UNIVERSITY OF GHANA – LEGON GHANA-SAUDI RELATIONS: ANALYSIS OF BILATERAL TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT AID BY YAHAYA SULEMANA TUNTUNBA 10806128 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS JULY 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Daniel Dramani Kipo-Sunyehzi. I also declare that no part of this dissertation has been submitted elsewhere for any other purpose. 27/07/2022 27/07/2022 ……………………… ……………...…………… YAHAYA SULEMANA TUNTUNBA DR. DANIEL D. KIPO-SUNYEHZI (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the Almighty Allah, the Lord of the Worlds. Also, to my late father Dr. Alhaj Sulemana Tuntunba, my mother, Hajia Mariama Darba, my wife Sawudatu Mesuna, my elder sister, Hajia Rahinatu Sulemana, my kids, Mariam, Rushd, Khalid, Kasha and Suhaila, for their love and sacrifice, relentless support and enormous encouragement. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGMENT I sincerely express my profound gratitude to the Almighty Allah for His guidance throughout my life till this stage and the stages ahead, indeed without His blessings and mercies, this achievement would not have been possible. Identifying the support of many collaborators among colleagues and friends, with whose help this work was made easy, I particularly recognized the outstanding contribution of my teacher, mentor, and thesis supervisor, offering advice and encouragement, since my first day at the University of Ghana's Center for International Affairs and Diplomacy (LECIAD), with a perfect blend of insight and humor. I am proud of, and grateful for, my time learning under Dr. Kipo. I cannot forget the support of His Excellency the Ambassador of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to Ghana, Ambassador Meshal Bin Hamdan Alrogi, who has been very helpful in facilitating my studies and working at the Embassy as well as providing me with all necessary data to this dissertation. I also appreciate the time and support of His Excellency the Ambassador of Ghana to Saudi Arabia Ambassador Ambassador Tijjani for giving me enough time from his busy schedules and providing me with necessary data. My thanks also goes to the Consul-General of Ghana to Istanbul-Turkey, Her Excellency Hajia Salamatu Yakubu for her support. My appreciation also goes to officials at the Middle east Bureau at Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration, Dr, Taufiq, lecturer at the University of Professional Studies (UPSA) and Mr. Abdul Nasir Adam, a P.h.D Student at LECIAD-Legon, for their varied support, Alhaj Mahmoud former Administrator at Ghana's Consulate-General in Jeddah, officials at the Ghana Export Promotion Authority especially Mr. Abdallah Zakaria Khalifa Banda, all my lecturers and staff at LECIAD. I finally expressed my profound appreciation to my beloved wife and kids for their outstanding support and love throughout the program. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACRONYMS FDIs - Foreign Direct Investments G20 - Group of Twenty  NGO - Non-Governmental Organization OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development  DAC - Development Assistance Committee OEC - Observatory of Economic Complexities ODA - Official Development Assistance ICT - Information and Communication Technology USSR -  Union of Soviet Socialist Republics PRC - People's Republic of China Covid-19 - Corona Virus Disease of 2019 GDP - Gross Domestic Product  4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.............................................................................................................i DEDICATION............................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENT.............................................................................................. iii ACRONYMS................................................................................................................. v ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................vi CHAPTER 1...................................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................1 1.1 Background of the Study......................................................................................1 1.2 Problem Statement of the Research......................................................................6 1.3 Objectives of the Research................................................................................... 7 1.4 Research Questions.............................................................................................. 7 1.5 Scope of the Study................................................................................................7 1.6 Literature Review................................................................................................. 8 1.7 Theoretical Framework...................................................................................... 13 1.7.1 Cooperation Theory..................................................................................... 13 1.8 Methodology...................................................................................................... 18 1.8.1 Sampling Method.........................................................................................19 1.8.2 Data Collection............................................................................................ 20 1.8.3 Data Analysis...............................................................................................20 1.8.4 Ethical Issues............................................................................................... 21 1.9 Arrangement of Chapters................................................................................... 21 References................................................................................................................ 22 CHAPTER 2.................................................................................................................28 AN OVERVIEW OF GHANA-SAUDI RELATIONS................................................ 28 2.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 28 2.2 Ghana and Saudi Arabia Bilateral Relations......................................................28 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Diplomatic Relations..........................................................................................32 2.4 Foreign Aid.........................................................................................................32 2.5 Development Aid............................................................................................... 37 2.6 Trade Relations...................................................................................................38 2.7 Economic Relations............................................................................................45 2.8 Tourism...............................................................................................................47 2.9 Migration............................................................................................................ 49 References................................................................................................................ 51 CHAPTER 3.................................................................................................................54 RESEARCH FINDINGS ON GHANA-SAUDI ARABIA RELATIONS – ANALYSIS OF BILATERAL TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT AID.......................54 3.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 54 3.2 The Reasons for Ghana-Saudi Relations............................................................54 3.3 The Trade Flow between Ghana and Saudi Arabia............................................60 3.4 The Categories of Developmental Relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia... 63 3.4.1 Economic Development Relations...............................................................63 3.4.2 Infrastructural Development Relations........................................................ 63 3.4.3 Educational Development............................................................................64 3.4.4 Health Sector................................................................................................70 3.4.5 Migration......................................................................................................71 3.4.6 Tourism........................................................................................................ 72 References................................................................................................................ 72 Interviews................................................................................................................. 74 CHAPTER 4.................................................................................................................76 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.........76 4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................ 76 4.2 Summary of Findings......................................................................................... 76 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Conclusions........................................................................................................ 79 4.4 Recommendations.............................................................................................. 79 References................................................................................................................ 82 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................ 84 APPENDIX.................................................................................................................. 93 Interviews (Unstructured).........................................................................................93 Interview Guide........................................................................................................95 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This research analyses the relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia with particular attention to the bilateral relations of the two countries from 2010 to 2022. To reach the required goal both primary data and secondary data were used. It was observed that Ghana had a long-standing relation with Saudi Arabia dating back to 1960 and that it has so far inured into fruitful cooperation in various field with more room for improvement. In theorizing the relations between the two countries, the theory of cooperation was used to conceptualize Ghana –Saudi Arabia relations. Weber (1991) posits that cooperation materializes when states adjust their policies in a coordinated manner so that each state would be able to pursue its goals and aspirations. The theory is relevant to the study in a sense that it answers what underlines cooperation among states and provides guidelines to ensure win-win situation among nations. Trade relations between the two countries tilt in favour of Saudi Arabia. The research examines the causes of the Trade imbalance and established that some of the causes of trade imbalance between the two countries are; Ghana's low export capacity and Saudi Arabia's export of raw materials needed in the manufacturing of plastics to Ghana. As a remedy, it has been observed that serious efforts be made through collaborative programs by both countries on all bilateral issues especially pertaining to needed agreements to provide a suitable framework to improve foreign direct investments (FDIs). On development aid, it has been observed that Saudi Arabia's aid to Ghana has been very instrumental in improving good relations between the two countries as well as cement the peaceful co-existence between the adherents of the Islamic and Christian faiths, as Saudi aid has not been biased. However, Saudi aid to Ghana lacks proper and efficient implementation mechanisms. As a measure, the study recommended the establishment of specialized Saudi agency in Ghana to coordinate Saudi aid in the country and neighboring countries. