African 
Christian theologians such as Charles Nyamiti, John Pobee and John Mbiti conceived of 
Christ as a Great Ancestor, considering the roles ancestors play in the mediation of 
salvation with traditional African communities. This comprehensive comparison bas been 
objected to by Evangelical Christians on the continent of Africa today. 285 
282 Luke 4:18-19 NRSV. 
:w Jobn 10:10 NRSV. 
ZI4 Luke 9:22-23 NRSV. 
2ISHiagbe,167. 
118 
1'he third person of the trinity, the Holy Sprit, is the power that advocates and intercedes 
tbr believers, such that they are able to receive forgiveness of sin from God to reconcile 
with him. He also sustains the believer to experience the good life through the 
achievement of his or her goal. In Eue indigenous religion, there are powerful and 
countless Spirits such as dzo (fire) and adze (witchcraft). They protect the people and 
serve as their advocate. They can also be harmful at times. That is why among the Eue, 
these spirits are classified as good or bad. For instance, adze nyuie (good witch) may 
protect the life of the members of his or her family and may influence prosperity and 
success; but adze vo (bad witch) destroys life and brings about curse, poverty and even 
death to his or her own family. 
In conclusion, it may be argued that, only Christianity offers salvation in the specific 
sense of communion with the triune God. Eues have completely different view of the end 
or the fulfillment of Hfe. The end envisioned by the Eue is Dagbe. This is mostly used in 
the worldly sense of fulfillment. Nonetheless, the distinctiveness of the Christian 
understanding of salvation is the newness of life spiritually, mentally and physically in 
communion with the Father, Son and Spirit. And because, trinitarian faith understands the 
God-life as communion in a bond of love, salvation turns to depict the fulfillment of 
reconciliation accomplished in Christ and the everlasting communion of believers with 
God through the power of the Spirit. This understanding of salvation is not offered by 
Eue indigenous religion. The Eue does not perceive salvation by a Mawu who is triune. 
119 
~ THE GOOD LIFE 
Both the Eue and Christians alike acknowledge and yearn for the good life. This is a life 
believed to be fulfilling in every sense of the word, including material prosperity, good 
health, success and protection. The attainment of this good life brings joy and happiness 
to individuals, families and communities as well. This is because, both religions believe 
in the reality and existence of demons that work against the good life. In these religions, 
there is no doubt about the reality of the existence of evil forces which cause calamities to 
the people. 
Both the Eue and Christians alike realize that the environment is more powerful and 
stronger than them. Sickness, death, and the harsh realities such as inconvenience and the 
hostility, failure in life, drought, famine, epidemics and disasters, among others, are but 
some examples of what they experience in their environment. They certainly have also 
attempted to confront these obstacles and disasters but they almost always face a 
transcendence which they cannot defy. While reflecting on the causes of these failures, 
mortality being one, they discovered God (Mawu), the transcending power who has, at 
his disposal, a whole army of forces, which are nothing other than divinities ("Trowo" 
and other Spirits). Christians call this army of forces angels who protect believers against 
evil spirits and demons. In Christian theology, there is the concept of "Guardian angel" 
who protects the individual assigned him by God at all moments against evil forces. 
From the above point onwards, the Eue in particular realizes that he or she can make 
alliances with these forces to benefit him or her in the life here on earth. But not all Eues 
enter directly into relations with these forces; there is the need for the assistance of 
120 
~priestesses called Mowunua (mouth of Mowu) or Tronua (mouth of Tro). 
Therefore, the Eue pursues his or her way always in quest of a happy life, always seeking 
to be rescued from life's wildemess.286 
In the same vein, the religions under study teach that the yearning for the good life is in 
everybody, and it is embodied in the saved life. Salvation therefore, is the state of 
blessedness in every category of human existence which includes deliverance from the 
powers of evil, peace of mind and victory over one's environment, including enemies. 
The victorious life embodies life beyond the grave which triumphs over the bodily life?87 
This is referred to as the heavenly life or the ancestral life, depending upon the 
htdividual's religious affirmation. For the Eue, the beneficiaries of this triumphal life are 
the ancestors, while Christians refer to such people as saints. Nonetheless, the 
requirements of ancestor and saint are relatively the same in the two religions; this is 
leading good and exemplary life. It may be argued therefore that, salvation for the 
Christian and the Eue is the attempt by the supernatural to rescue one from those life 
threateningjorees mentioned above. 
286 The idea emerged from an interview with Prof. Thompson Kumekpor (Ewe Anthropologist and 
Sociologist) on Thursday January 29th 2009. 
~l~'l'hDwas revealed in an interview with Togbe Asong Bansah ofWusuta on Monday lOth November 
2008. Togbe AsongBaasah is an elder and zikpuitor (stool father) to Togbe Tsradzi, chiefofWusuta 
Anyinabase and gyasehene of Wusuta traditional council. He is also a Christian. 
121 
UWORSIUP 
The worship of God (the source of salvation) is central to Christianity and Eue 
iDdigenous religion. It involves a total response of devotion from believers. It is also the 
source of praise, devotion, thanksgiving, and petition directed toward Mawu (God) who 
is perceived of as Summum bonum (Supreme good or highest good) through actions and 
attitude. Mawu is the ultimate end toward whom all worship is directed. As indicated 
earlier, worship plays vital role in the two religions under study. Brandford Yeboah 
perceives worship as an indispensable response of the people's consciousness of the 
288 
divine presence and goodness, which leads them to praise and thanksgiving.
Among the Eue, public worship is carried out at sbrines on specific days associated with 
a particular deity such as Koku (Wednesday male born) and Asuokofi (Friday male born) 
shrines. Their worship is mostly characterized by intensive drumming and dancing by 
functionaries, and young virgins 289 who do the dancing in most of the cases. They 
engage in a lot of chanting and display of powers such as cutting oneself with a sharp 
object without being harmed. Food and animal sacrifices are performed to the deity and 
the needs of individuals and the community are presented to him. This attracts people 
from all walks of life including Christians who go with various needs, petitions and 
requests, such as the need for protection, childbirth, healing, employment and promotion. 
Others go to honour their pledges to the deity for granting their needs or delivering them 
from. evil and calamity. 
281 Yeboah, "Worship in Ancient Israel," 87. 
219 Some of these young virgins are mostly in bondage in order to atone for the evil committed by their 
family members. This is the concept of Trolcos; among Ewes. 
122 
;Ja Cbristianity, days for public worship vary from denomination to denomination as in 
the case of Eue people. Some denominations worship on Sunday, and others Saturday or 
auy other day that they deem it holy. This is in line with the concept of Sabbath Worship 
in Israel. At worship service, the liturgy of prayer, reading of Scripture and the 
proclamation of the Word, as well as sacrifice of offering are carried out to enhance the 
ecstasy of the worship life of the believer to the glory of God. They sing hymns and 
songs, accompanied by drumming and dancing to God's glory and their edification. Like 
the Eue, believers pay their tithe and other pledges and levies during worship services in 
appreciation of God's goodness, and as faithful stewards. In conclusion, one needs to 
know that the practice of private or self devotion to God is also essential to worship in 
both Christianity and Eue indigenous religion. This is mostly done through the acts of 
meditation, prayer and charity. 
4.3 THE CONCEPTS OF SIN AND MORALITY 
Both religions emphasize morality as a requirement for the good life.29o They believe that 
one cannot be saved when one indulges in sinful acts such as murder, incest, and robbery 
which go contrary to societal norms and the will of God. This is because; salvation is 
striking the balance, where both humans and the divine are equally satisfied. As a result, 
taboos form a great part of Eue indigenous religion just as the biblical laws regulate the 
Christian conduct A taboo is something that should be avoided, not be touched or seen or 
eaten or said or even smelt according to the cultural values of one's community. 
Prominent among them are having sex in the bush, even with one's own wife; stealing or 
290 During an interview session with Mr. Kofi Eleblu on Friday, November 14th 2008, he stressed the need 
to believe that, Christians are not custodians of morality. For him, Ewes deserved more commendations as 
people of good moral standing. He is an elder of a town called Norvisi. 
123 
jIbbery, insulting an adult or a chief and munter, among others. Breaking of any of these 
taboos is a serious offense which attracts very harsh punishment as prescribed by the 
community's and the ancestor's code of discipline.291 In an interview with Prof. Ansre, he 
believes that to talk about ancestor/deity punishment is only psychological terrorism. This 
means that the concept of deity punishment is only to put fear in people against sin. It is 
~y not a reality. 
Taboos that seek to promote hygiene and good health attract lighter punishment in nature 
such as warning, rebuke or fine. They serve as rules and guide for good conduct. By and 
large, taboos enhance good life of the members of the community and make life and 
property safe. They also make the community healthier for people to inhabit. For 
example, it is a taboo to sing while eating. It is clear that when you sing and eat, you 
might get choked. Another example of such rules is the ban on hunting and fishing at 
certain times of the year; this eventually serves a utilitarian purpose of attaining the 
greatest happiness for the greatest number. This may also help to preserve animal spices. 
In Christianity, believers serve as stewards of the environment and God's creation and 
they oUght to see it as a duty to protect nature against any form of destruction. For the 
Eue, some practical rules of life can best be observed only when they are put in the form 
oftaboo.292 
291 These are the views of Dada Janet Xatse who is a unit committee member of Wusuta traditional area 
interviewed at her residence on Tuesday, December 161h 2008. 
29Z Mr. Kofi Eleblu reiterated these views during the interview recorded earlier in the work. 
124 
:For the Eue,. people who perpetrate sin such as those indicated earlier are deprived from 
attaining Dagbe.293 It is believed that such people will not enjoy material prosperity but 
will suffer, even to the point of banishment and death. 294 They will also not experience 
the good life. The ancestors and God become grieved, displeased, angered and unhappy 
when people engage in sinful acts that bring dissatisfaction to hwnans and God alike. In 
Christian theology, those who practice sexual immorality, hatred, and envy, among 
295 
others, shall be condemned by God on the Day of Judgment.
It is clear from the above discussion that, even though both religions have climbed a 
parallel ladder, in terms of beliefs and practices regarding the good life, the Eue rather 
enforces strict morals, and administered harsher punishments to those who fall foul to the 
moral code. They also, meted out instant justice which serves as deterrent to people. 
Christianity has been more liberal and grace oriented in dealing with evildoers. Its 
emphasis is on the future judgment and punishment of God as discussed earlier. As a 
result, it is believed that sin is more prevalent among Christians than traditional Eue. The 
main proponent of this view is Togbe Yaoga who is the oldest traditional priest at 
Wusuta. He mentioned bribery and corruption, armed robbery, prostitution, rape and 
abortion as some of the sins, which lead to HIV and AIDS and rampant death.296 This 
seems to suggest that indigenous Eue communities are safer to live in, in terms of crime 
prevention, social order and economic viability. This is because people actually enjoy the 
293 During an interview section with Prof. Christian Robert Gaba at his residence in Cape Coast on 21't July 
2008, he emphasized the point that, the attainment of Dagbe belongs to good people and not evildoers. He 
maintains that, the gods and the ancestors are people who have triumphed over sin and evil and are being 
rewarded by Mawu. 
294 This was reveled in an interview with Togbe Asong ofWusuta on Monday 10th November 2008. Togbe 
Asong is an elder and a stool father. He is also a Christian. 
295 Galatians S: 19-21. 
296 This is Ewe indigenous priest, Togbe Yaoga's affinnation. This interview was conducted on Friday 
Novemller 7th 2008 at his shrine at Wusuta. 
125 
fruits of their labor. Togbe Yaoga revealed that in the past, there were no doors and locks 
to buildings in Hue communities. People go to farm or travel with their doors opened, yet, 
297 
they always returned to find their properties as they left them.
The Bible teaches that Christians are sinners and therefore need to be saved from their 
sins.298 Jesus Christ therefore, became that Savior for them. There is a clear warning in 
the Bible that, the wages of sin is eternal death. This calls for a Day of Judgment and 
repentance. Actually, God eagerly desires the salvation of everyone. Peter writes that the 
299 
Lord is patient, "not wanting anyone to perish, but everyone to come to repentance.
This does not then mean that God, in every case, does not give punishment at all and that 
he only waits for the Day of Judgment. From biblical times to the present day, we can 
pinpoint some examples of God's instant justice such as the destruction of Sodom and 
Gomorrah (Gen. 19: 1-29) and the plagues on the people of Egypt (Gen. 7:14-11:10), 
among others. 
In an answer to what conditions the Eue indigenous religion put in place to rectify the 
anomalies about breaking the laws/taboos and then the possibility of one gaining 
salvation, Togbe Asong Bansah, zikpuitor (stool father) of Tsradzi stool, explained that 
there are prescribed sacrifices characterized by prayers that have to be performed in order 
to bring such people to salvation. He identified amefafla or aflaxoxo, gbofafla, busioyiyi 
and gbetsidede as some of the options to clear anomalies of such nature. These ritual 
1.97 Togbe Yaoga also blamed theft and robbery on the presence of Christianity among Ewes. But Ansre 
f~jects to this view saying. moral decadence has always been with the Ewe. 
Romans 3:23 NRSV. 