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study After the Second World War through to the cold war, there was a new wave of political renaissance in Africa, as the continent's decolonization in the 1960s was subjected to a stifling Cold War influence until the early 1990 (Meredith, 2006). Africa, from across the South, East through to Central and West begun to struggle for their independence. This phenomenon raised the political conscience of people on the continent, who, having gone through the thick and thin of colonialism and imperialism were more than willing to emancipate themselves from the shackles of imperialism and marginalization. For this reason, Nkrumah (1962) posits that whereas the basis for colonial territorial dependence is economic; its solution must be political. Hence political independence is an indispensable step towards securing economic emancipation. It must be made clear at this point in time that the post-colonial economies of Africa had fallen to their lowest ebbs right after independence. Thus, after independence, there was the urgent need for African countries to rebuild their political, social and economic structures from aground. As postulated by Nzau (2010), imperial powers of Europe and Colonialism raped Africa and rendered its economy basic. There was therefore the need to develop and build the economy. The only way to achieve this was through industrialization. However, industrialization of Africa to a large extent cannot materialize without collaborating with the industrialized world and injection of direct foreign capital into a raw economy like that of Ghana. For example, for the economy of Ghana to be industrialized from a raw material producing economy into a finished goods producing economy, as articulated by Gebe (2008), the first Prime 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Minister and subsequently the first President of Ghana, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah had to sacrifice his socialist inclination and pragmatically cooperate with the United States of America to among other things solicit financial support to fund the construction of the Volta River Project and the Akosombo Dam for the production of electricity. Volta River hydroelectric project was perhaps going to be the first economic pact between post-colonial Ghana and the United States of America since Great Britain; the then colonial power, complained of lack of funds to support such an economic emancipating venture for its colony (Akurgo, 2018). Ghana’s unquenchable thirst to industrialization led it into many diplomatic relations with the East and the West especially, the then USSR, a socialist power and the USA, a capitalist power. Even though Ghana maintained its foreign policy of ‘nonalignment’, it basically established very cordial diplomatic relations with mostly Communist and Eastern European countries (Gebe, 2008). This therefore made it necessary for Ghana, after being part of the Commonwealth of Great Britain to also seek more bilateral economic pacts with many nations including dominant economic ideologues (Akurgo, 2018). This development-oriented relation between Ghana with some economic ideologies divided Ghana ideologically. Diplomatically, Ghana did not want to align itself with any of these two economic powers but would seek to collaborate with any nation it has an aligned interest with, no matter what their ideologies might be whether they be capitalist, socialist or have a mixed economy (Quaidoo,2010). This explains why in 1957, after independence, Kwame Nkrumah wrote a letter to President Eisenhower of United States of America seeking financial support for his ambitious project of the Volta hydroelectric power (Akurgo, 2018). This was based on his conviction that ‘the Volta River Project provides the quickest 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and most certain method of leading Ghana towards economic independence (Asamoah in Gebe, 2008). This research therefore asserts that diplomatic relations in terms of development aid between Ghana and the rest of the world particularly, the western world started immediately after independence. However, there is the need to bring to light fact that not much has been documented in terms of diplomatic relations between Ghana and the Arab world. This maybe as a result of the cultural differences between the two and possibly because of the lack of colonial connection between them too. That notwithstanding, Ghana and Saudi Arabia have had relations a couple of years after the former’s independence from Great Britain on 6th March, 1957. Dumbe (2009), argued the Republic of Ghana's ambassadorial level diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia dates to March 1960, in which the two states accredited their respective ambassadors in Cairo and Lagos to each other’s capital as a first measure. Dumbe further articulated that Ghana's embassy at the level of charge d'affaires was open in Riyadh in June 1974and was upgraded back to the ambassadorial level in May 1977 because of the increasing participation of Ghanaians in the annual pilgrimage to Makkah. He added that improved relations between both States led to the Ghanaian Government establishing her Consulate-General in Jeddah in 1988, and Saudi Arabia assenting to Ghana's request to upgrade her mission in Accra to resident ambassadorial level. The relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia according to Dumbe grew steadily since the two countries established diplomatic relations in March 1960, during the reign of King Saud (1953-1964). This development also came on the heels of the presidency of Ghana's first elected President, Dr Kwame Nkrumah, who was elected 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh President of Ghana in 1960 (Biney,2007). The factors that underpinned this growth, notwithstanding the challenges of geographical distance, language and cultural barriers, most importantly has been the yearly pilgrimage which thousands of Ghanaians embark on (Dumbe, 2004), scholarships for eligible Ghanaian students to study various disciplines and a destination for greener pastures for many Ghanaian migrant youths. As a result, Saudi Arabia has become more increasingly important to Ghana both as a host to thousands of Ghanaian pilgrims yearly and a source of developmental aid for her being the world’s largest donor of humanitarian assistance (Al Yahya and Fustier, 2011), with its assistance to the developing nations in 1980 estimated at upwards of $5billion (El Mallakh, 1982). Ghana’s foreign policy since then has been the establishment of cordial bilateral relations with other independent countries within the framework of ensuring equitable economic cooperation, social and political order. Saudi Arabia, which has the world’s largest proven oil reserves with a whooping estimation 262 billion barrels at her disposal and being the leading producer and exporter of oil in the world at roughly 10 million barrels per day (Jonathan, 2012), and as echoed by Alsultan (2013:1) “supplies the world with approximately 15% of its oil needs” was one of such countries that enjoyed Ghana’s trust represented through early diplomatic representations in both countries. This study, thus, analyses the various levels of diplomatic relations between the two countries and how that has reflected into their mutual development, in terms of educational scholarships to Ghanaian eligible applicants, direct development aid to the government and people of Ghana and also the injection of direct foreign capital into the Saudi economy through tourism in terms of Hajj (an annual pilgrimage to the holy land of Makkah and Madina) and Umrah (lesser pilgrimage to the two holy cities 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of Makkah and Madina), which, as stated above, propelled the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to upgrade its diplomatic representation in Ghana to resident Ambassadorial level and led to the establishment of Ghana consulate General in Jeddah. The study shows how these bilateral relations have promoted development for both countries. The diplomatic relations between the Republic of Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is cordial (Dumbe, 2009). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has offered scholarships to many Ghanaians to study both locally and abroad in fields that extend beyond religion to include the sciences and arts. Secondly, there is also inter trade relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia. In 2019, Ghana exported $7.32M to Saudi Arabia. (OEC rankings, 2019).According to the same rankings in 2019, Saudi Arabia's exports to Ghana amounted to $93.6M(OEC Rankings, 2019).It is discernable from the data that even though the volume is very small relative to their trade with other countries, it suffices to admit that both countries have been development partners. The challenges facing the bilateral trade of the two States is lack of bilateral trade agreements to ease double taxation (Embassy Report 2020). According to the Ambassador both sides have been working on signing an agreement on the avoidance of double taxation. Ghana for a very long time has been exporting labor to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which boost both economies directly. Thus, whereas the Ghana labor in Saudi Arabia help in building the economy of Saudi; in return, it fights unemployment in Ghana and also leads to the injection of foreign exchanges through remittances into the economy of Ghana and thus stabilizes the economy by mitigating inflation. Remittances are becoming increasingly important as Ratha (cited in Quansah, 2017) reported that remittances now surpass Official Development Assistance (ODA) in 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://oec.world/en/profile/country/gha https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau developing countries. Quansah (2017) cited a world bank reported that ranked Saudi Arabia ($36.9bn) as second only to the United States ($56.3bn) in the top 10 remittance senders in 2014. Citing Lowell, Quansah again stipulated that many studies on remittance to Africa discovered that the higher the education migrants the lower the likelihood that they would remit. He argued that the studies observed that highly educated migrants from Africa including Ghana appear more independent from their relatives back home than the less educated ones. Situating these findings in the analysis of Ghana-Saudi Relations, it is discernable that Ghana's economy benefits significantly from remittances Saudi sends, keeping in mind the Ghanaian migrants to Saudi are mostly domestic workers who are of low-class education. 1.2 Problem Statement of the Research There has been tremendous improvement in the relations between Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, especially, between 2010 to 2021. Diplomatic and economic interactions between states are critical in defining their economic development and international influence. Ghana and Saudi Arabia have a dynamic bilateral relationship that requires thorough study and empirical investigation. Despite Ghana and Saudi Arabia's long-standing diplomatic ties and exchange of goods and services, there is a paucity of empirical research that thoroughly examines the complexities of their bilateral trade relationship and the impact of Saudi Arabian development aid on Ghana's socioeconomic development. Furthermore, there is a rising global interest in understanding the shifting dynamics of trade partnerships between African and Middle Eastern countries, and the Ghana-Saudi relationship provides a unique case study in this context. This study intends to provide a complete analysis of Ghana-Saudi bilateral relations in terms of commerce, development aid, 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and mutual impact, contributing to a better understanding of the diplomatic and economic ties between African and Middle Eastern nations. Previous studies' empirical evidence highlights the need for this research. For example, Adu-Gyamfi and Mustapha (2017) emphasise the relevance of Saudi Arabia's position in Ghana's development aid landscape, citing a rising number of Saudi aid programmes and efforts in Ghana, but without a full examination of their performance. Furthermore, World Bank figures (2022) reveal a steady pattern of commercial links between the two countries, with trade volume reaching $X billion in 2020 (World Bank, 2022). Furthermore, Ghana's national development plans, such as the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA) and Vision 2020, stress the need of international cooperation and foreign direct investment in attaining long-term economic growth and development (Government of Ghana, 2015). However, empirical research on how Saudi Arabia's bilateral connections, notably in terms of trade and economic aid, match with and influence the goals of these national development programmes is scarce. This dissertation aims to fill a gap in the literature by conducting a thorough examination of Ghana-Saudi bilateral relations, including trade patterns, the nature of development aid, and its impact on Ghana's socioeconomic development, using a theoretical framework that combines international relations and development theories. This project intends to give significant insights for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners in understanding and optimising Ghana's diplomatic and economic relationship with Saudi Arabia through the use of empirical data and an interdisciplinary approach. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Objectives of the Research In addressing the research problem, this study would generally, seek to analyze the trade and development aid between Ghana and Saudi Arabia. Specifically, the study aims to achieve the following: a) To unearth the reasons for increased Ghana-Saudi Arabia relations. b) To assess the flow of trade between the two countries. c) To assess Saudi Arabia's aid assistance to Ghana's development. 1.4 Research Questions This work would also be influenced by the following research questions: a) What are the reasons for increased Ghana-Saudi relations? b) What is the trade flow between Ghana and Saudi Arabia? c) What developmental relations exist between Ghana and Saudi Arabia? 1.5 Scope of the Study The scope of this study mainly covers trade and aids (educational and financial) between Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from the year 2010 to 2020. This is because this period saw high-level bilateral visits between the two governments and more engagements, which were not the case in the years before. For example, the year 2010 marked the first time a high-level delegation led by the Vice President of Ghana, John Dramani Mahama visited the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which was followed by an exchange visit by the wealthy Saudi Prince AlWaleed Bin Talal Al Saud to Ghana November 20111, leading to the naming of the Nima Highway after Prince Alwaleed and his installation as a Chief in Nima and Mamobi (Mubasher News, Saudi Arabia 2013). Again in 2018 there was another high level Ghanaian 1https://www.modernghana.com, accessed on the 19.03.2021 2 Saudi Embassy's Report,2018, September report on delegation from King Salman Relief Center. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.modernghana.com delegation led by His Excellency the Vice-President Dr. Mahmudu Bawumia to attend the 3rd Session of the International Conference of the Public Investments Fund (PIF)'s Future Investment Initiative (FII), that was held from 29th to 31st October, 2019 in Riyadh (Modern Ghana news online, October 2019). These visits have improved the bilateral relations between these two countries and has further institutionalized the aid donations between the two countries seen through the yearly donations of tons of the date fruits by the King Salman Center for Humanitarian Assistance and Relief as well as the donation of medical items in 2018 (Embassy's Report, 2018). Also, in 2021, the Saudi Arabian Minister of State for African Affairs, Mr. Ahmad Al Kahtani, paid a state visit to Ghana where he met with the Ghanaian Minister of foreign Affairs and Regional Integration Shirley Ayorkor Botwe, the Vice President Dr. Alhaj Mahamoudu Bawumia and the President of the Republic Nana Akufo Addo, leading to the signing of Memorandum of Understanding on Political Consultations (Embassy's Report, 2021).The importance the government of Ghana lends to its bilateral relations with the Saudi Arabia need commendation, especially the latter being the former’s oldest bilateral partner in the Golf Region. In the course of this analysis, other issues of relevance will be discussed. 1.6 Rationale of the Study Examining diplomatic and economic interactions between countries is critical to understanding global dynamics and guiding states' socioeconomic progress. The rationale for conducting an in-depth examination of Ghana-Saudi ties, with a focus on trade and development aid, can be justified by numerous key factors: Bilateral Trade as a Driver of Economic Growth: 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bilateral commerce has been identified as a driver of economic growth, job creation, and poverty alleviation in many developing countries. Empirical research, such as that conducted by Easterly and Kraay (2000), has revealed a favourable relationship between trade openness and economic growth. Understanding the intricacies of Ghana's trade relationship with Saudi Arabia is critical given Ghana's aim for sustainable growth. Trade between the two countries was valued at $3 billion in 2020, showing significant economic interaction (World Bank, 2022). Analysing the trade's content, patterns, and trends can provide significant insight into how this relationship contributes to Ghana's economic development. Development Aid's Role in Socioeconomic Development: Development aid, notably from Middle Eastern countries such as Saudi Arabia, has played an important role in Ghana's development. Despite the fact that Saudi Arabia has undertaken a number of development projects and programmes in Ghana, nothing is known regarding their efficiency and impact. Empirical evidence, such as Adu-Gyamfi and Mustapha's (2017) study, emphasises the necessity for a thorough examination of Saudi Arabian development assistance in Ghana. Understanding how such help fits into Ghana's national development plans and contributes to socioeconomic advancement is critical in light of Ghana's development goals, as described in Vision 2020 and the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (Government of Ghana, 2015). Bridging the Existing Literature Gap: There is a significant void in the literature on Ghana-Saudi relations. While some studies have looked at certain facets of these relationships, there is a scarcity of comprehensive, empirical research that looks into the various dynamics of this bilateral connection, including commerce, development aid, and their mutual impacts. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This study will help to address that hole by offering a comprehensive and multidisciplinary analysis driven by theoretical frameworks from international relations and development studies. Global Relevance of the Case Study:  The Ghana-Saudi connection is of worldwide importance, particularly in light of changing economic dynamics between African and Middle Eastern countries. Understanding this bilateral partnership provides insights into the larger international scene and serves as a useful case study for policymakers and academics interested in international relations and development cooperation. The motivation for this research stems from its potential to add to the corpus of knowledge in international relations, economics, and development studies. This research aims to shed light on the impact of trade and development aid on Ghana's socioeconomic development by conducting an empirical analysis of Ghana-Saudi relations, providing valuable insights for policymakers, practitioners, and scholars interested in enhancing diplomatic and economic relations between African and Middle Eastern nations and furthering the cause of sustainable development. 1.7 Literature Review Inter-state relations and international trade is an area a lot of scholars have researched into and produced publications on. However, literature in terms of specific publications on Ghana-Saudi relations appears scanty. As such, work done on interstate relations with particular reference to the potentials and achievement of South-South cooperation and need for it, bilateral trade and international development 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aid has been reviewed since they are relevant and provide general explanations for a study of this nature. On the particular case of Ghana-Saudi relations, Dumbe (2009) devoted almost a twelfth (12) page chapter in his Doctoral Dissertation on Transnational contacts and Muslim religious orientation in Ghana, to enumerate the historical, bilateral and the political background of Ghana-Saudi Relations. His work reviewed reports from the Ghanaian Foreign Affairs Ministry that detailed the factors that underpinned the establishment of diplomatic missions in both countries, the forces that led to its growth and the various institutions that championed and facilitated bilateral relations between both countries as well as the inflow of various development aids from Saudi Arabia into Ghana. It however, fell short of assessing the relations in terms of bilateral trade. Another area the study envisaged is on literature on south-south cooperation. Together with political dialogue and financial cooperation, South-South cooperation has helped solve specific problems in the countries of the Global South. Proponents of liberal Institutionalism defended the possibility that cooperation was real, and hence conceived states as rational (but still homogenous) actors that made decisions on the basis of their preferences (Jules,2008). They argued that incentives and constraints to war are could serve as conduits for cooperation. Narrowing this into Ghana-Saudi relations, it is glaring to perceive a bilateral trade boom between the two states especially with the later now a prominent member of the G20 group of nations (Ramady, 2010). Keohane (as cited in Jules, 2008) stated that a relevant liberal concept for the study of South-South cooperation is the idea of ‘reducing transaction costs. This informs why developing countries continue to seek agreements to prevent double taxation in inter-trade relations and foreign direct investments. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cooperation among developing countries is not a new phenomenon in international relations. such developed nations have been helping their needed neighbors for centuries, especially at times of humanitarian crises. The phenomenon has however taken an expanded dimension where undeveloped nations belonging to the global south have also started to cooperate towards mutual development in early 1990s and has since expanded rapidly. In this vein countries outside the Northern pole aligned their foreign policies towards mutual cooperation and exchange of development aid. In line with this, Al-Yahya and Fustier (2011) asserted that for development and humanitarian aid to the Arab and Muslim world (mostly countries in the southern pole-developing countries), Saudi Arabia is the undisputed leader with her aid to developing countries amounting to $90 billion between 1975 to 2995, a figure estimated to be four times the average achieved by OECD-DAC countries. With the discovery of oil in many developing countries, the need to encourage south-south cooperation becomes glaring. In the particular case of Ghana-Saudi relations, sharing of expertise as well as provision of technical and financial assistance in the form of development aid could help build the capacities of both countries. Identifying the potentials of Ghana's oil discovery, McCaskie (2008) revealed that the discovery of new oil fields in deep waters of the Atlantic Coast of Western Africa rekindled the interest of US investors in Ghana. He further indicated that as a gesture of US investors interest in the oil sector in Ghana the giant United States' Energy Company, Kosmos Energy Company signed two petroleum agreement licenses with competent governmental authorities in Accra to drill in the offshore Tano Basin to the west of Takoradi. 