299 n Peter 3:9 NRSV. 
126 
~1'~S are performed by the traditional priests/priestesses who can discern the spirits 
and do what they required. 
The respondent emphasized the point that, the process of the sacrifice differs from taboo 
to taboo. In most cases, they slaughter a lamb and the blood poured on the feet of the 
affected person to signify atonement, forgiveness, reconciliation and the pacification of 
the gods. When it is the community that needs to be cleansed, the blood was sprinkled 
around the four comers of the town accompanied by other rituals like drugging a chick 
tied up to palm branches on the streets, and drumming of a special traditional drum such 
as dabatram in the case of Wusuta people. This is what Eues call gbomekpokplo 
(sweeping of town), which is carried out mostly at mid-night when the ancestors are 
believed to come round. In the event of emergency, gbomekpokplo ritual can be 
performed during the day. It is believed that when the proper sacrifices and prayers are 
offered, people and communities are released from the state of death and destruction to 
life, and evil forces are driven out from their midst. 
Togbe Asong Bansah also maintains that, festivals such as Teduza (the New Yam 
Festival) of the Eue is not just a celebration of the new yam and a temporary end to 
bunger, but it is a celebration of the renewal, reconciliation and restoration of fresh 
relationship between Mawu (God) and the ancestors on the one hand and human beings 
on the other. Moreover, some communities that are not in good terms with one another 
can initiate the celebration of a common festival to foster unity and reconciliation. 
Similarly, sister communities mostly celebrate a common festival to sustain their bond of 
unity. This happens ones in the year in most of the cases. Some examples are the 
127 
~. /6II8tJdUza of the people of Sovie, Alavanyo, Saviefe and Akrofu, and the Gbidukoza of 
the people of Peki and Hohoe. The festival of Sasadu for example reminds the people 
about the escape of their forefathers from Notsie to their present settlements. During 
these festivals, special rituals and sacrifices are made to clear the community of evil 
thereby appeasing and pacifying the ancestors for the misbehavior of the people. When 
this is done, the people in turn enjoy blessing from the ancestors resulting in good rain, 
prosperity and bumper harvest to mention a few. On the contrary, the anger of the 
ancestors brings nothing but curse, failure in life, hunger, drought and death, among 
others. He said libation prayers play prominent role in the festival rituals.300 
4.4 THE CONCEPT OF DEATH 
The concept of death is affirmed by both religions. This is because, as stated above, sin 
leads to death and death is the necessary end to the physical life and certainly, an 
inevitable end to human existence. However, in spite of the fear attached to death, they 
accept the fact that it is the only entrance or gate way to the hereafter (Awlime).301 There 
is nonetheless the belief that, even though human beings battle with death, they cannot 
avoid or escape it, because death is the universal end of the physical life. It is the 
separation of the soul from the body at the cessation of breath and heartbeat. But 
Christianity does not see death in terms of physical death only. There is also a spiritual 
death that people who experience it may not even be aware off. 
300 This was also said byTogbe Asong on Monday 10th November, 2008. 
301 This was revealed during an interview with Prof. Thompson Kumekpor (Ewe Anthropologist and 
Sociologist) on Thursday February 19th 2009. 
128 
.4.5 THE CONCEPT OF REINCARNATION CONTRASTED WITH 
RESURRECTION 
Christians and Eues believe in life after death. The traditional Eues, unlike Christians, 
however believe in transition and reincarnation. This is the belief that the spirit of the 
dead remains in the world and that the dead person can come back embodied in another 
person. This is the concept of gbugbogadzi (Reincarnation). 
As a result of the concept of reincarnation, the Eue perceives that the soul of their 
departed relatives remain close to them and can be approached through libation prayers 
and offerings. The term "transition" is therefore commonly used to refer to dying in Eue 
context which implies taking the lead to the next life or world. Eues therefore give 
messages to a dead person to be delivered to friends and relatives who have died long ago 
and are believed to be living in the ancestral world known as tsiefe (or yome or awlime or 
togbuiawoyife). This presupposes that, the deceased person has not left them completely 
but "passed on". It is actually only a physical loss. Nonetheless, despite the consolation 
that the concept of the after life brings to the Eue, they still consider death as an enemy to 
life. 
John S. Mbiti perceives the concept of reincarnation as relevant to many African 
societies. He however thinks this is a partial reincarnation in the sense that only some 
human features or characteristics of the living-dead are said to be 'reborn' in some 
children. This happens chiefly in the circle of one's family and relatives. The living-dead 
who has been reincarnated continues, however, to have his or her separate existence and 
129 
..n ot cease to be. From the perspective ofMbiti, it CIIl be argued that, remcamat.ion is 
pamly biological phenomenon.302 
While the Eue believes in reincarnation, the concept of the resurrection of the body has 
been propounded by Christian theology. Christians believe in a bodily resurrection even 
though the kind of body is not adequately known. It is believed that, this is likely to be a 
special and a new body which will be completely different from the present one. Paul 
refers to this when he writes, "For we know that if the earthly tent we live in is destroyed, 
we have a building from God, a house not made with hands, eternal in the heavens. For in 
this tent we groan, longing to be clothed with our heavenly dwelling-if indeed, when we 
have taken it off we will not be found naked. For while we are still in this tent, we groan 
under our burden because, we wish not to be unclothed but to be further clothed, so that 
what is mortal will be swallowed up by life.303 
The above quotation was vividly captured in the creedal statements of the Church and 
confessed in the words of both the Apostles' and the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creeds 
(381). In the explication of the Apostolic faith, the following statement of faith was 
outlined: "We (1) believe in the Resurrection of the Body ... " 
However, resurrection needs to be distinguished from resuscitation or reanimation of the 
physical body. It denotes a complete transformation of the human being in his or her 
301 John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (Oxford: Heinemann Educational Book Ltd, 1969), 
159. 
3m n Cor. 5:1-4 NRSV. 
130 
~matic mtaIity.304 This is expm;sed in a number of similes such as a) the 
resurrected will shine like stars30S
306 
; and b) they will be like the angels. Resurrection is 
therefore thought of as an event for each individual after death. But it is also regarded as 
a corporate event due to the fact that, God would raise all of the elect at the end of 
history. 
4.6 IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL 
As discussed above, from the Christian religious view point, death is never the end of 
life, but rather a transformation. Christians believe that the soul is immortal and continues 
307 
to exist eternally after physical death either in paradise (heaven) or in hell. It is 
therefore believed that the soul (spirit) is the life force of a person and every living thing 
which will eventually sustain any future or eternal existence. The idea of the immortality 
of the soul was affirmed by the Christian Church over the past periods.308 
Certainly, the Rue also believes in the immortality of the sou1.309 This is revealed in their 
concept of the hereafter. As discussed in chapter three of this work, it can be suggested 
that, the amedidi (burial) ritual of the Rue, offerings, libation prayers and ancestor 
reverence, point to life beyond the grave and the concept of the hereafter. It is believed 
that, after one's life on earth, one still has to journey successfully to togbuiawoyi/e 
("paradise''). The Rue believe that one has to cross a river, hence donation of coins to pay 
304 1 Cor. 15:35-55 NRSV. 
305 Daniel 12.:3 NRSV. 
306 Mark 12:25 NRSV. 
307 This assertion was made by Prof. Thompson Kumekpor during an interview section Tuesday March 101b 
2009. 
301 Walvoord, 287-290. 
30t This view was held by ProfKumekpor during my visit of March 10,2009. 
131 
~. 
'...",oosomatic totality.3G4 This is expressed in a number of similes such as a) the 
msurrected will 306 shine like stars30S; and b) they will be like the angels. Resurrection is 
therefore thought of as an event for each individual after death. But it is also regarded as 
a corporate event due to the fact that, God would raise all of the elect at the end of 
history . 
...6  IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL 
As discussed above, from the Christian religious view point, death is never the end of 
life, but rather a transformation. Christians believe that the soul is immortal and continues 
to exist eternally after physical death either in paradise (heaven) or in hell.3°7 It is 
therefore believed that the soul (spirit) is the life force of a person and every living thing 
which will eventually sustain any future or eternal existence. The idea of the immortality 
of the soul was affirmed by the Christian Church over the past periods.3°8 
Certainly, the Eue also believes in the immortality of the soul.309 This is revealed in their 
concept of the hereafter. As discussed in chapter three of this work, it can be suggested 
that, the amedidi (burial) ritual of the Eue, offerings, libation prayers and ancestor 
reverence, point to life beyond the grave and the concept of the hereafter. It is believed 
that, after one's life on earth, one still has to journey successfully to togbuiawoyife 
("paradise''). The Eue believe that one has to cross a river, hence donation of coins to pay 
304 I Cor. 15:35-55 NRSV. 
305 Daniel 12:3 NRSV. 
306 Mark 12:25 NRSV. 
307 This assertion was made by Prof. Thompson Kumekpor during an interview section Tuesday March 10" 
aou. 
p·Walvoord, 287-290 . 
." Thisyiow was held by Prof Kumekpor during my visit of March 10,2009. 
131 
fOr the cost of the ferry. 3-10 Therefore, the successful completion of burial rites on earth 
finally releases the person from all earthly responsibilities so that he or she can take 
permanent place of rest.3l1 As indicated earlier, it is believed that, the souls of the 
wicked, such as those who practiced witchcraft or murderers or those who have died an 
wmatural death312 or given improper burial, wander in agony, in the spirit world. They 
are referred to as dufuevo (bad ghost). It is however not clear when this wandering ends. 
Such wicked people are sometimes reburied or cremated to signify their perpetual end. 
Research has shown that, in some Eue communities, rituals such as cremation are 
practiced in order to reconcile wandering spirits with the ancestors. People who go 
through such rituals are those who practised moral evil. This practice of exhuming and 
cremating of dead bodies is what Eues refer to as homtodzoe (the exhumed and burnt).313 
Evil doers are also believed to be punished in the after life, but the spirits of the ancestors 
are forever remembered and evoked, particularly in libation prayers. 
In conclusion, it is argued that both religions accept the need to rely on the supernatural 
for salvation rather than oneself. They also believe that salvation is actually a human 
need which manifests in the good life of the individual here and now and in the hereafter. 
There is nevertheless, a strong emphasis on good moral living as the goal of the fulfilled 
life and salvation. Finally, both religions affirm death as the universal end to the physical 
existence. 
310 Ibid. 
3l\ Ibid. 
31Z In Christian theology, the type of death is immaterial. Jesus died a violent death. Therefore, Christians 
don't need any ceremonies or rituals such as luvotsotso which is carrying of the souls of those who died in 
an lWCident or drown or buried in a foreign land to liberate their souls in order to experience salvation. For 
those who are buried in a foreign land, it was ensured that their fmger nails and heirs were brought home in 
~~teh's box for this ritual in traditional Eue religion. 
Harry Agbanu, 117-128. 
132 
4~7 THE CONCEPT OF REA VEN AND HELL 
It is being argued that Eves do not perceive salvation as going to heaven; neither do they 
helieve in eternal damnation in hen. They believe that there is a place beneath the earth 
where the ancestors spend eternity in full communion with Mawu and the living. Those 
who could not attain ancestorhood have no particular destination of their own. They 
become wandering and bad spirits that roam about in the spirit world, but it is not known 
how long they remain in that state.314 
Christian theology on the other hand, conceives of heaven or hell as the final destination 
of humankind. In hell, the wicked are believed to bum in everlasting lake of fire 
contrasting to what happens in heaven. In heaven or paradise, the righteous or the saints 
will enjoy eternal blissfulness. From the Christian view point, paradise opens as a 
communion in which the relations isolated by death will be united. In fact, salvation is 
ultimately conceived as something that will be accomplished only after death. This is 
when individual souls will be redeemed for continuous existence. 
The concept of hell however, raises the following questions, among others: 
(a) Do the wicked bum literally in everlasting fire? 
(b) Does God's wrath continue forever in never-ending punishment? 
There is the doubt that the literal imagery is the case as affirmed by many Christians. 
This is because it is believed that the essence of God's punishment of sinners is to lead 
them to repentance. There must therefore, be a limit or an end to God's punishment of 
3T1his 4' was af6rmed byTogbe Asong Bansah. 
133 
'people created by God's self and in God's own likenesS. However, it is believed that God 
isDrerciful and slow to anger. 
4.8 THE CHURCH AND THE CLAN 
In every Eue community, there are clans (or family units). These are territorial groups 
which serve as social units in the Eue social structure before the establishment of the 
Church. The identities of clans are traced to an ancestor, and as a result, some members 
of a clan bear a common ancestral name. Clans consist of varying number of lineages. 
Their role is to provide security and welfare to members of the families constituting the 
clan through lending of financial, moral and spiritual support. For instance, when a 
member of the clan is in any form of problem or difficulty such as sickness, poverty, or 
police arrest, it is the collective responsibility of the clan to contribute to rescue such a 
person from his or her predicament. This involves caring for the sick, payment of school 
and hospital bills and organizing rites of passage such as naming, puberty, graduation 
from a programme as well as funeral, to support the less privileged ones. It is believed 
that, when a member of the clan is in trouble or engages in any illicit act, the image of the 
entire clan is brought into disrepute. In the same way, when a member of the clan excels 
in life, it brings honour and respect to the entire clan. This affirms the belief that, the 
existence and wellbeing of a person depends on the lager community in Africa. 