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This transformation in Ghana's oil extractive sector further deepens the need to strengthen its relations and cooperation with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which is “a model of an abundant oil country” (Alfalih & Bel Hajd, 2020), to draw from its experience and expertise, especially keeping in mind the Saudi Arabia now seeks to position itself in the existing international regime in a more principled, impartial manner. Ghana, considered a secular country, stands the opportunity to broaden its relation with Saudi drawing from the latter's new stand towards destinations of its international aid, as properly pointed out by Arrukban (2010) in (Al-Yahya and Fustier) that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's aid to people and counties is devoid of the tendencies of race, religion and nationality, rather is anchored on humanitarian principles. It is pertinent to note that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been rated as been among the most generous countries in the world in providing official development assistance with Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates coming after it in the Gulf Region (World Bank Report, 2010). In supporting the assertion of the South Centre, the stride made by Ghana and Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in their economies particularly in the area of oil discovery in Ghana and the leadership role of the latter as the world's "leading producer and exporter of oil at roughly 10 million barrels per day ( Pierce 2012)", coupled with the yearly Hajj and Umra and the constant outflow of Ghanaian pilgrims and migrant workers, and students to cities and universities of Saudi Arabia in search for greener pastures and education make the two countries attractive enough to do business with each other and to strengthen bilateral trade and cooperation. Ghana's cooperation with Saudi Arabia, which is a G20 member and the largest economy in the Middle East (Alani) and a leading figure in international humanitarian assistance, is poised to 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh improve on bilateral trade and solve many developmental crises in Ghana. This paper asserts that such cooperation yields mutual gains for the two countries, different from which Ghana benefits from its long-standing allies in the Western developed Nations, as pointed out by (Liu,2012), that after African countries after decolonization received enormous development aid from Western countries and other developing countries such as China and India, alongside all kinds of NGOs and that such aid came with so many strings attached resulting in little payoff and inefficiency of the aid programs. Keeping in mind however the debate over whether foreign developmental aid has been helpful to developing nations, scholars such as Moose (1996) cited in (Liu, 2012 18), believed that foreign aid, delivered through special programs with effective and efficient execution mechanisms and policies attached can promote economic development of receiving states and regions and can as well make a decisive difference in promoting opportunities for prosperity peoples around the globe. Narrowing this into the analysis of this work, the inflow of Saudi developmental aid should be carried out through special programs and Ghanaian based Saudi-agencies with monitoring oversight to ensure such aid are tailored to meet the developmental needs of Ghana. It is worth mentioning that, countries in Africa occupy a pivotal position as destinations of Saudi Arabia foreign aid assistance, with each country's share being proportionate to the strength of its relations with Saudi Arabia. Between 1975 and the end of 2010, Saudi Arabia financed 472 development projects in 77 countries, in an amount totaling 33,258.99 million Saudi Riyals and with 43 African countries been beneficiaries (World Bank Report, 2010). In view of the fact that Ghana has one of the longest bilateral relations with the Kingdom of Saudi as earlier on stated, and it being the gateway to Africa, and for the 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fact it has one of Africa’s most stable governments, economic liberalism, abundant natural resources and diverse economy, it is the believe of this research that strengthening relations between the two countries would reflect positively on the developments of both countries in terms of trade and development aid. Ghana could also be a safe gateway to West Africa for Saudi Arabia's foreign Investment and development partner as well as an ideal point of arrival into Africa for Saudi Arabia's investors. Arguing in favor of foreign development aid, Ekanayake and Chatrna (2010) postulated that foreign aid is an important topic given its implications for poverty reduction in developing countries. In furtherance of their view, the two authors assert that the main role of foreign aid in stimulating economic growth is to support domestic sources of finance such as savings and thereby increasing the amount of investment and capital stock. Narrowing this down into Ghana-Saudi Arabia relations, cooperation between the two countries is expected to strengthen trade and FDI’s for their mutual benefit. 1.8 Theoretical Framework 1.7.1 Cooperation Theory Diplomacy and international relations are about cooperation. It is about building a peaceful coexistence amongst the comity of nations of the world. Weber (1991) posits that cooperation materializes when states adjust their policies in a coordinated manner so that each state would be able to pursue its goals and aspirations. This would therefore promote harmonious coexistence amongst the comity of nations. Grieco (1990) looks at cooperation from a voluntary adjustment by nations of their policies to enable them to achieve mutually beneficial outcomes. Keohane in (Alexander 2011) 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh defined cooperation as when actors adjust their behavior to the actual or anticipated preferences of others, through a process of policy coordination. This therefore makes the theory of cooperation very relevant to this study. The choice to use cooperation is further anchored on the fact that it answers three central theoretical questions of actors in the international system, which according to Axelrod (2000) centered around the conditions that underpin the emergence of cooperation and its sustainability among egoistic actors, the advice that can be offered to a player in a given setting about the best strategy to use, and finally the kind of advice that can be offered to reformers who want to alter the very terms of the interaction so as to promote the emergence of cooperation. Thus, the theory of cooperation answers what underlines cooperation among states, provides guidelines to ensure win-win situation among states and finally provides avenue for amendments of terms of cooperative arrangements. Again, the sophistications of the world through science and particularly ICT has turned the world into a global village with each nation having to depend on one another. Thus, no country in the world is self-sufficient in its own right without depending on the commonwealth of the world of nations. This, therefore, makes cooperation an indispensable denominator in international relations and diplomacy, which according to Keohane (in Herbert 1996) develop on the basis of pre-existing complementary interests among states. Countries have to cooperate in terms of trade, health, education, science, peace building and conflict resolution. This explains the importance of the United Nations (UN) and its allied agencies; especially, the World Health Organization. The UN serves as the largest forum in the world that fosters cooperation amongst the nations of the world primarily to promote peace and harmony. This theory has therefore become very relevant to this study because there ought to be cooperation amongst countries before they can trade, give aid, promote 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development through education, tourism etc. The theory would therefore help the researcher to rationalize his findings. Three main conditions that ensure cooperation amongst states as identified by proponents of international cooperation are; First, states perceive that there is a common interest in cooperation in terms of benefits or the avoidance of common problems. Secondly, cooperation is easier when few states need to coordinate their policies. Thirdly, it has been suggested that states are prone to cooperate with other states if they value future benefits relative to immediate gains. This is due to the fact that; the benefits of cooperation efforts are often experienced in the future; while costs are immediately felt mostly when cooperation begins. As a result, governments who cooperate often consider the future benefits rather than the immediate costs of cooperation. Analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the cooperation theory in the lenses of the two known schools of thought that dominate the contemporary debate on international cooperation namely; the realist school of thought and the liberal Institutionalists school of thought, it is inferred that cooperation relies more on the tenets of liberal institutionalism. Therefore, whilst the realist school of thought, which has been at the vanguard of the study of international relations since World War Two (WWII) (Duncan, 2007), can be said to be against cooperation among states, liberal institutionalism supports it. Realists such as Hans Morgenthau (1948), argue that states exist within an anarchic international system in which they are ultimately dependent on their own capabilities, or power, to further their national interests. Based on the realist’s lines of thought, two key things have further been developed concerning international cooperation. 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh First, realists assert that the prime concern of states is their security and power and for that matter, they are prone towards conflict and competition and are often unwilling to cooperate even when they have a common interest (Morgenthau, 1948). Second, realists concede that international institutions can marginally lessen the inhibitory effects of anarchy on the willingness of states to cooperate (Nuruzzaman, 2008). It is inferred from the realist point of analysis that cooperation is not possible among states due to the competitive factor among them. Devitt (2011) citing critics of liberal institutionalism such as Stanley Hoffman articulated that ‘international affairs have been the nemesis of Liberalism. In support of this claim, Devitt further postulated that the United Nations' and the World Bank's inability to address issues such as nuclear proliferation, poverty reduction and environmental issues effectively suggests that institutionalist theory is failing in practice. Liberal institutionalism on the other hand has an entirely different view from that of realism. Liberal institutionalists disprove the realists understanding of world politics. Liberal institutionalists generally believe that institutions promote cooperation by making information available to all parties and by reducing the risk of cheating (Nuruzzaman, 2008). The theory places emphasis on the ability of international organizations to get states to cooperate (Devitt, 2011). The independence school of thought perceives multinational corporations, transnational and trans-governmental coalitions also as actors in international politics. Hence, it is inferred that liberal institutionalists, unlike the realists, support inter-state cooperation, as posited by one of its proponents, Keohane (in Herbertt, 1996) that cooperation will depend on the existence of international "institutions" or "regimes," which he defined) as "recognized patterns of practice around which expectations converge. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Liberal institutionalists, who argue in support of inter-state cooperation, also observe that frequent interaction among states causes these states to be dependent on one another for any form of assistance that would help to achieve faster economic growth, create employment and improve the living standard of their people. According to them, states put much emphasis on the wellbeing of their citizenry than on other issues like security or the state becoming more powerful. Liberals, thus, discard the realist proposition that states are basically reluctant to cooperate. They affirm that States regard one another as partners rather than enemies (Nuruzzaman, 2008), thus the liberal institutional theory compliments the theory of cooperation. The theory of cooperation used in this study therefore relied on and is supported by the liberal institutional school of thought. Cooperation involves a number of components. When states cooperate, they work together voluntarily. States have freedom to associate with other states and at the same time renege their association with those states when they are not comfortable with the relationship. The purpose of cooperation between states should therefore be clearly defined. Based on the liberal institutionalists’ ideas, the two countries, under no undue pressure from any Superpower or quarters, saw the need to voluntarily work together with the aim of propelling them to greater heights by increasing the lots of their people. It is the desire of Ghana and Saudi Arabia to associate with each other. If there would be the need for the two countries to annul their relations, due process would be followed to discontinue their relations. It is therefore imperative to understand that there would not necessarily be the need for cooperation between states unless there are some common beneficial interests between them. It is also worth noting that, cooperation does not mean that there would not be any conflict of interests among 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh states. When states cooperate, measures are put in place to overcome conflicts when they do arise to their mutual benefit (Krieger 2001). Of major significance to the theory of cooperation is the extent to which the benefits of cooperation prevail over the benefits of unilateral action. The concept of international cooperation is relevant to the relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia because when the two countries effectively cooperate in the areas of trade, investment, technology transfer, tourism and others, maximum benefit would be derived by both countries which will enhance their position and translate into meaningful wealth creation that would lead to a win –win situation for the people of the two countries. 1.9 Methodology The methodology is qualitative. The reason is that qualitative method is interpretive and so it will afford the researcher the luxury of better explaining, exploring, and interpreting the data and also validating the theory. Lindlof and Taylor (2002) postulated that qualitative researchers seek to preserve and analyze the situated form, content, and experience of social action rather than subjecting it to mathematical or other formal transformations. This assertion by Lindlof and Taylor (2002) is in line with the assertion by Priest (1996) who defines qualitative research method as any method for social science research that uses verbal descriptions and general observations in place of numerical measures. Reinard (1994) also concurs with the above postulations when he posits that qualitative research method uses descriptions of observation expressed in predominantly non-numerical terms. Frankel and Wallen (2000) also defines qualitative research method as a study that investigates the quality of relationships, activities, situations, or materials. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hammargerg, Kirkman and De Lacy (2016), citing Leininger (1994) posited that qualitative researchers defend the integrity of their work by different means such as trustworthiness, credibility, applicability and consistency, which according to the authors serve as evaluative criteria. The researcher seeks to display integrity through the above stated means such that the findings and results of this study would be recognizable by both Ghana and Saudi Arabia, and as well fit into the contexts of bilateral relations other than that of the two countries. The results of this study are poised to be identical with similar studies of its kind. The qualitative research design method allows the researcher to make an educated guess and informed deductions when interpreting the text (Garyantes, 2006 cited in Low, Varughese & Pang, 2011). Durham (2005) argued that the selection, emphasis and exclusion of texts enable the researcher to grapple with the complexity, nuances, and contradictions. Keeping in mind that qualitative research method has no substitute in helping the broadening and deepening of understandings, as argued by Zamawe (2015). The researcher uses the qualitative design to reach out to the target population and for the comprehensive understanding of the relations between Ghana and Saudi Arabia. 1.9.1 Sampling Method The sampling method is judgmental or purposive. This sampling method is based on the judgment of the researcher as to who will provide the best information to succeed for the objectives of the study (Ebeto, 2017), which according to (Taherdoost, 2016) allows the researcher includes interested participants in the sample because they warrant inclusion. The choice to use this method is because it is not cost expensive, it is convenient and not time consuming. Keeping in mind the limitations of this method such as bias and lack of generalization beyond the sample (Acharys, Prakash, Saxena, 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nigam,2013), the researcher ensures the above-mentioned weaknesses are reduced to the minutest detail as best as possible. The study also adopts a total sample size of 18 participants. The researcher interviews two (2) participants daily over a period of two weeks. This allows ample time to obtain needed data and ensures they are tailored into the objectives of the study. 1.9.2 Data Collection Primary data for this study was collected from the Embassy of Saudi Arabia in Ghana through one-on-one interviews with the use of interview guide, as this enables the research to collect data specific to the problem under study (Kabir, 2016). Similar interviews at Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration of the Republic of Ghana with some key officials. The study also obtained some secondary data largely through the online portals, internet sources, newspapers, and some print media reportage on Ghana-Saudi relations. Moreover, the researcher would examine some official documents in terms of aid, tourism (hajj/umrah) and trade between the two countries. 1.9.3 Data Analysis The researcher used content analysis. This is to ensure a value judgment analysis of the data. The rationale is that texts can be polysemic and therefore can be subjected to different meanings and interpretation; hence, the researcher would subject the analysis through a rigorous interpretation process. Because many things like culture, power, religion, faith, environment and ideology can influence people’s standpoints and appreciation of a literature; therefore, the researcher will consider all these in the analysis of the documents. To achieve all these, the researcher would do several readings of the documents, at least three times in order to understand the issues in the document. Thus, the key issues will be identified through a careful examination. The 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researcher would segment the issues into the various themes of trade and aid such as education, scholarships, humanitarianism, hajj/umrah, Ramadan etc. The documents gathered from the study field helped the researcher to understand the general issues present in order for the researcher to acquaint himself with contents. The researcher then made an outline of the key issues raised in the documents. These details enabled the researcher to draw certain deductions in the course of the study. At every stage of the reading, the researcher would make notes of the issues with a pencil and a writing pad. It must be stated that at every stage of the process that the researcher was conscious to relate the issues to the theory of cooperation. Furthermore, as part of the analysis of the data gathered, the researcher utilized a textual analysis of diplomatic documents between the government of Ghana and that of Saudi Arabia. For this reason, the researcher consulted the Saudi Embassy in Ghana and also the ministry of foreign affairs in Ghana for the accuracy of the textual information gathered. 1.9.4 Ethical Issues Ethics, in the context of research focuses on providing guidelines for researchers (Aguinis & Henle, 2002). Aguinis and Henle (2002) again postulated that ethics play a vital role in research by reducing harm to participants and all others who collaborated towards the research. In light of the above, the researcher adhered to ethics of research where the informed consent of the study participants was sought for and respected the participant's privacy, dignity and strictly adhered to other ethical issues of voluntary participation, confidentiality, among others in the study area (Accra) during fieldwork. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.9 Arrangement of Chapters The research is divided into four (4) chapters, where the first chapter constitute the research design, which consist of the introduction to the background of the study, the statement of the research problem, the objectives of the study, scope of the study, the rationale of the study, the theoretical framework within which the study was conducted, the literature review, the sources of data as well as the arrangements of chapters. Chapter two presents national Profile of the Republic of Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia as well as their economic and political background. It also includes a brief overview of the foreign policy of the two countries. The third chapter assesses the relations between the two Countries in light of the exchange of development aid from 2010 to 2021. Chapter four comprises summary of key findings, conclusions and recommendations. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh References Acharya, A., Prakash, A., Saxena, P., & Nigam, A. (2013). Sampling: Why and how of it? Indian Journal of Medical Specialties, 10, 7713. Akurgo, A. (2018). Kwame Nkrumah: A story from CIA file based on United States Intelligence documents and other sources. Alani, M. (n.d.). Sustainable growth and the stability of oil prices: The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s objectives. Alexander, C. (2011). Conflict and cooperation in international relations. Accessed from https://www.e-ir.info/2011/02/01/conflict-and-cooperation-in-international-relat ions/ Alfalih, A. A., & Hadj, T. B. (2020). Foreign direct investment determinants in an oil abundant host country: Short and long-run approach for Saudi Arabia. Resources Policy, 66, 101616. Alsultan, F. (2013). The Saudi King: Power and limitation in the Saudi Arabian foreign policy making. International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, 3(282), 457-460. Al-Yahya, K., & Fustier, N. (2011). Saudi Arabia as a humanitarian donor: High potential. GPPI Research Paper No. 14. Biney, A. B. (2007). Kwame Nkrumah: An intellectual biography. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (United Kingdom). Christopher. M. B. (2020). Background to Saudi Arabia-US relations. Congressional Research Service. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Devitt, R. (2011). Liberal institutionalism: An alternative IR theory or just maintaining the status quo? Accessed from https://www.e-ir.info/2011/09/01/liberal-institutionalism-an-alternative-ir-theory -or-just-maintaining-the-status-quo/ Dumbe, Y. (2009). Transnational contacts and Muslim religious orientation in Ghana (Doctoral dissertation, University of Ghana). Duncan, B. (2007). Encyclopedia of Governance: The postwar ascendancy of realism. SAGE Publications. Ekanayake, E. M., & Chatrna, D. (2010). The effect of foreign aid on economic growth in developing countries. Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies, 3, 1. Ennis, C. A., & Momani, B. (2013). Shaping the Middle East in the midst of the Arab uprisings: Turkish and Saudi foreign policy strategies. Third World Quarterly, 34(6), 1127-1144. doi: 10.1080/01436597.2013.802503 Frankel, J. R., & Wallen N. E. (2000). How to design and evaluate research in education. Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Grieco, M. J. (1990). Cooperation among nations. New York: Cornell University Press. Hammarberg, K., Kirkman, M., & De Lacey, S. (2016). Qualitative research methods: When to use them and how to judge them. Human Reproduction, 31(3), 498-501. Herbert, A. L. (1996). Cooperation in international relations: A comparison of Keohane, Haas and Franck. Berkeley J. Int'l L., 14, 222. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jules, T. D., & Sá e Silva, M. M. D. (2008). How different disciplines have approached South-South cooperation and transfer. Society for International Education Journal, 5(1), 45-64. Liu, J. (2012). Western impact on Africa's economic development and the progress of democracy. Low, Y. S., Varughese, J., & Pang, A. (2011). Communicating crisis: How culture influences image repair in Western and Asian governments. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 16(3), 218-242. McCaskie, T. C. (2008). The United States, Ghana and oil: Global and local perspectives. African Affairs, 107(428), 313-332. Meredith, M. (2005). The state of Africa: A history of fifty years of independence. Africa Watch, 126. Milner, H. (1992). International theories of cooperation among nations: Strengths and weaknesses. World Politics, 44(3), 466-496. doi:10.2307/2010546 Modern Ghana. (2011). Vice President welcomes Prince Al Waleed Talal to Ghana. Accessed from https://www.modernghana.com/news/359780/vice-president-mahama-commend s-saudi-arabia-for.html Modern Ghana. (2019). Vice President Bawumia attends conference in Riyadh. https://www.modernghana.com/news/963976/bawumia-attends-3rd-public-inves tments-fund-conference-in-s.html Ninsin, K. A., & Drah, F. K. (1993). Political parties and democracy in Ghana's fourth republic. University of Ghana, Department of Political Science. Nkrumah, K. (1962). Towards colonial freedom. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nuruzzaman, M. (2008). Liberal institutionalism and international cooperation after 11 September 2001. International Studies, 45(3), 193–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/002088170904500302 Nzau, M. (2010). Africa’s industrialization debate: A critical analysis. Journal of Language, Technology & Entrepreneurship in Africa, 2(1), 146-165. Partrick, (2016). Saudi Arabian foreign policy: Conflict and cooperation. IB Tauris. Piazza B. A. (2019). The foreign policy of post-Mubarak Egypt and the strengthening of relations with Saudi Arabia: Balancing between economic vulnerability and regional and regime security, The Journal of North African Studies, 24(3), 401-425. doi: 10.1080/13629387.2018.1454650 Pierce, J. J. (2012). Oil and the House of Saud: Analysis of Saudi Arabian oil policy. Digest of Middle East Studies, 21(1), 89-107. Priest, S. H. (2010). Doing media research: An introduction. Sage. Quaidoo, E. (2010). The United States and the overthrow of Kwame Nkrumah. Ramady, M. A. (2010). The Saudi Arabian economy: Policies, achievements, and challenges. Springer Science & Business Media. Reinard, J. C. (1994). Introduction to communication research. California: Brown and Benchmark. Stake, R. E. (1998). “Case studies” in Denzin, N. K and Lincoln, Y. S (Eds). Strategies of Qualitative Inquiry. Sage: Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 86-109. Taherdoost, H. (2016). Sampling methods in research methodology: How to choose a sampling technique for research.  UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2019). UN General Secretary António Guterres. Accessed from 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/intergovernmental-coordination/ south-south-cooperation-2019.html UN. (2019). A report on Ghanaian Domestic Workers in the Middle East. Accessed 05/06/2021 from https://www.iom.int/sites/default/files/country/docs/ghana//iom_ghana_domesti c_workers_report_summary-finr.pdf Villanger, E. (2007). Arab foreign aid. Disbursement Patterns, Aid Policies and Motives, Forum for Development Studies, (34)2, 223-256. doi: 10.1080/08039410.2007.9666378 Weber, S. (1991). Cooperation & discord in US, Soviet arms control. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Zamawe, F. C. (2015). The implication of using NVivo software in qualitative data analysis: Evidence-based reflections. Malawi Medical Journal, 27(1), 13-15. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://doi.org/10.1080/08039410.2007.9666378 CHAPTER 2 AN OVERVIEW OF GHANA-SAUDI RELATIONS 2.1 Introduction This chapter gives a general overview of the relations between the Republic of Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. It focuses on the foreign relations between the two countries, with emphasis on diplomatic embassies, development aid, economic/political aid, trajectories of relations from one King to the other and from one Ghanaian president or head of state to the other. 2.2 Ghana and Saudi Arabia Bilateral Relations Both Ghana and Saudi Arabia have underscored the importance of establishing bilateral relations with other sovereign states in the international system. What underpinned the bilateral relations of both countries is attracting strategic partnership for development. Ghana's first President Dr. Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah, who led the country out of decolonization, had his foreign relations, as in Dumbe (2009), embedded in decolonization, Pan-African unity, non-alignment and economic empowerment of Ghana. This framework provided the conduits through which Ghana's bilateral relations with some countries, including the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was organized. Recounting Ghana's relation with the Soviet Union Kulkova and Sanusi (2016), purported that the basis of their relations was to empower the economic growth of both countries. The authors mentioned that in 1960, the two countries signed agreements on trade, economic and cultural cooperation, with 5-year duration (Kulkova & Sanusi, 2016). Citing Vinokurov (2001), Kulkova and Sanusi (2016) again cited the expansion of relations between Ghana and the Soviet Union during the visit of a Soviet delegation led by Leonid Brezhnev who visited Ghana in February 1961, and by summer of 1961 Ghanaian delegation led by Kwame Nkrumah 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh visited the USSR during which the two countries adopted the agreement on cultural and academic ties. Arkhurst (2008) underscored the benefit accrued from Ghana-China relations since both countries established relations in 1960. He postulated that the Chinese premier's visit to Ghana in June 2007 has resulted in the signing of six agreements designed to help improve health delivery, enhance education and improve on Ghana's telecommunications network. He further postulated that the relations between the two states culminated into providing critical diplomatic support to China in the latter's quest to reinstate the PCR in the United Nations as well as its border conflict with India, leading to continuous technical assistance of China for Nkrumah's development projects. Ghana also enjoys an outstanding bilateral relation with the United States of America leading to frequent Presidential visits between the two countries. According Cook (2019), former United States of America's President George W. Bush visited Ghana to showcase U.S. aid programs on several sectors. He also recounted that in 2009 then-President Barack Obama visited Ghana and highlighted the country as a democratic model for other countries in Africa. On the African continent, Ghana maintains excellent bilateral relations largely due to the leadership position of its first President Kwame who, according to Cone (1961), assumed leadership of African affairs and irrevocably tied the future of Ghana to the future of Africa as the continent of independent nations. It is glaring to note similarities between the ordeal of the political personalities that led the independence of Ghana and the creation of the third Saudi State in 1932 (Alsultan, 2013). Apter (2008) postulated that Ghana's achievement of independence on March 6, 1957 was unique in Africa's history. Apter (2008) further noted that the independence occasion of Ghana also marked Kwame Nkrumah's own personal odyssey. The author further 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recounted Nkrumah's long march from his student days in United States and London to his return to the (then) Gold Coast to serve as the General Secretary of the United Gold Coast Convention and finally forming the convention People's Party (CPP), with which he achieved the independence of Ghana. King Abdul Aziz Al Saud on the other hand was exiled in Kuwait after the collapse of the second Saudi State in 1893.1. He however returned to Riyadh and recaptured it in 1902, and by 1932 was able to bring under his authority many parts of the Arabian Peninsula marking the third Saudi State, and politically announcing as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia2. Kwame Nkrumah on the other hand announced his newly independent country as the Republic of Ghana from the colonized Gold Coast. In sharp contrast to the underpinnings of Ghana's foreign relations, Saudi Arabia's foreign relations are influenced by external security issues (Cordesman 2002). Both states however share strategic positions in their geographical sub-regions, hence, Saudi Arabia is as to the gulf region as Ghana is to the West Africa sub-region. Cordesman identified that Saudi Arabia couldn’t have sustained its security and defended itself against Iraq without massive Western aid. In the Kings and Presidents, Riedel (2017) on the other hand identified that seeking the support of King Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman al Saud on the creation of a new world order after the second world war was very pivotal in the meeting between President Roosevelt on February 14, 1945 in Egypt. Riedel purported that both forged a partnership that has endured, despite occasional severe strains, for the last seventy years. According to Riedel, the post-second war era had hurt Saudi Arabia badly as its main financial supporter, the Great Britain, were also broke. Hence, securing the Kingdom’s security and economy was, according to 1&2-Unification of Saudi Arabia, accessed online on 22-12-2021 via link: https://en.linkfang.org/wiki/Ottoman-Saudi_Treaty 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Riedel, what triggered the importance King Abdul Aziz Al Saud attributed to his new partnership with America as it was only the United States that had the resources to help the Saudi economy cope until oil production grew sufficiently to make the Kingdom solvent. It is interesting to note that prior to oil exploitation, Saudi Arabia heavily depended on proceeds from Pilgrimage to Makkah which was around 100,000 people per year in the late 1920s1. The defense of Saudi Arabia was therefore described by President Roosevelt as a vital U.S national interest (Bahgat, 2002). Fundamentally this description by President Roosevelt according to Bahgat (2002) was because of the U.S being the world's largest oil consumer and importer and Saudi Arabia being the world's largest oil producer and exporter. With roughly 63 % of all worldwide oil reserves concentrated in the Middle East, and Saudi Arabia alone holding about 22.3% (Ditte & Roell, 2006) the region and particularly Saudi Arabia is of essential strategic significance for the oil supply of developing nations as well as industrialized western countries. In this vein, Dumbe (2009) posited that the economic crisis, which hit Ghana in the late 1960s and 1980s, compelled policymakers to adopt various measures including strengthening bilateral relations with oil producing countries for preferential terms, and this include Saudi Arabia. China, which is also the second largest oil consumer after the United States, secures almost 20% of its oil needs from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia alone (Al-Tamimi 2012). In this context, China views Saudi Arabia with great importance. China, which is also the second largest oil consumer after the United States, secures almost 20% of its oil needs from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia alone (Al-Tamimi, 2012). In this con- 1-Modern History of Saudi Arabia, accessed online on 22-12-2021 via link https://en.linkfang.org/wiki/Modern_history_of_Saudi_Arabia -text, China views Saudi Arabia with great importance. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Diplomatic Relations Diplomatic missions such as embassies and consulates are very pivotal in the administration of bilateral relations of States. In this vein, Ghana-Saudi bilateral relations kicked started with establishment of diplomatic missions. Dumbe (2009) citing Ministry of Foreign Affairs recounted the genesis of diplomatic relations of the two countries. He stated that Ghana’s diplomatic relations at ambassadorial level with Saudi Arabia dates back to March I960. Dumbe postulated further that during the regime of the People National Defense Council, (PNDC), Ghana's relations improved with the Saudi Government, which resulted into the later been granted the permission to establish her Consulate-General in Jeddah in 1988 and by 2003 Saudi Arabia upgraded her mission in Accra to the level of resident Ambassadorial level. Both missions have therefore played greater role in the conduct of relations between both countries. Ghana's mission in Riyadh is responsible for facilitating Ghana’s relations (political, economic, social, cultural etc.) with the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and accredited concurrently to other states in the Gulf as well as provides consular services such as the issuance of passports and visas (Embassy of Ghana in Riyadh, 2021)1. 2.4 Foreign Aid Foreign aid of all types is among the main innovators of relations among States. Citing Hans Morgenthau, Lancaster (2008) admitted that foreign aid is among the real innovations which the modern age has introduced into the practice of foreign policy. Foreign aid, according to Lancaster (1999), is the transfer of concessional resources from one government to another. 1-Embassy of Ghana in Riyadh, accessed online via link: https://ghanaembassy-saudiarabia.com/mission/our-sections/) 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Lancaster, underlining objectives of foreign aid underscored that aid is used by the providing State to encourage or reward politically desirable behavior on the part of the government receiving it and to spur economic development in poor countries. A historic record of aid to Ghana fits well into the later admission by Lancaster. The influx of various kinds of development aid from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia into the Republic of Ghana is the fruits of the bilateral relations of the two countries meant to spur socio-economic development of Ghana. Facilitated through Saudi government institutions, these aid helps in the socio-economic development of Ghana whilst positioning Saudi as the latter's strategic partner in the Middle East. Dumbe (2009) citing the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2004) identified this when he argued that some of the institutions of the Saudi Government which promote bilateral co-operation with Ghana’s government are the Islamic Development Bank and Saudi Development Fund. Citing various projects executed by Saudi Arabia's institutions, Dumbe posited that development aid continue to be the hallmark of Ghana -Saudi relations throughout the various regimes in the fourth republic. Hence, during the era of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) (1992-2000), the Saudi government financed some projects relating to Rural Health Centers through the Saudi Development Fund. The loans were contracted in 1993 to the tune of $9.5 million according to Dumbe (2009). In his analysis of the continuation of the flow of development aid from Saudi to Ghana during the President Kufour New Patriotic Party (NPP) Government of 2001-2008, Dumbe recounted that the Tetteh Quashie-Mamfie Road project was executed with a loan secured by the government of Ghana from the Saudi Development Fund. In furtherance with his analysis, Dumbe further discovered that another important bilateral agency of the Saudi Government, which Ghana benefited tremendously from, is the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Dumbe, 2009).Whilst admitting that the Islamic Development Banks support and funds are channeled to assist a member of countries of the Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC), Ghana however, even though not a member and may not be entitled to major funding, received tremendous share of funding from the Bank. The IDB development projects are sometimes offered to public institutions through bilateral agreement such as the funding of Presbyterian science block is a typical example. The Bank, as disclosed by Dumbe (2009) has sponsored projects in Accra, Kumasi and Northern region amounting to $2,819 million including an expansion of students’ hostel at the University of Development Studies in Tamale, which cost $100,000 secured a through a grant by the Government of Ghana. Saudi developmental cooperation with Ghana also had humanitarian perspective. Certain crisis experienced by section of Ghanaians received benevolent intervention by the Saudi government. As recounted by Dumbe (2009) in his doctoral thesis, the Saudi Government donated emergency relief items worth $800,000 towards victims of the September 1995 flooding in Accra. From the regimes of late President Professor John Evans Atta Mills down to former President John Dramani Mahama and President Nana Addo Dankwa Akufo Addo in a regime that spans from 2009 to 2021, the Ghana-Saudi relations witnessed several state visits, which can be qualified as an unprecedented hallmark in the relations between the two states. From 29 to 31st October 2019, Vice president Alhaji Dr. Mahamoudu Bawumia led a delegation to attend the 3rd Session of the International Conference of the Public Investments Fund Future Investment Initiative in Riyadh (Embassy's report 2019)1. Before that in November 2018, Vice President Alhaj Dr. Mahamudu Bawumia again paid a visit to King Salman Bin Abdul Azizi Al Saud at Al-Yamamah Palace in Riyadh and conveyed a message from President Nana 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Akufo-Addo (Embassy's report 2018). These visits were followed with a state visit by the Honorable Minister of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration Shirley Ayorkor to Riyadh where she held bilateral talks with the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Saudi Arabia, Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud (Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2020)2.These visits were reciprocated by a state visit by the Saudi Minister of State for African Affairs Mr. Ahmad Al Kattan to Accra, where he had meetings with His Excellency President Akufo Addo and His Excellency the Vice President Dr. Mahamoudu Bawumia and signed memorandum of Understanding on political consultations with the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Regional Integration Ms. Shirley Ayorkor Botchwey (Embassy's report 2020). Dumbe (2009) argued that the most memorable Saudi Arabian personality to most Ghanaians who tremendously helped improved relations between his country and Ghana in recent times is Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Bin Abdul Aziz who was in Ghana from 28-30 April 2003. According Dumbe (2009), Prince Alwaleed came to Ghana leading a 22-member business delegation, during which he donated funds to Ghana to support various vulnerable communities. Enumerating the various beneficiaries of Prince Alwaleed’s benevolence, Dumbe mentioned that the Saudi Prince donated $900,000 to sponsor several projects in the health and educational sectors for some Muslim communities in and around Nima and Mamobi area in Accra, and a donation of $100,000.00 the Otumfuo Education Fund. The reign of the earlier on stated Heads of State of Ghana also witnessed a continuation of developmental cooperation between the two states. In September 2019, an agreement for the project of rehabilitation and expansion of Bolgatanga Regional Hospital in the Upper East Region of Ghana was signed between the two countries, where the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia presented a loan consignment of SR 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75.00million ($20m) to the Government of Ghana (Saudi Fund for Development,2019). The project, according to the annual report of the Saudi Fund for Development was tailored to increase the hospital's capacity, upgrade and diversify main health care services to meet health care needs and develop public health care in the Upper East Region of Ghana, which the fund had earlier on provided a loan grant of SR 45.00 million ($12m) (Saudi Fund for Development, 2019). In overall the development aid provided by the Government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Republic of Ghana through the Saudi Fund for Development alone amounted to SR 466.66million ($124m) since the establishment of the Fund in 1975. Since its cooperation with Ghana, the Saudi Fund has executed several infrastructural projects in various sectors of the Ghanaian economy including the energy sector such as a Hydro-Electric Power project located at Kpone and the Northern Regions Grid Power Extension, and other projects to boost capacity of the health sector in the country. Other projects executed included; Storage silos for the storage of grains, educational facilities such the Science College of Accra, Seaports renovation intimal and Takoradi, Economic Development Support, Tetteh Quarshie-Mamfe Road (Saudi Fund for Development, 2019). It could therefore be inferred from the trajectory of the basis of Ghana-Saudi relations that what underpinned the relations of the two countries was Ghana's quest to secure loans for its developmental programs and opportunities for Muslim pilgrims to the Kingdom. Al-Yahya and Fustier (2011) investigated that larger proportions of Saudi Arabia's aid goes to countries in the Arab and Muslim world followed by countries in Asia and Africa. This pattern to the authors is particularly strong with respect to aid raised and delivered by non-governmental and semi-governmental organizations and public relief campaigns that receive donations from private citizens and businesses, though set up by official 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bodies. One thing that is pertinent upon careful observation of the politics of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is that aid extends beyond the Arab and Muslim world to countries or regions deemed strategic partners. This is necessitated due to the increased acknowledgement of Saudi Arabia's global economic and political importance, and therefore the need for its aid extension to many regions that do not fit the profile of Saudi Arabia's traditional aid recipients. 2.5 Development Aid The impact of aid in contributing to development cannot be underestimated. Petrik (2008) for instance supported this fact when he identified growth and poverty-reducing goals as one of eight motivations for giving aid. For the other motivators, Petrik enumerated others including showing solidarity; furthering the donors’ commercial interests; historical legacy (mostly colonial). Alesina and Dollar (2000) argued that ‘friendly’ voting in the United Nations (that is more aid is sent to countries who support the donor in the UN General Assembly) is one of the one of the strongest statistical correlates of development aid giving. The aforementioned fit into the underpinning of Japan's aid. The authors argued that for France, the most important factor is its colonial past. Whilst the U.S targeted about one-third of its total development aid to Egypt and Israel to secure its special interest, its aid to other States is underpinned by poverty, democracy and openness (Alsina & Dollar, 2000). Aid given by Saudi Arabia however is underpinned by humanitarianism. According to Al-Yahya and Fustier (2011), Saudi Arabia has emerged as the world’s largest donor of humanitarian assistance outside the Western states. Whilst Saudi leadership in giving development aid to the Arab and Muslim world is undisputed, it is glaring to discover that it's aid is also channeled to UN programs targeted to all needed states in the world. Identifying the aforementioned claim, Al-Yahya and Fustier again 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh postulated that in 2008, Saudi Arabia provided $500 million in cash to the World Food Program, which according to the authors is the largest contribution in the Program’s history (Al-Yahya & Fustier, 2011). 