In the same vein, the Christian Church provides communal identity to its members as the 
clan system among the Eue. To belong is to affirm one's faith in the lordship of Jesus 
Christ through the rites of sacrament such as, baptism, confirmation and the Eucharist. 
The (::hurch also performs naming and funeral rites, thereby participating in the life of 
134 
ktmdual members spiritually, m.onlly -' materially. This has led to the establishment 
of welfare schemes in the Church to meet the needs of members through scholarships, 
laans and gift donations. However, this turns out to be burden for the poor as they have to 
pay dues in order to benefit from the Church's welfare. It implies that, the rich are the 
most privileged in the Church's ministry of kindness. 
In 'amelusion, it may be suggested that, the clan and the Church play essential role in 
helping people to experience Dagbe. Nonetheless, gradually, the clan is being substituted 
for the Church by many Christians resulting in the neglect of family responsibilities and 
commitments. 
4.9 CONCLUSION 
From the discussions advanced so far, it has been argued that salvation in both 
Christianity and Eue indigenous religion primarily amounts to experiencing the good life 
by means of good rains, fertility, bumper harvest; abundance of food, prosperity, good 
health and social harmony among others. Salvation is also attaining communion with 
God. But it can be said that even though both religions value worldly fulfillments, they 
consider them as avenues of approach to the transcendental otherness. Indeed, the 
concept of salvation defines the dynamics by which both Christians and Eues reach their 
goal. Thus, traditional Eue views and biblical views agree on the reality of evil which 
hinders the attainment of the good life. 
AQitical study of the beliefs and practices of the Eue people leads to the theological 
conclusion that Eue indigenous religion is a religion of salvation and completeness. And 
135 
.. discussed earlier, a careful analysis shows an emphasis on this-worldly salvation and 
1rIInment. The Eue believes that life involves relationships that may both enhance and 
preserve life or destroy it. For the Eue, the goal of religion is to maintain those 
relationships in order to protect and preserve life, because it is the harmony and stability 
provided by these relationships, both spiritual and material, that create the conditions for 
the good life. Therefore, whiles Christianity conceives of God as the ultimate end and 
source of salvation, the Eue traditional religion believes that both the ancestors and the 
deities also contribute to the salvation that is offered by Mawuga (God). 
At this concluding part, it will be prudent to discuss how the Hue traditional view of 
salvation has influenced African Christian theology in its explication of the gospel of 
salvation. African theology, or what some call African Christian theology, is that 
theology which reflects on the gospel, the Christian tradition, and the total African reality 
from an African perspective. The total African reality includes the ongoing changes in the 
African society and culture. Some prefer to call it theologies because they see much 
diversity in African culture and religion. Others refer to it as a fundamental similarity in 
the religious experience and in the nature of the emergent issues. African theology is 
conceived of as based on culture and as seeking to give African expression to the 
Christian faith. 
The above discussion suggests that both Christianity and African traditional religion are 
religions of salvation, but whereas missionaries presented salvation as mainly in the 
136 
'fiUure and individualistic, Africans want to experience it as present, communal, and 
holistic. For Christians and Eue, salvation is well-being and the possession of life in its 
fullest potency. 
But as both the living and the living-dead are bound together in this cosmic oneness, 
there can be no well-being unless one is in harmony with the cosmic totality. The good 
life manifests in good health, sufficient food, adequate housing, fertility, and offspring. It 
is social and political harmony. It is good neighbourly relations, a good name, social 
justice, sharing, and solidarity with all in building the earthly city. It therefore calls for 
"ontological balance" which must be maintained between God and human beings, spirits 
and human beings, the departed and the living. When this balance is upset, people 
experience misfortunes and sufferings. Hence, in a number of African independent 
churches, "healing" is an integral part of church ministry, with the priest being the healer 
and psychiatrist. As a result of their encounter with the gospel, Africans have developed a 
concrete eschatological hope which eventually led to the development of the Deliverance 
Ministry in contemporary Africa as a way of confronting evil and witchcraft. 
The practice of Deliverance Ministry is mainly associated with the Charismatic churches 
such as the King Jesus Evangelistic Ministry and New Creation Church, among others in 
Ghana. This is based on the strong belief in the power of Satan and evil spirits (demons) 
to destroy people both spiritually and physically thereby robbing them off the joy of life. 
The practice of deliverance and exorcism therefore attempt at warding off and casting out 
137 
Satan and demons. Exorcism is the expelling of non-human malevolent spirits out of 
persons, objects and places. Deliverance is loosing people from the chains of demonic 
,..ssion, attacks and oppressions such as sickness and poverty and restoring them to 
their rightful state. 
138 
CHAPTER FIVE 
CONCLUSION AND MAIN FINDINGS 
The emphasis on Christian doctrine of salvation and traditional Eoo cultural and religious 
practices associated with salvation and well-being is to inform readers to distinguish 
between Christian and traditional Eve means of attaining the eternal (salvation). It has 
also discovered the significant similarities in how both religions perceived the concept of 
salvation and influenced each other. 
The method of comparative paradigm has been utilized to study the concept of salvation 
in the domain of traditional Eve moral ethics and cultural symbols associated with 
holism; and the Christian stewardship and Soteriological symbols that covered a wide 
range of human conditions, situations, needs, and aspirations that lie at the heart of the 
quest for salvation and life after death. This comparative paradigm is used consistently, 
taking into consideration the hermeneutical tools of contextualization and Inculturation 
through which Christ engages the traditional Eve understanding of salvation as "Total 
Well-being." 
We have established in the course of this study that the concept of salvation is a very 
complex one. The study has demonstrated that the concept of salvation is central to both 
religions (Christianity and Eve indigenous religion). Salvation, in the context of 
Christianity and Eve indigenous religion, is primarily reaching forward to the ideals of 
the good life and morality. The good life is the life that is devoid of any precarious 
phenomenon occurrence such as sickness, drought, famine, disaster, abject poverty, 
139 
childlessness, etc. Salvatien therefore embraces the liberation of the entire universe, in 
order to experience the life that is fulfilling. 
The doctrine of "salvation" has been a major subject of debate in Christian theology. 
The bone of contention has been how believers are justified, and saved by God; hence, 
the role of merit and good works in the drama of salvation. The reformers such as Luther 
and Calvin argued against the Roman Catholic view that believers are saved by good 
works and the grace of God. The reformers taught that Christians are saved by grace 
alone through faith in Jesus Christ. Invariably, this study has argued that the teachings of 
both the Old and the New Testaments point to the fact that salvation is the believer's 
experience of reconciliation with God in Christ. This includes the events of peace, 
healing, order, security and everlasting life eventually. 
The Eue fundamentally perceives salvation as being secured in every aspect of life. This 
is the intervention of the supernatural to rescue them from factors that pose serious 
threats to the good life such as drought, famine, war, curse, sickness and death. Salvation 
is therefore good health, morality, bumper harvest, abundance of food, good rain, 
prosperity and finally, joining the company of the ancestors and Spirits. 
It can be argued from the forgoing discussion that, the Eue Christian understanding of 
salvation is not the same as the traditional Eue because: 
i. The concept of heaven and the belief in the person and works Jesus Christ is 
essential to salvation in Christianity. Hence, Eue Christians perceive salvation 
solely through Jesus Christ. 
140 
childlessness, etc. Salvation therefore embraces the liberation of the entire universe, in 
order to experience the life that is fulfilling. 
The doctrine of "salvation" has been a major subject of debate in Christian theology. 
The bone of contention has been how believers are justified, and saved by God; hence, 
the role of merit and good works in the drama of salvation. The reformers such as Luther 
and Calvin argued against the Roman Catholic view that believers are saved by good 
works and the grace of God. The reformers taught that Christians are saved by grace 
alone through faith in Jesus Christ. Invariably, this study has argued that the teachings of 
both the Old and the New Testaments point to the fact that salvation is the believer's 
experience of reconciliation with God in Christ. This includes the events of peace, 
healing, order, security and everlasting life eventually. 
The Eue fundamentally perceives salvation as being secured in every aspect of life. This 
is the intervention of the supernatural to rescue them from factors that pose serious 
threats to the good life such as drought, famine, war, curse, sickness and death. Salvation 
is therefore good health, morality, bumper harvest, abundance of food, good rain, 
prosperity and finally, joining the company of the ancestors and Spirits. 
It can be argued from the forgoing discussion that, the Eue Christian understanding of 
salvation is not the same as the traditional Eue because: 
i. The concept of heaven and the belief in the person and works Jesus Christ is 
essential to salvation in Christianity. Hence, Eue Christians perceive salvation 
solely through Jesus Christ. 
140 
ii. The traditional Eve sees the ancestors as the immediate source of salvation. 
Ancestorhood therefore is the goal of salvation. 
iii. In Christian theology, God's grace is the fundamental cause of salvation. 
iv. However, morality and effective participation in the cultural and religious 
practices are requirements for experiencing salvation in Eue indigenous 
religion. 
A critical analysis of the field work shows that, God's (Mawu's) plan of salvation is to 
redeem all that has been created by him. The study has also demonstrated that God 
(Mawu) is the only source of existence and salvation according to Christians and 
traditional Eues. They both believe that the new life of salvation is a life of the spirit. In 
fact, what Eues have traditionally believed of God (Mawu) and the transcendent reality 
has shaped their Christian identity and perception of life. 
Eve theologians have therefore adopted basic key concepts which seek to harmonize the 
beliefs and practices of Christianity and those of indigenous Eue religion and culture. 
This is because the church in Eveland, and Africa for that matter, is still perceived to 
persist in its western nature. This makes people to consider it as an alien religion. This 
view is reinforced by Brandford Yeboah's argument that in order to make Christianity 
more meaningful, concrete and relevant to the needs and expectations of Africans, it has 
to be presented and explained in the language, terms and experiences that are already 
familiar to them. He reiterated the need to recognize the positive roles of African 
relgious worldviews in enhancing and facilitating the understanding and embracing of 
141 
Christianity by Africans on the African soil.lIS Invariably, Christianity deals with the 
diversity of cultures in this world, and as such culture shapes the expression of the 
Christian faith. 
The study carried out critical theological reflections on the two major hermeneutical tools 
(lnculturation and Contextualization) which are used to harmonize the beliefs and 
practices of salvation. The influences of each of the religions on the other in their attempt 
to lead people to the good life and salvation were discussed and critically analyzed. The 
implications emerging from the interaction of the two religions (Christianity and Eue 
indigenous religion) were evaluated with a view to make recommendations that seek to 
enhance harmonious co-existence of Christianity and traditional Eue religious thought, 
i.e. Christians in the Eue context. 
5.0 INCULTURATION 
In missiological literature the teon "Inculturation" refers to a theological reflection 
describing the way in which Christianity interacts with a particular culture. The study 
extensively utilized the concept of "Inculturation" in the analysis of the intricate 
interrelations between Christianity, as introduced in Eueland, and Eue traditional 
religious thought. 
In October 1974, during a Synod on evangelisation in Rome, the Bishops of Africa and 
Madagascar declared obsolete the theology of adaptation in the process of evangelisation, 
and recommended the development of a theology of "Inculturation." In the wake of 
)H Brandford Yeboah, AnaJecta Bruxe/lensia, 5. 
142 
: further missiological study, the Magisterium recognised the .theological significance of 
tile similarity between the idea of 'h1culturation' and the mystery of the Incarnation. 316 It 
can be argued that the need for a reflection on the notion of Inculturation comes from a 
deeper insight into the implications of the Vatican II decrees on mission and on non-
Christian religions. Evangelisation has therefore, to be understood as an attempt to 
inculturate the Gospel. 
The message of Christ has presented a challenge to Christians themselves as well as 
adherents of other religions. Theologians speak of its prophetic aspect. Jesus himself 
fulfilled this prophetic role throughout his life and up to his death on the cross. The Jews 
experienced the novelty of his message as a serious questioning of their traditional 
religious beliefs. At the same time the challenge radiated throughout their cultural values. 
We have only to think of Jesus' welcoming attitude to those who were excluded by 
society, or his great freedom towards some customs that had become sacralised, for 
example, observation of the Sabbath and washing of hands. In modern times, Jesus could 
have been accused of failing to adapt to the local customs, which, in sociological 
terminology, constitutes a revolutionary stand and to a modern theologian, a difficult 
process of Inculturation. 
Inculturation is to purify the society, to animate the society, to get rid of the obnoxious 
things in the society so that there is a new creation. It is pertinent to reiterate, in this 
316 In Slavorum apostoli (1985) Pope John-Paul II expressed it succinctly: 'Inculturation 
islbe,incarnation oft he Gospel in local cultures and at the same time the introduction of 
these cultures in the lifo oft he Church. ' 
143 

CJmstian Ch1.udies and missionarieS are allowing or even promoting practices that 
compromise the Christian Gospel. 