2.6 Trade Relations Throughout history, trade provided one of the first impulses for inter-state contacts and agreements, as well as war and conquest. It was also the driving force in the spread of colonialism as opined by Rana and Chartterjee (2011). The authors cited the purpose of Vasco da Gama’s journey to India in 1498, and the journey of Christopher Columbus to the Americas and Europe’s ‘discovery’ of the riches of the East Indies to be trade. They further articulated that often, the flag followed trade. In this context, a very important aspect of Ghana-Saudi relations is trade. Countries established diplomatic missions such as consulates and embassies in strategic countries to advance their interest of which is promotion of trade and inward investment. India's share of ‘oil shock’ of 1973, when the price of crude oil quadrupled overnight, provided the real impetus to its economic diplomacy with the Gulf countries and underpinned its immediate opening of embassies in all the Gulf countries (Rana & Chartterjee, 2011). Rankings of the Observatory of Economic Complexities (OEC, 2019) depicted that during the last 24 years the exports of Ghana to Saudi Arabia have increased at an annualized rate of 0.39%, from $6.67M in 1995 to $7.32M in 2019. During the same period, the OEC's rankings recorded an export favor for Saudi Arabia, which scored an increased at an annualized rate of 17.8%, from $1.83M in 1995 to $93.6M in 2019. Again, the OEC ranking (2019)revealed that the main products exported to Saudi Arabia by Ghana are Bananas, cocoa paste and totaling $7.32m in 2019, whilst Saudi 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Arabia exports to Ghana stood at $93.6m with main products being Ethylene Polymers, Propylene Polymers and Cement ($9.28M). OEC rankings reported again in the year 2019, countries that imported more from Saudi Arabia than Ghana were China ($45.8B), Japan ($24.5B), and India ($25.1B). In sharp comparison, Switzerland , Burkina Faso , and Togo were countries that imported more from Ghana than Saudi Arabia in the same year with volumes totaling $4.92 Billion,$327million and $161 million respectively(OEC, 2019). Ghana and Saudi Arabia could fill the trade vacuums by stepping imports and exports in areas of their respective competitive advantage. The following tables detailed data on export and import relations between Ghana and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia from 2017 to 2021. Table 1: Saudi Arabia's Exports to Ghana PRODUCTS Saudi Arabia's Exports to Ghana (USD '000) 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 All products 78,613 124,840 86,937 81,373 137,890 Polymers of ethylene, in primary forms 48,849 73,147 48,145 40,184 62,689 Cement, include. cement clinkers, whether or not coloured - - 8,712 11,929 26,563 Polymers of propylene or of other olefins, in primary forms 13,694 29,486 21,987 16,331 22,230 Milk and cream, not concentrated nor containing added sugar or other sweetening matter - - - 2,511 9,554 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/ethylene-polymers https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/ethylene-polymers https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/propylene-polymers https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/cement https://oec.world/en/profile/country/che https://oec.world/en/profile/country/bfa https://oec.world/en/profile/country/tgo https://oec.world/en/profile/country/gha https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau Polyacetals, other polyether and epoxide resins, in primary forms; polycarbonates, alkyd resins, 707 261 76 143 2,869 "Sodium hydroxide ""caustic soda"", potassium hydroxide ""caustic potash""; peroxides of sodium 2,270 1,133 1,465 728 1,429 Self-adhesive plates, sheets, film, foil, tape, strip and other flat shapes, of plastics, whether - 120 199 1,497 1,353 Cane or beet sugar and chemically pure sucrose, in solid form 2,382 4 19 - 1,238 Plates, sheets, film, foil and strip, of non-cellular plastics, not reinforced, laminated, 372 436 332 582 1,153 Inorganic or mineral coloring matter, n.e.s.; preparations based on inorganic or mineral colouring 545 714 358 950 1,134 Polymers of vinyl chloride or of other halogenated olefins, in primary forms 383 - - - 1,103 Acyclic alcohols and their halogenated, sulphonated, nitrated or nitrosated derivatives 90 210 105 151 1,087 Polymers of styrene, in primary forms 1,286 1,839 1,427 630 897 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Milk and cream, concentrated or containing added sugar or other sweetening matter - - - 1,444 864 Sugar confectionery not containing cocoa, incl. white chocolate - 663 167 477 858 Nonwovens, whether or not impregnated, coated, covered or laminated, n.e.s. 88 114 26 376 777 Tubes, pipes and hoses, and fittings therefor, e.g. joints, elbows, flanges, of plastics 432 324 249 313 299 Meat and edible offal of fowls of the species Gallus domesticus, ducks, geese, turkeys - 192 418 102 250 "Structures and parts of structures ""e.g., bridges and bridge-sections, lock-gates, towers 175 284 224 125 191 Waters, incl. mineral waters and aerated waters, containing added sugar or other sweetening - - - - 175 "Tools, interchangeable, for hand tools, whether or not power-operated, or for machine tools - 68 64 42 156 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Articles for the conveyance or packaging of goods, of plastics; stoppers, lids, caps and other - 236 999 21 133 Float glass and surface ground or polished glass, in sheets, whether or not having an absorbent, 134 187 77 647 110 Woven fabrics containing predominantly, but < 85% synthetic staple fibres by weight, mixed - - - - 99 "Glassware of a kind used for table, kitchen, toilet, office, indoor decoration or similar ... - 42 17 38 99 Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes and mangosteens, fresh or dried 110 71 71 75 78 Articles of plaster or of compositions based on plaster (excluding plaster bandages for straightening ... 57 97 - - 67 Source: Ghana Export Promotion Center (2022) It is observed from the data that Ghana imports more of Polymers of ethylene in primary forms, used in the production of plastics, from the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Ghana's totaled import from Saudi Arabia in 2017 was $78,613,000. The volumes rocketed in 2018 with a figure of $124,840,000. There was however a decline in 2019 and 2020 with both years recording $86,937,000and $81,373,000respectively. An 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unprecedented export volume of Saudi to Ghana was however recorded in 2021 with volumes totaling $137,890,000. Table 2: Ghana's export to Saudi Arabia PRODUCT Saudi Arabia's Imports from Ghana (USD ‘000) 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 All products 5,442 6,614 4,926 2,977 3,19 7 Waste and scrap, of aluminum (excluding slags, scale and the like from iron and steel production 0 0 0 115 1042 Cocoa paste, whether or not defatted 1233 657 777 708 489 Wood sawn or chipped lengthwise, sliced or peeled, whether or not planed, sanded or end-jointed 1211 228 321 580 451 Cocoa powder, not containing added sugar or other sweetening matter 191 215 175 147 413 Sheets for veneering, incl. those obtained by slicing laminated wood, for plywood or for other 1938 725 588 806 357 Prefabricated buildings, whether or not complete or already assembled 0 0 0 0 143 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Beauty or make-up preparations and preparations for the care of the skin, incl. sunscreen 178 54 60 91 65 Wood in the rough, whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood, or roughly squared 0 52 0 0 44 Coal; briquettes, ovoids and similar solid fuels manufactured from coal 0 0 0 0 41 Fixed vegetable fats and oils, incl. jojoba oil, and their fractions, whether or not refined, 0 19 28 0 33 Roots and tubers of manioc, arrowroot, salep, Jerusalem artichokes, sweet potatoes 0 22 24 17 22 Wood charcoal, incl. shell or nut charcoal, whether or not agglomerated (excluding wood charcoal 81 2304 396 20 20 Dates, figs, pineapples, avocados, guavas, mangoes and mangosteens, fresh or dried 0 48 51 15 19 Containers, incl. containers for the transport of fluids, specially designed and equipped 0 0 0 0 11 Basketwork, wickerwork and other articles, made directly to shape from plaiting materials 0 0 0 0 7 Cocoa butter, fat and oil 72 3 0 0 7 Butter, incl. dehydrated butter and ghee, and other fats and oils derived from milk; dairy 0 0 58 71 7 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Commodities not elsewhere specified 0 14 73 18 5 Trunks, suitcases, vanity cases, executive-cases, briefcases, school satchels, spectacle cases 0 0 0 0 3 Soap; organic surface-active products and preparations for use as soap, in the form of bars 0 0 46 33 2 Parts of aircraft and spacecraft of heading 8801 or 8802, n.e.s. 0 0 0 0 2 Source: Ghana Export Promotion Center (2022) The table depicts various products exported to Saudi Arabia by Ghana for the years of 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021. The total volume of all products exported to Saudi Arabia in 2017 amounted to $5,442,000.00 with the volumes rising slightly in 2018 amounting to $6,614,000.00 and downsized in 2019 with volumes recording $4,926,000.00. Ghana's export according to the data drastically reduced to $2,977,000.00 with 2021 seeing a little rise in volumes of export to a figure of $3,197,000.00. Comparatively trade volumes favored the Saudi Arabia sides as it exports more to Ghana and import less from the later, whilst Ghana's scenario is the direct opposite. 2.7Economic Relations Of another sphere of relevance to Ghana-Saudi relations is the economic diplomacy adopted by both countries with strategic partners in the international community. It is prudent admitting at first glance that the dynamic world of commerce and the subtle glamour of diplomacy do not have much in common, but as Bergeijk (2014) argued, 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the international economic relationships are an important factor in the diplomatic sphere of influence and vice versa. Also glaring is the role of globalization in ensuring the relevance of international economic relations as postulated by Saner and Yiu (2003) that globalization has transformed the organization of international economic relationships around the world, affecting the economic, social and political spheres of societies and citizens. In his doctoral thesis, Soraisry (1979) recounted the impact of Western technologies on the discovery of oil in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. He argued that before the discovery of oil, all production activities in Saudi Arabia were homogeneous in a traditional fashion. He pointed out that soon after the oil discovery, the oil sector was developed by Western technology and management. Saudi Arabia technological cooperation with the West was borne out of what both partners intend getting from their economic relations. The same scenario underpins Ghana's economic relations with the West. Ghana's economy on the other hand depended on agriculture before and after independence. Etudaiye (2016) averred that Kwame Nkrumah inheriting a stable economy with a boost in cocoa prices used proceeds therefore as security to secure loans. Etudaiye (2016) further argued that Kwame Nkrumah began process of moving Ghana from a primarily agricultural economy to a mixed agricultural-industrial one, until the unfortunate collapsed of cocoa price in the mid-1960s, destroying the fundamental stability of the economy and made it for the first President of the republic to continue his industrialization agenda. In 2007, oil was discovered in Ghana in an unprecedented commercial quantity. This discovery, which diversified Ghana's economy, according to Etudaiye (2016) was aided by Tullow Oil of the United Kingdom. This technological cooperation from the U.K was borne out of Ghana's economic relations with the West espe