Some of the social, economic, health, etc, consequences of the teaching and practice of 
these fast expanding Africanist Christian Churches pose serious challenges to individual, 
community and national development. A simple but relevant example is the increasing 
practice of directing seriously sick people to "Prayer Camps" (GbedodaJe) instead of to 
accredited health care centres. Similar examples abound. This is not to disregard the 
potency of prayer and faith in the healing process of Christian religious practice. 
One should however not only over-emphasize the extremes of the practices of the ''new 
churches." Such increasing syncretic contributions of these "Churches" as the particular 
blending of traditional music (Eue ,Akan, Ga etc) with Christian worship has influenced 
the worship patterns of almost all orthodox Christian denominations in Ghana. Of 
particular interest is the E. P. Church where the incorporation of the Central Eue 
Borborbor music (music and words) is such that the Eue migrant worshipper feels he/she 
is back in hislher home town. The use of indigenous songs, language and musical 
instruments serve as avenues for evangelism. In the contemporary Church, traditional 
music such as Borborbor, Atsiagbekor and Agbadza, which were regarded as evil, 
worldly and profane and from which Christians were strictly prohibited participating in, 
are however now part of the Church's music ministry. This makes people become more 
comfortable and feel at home in the Church. 
145 
,. Reformed ebdstianity however indicates that the church's authority is only the Holy 
?$mptures and not ecclesiastical traditions or human inventions. Scripture demonstrates 
the self..revelation of God. The Scriptures are thus to be recognized as such and obeyed as 
Rlliableguides for worship and Christian living. It may be argued that the formal 
principle of the Reformation is Sola Scriptura, and as such, cultural elements like those 
of the Eue indigenous religion discussed above conflict with the understanding of 
salvation in Reformation theology. It came to light during the field work for this study 
that, members of the E. P. Church (Reformed) in Eueland are calling for the use of the 
local palm wine (Deha) and the locally baked bread and calabash (for the chalice) in the 
administration of the Holy Eucharist. It was further discovered that the locally baked 
bread is already being used in some congregations instead of the wafer. 
5.2 INFLUENCES 
In the light of the above observations, it is pertinent to discuss the extent to which 
Christianity and Eue indigenous religion have influenced each other. The Eue traditional 
religious heritage has effectively influenced Christianity in a number of significant ways, 
such as respect for human life and dignity, the environment (forest reservations and 
rivers), natural resources, property and particularly morality. These enhance the good life 
that the Eue yearns for. However, the influence of Christianity on the Eue religio-cultural 
tradition is enormous. The Eue rites of passage and initiation rites such as naming, 
puberty, festivals, enstoolment of chiefs, funerals and methods of enforcing the moral 
code (for example, banishment and the burning of the dead) have seen significant 
improvements and modernization as a result of the influence of Christianity on the Eue 
'.9UIture, making these rites more attractive, especially to the Eue-Christian. Eue Christians 
146 
,/I 
;tQWadays .c Ja:hn to have been more comfortable when participating in their cultural 
practices. As a matter of fact, the days when Cluistians could not freely participate in 
their own cultural festivals and related activities because they are Christians are gradually 
becoming a thing of the past. The implications of the above discussions are that, it is 
increasingly difficult to draw a line between the "Christian life" and life of the "World". 
This has led to a more active involvement of Christians in traditional practices. 
Similarly, Christianity has been greatly influenced by the Eue indigenous religion which 
has led to the Inculturation of the Church among the Eues as discussed earlier. Mostly, it 
is their worship (Liturgy) and socialization that receive great influence. Customary 
marriages, widowhood rites and enstoolment of chiefs have become part of the Church's 
Liturgical order. Jesus has therefore, become the Supreme Protector, Liberator and Savior 
of the Eue-Christian. It is worth mentioning here that, the historical Churches such as the 
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches are the most 
affected by this new development. It is equally a matter of fact that some of the 
traditional practices such as swearing of oath to the traditional stool are really 
unacceptable to fundamental Christian thought and practice. 
In conclusion, it can be reiterated that the common yearnings and aspirations for such 
things as the good life and salvation have always been expressed by adherents of both 
Christianity and the Eue traditional religion as has been demonstrated in this comparative 
study of salvation in the two religions. 
147 
aowadays claim to have been more comfortable when participating in their cultural 
practices. As a matter of fact, the days when Christians could not freely participate in 
their own cultural festivals and related activities because they are Christians are gradually 
becoming a thing of the past. The implications of the above discussions are that, it is 
increasingly difficult to draw a line between the "Christian life" and life of the "World". 
This has led to a more active involvement of Christians in traditional practices. 
Similarly, Christianity has been greatly influenced by the Eue indigenous religion which 
has led to the Inculturation of the Church among the Eues as discussed earlier. Mostly, it 
is their worship (Liturgy) and socialization that receive great influence. Customary 
marriages, widowhood rites and enstoolment of chiefs have become part of the Church's 
Liturgical order. Jesus has therefore, become the Supreme Protector, Liberator and Savior 
of the Eue-Christian. It is worth mentioning here that, the historical Churches such as the 
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches are the most 
affected by this new development. It is equally a matter of fact that some of the 
traditional practices such as swearing of oath to the traditional stool are really 
unacceptable to fundamental Christian thought and practice. 
In conclusion, it can be reiterated that the common yearnings and aspirations for such 
things as the good life and salvation have always been expressed by adherents of both 
Christianity and the Eue traditional religion as has been demonstrated in this comparative 
study of salvation in the two religions. 
147 
JHJWadays claim to have been more comfortable when participating in their cultural 
practices. As a matter of fact, the days when Christians could not freely participate in 
their own cultural festivals and related activities because they are Christians are gradually 
becoming a thing of the past. The implications of the above discussions are that, it is 
increasingly difficult to draw a line between the "Christian life" and life of the "World". 
This has led to a more active involvement of Christians in traditional practices. 
Similarly, Christianity has been greatly influenced by the Eue indigenous religion which 
has led to the Inculturation of the Church among the Eues as discussed earlier. Mostly, it 
is their worship (Liturgy) and socialization that receive great influence. Customary 
marriages, widowhood rites and enstoolment of chiefs have become part of the Church's 
Liturgical order. Jesus has therefore, become the Supreme Protector, Liberator and Savior 
of the Eue-Christian. It is worth mentioning here that, the historical Churches such as the 
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches are the most 
affected by this new development. It is equally a matter of fact that some of the 
traditional practices such as swearing of oath to the traditional stool are really 
unacceptable to ftmdamental Christian thought and practice. 
In conclusion, it can be reiterated that the common yearnings and aspirations for such 
things as the good life and salvation have always been expressed by adherents of both 
Christianity and the Eue traditional religion as has been demonstrated in this comparative 
study of salvation in the two religions. 
147 
nowadays claim to have been more comfortable when participating in their cultural 
practices. As a matter of fact, the days when Christians could not freely participate in 
their own culturaI festivals and related activities because they are Christians are graduaUy 
becoming a thing of the past. The implications of the above discussions are that, it is 
increasingly difficult to draw a line between the "Christian life" and life of the "World". 
This has led to a more active involvement of Christians in traditional practices. 
Similarly, Christianity has been greatly influenced by the Eue indigenous religion which 
has led to the Inculturation of the Church among the Eues as discussed earlier. Mostly, it 
is their worship (Liturgy) and socialization that receive great influence. Customary 
maniages, widowhood rites and enstoolment of chiefs have become part of the Church's 
Liturgical order. Jesus has therefore, become the Supreme Protector, Liberator and Savior 
of the Eue-Christian. It is worth mentioning here that, the historical Churches such as the 
Roman Catholic, the Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches are the most 
affected by this new development. It is equally a matter of fact that some of the 
traditional practices such as swearing of oath to the traditional stool are really 
unacceptable to fundamental Christian thought and practice. 
In conclusion, it can be reiterated that the common yearnings and aspirations for such 
things as the good life and salvation have always been expressed by adherents of both 
Christianity and the Eue traditional religion as has been demonstrated in this comparative 
study of salvation in the two religions. 
147 
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 
A number of important recommendations emerge from the findings of the study: 
i. The traditional moral philosophy and practices of the Eue regarding salvation, 
despite their inadequacies, need to be recognized and appreciated by Christians 
because; they provide the grounds for a dialogue to promote better understanding 
of life. 
ii. The study essentially demonstrated that the Christian missionaries and the early 
Eue clergy did not take cognizance of the Eue belief in God, (Mawu) the all 
embracing creator of humankind. This can be discerned in the manner and 
methods these early missionaries proclaimed Christ in Eueland. Their 
interpretation of salvation was far out of tune from that of the Eue indigenous 
thought. This may be explained by the fact that they failed and disregarded to 
reach out to the roots of Eue indigenous religious thought. They did not learn, and 
failed to appreciate, the fact that traditional Eue religious thought, just as 
Christianity, embodies the essence of humanity, which is the key to understanding 
and appreciating the Eue in his environment, particularly at that time. 
Contemporary Christian missionaries therefore need to show due appreciation for 
Eue indigenous religion. 
iii. In analyzing the nature and meaning of salvation, the study clearly demonstrates 
that somehow Christianity and Eue traditional religious thought acknowledge that, 
God (Mawu), who is the source of salvation, works through intermediaries such 
as Jesus Christ, the ancestors, deities and powerful spirits. These intermediaries 
serve as God's (Mawu's) agents of mercy and justice. It is pertinent to observe 
and recognize that libation prayers of the Eue appeal to the ancestors to ensure 
148 
that the people and the community they the ancestors left behind become 
increasingly better than when they left them. The essence of this is reflected in 
such admonishments as: 'may your back be more peaceful than your front;' 
meaning may the relatives, people and communities left behind prosper and 
become better than at the time the ancestors were in this life. This clearly 
illustrates the conceptual link between the dead (ancestors) and the living. 
Although the aspect of pouring a liquid or drinks on the ground in libation prayers 
may be appropriately reviewed, there can be no doubt that the contents of libation 
prayers have a lot of significance. It came to light during the field work for this 
study that, libation prayers cover the needs of individuals, families, communities, 
the nation and the universe as a whole, seeking for them God's protection and 
blessing such as peace, good rain, bumper harvest, prosperity, gainful 
employment, political stability, good health, long life, etc. 
iv. The study also points out that the Eue concept of salvation (Dagbe), profoundly 
reflects God's (Mawu's) provision of abundant life in the present and the future; 
this includes the restoration of all fonns of human failures, and the ordering of the 
community and the universe as a whole. Similarly, Christianity perceives 
salvation as deliverance of all of God's creation from every shortcoming in order 
to make them happy and finally to obtain everlasting life. This study, in a modest 
way contribute to, and draw attention to other factors not at present given due 
consideration in the attempt of the Church to concretize the gospel of Christ to the 
Eue. 
v. From the above discussion, other relevant literature and the operation of the 
diverse forms of Christian religious movements on Eueiand in particular and 
149 
Ghaua in general, the study bas discerned the emergence of Africanist Christi811 
life and thought which is perceptibly different from traditional orthodox western 
Christianity. Although this particular issue is beyond this thesis, it is important to 
note that the new and emergent Africanist Christian thought are likely to 
influence, and contribute to the future development of Christian life and thought 
in Africa in particular. It is therefore of crucial importance for the Church to 
seriously take cognizance of this and timely and appropriately tune its theology as 
a consequence. 
vi. In conclusion, it may be emphasized and suggested for particular consideration 
that the harsh and unfriendly social, cultural and economic envirorunent, 
particularly in the urban setting, is real in the life circumstances of the 
individual and his or her perception of salvation. In this emerging context of 
salvation, Christianity has to first address these contextual issues before relating 
them to the eschatological reality. The economic and technological hardships such 
as stark poverty, unemployment, low income, housing, health, personal and social 
relations, etc, are increasingly changing the context in which Christianity is 
operating in Eueland and Ghana in general. The Church therefore needs a radical 
approach to its theological expressions which have the potential to influence the 
issue of salvation in Africa, particularly because, salvation ought to relate to the 
environment of the believer. If this is done, then the hard realities of salvation 
and the hard realities of life will be closer to match the daily necessities of life. 
150 
¥APPENDIX 
PlUMARY/ORAL SOURCES 
(KEY INTERVIEWS CONDUCTED BY THE RESEARCHER) 
Togbe Asong Bansah of Wusuta 
Togbe Yaoga ofWusuta 
Prof. Thompson Kumekpor of Accra and Agorme Tormegbe 
Prof. C. R. Gaba of Anlo and Cape Coast 
Mr. James Martey of Adutor 
Mr. Christophe Kofi Eleblu ofMafi Adidorne 
Prof. N. K. Dzobo of Anfoega 
Rev. Fr. Dr. John Ofosu-Mereku of Catholic Institute of Business and Technology 
Prophet Obed Bansah of Acts Revival Church International 
Rev. Prof. J. D. K. Ekern of Trinity Theological Seminary 
Rev. Bernard Bamfo Bossornpern of Methodist Church 
Rev. Prof. Gilbert Ansre ofPeki 
Dada Janet Xatse 
151 
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L.:a.tvm: urigin and De, 
Philip Mairet. Micl 
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Relations Today. N